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'Invaded by Daughters of Eve': Women Playing American Football, 1890

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'Invaded by Daughters of Eve': Women Playing American Football, 1890 ‘Invaded by Daughters of Eve’: Women Playing American Football, 1890-1960 Katharine Elizabeth Taylor Faculty of Arts, Design and Humanities December 2020 A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the University’s requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Declaration To the best of my knowledge I confirm that the work in this thesis is my original work undertaken for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Arts, Design and Humanities, De Montfort University. I confirm that no material of this thesis has been submitted for any other degree or qualification at any other university. I also declare that parts of this thesis have been submitted for publications and conferences. ii Abstract This thesis examines the history of women playing American football in the United States in the period 1890-1960, a sport that from its very beginning was a means for men to demonstrate their manliness and masculinity. The thesis is primarily a media study which uses an extensive range of newspaper reports to build a picture of the many ways in which women accessed the sport and the response that the media had to their involvement. Archival research complements this media response and provides additional examples, especially on the educational uses of American football. The thesis challenges the narrative that women participated in the sport only as spectators and cheerleaders. Women’s involvement has been wide-ranging, both geographically and in the ways in which they played the game. The work contends that medical experts, educators, and others’ views on gender and femininity shaped women’s participation, yet women frequently contravened social norms to participate in this hyper-masculine sport. Despite these women seemingly ‘invading’ the masculine space of football, the media primarily responded positively and frequently praised these young women. The work’s thematic approach analyses the many ways in which women played the sport and considers the following themes: playing for fun; playing alongside and against male players; women’s football in educational settings; participation in professional leagues; and playing for charitable purposes. Unlike many women’s sporting histories, this thesis does not focus solely on competitive sport. It also considers participation for fun as well as part of physical education programmes, creating a rounded picture of women’s involvement in the sport across seventy years. iii Contents List of Illustrations v List of Abbreviations vi Acknowledgements vii Introduction 1 Chapter 1: Playing for Fun in the Face of Obstacles and Constraints 45 ‘The Leaders Will Be Disciplined’: Football’s Masculinity versus 52 Appropriate Sports for Women ‘Sprightly and Pretty Young Ladies’: Players Conforming to Conventional 73 Notions of Propriety and Femininity Conclusion 99 Chapter 2: Playing Alongside and Against Men and Boys 105 ‘No Athletic Fields Left to Conquer’: Girls versus Boys 111 ‘She Bowls ‘Em Over’: Newspaper Coverage of Girls Playing Alongside 128 Male Players ‘Not Exactly Ladylike’: The Decline of Women on Male Teams 142 Conclusion 153 Chapter 3: Football in Education 158 ‘Just Like Their Brother Collegians’: Rumours of Football in the Seven 163 Sisters Colleges A Game for the ‘More Daring Students’: The Debate About Contact 181 Football in Education ‘Hardly More Tiring than Basketball’: Touch Football for Women 196 Conclusion 213 Chapter 4: Women’s Professional Leagues 217 Entrepreneurial Influence in Women’s Football Leagues 225 News Not Novelty: The Media’s Response 232 Exploitation and Novelty: The Demise of the Leagues 267 Conclusion 271 Chapter 5: Fun and Philanthropy in the 1940s and 1950s 275 Separate Spheres: Women in Society and Sport in Post-World War II 277 America ‘Service to Our Communities’: Sororities’ Football Philanthropy 284 ‘Pigskin Puntin’ Pretties’: Adhering to the Female Ideal 294 Conclusion 312 Conclusion 316 Bibliography 335 iv List of Illustrations Figure Description Page Number Number 1.1 “2–98–49–C.–O.–D. – Charge!” 46 1.2 ‘Progress’ 47 1.3 ‘Threatened by the New Woman – The Coming 60 Game, Yale Versus Vassar’ 1.4 ‘Girls Who Play Football’ 85 1.5 ‘A Great Game of Football’ 88 1.6 ‘Cleveland Girls Play Football’ 90 1.7 ‘Football in 1906’ 93 1.8 ‘The Modern Maid – As Changeable as the Seasons’ 101 2.1 ‘The Only Solution’ 115 2.2 ‘St. Louis Girls Play Foot Ball and Win From Boys’ 120 2.3 Women’s page from The Weekly News 1898 121 2.4 ‘Girl Football Players Rout Men Opponents’ 127 2.5 ‘Girl Gridder’ 139 3.1 ‘Here’s The Football Heroine’ 170 3.2 Untitled, Vassar College, 1894 171 3.3 ‘When Vassar Plays Football’ 173 3.4 Harvard vs Yale Mock Football Game at Vassar 176 College, undated 3.5 Harvard vs Yale Mock Football Game at Vassar 178 College, undated 3.6 Harvard vs Yale Mock Football Game, Vassar 178 College, 1913 3.7 Harvard vs Yale Mock Football Game, Vassar 179 College, 1912 3.8 ‘Girls Football Team? Sure! It’s In Idaho’ 183 3.9 ‘Girls Play Real Football’ 191 3.10 ‘Can You Imagine This?’ 191 3.11 Touch Football at Radcliffe College, 1938 201 3.12 Touch Football at Radcliffe College, 1938 202 3.13 Touch Football at Radcliffe College, 1938 203 4.1 ‘Girls to Line Up on the Gridiron’ 239 4.2 ‘Ballet Deserts the Stage for the Gridiron’ 240 4.3 ‘Bloomer Girls Kicked Pigskin and Sowed the 241 Ground with Hairpins’ 4.4 ‘Kicking Attraction in this Loop’ 256 4.5 ‘They’re Putting New Kick in Gridiron Game’ 264 5.1 The Alpha Xi Delta front page, November 1951 293 5.2 ‘Down But Not Out’ 298 5.3 ‘Bladenburg’s Girl Grid Teams’ 308 v List of Abbreviations Abbreviation Full Title AAGPBL All-American Girls Professional Baseball League AAU Amateur Athletic Union AP Associated Press APEA American Physical Education Association BMI Body Mass Index IHSAA Indiana High School Athletic Association IOC International Olympic Committee IWFL Independent Women’s Football League JAMA Journal of the American Medical Association NFL National Football League NWFL National Women’s Football League UCLA University of California, Los Angeles UNH University of New Hampshire vi Acknowledgements This work would not have been possible without the significant support of a large number of people. At the International Centre for Sports History and Culture at De Montfort University, Professor Martin Polley has been a critical driving force behind this project from its earliest days. His belief that this was an area of research worth pursuing for my MA dissertation set this work on a course that has led to this thesis’ completion. Martin has had to put up with me for far longer than he probably anticipated at the start of this process, and his support, encouragement, and belief in me have been enormously influential. Thanks must also go to Dr Heather Dichter who practically stepped off a plane from the US and into the role of second supervisor a year into the project. She has provided a fresh approach and continuously challenged me to think about my work differently. The wider academic community have also provided tremendous support and encouragement throughout the years working on this history. The British Society of Sports History and the North American Society of Sports History have provided me not only with the opportunity to present my research but also support and advice, helping me to believe in my work. Three individuals from these groups deserve special thanks; Dr Chris Bolsmann, Dr Gary James, and especially Dr Iain Adams have all been incredible supporters of mine, always happy to provide advice, assistance, and support. I must also thank Dr Andrew Linden and Dr Dunja Antunovic, my co-authors on my first academic article. Working on that article provided ideas that influenced this thesis and provided an outlet for my work. Thanks also to the staff at the various archives and libraries where I have worked, including the Walter P. Reuther Library at Wayne State University, the Library of Congress, the Schlesinger Library at Harvard, and especially Dean Rogers at Vassar vii College. I appreciated Dean’s cheery demeanour, genuine interest in the work, and help enormously when I was far from home. Friends and family have been incredibly important in keeping me distracted, celebrating success, and supporting me. My parents and grandparents instilled in me a love of learning that has driven me throughout my academic life. Rich Lovie went above and beyond what any friend should do in reading the work and providing advice. Thanks also to Richard and Emma who put me up in their home on my many trips to Leicester. The Foo Fighters also deserve credit for their music keeping me sane (and awake) through many hours of editing and writing at my desk both before and after a full day of teaching 16- to 19-year olds. The music provided a focus and inspiration, cheered me up, calmed me down, but also prevented disruption from others. The biggest thanks must go to my husband, Roy. He has believed in me from the start and provided help in more ways than it is possible to mention here. There is no doubt that without his support, I would never have been able to do this. When I was working on this topic for my MA, he said that he could see me writing a book in the future, but I did not fully believe him. This thesis represents a step closer to that dream, and I dedicate this work to him. viii Introduction In a 2017 press conference, Jourdan Rodrigue, the Charlotte Observer’s beat writer for the Carolina Panthers, questioned the team’s quarterback, Cam Newton, about the routes run by wide receiver Devin Funchess.
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