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Urban Trees and Atmospheric Pollutants in Big Cities: Effects in Madrid

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Urban Trees and Atmospheric Pollutants in Big Cities: Effects in Madrid UNIVERSIDAD POLITÉCNICA DE MADRID ESCUELA TÉCNICA SUPERIOR DE INGENIEROS DE MONTES, FORESTAL Y DEL MEDIO NATURAL Urban trees and atmospheric pollutants in big cities: Effects in Madrid Tesis Doctoral Author: Carlos Calderón Guerrero (MSc Forestry · BSc Forestry) Supervisors: Dr. Jose Antonio Saiz de Omeñaca González Dr. Madeleine S. Günthardt-Goerg 2014 DEPARTAMENTO DE SISTEMAS Y RECURSOS NATURALES ESCUELA TÉCNICA SUPERIOR DE INGENIEROS DE MONTES, FORESTAL Y DEL MEDIO NATURAL Urban trees and atmospheric pollutants in big cities: Effects in Madrid Author: Carlos Calderón Guerrero (MSc Forestry · BSc Forestry) Supervisors: Dr. José Antonio Saiz de Omeñaca González Dr. Madeleine S. Günthardt-Goerg 2014 IV Acknowledgments First and foremost I would like to express my appreciation to my supervisors. It has been an honour to be their last Ph.D. student. I am particularly grateful to Madeleine Goerg-Günthartd for her dedication and enthusiasm during all this time. I felt like home during the internships at WSL (Birmensdorf, Switzerland). I would like to express my appreciation to all the staff that helped me in the publications. Specially, to Pierre Vollenweider, Matthias Arend and Terry Menard. I also would like to express my recognition to Jose Antonio Saiz de Omeñaca González. His advices, support and knowledge have been really helpful to complete and defend this doctoral dissertation. I would like to express my remembrance to my first supervisor: Prof. Jose Antonio Rodríguez Barreal, who passed away seven J.A. Rodríguez Barreal years ago when this work was beginning. (1944-2007) I wish to thank the General Directorate of the Environmental Heritage at Madrid City Council, Air Quality Municipal authority, Spanish Royal Heritage and National meteorological agency for graciously providing irrigation, air pollution and climate data. I gratefully acknowledge Dr. Rosa Inclán from CIEMAT for sharing unpublished evidence about visible O3 symptoms in holm oak, to Terry Menard for technical assistance and scientific English correction, to Federico Sepulveda (Former General Director of the Environmental Heritage of the City of Madrid), to Santiago Soria (Deputy General Director of Urban Trees and Green Spaces at Madrid City Council), to Mª Eugenia García (Technical Advisor to the Deputy General Directorate of Urban Trees and Green Spaces at Madrid City Council), to Antonio Morcillo (Head of the Department of Maintenance of Green Spaces and Urban Trees), to Francisco Moya (Former Head of the Department of Air Quality at Madrid City Council), to the respective Chemistry Departments of the EUIT Forestal (UPM), EUIT Agricola (UPM) and the Faculty of Chemistry (UCM) for the use of their laboratories, to Prof. Mª. Estrella Legaz and Prof. Maite Solas (Dept. of Plant Biology, Faculty of Biology) (UCM) for graciously offering me their laboratories and devices (spectrophotometer and scanning electron microscope), as well as to Prof. Andrea Monsó for giving me the contacts. I gratefully acknowledge Prof. J.A. Domínguez (Dept.of Silvopasture) and Miguel Allúe- Andrade (Former General Director of the Environment. Community of Madrid) for their support to analyse samples, as well as my supervisors. To my friends that helped me over the years during the 12-hours sampling & field work days. I would like to thank my family for all their love and encouragement, to Olivia for her support. For my parents who raised me with a love of gardening and nature. Finally, I thank all who helped me directly or indirectly in the completion of my Ph.D. anonymously. Thank you. Funding The part of the internships were supported by the Social Council of the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. http://www.upm.es/institucional/UPM/ConsejoSocial. V VI to my mother to my son VII Abstract Research about air pollution mitigation by urban trees was conducted in Madrid (Spain), a southern European city with almost 4 M inhabitants, 2.8 M daily vehicles and 3 M trees under public maintenance. Most trees were located in two urban forests, while 650'000 trees along urban streets and in parks. The urban taxa included Platanus orientalis (97'205 trees), Ulmus sp. (70’557), Pinus pinea (49'038), Aesculus hippocastanum (22’266), Cedrus sp. (13'678 and Quercus ilex (1'650) along streets and parks. Leave samples were analysed sequentially in different seasons, PM10 data from 28 air monitoring stations during 30 years and traffic density estimated from 2’660 streets. Heavy metal (HM) accumulation on the leaf surface and within leaves was estimated per tree related to air and soil pollution, and traffic intensity. Mean concentration of Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn in topsoil samples (dry mass) amounted in Madrid: 489.5, 0.7, 49.4, 60.9, 460.9, 12.8, 155.9 and 190.3 mg kg-1 respectively. Urban trees, particularly conifers (due to higher pollution in winter) contributed significantly to alleviate air pollution especially near to high ADT roads. The capacity of the six urban street trees species to capture air-born dust on the foliage surface as related to traffic intensity was estimated to 16.8 kg of noxious metals from exhausts per year. Pb and Zn pointed to be tracers of anthropic activity in the city with vehicle traffic as the main source of diffuse pollution on trees and soils. Tree species differed by their capacity to capture air-borne dust (by different leaf surface properties) and to allocate HM from soils. Pb and Zn concentrations in the foliage were above limits in different urban sites and microscopic Zn revelation showed translocation in xylem and phloem tissue. Punctual contamination in soils by Cu and Cr was identified in former industrial areas and spatial trace element mapping showed for central Retiro Park certain high values of [Pb] in soils even related to a Royal pottery 200 years ago. Different areas in the city centre also reached high levels [Pb] in soils. According to the results, a combination of Pinus pinea with understorey Ulmus sp. and Cedrus sp. layers can be recommended for the best air filter efficiency. The effects of ozone (O3) on trees in different areas of Madrid were also part of this study. Despite abatement programs of precursors implemented in many industrialized countries, ozone remained the main air pollutant throughout the northern hemisphere with background [O3] increasing. Some of the highest ozone concentrations were measured in regions with a Mediterranean climate but the effect on the natural vegetation is alleviated by low stomatal uptake and frequent leaf xeromorphy in response to summer drought episodes characteristic of this climate. During a bioindication survey, abiotic O3-like injury was identified in foliage. Trees were growing on an irrigated lawn strip in the centre of Madrid. Given the little structural evidence available for O3 symptoms in broadleaved evergreen species, a study was undertaken in 2007 with the following objectives 1) confirm the diagnosis, 2) investigate the extent of symptoms in holm oaks growing in Madrid and 3) analyse the environmental factors contributing to O3 injury, particularly, the site water supply. Therefore, macro- and micromorphological markers of O3 stress were analysed, using the aforementioned lawn strip as an intensive study site. Symptoms consisted of adaxial and intercostal stippling increasing with leaf age. Underlying stippling, cells in the upper mesophyll showed HR-like reactions typical of ozone stress. The surrounding cells showed further oxidative stress markers. These morphological and micromorphological markers of ozone stress were similar to those recorded in deciduous broadleaved species. However, stippling became obvious already at an AOT40 of 21 ppm•h and was primarily found at irrigated sites. Subsequent analyses showed that irrigated trees had their stomatal conductance increased and leaf life-span reduced whereas their leaf xeromorphy remained unchanged. These findings suggest a central role of water availability versus leaf xeromorphy for ozone symptom expression by cell injury in holm oak. VIII KEY WORDS: urban areas; green spaces, trees, vegetation, atmospheric pollutants; trace elements; biomonitoring; mapping; GIS; soil contamination, PM10, ozone, irrigation, xeromorphic characteristics. IX Resumen Una investigación sobre la mejora de la contaminación del aire (CA) por medio de arbolado urbano se realizó en Madrid, una ciudad con casi 4 M de habitantes, 2,8 M de vehículos y casi 3 M de árboles de mantenimiento público. La mayoría de los árboles estaban en dos bosques periurbanos. Los 650.000 restantes era pies de alineación y parques. Los taxones estudiados fueron Platanus orientalis (97.205 árboles), Ulmus sp. (70.557), Pinus pinea (49.038), Aesculus hippocastanum (22.266), Cedrus sp. (13.678) y Quercus ilex (1.650), de calles y parques. Muestras foliares se analizaron en diferentes épocas del año, así como datos de contaminación por PM10 de 28 estaciones de medición de la contaminación durante 30 años, y también la intensidad del tráfico (IMD) en 2.660 calles. La acumulación de metales pesados (MP) sobre hojas y dentro de estas se estimó en relación con la CA y del suelo y la IMD del tráfico. La concentración media de Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb y Zn en suelo (materia seca) alcanzó: 489,5, 0,7, 49,4, 60,9, 460,9, 12,8, 155,9 y 190,3 mg kg-1 respectivamente. Los árboles urbanos, particularmente coníferas (debido a la mayor CA en invierno) contribuyen significativamente a mejorar la CA sobre todo en calles con alta IMD. La capacidad de las seis sp. para capturar partículas de polvo en su superficies foliares está relacionada con la IMD del tráfico y se estimó en 16,8 kg/año de MP tóxicos. Pb y Zn resultaron ser buenos marcadores antrópicos en la ciudad en relación con el tráfico, que fue la principal fuente de contaminación en los árboles y suelos de Madrid. Las especies de árboles variaron en función de su capacidad para capturar partículas (dependiendo de las propiedades de sus superficies foliares) y acumular los MP absorbidos de los suelos.
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