UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI

Date:______

I, ______, hereby submit this work as part of the requirements for the degree of: in:

It is entitled:

This work and its defense approved by:

Chair: ______

DEVELOPING A FRAMEWORK OF BEST PRACTICES FOR SUSTAINABLE SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN SMALL TOURIST ISLANDS

A Thesis Submitted In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of

MASTER OF COMMUNITY PLANNING

In The School of Planning College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning

2004

By Jaya Dhindaw

Master of City Planning, Indian Institute of Technology-Kharagpur, India 2001 Bachelor of Architecture, Pune University, India 1999

Committee Chair : Carla Chifos Faculty Member : David Edelman Reader : Karen Luken

ABSTRACT

Keywords: Islands, Insular eco-systems, Sustainable, Solid Waste, Waste Management Practices, Strategies Framework, Environment, Tourism

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Sustainable Development in Rio in 1992 reaffirmed that environmentally sound practices for the management of waste is one of the major issues that needs to be addressed for maintaining the quality of Earth’s environment and for achieving sustainable development.

One of the most vulnerable and insular eco-systems that needs attention in this respect is the small tourist island. Very small settlements have historically required little or no waste management. In areas of low population densities, the volume of waste generated is low and of a different composition than in large cities. This type of waste is relatively easier to dispose of. Small islands are one such case in hand. However, when these islands become hubs of tourist activities the entire scenario changes. The human activities start producing more waste as the economy generators try to constantly meet the demands of the tourists so as to attract them in larger numbers. This change often comes about so gradually that it is hardly noticed until the problem is already serious.

The rapid increase in the density of human population in previously virgin lands for the purpose of leisure and tourism is making the collection, treatment and disposal of waste an insurmountable problem. This is turn is having serious sociological, ecological and economic implications in these select areas as there are usually no norms and guidelines in place to cushion the effect of this unprecedented pressure on the often minimal infrastructure.

The limited size of the territory, combined with population trends and seasonal fluctuations, are factors which imply a frequently difficult cohabitation between man and nature and can generate conflicts of interest and management difficulties. Faced with the increased production of waste, islands suffer a dual constraint, both economic and ecological which needs to be dealt with.

This study attempts to address the problem of solid waste management (SWM) in an integrated fashion for these islands so as to formulate a tool to enable island states to devise a comprehensive strategy for an environmentally sound and sustainable management of solid waste. It looks at cases where there have been timely policy responses and the menace has been averted. The objective is to derive positive and sustainable SWM practices from these cases which take into account the unique and diverse social, economic and environmental characteristics of these islands. The inferences drawn from these studies form the basis of formulating the framework of strategies or a range of solutions that would be location/region specific and would work. The study aims at devising a tool to aid local decision makers (planners and administrators) in small islands. It would help them in determining appropriate practices that could be employed to alleviate the problem of solid waste management so as to promote the convenience, health, comfort, safety and welfare of the citizens as well as that of the incoming tourist population in their area through previously tried and tested methods.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

No research work can be completed without the assistance and guidance of people who have profound knowledge in their respective fields. I would like to thank numerous people who supported my endeavor to complete this study.

I sincerely acknowledge my heartfelt gratitude to my mentor Dr. Carla Chifos, who inspired me to take up this topic in the first place and then kept me on track by guiding and encouraging me throughout. I express my gratitude to Dr. David Edelman and Karen Luken for sharing their valuable time and knowledge, providing constructive criticism and above all taking keen interest in my work.

I am grateful to Ayesagul Idikut (IHS), Dr. Michael Romanos (SOP), Dr. Jaydip Barman (IIT-Kharagpur, India), Keith Thomas (1st year MCP) and Susan Bush (R W Beck) for providing me with information that I found particularly useful. I extend my appreciation to the faculty and staff at the School of Planning for helping out in various capacities.

Last but not the least I would like to thank my family and my friend Kirti for their love and motivation.

Thank you very much.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction 9 1.1 Background & Rationale 1.1.1 Small Island Characteristics and Trends 1.2 Problem Statement 1.3 Goals and Objectives 1.4 Scope and Limitations 1.5 Thesis Structure

2. The Best Practices Framework (Methodology) 18 2.1 Methodology Outline 2.2 Methodology Flowchart

3. Understanding Solid Waste Management 29 3.1 What is Waste? 3.2 Generation of Solid Wastes- Sources and Types 3.2.1 Sources of Waste 3.2.2 Types and Characteristics of Solid Waste 3.3 Concerns over Waste 3.4 Effects of Technological Advances 3.5 Evolution of Solid Waste Management 3.6 Functional Elements of a Solid Waste Management System 3.6.1 Waste Generation 3.6.2 Onsite Handling, Storage and Processing 3.6.3 Collection 3.6.4 Transfer and Transport 3.6.5 Processing and Recovery 3.6.6 Disposal 3.6.7 Other Practical Aspects Associated With Solid Waste Management Systems 3.7 Summary and Conclusions

4. Solid waste management basic technologies 41 4.1 Landfill 4.1.1 Compaction and Choice of Landfill Site Machines

1 4.1.2 Landfill Science 4.1.3 Landfill Siting 4.1.4 Cost Factor 4.2 Collection 4.2.1 Types of Collection Systems and Equipments 4.3 Transfer or Treatment Prior to Landfill 4.3.1. Transfer and Treatment Plant 4.3.2 Cost Factor 4.3.3 Treatment of Waste 4.4 Incineration 4.4.1 Incineration Techniques 4.4.2 Cost Factor 4.5 Physical Separation of Waste 4.5.1 Methods for Separation of Organic and Inorganic Fractions 4.5.2 Recovery of Paper 4.5.3 Recovery of Metals 4.6 Refuse Derived Fuels 4.6.1 Pulverized Waste as Fuel 4.6.2 Paper Based RDF 4.6.3 Powder RDF (Eco-Fuel2) 4.6.4 Upgrading an RDF 4.7 Pyrolysis and Other Thermal Processes 4.7.1 Combustion 4.7.2 Pyrolysis 4.7.3 Gasification 4.7.4 Steam Reforming 4.7.5 Hydrogasification and Hydrogenation 4.7.6 Wet Oxidation 4.7.7 Commercial Pyrolysis Processes 4.8 Biological Processes 4.8.1 Composting 4.8.2 Hydrolysis 4.8.3 Annelidic Recycling 4.8.4 Anaerobic Digestion

2 5. Integrated Solid Waste Management System 63 5.1 Advantages of a Holistic Approach 5.2 Sustainable Solid Waste Management 5.3 Characteristics of Sustainable Solid Waste Management 5.3.1 Market Orientation 5.3.2 Flexibility 5.3.3 Social Acceptability

6. Tourism in Islands and Solid Waste Management 67 6.1 Effects of Tourism on Island Ecosystems 6.1.1 Tourist’s Perception 6.1.2 Impact of Tourism on the Natural Resources of Islands 6.2 For Sustainable Tourism

7. Documentation of Case Studies 74 7.1 Olongapo City (Philippines) 7.1.1 Problem 7.1.2 Context 7.1.3 Program 7.1.4 Implementation 7.1.5 Results 7.2 Bustos (Philippines) 7.2.1 Problem 7.2.2 Context 7.2.3 Program 7.2.4 Implementation 7.2.5 Results 7.3 Dumaguete City (Philippines) 7.3.1 Problem 7.3.2 Context 7.3.3 Project 7.3.4 Implementation 7.3.5 Results

3 7.4 Santa Maria (Philippines) 7.4.1 Problem 7.4.2 Context 7.4.3 Program 7.4.4 Implementation 7.4.5 Results 7.5 Odiongan (Philippines) 7.5.1 Problem 7.5.2 Context 7.5.3 Former Solid Waste Management 7.5.4 Program 7.5.5 Implementation 7.5.6 Results 7.6 Tongatapu (Pacific Islands) 7.6.1 Problem 7.6.2 Context 7.6.3 Former Solid Waste Management 7.6.4 Program 7.6.5 Implementation 7.6.6 Results 7.7 New Providence (Bahamas) 7.7.1 Problem 7.7.2 Context 7.7.3 Program 7.7.4 Implementation 7.7.5 Results 7.8 Galapagos (Ecuador) 7.8.1 Problem 7.8.2 Context 7.8.3 Program 7.8.4 Implementation 7.8.5 Results 7.9 Isle of Wight (England) 7.9.1 Problem

4 7.9.2 Context 7.9.3 Program 7.9.4 Implementation 7.9.5 Results 7.10 Male (Republic of Maldives) 7.10.1 Problem 7.10.2 Context 7.10.3 Program 7.10.4 Implementation 7.10.5 Results 7.11 Mauritius (Africa) 7.11.1 Problem 7.11.2 Context 7.11.3 Program 7.11.4 Implementation 7.11.5 Results 7.12 Saipan (Pacific Islands) 7.12.1 Problem 7.12.2 Context 7.12.3 Program 7.12.4 Implementation 7.12.5 Results 7.13 Seychelles (Africa) 7.13.1 Problem 7.13.2 Context 7.13.3 Program 7.13.4 Implementation 7.13.5 Results 7.14 La Palma (Spain) 7.14.1 Problem 7.14.2 Context 7.14.3 Program 7.14.4 Implementation 7.14.5 Results

5 7.15 Jamaica (Jamaica) 7.15.1 Problem 715.2 Context 7.15.3 Program 7.15.4 Implementation 7.15.5 Results

8. The Operations Framework Matrix (Summary of Case Studies) 137

8.1 Analysis and Findings 8.1.1 Innovative Solid Waste Management 8.1.2 Administrative Innovation 8.1.3 Technical Innovation 8.1.4 Management Innovation 8.2 Some Common Problems Encountered- Potential Constraints and Pitfalls 8.2.1 Administrative Constraints/Problems 8.2.2 Technical Constraints/Problems 8.2.3 Management Constraints/Problems 8.3 Other Aspects 8.3.1 Ecological and Human Health Aspects 8.3.2 Technology Transfers and Maintenance 8.3.3 Elements of Successful Research 8.3.4 Issue of Sustainability

9. Conclusions and Recommendations 174 9.1 Issues and Reflections 9.1.1 Key Lessons and Guiding Principles 9.1.2 Guidelines for Successful Solid Waste Management 9.1.3 Successful Policies 9.2 The Best Practices Framework 9.3 Findings (From the Best Practices Framework) 9.3.1 The Population Factor 9.3.2 The Size Factor 9.3.3 The Per Capita Income Factor

6 9.3.4 The Tourism Index Factor 9.3.5 The Environmental Threat Factor 9.3.6 In Administrative Innovation 9.3.7 In Technical Innovation 9.3.8 In Management Innovation 9.4 To Summarize 9.5 Strengths and weaknesses 9.6 Applicability/Feasibility 9.6.1The Data Filtration Tool 9.7 For Advanced Documentation and Research

Bibliography

Appendix A: Glossary of terms Appendix B: Case Study Islands Location Map

7 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Island Selection Criteria 23 Table 8.1: Operations Framework Matrix 138 Table 9.1: Best Practices Framework 180 Table 9.2: Data Filtration Tool 193

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Methodology 28 Figure 3.1: Waste 29 Figure 3.2: Waste management in an Industrial Economy 33 Figure 3.3: Interrelationship of the Functional Elements in a Solid Waste Management System 36 Figure 4.1: Landfill 41 Figure 4.2: Packer Type Collection Truck 44 Figure 4.3: Transfer Prior to Landfilling 47 Figure 4.4: Transfer and Treatment Plants 47 Figure 4.5: Baling 49 Figure 4.6: Incineration 50 Figure 4.7: Physical Separation of Waste 52 Figure 4.8: Refuse Derived Fuel Facility 54 Figure 4.9: Mobile Pyrolysis Facility 56 Figure 4.10: In-vessel Composting 60

8 1. INTRODUCTION

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Sustainable Development in Rio in 1992 reaffirmed that environmentally sound practices for the management of waste is one of the major issues that needs to be addressed for maintaining the quality of Earth’s environment and for achieving sustainable development.

One of the most vulnerable and insular eco-systems that needs attention in this respect is the small tourist island.

Serene islands, such as the Seychelles (Africa) with a land area of 455 sq. kms (of which 46 sq kms is inhabited) and a resident population of 79,326 have been subjected to immense pressures due to the ever-increasing influx of tourists over the last two decades.1 The waste collection and disposal facilities on most of these islands are not adequate to meet this unprecedented rise of human activity. As a result of this inadequacy the existing solid waste facilities are collapsing due to immense pressure. Due to the geo-physical constraints of these land masses there have also been frequent instances of disposal of the untreated waste into the surrounding ocean, which, 20 years hence could become a serious global threat if remedial action is not taken.

In many places, such as the Seychelles and Maldives, there have been instances of tourists complaining about the deterioration in the once beautiful environs that has taken place due to the indiscriminate dumping of garbage over time.2 Most visitors find the garbage disposal facilities to be inadequate at these sites. During peak seasons, such as summers and festival seasons, the problem is magnified. However, there are similar destination places/islands, such as Mauritius and Cayman Islands, which function well because of their ability to maximize reuse and minimize disposal needs by initiating sustainable development schemes and programs and establishing smooth maintenance mechanisms.3

1http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/profileguide.html. Accessed 2 Oct 2003. 2 http://216.239.37.104/search?q=cache:LculSCyN5dcJ:www.iied.org/docs/spa/epi8.pdf. Accessed 2 Oct 2003. 3 http://www.pacificislands.cc/pm102003/pmdefault.php?urlarticleid=0005. Accessed 15 October 2003.

9 1.1 Background & Rationale

The entire management of solid waste comprises of the waste generation, storage, collection, transportation, intermediate processing, transportation and the final disposal. There is an abundance of literature on solid waste and its appropriate management; several studies have been conducted and reports written on the various techniques that can be adopted for cities, metropolitan areas, developing countries and various geographic locations. However, there exists a lacuna with respect to a comprehensive study on islands and more specifically tourist islands.

1.1.1 Small Island Characteristics and Trends

Living on an island means living on a territory constantly cut off by the sea, with limited possibilities in terms of space, economy and natural or human resources. These different factors can vary significantly in nature or intensity from one island to another, but they nevertheless constitute permanent and ubiquitous realities.

As per the ‘Small Island Developing States’ (SIDS) definition, small islands are defined as those islands “covering less than 1000 sq. kms and with a population under 1 million.” Islands are diverse and although the geographical situations of small islands may vary greatly, they share a number of insular characteristics defined below:

ƒ A narrow economic base;

ƒ Economic dependence on larger countries for markets and investment and, most significantly, for sea and

air transport;

ƒ Geographic isolation within and between countries which can significantly limit economies of scale (also

which, can effectively be reduced by proximity to an established sea or air route);

ƒ An inability to exploit land transport fully;

ƒ Small populations, and hence a limited pool of skills;

ƒ Often high population densities, and hence high demands on resources (Hong Kong,

Singapore, South Tarawa (Kiribati), Majuro (Marshall Islands), Malta and Barbados have some of the

highest population densities in the world);

ƒ Highly circumscribed space and hence paucity of natural resources;

10 ƒ Even though productivity is often high, production systems are often highly vulnerable

ƒ The intimate linkage of all island ecosystems, hence impacts in one part will affect other parts;

ƒ A high ratio of coastline to land area, leaving islands vulnerable to marine and climate influences, such as

cyclones, hurricanes, storm waves, salt-related corrosion and marine pollution;

ƒ The vulnerability of island ecosystems to other external ecological influences, notably exotic species

introduction; and

ƒ The presence of traditional and/or community-based ‘subsistence’ systems of production, which may be

sustainable in the face of many island constraints.

The above characteristics show that the potential for small islands to pursue sustainable development depends entirely upon maintaining the quality of certain limited natural resources. The proper management of solid waste is one such area of growing concern among these islands as it has direct bearing on the state of environment, economy and public health. Unfortunately, it is being noted recently that the effects of improper disposal practices are seriously affecting the sustainability of small scenic tourist islands. For example, in the islands of Galapagos, 150 of the 5000 fauna species is facing threat of extinction due to coastal habitat damage caused by indiscriminate dumping of waste by tourists.4This is also a serious issue as tourism is the single-most important economic activity (usually

65% of the economy generating activity) in these islands. With the rapid influx of tourists, proper waste management is becoming a big issue for these small insular systems as the average waste generation rates here are often double that of the figures of the countries of origin of these tourists.

To manage a fragile island environment, it is essential to take steps to protect nature. Excessive waste generation, deforestation, soil erosion and the extreme fragility of the, mainly urbanized, coast are among the factors that call for a specific analysis of the natural constraints in the islands. Although the island environmental balance is often endangered by the population and by tourism, the environment must still be regarded as an important element in the economic activity of the islands. Islands boast numerous endemic species and immense biodiversity. However, on

4 http://www.nkf-mt.org.uk/eco_concerns.Galapagos.htm. Accessed 9th Feb, 2004.

11 such small territories, each species comprises a small number of individuals and is therefore in severe danger of extinction and needs to be protected. This management of fragile spaces necessarily includes the protection of ecosystems and the management of marine resources in a way which protects the marine milieu by limiting shipping, setting up ecological reserves, and valorizing coastal zones.

1.2 Problem Statement

“For us small island states, the question of sustainability is not an obtuse, arcane concern. It is rather a matter that affects the very nature of our existence.” (Mr. L. Erskine Sandiford: Prime Minister of Barbados).5

This statement reflects the concern of almost all the small island states that they are particularly vulnerable to the adverse consequences of climate or environmental change. Waste has been recognized as one of the most pressing issues along with depleted fisheries, loss of forest cover and lack of formal land-use/land-tenure system among the small island developing states globally. It also occupies high priority at the local level among other environmental concerns such as soil loss, water shortage and endangered species. Waste is therefore a prime concern which if not addressed would lead to loss of ecology, economy and human health and well-being in these micro-states.6

Very small settlements have historically required little or no waste management. In areas of low population densities, the volume of waste generated is low and of a different composition than in large cities. The waste is mostly organic

(70% or more) and is relatively easier to dispose of. Small islands are one such case in hand. However, when these islands become hubs of tourist activities the entire scenario changes. The human activities start producing more waste which is increasingly non-biodegradable, as the economy generators try to constantly meet the demands of the tourists so as to attract them in larger numbers. This change often comes about so gradually that it is hardly noticed until the problem is already serious.

5 http://www.rrcap.unep.org/reports/soe/maldives_solid.pdf. Accessed Nov 17th, 2003. 6http://216.239.37.104/search?q=cache:LculSCyN5dcJ:www.iied.org/docs/spa/epi8.pdf+The+preparation+of+an+integrated+wastes+managem ent+strategy+and+plan+for+the+Falkland+Islands+covering+all+existing+and+future+waste+streams&hl=en&ie=UTF-8. Accessed 2 October 2003.

12 In most small islands, the most common practice of disposing waste is through burning or land and ocean disposal/dumping. But when solid waste disposal demands increase meteorically, new methods need to be devised which would minimize the requirements of newer dumping grounds. Islands are the most vulnerable in this regard as they have only a fixed amount of land area which if not preserved can lead to the degradation of the environment as a whole.

The rapid increase in the density of human population in previously virgin lands for the purpose of leisure and tourism is making the collection, treatment and disposal of waste an insurmountable problem. This is turn is having serious sociological, ecological and economic implications in these select areas as there are no norms and guidelines in place to cushion the effect of this unprecedented pressure on the often minimal infrastructure. For example the

Andaman and Nicobar islands are a group of 300 exotic islands (only 15 are inhabited) near the Indian peninsula, housing a largely tribal population. In the past two decades however, mass tourism has displaced nearly 30% of the tribal population as hotels and other recreational facilities have been built to attract more and more tourists. These hotels in turn are indiscriminately dumping their sewage and waste into the sea and coastal areas slowly making these areas blighted. It is obvious to any visitor that if this trend continues, it will not take long before the island loses its scenic charm and in turn economy in terms of tourism as well as its diverse cultural, ecological and environmental wealth.7

In tourist islands such as the Maldives, there is great variation in the seasonal flow of waste. During peak season it can amount to a staggering 125 lbs. per local person per month.8 In order to combat the effect of pollution during the tourist season the local population can not afford to invest in high-tech, labor intensive, large scale facilities and elaborate infrastructure. These would require year-round maintenance and upkeep which might not be feasible due to the demands it would entail on finance and labor. The problem in island ecosystems is becoming very acute due to their vulnerable geographical condition, resource availability and waste generation and disposal patterns.

7 http://forest.and.nic.in/frst-environment1.htm. Accessed May 14th, 2003. 8 http://www.rrcap.unep.org/reports/soe/maldives_solid.pdf. Accessed Nov 17th, 2003.

13 The limited size of the territory, combined with population trends and seasonal fluctuations, are factors which imply a frequently difficult cohabitation between man and nature and can generate conflicts of interest and management difficulties. Faced with the increased production of waste, islands suffer a dual constraint, both economic and ecological which needs to be dealt with.

1.3 Goals and Objectives

A sustained effort is needed in fragile eco-systems, such as small islands, to restore the balance of nature and to optimally harness available resources.

This study attempts to address the problem of solid waste management (SWM) in an integrated fashion for these islands so as to formulate a tool to enable island states to devise a comprehensive strategy for an environmentally sound and sustainable management of solid waste.

It looks at cases where there have been timely policy responses and the menace has been averted. The objective is to derive positive and sustainable SWM practices from these cases which take into account the unique and diverse social, economic and environmental characteristics of these islands. The inferences drawn from these studies form the basis of formulating the framework of strategies that would be location/region specific and would work. The study aims at devising a tool to aid local decision makers (planners and administrators) in small islands. It would help them in determining appropriate practices that could be employed to alleviate the problem of solid waste management so as to promote the convenience, health, comfort, safety and welfare of the citizens as well as that of the incoming tourist population in their area through previously tried and tested methods.

1.4 Scope & Limitations

Solid waste in any kind of ecosystem is a problem that is usually not noticed until the dire consequences become apparent and often….when it is too late. The requirement of a proper system of waste management in small islands has been recently recognized and is being given priority. Since the topic is relatively new (late 1990’s) there is not much documentation in the form of papers, books or journal articles. Although there are articles that have touched upon the fragility of islands and their need for waste management most of the literature is inconspicuously

14 encapsulated in various web-resources. Efforts have been made to showcase as many studies as possible and with accuracy, however, since this study is not field research based and further for the sake of uniformity, the scope of this study is limited to the information (facts and statistics) that is documented by the United Nations in their islands database. Furthermore, it would be worthwhile to note that the analysis of the study focuses more on the policy and socio-political aspects of implementation of waste management schemes as in most case studies detailed information about the technological implementation is not provided and is hence out of the scope of this study.

Scale of islands: The United Nations island database lists and contains information about 2000 islands. These islands are further classified according to their size and demographics. This study focuses on islands that have been either classified as ‘small’ as per the small islands developing state (SIDS) definition or are facing an imminent environmental threat as per the UN’s Island classifications or have high instances of mass tourism as defined by the tourism index. Further, the number of case studies will be limited to the availability of data and time limitations for the study.

1.5 Thesis structure

The goals of this thesis are several. The first is the presentation of good examples of solid waste management from different places and perspectives and a documentation of current available technologies. The second is to devise a method within the aforementioned domain of constraints for drawing positive lessons on solid waste management.

Thirdly, to contribute to a faster and more correct development of solid waste management practices through the study of previously tried and tested methods. Finally, to create an evaluation tool for planners and administrators in order to assist them in decision-making with respect to solid waste management of small tourist island destinations.

The following chapter (second chapter) describes the methodology that has been proposed for this study. To arrive at the ‘best practices’ framework, the case study selection criteria were identified, the case studies researched and the proposed framework is developed as a tool (which can be used on an island) to reach the conclusions.

15 The third chapter explains the concept of solid waste management, its evolution, and the processes it consists of. It also explains the generic problems attached to waste, their sources and types as well as the role of the industrial revolution in aggravating the problem.

The fourth chapter discusses the various basic technologies used to address the problem of solid waste. Overall this chapter offers a glimpse into the technical side of waste management without getting into too much detail.

The fifth chapter explains the concept of integrated solid waste management as opposed to simple solid waste management. The chapter further delves into sustainability and its link to integrated solid waste management.

The sixth chapter discusses tourism on islands and its repercussion on the fragile island ecosystem. It contains a brief discussion on solid waste management in the light of heavy recreational tourism in islands.

The seventh chapter is a documentation of the fifteen proposed case studies. It lists out the case studies that have implemented good solid waste management schemes (best practices). The case studies are designed for easy reading and they are comprised of four main sections namely:

1. Problem- which discusses the problems that an area was facing and its severity that led to the development

of the scheme;

2. Context- or an idea of the setting as the case studies are from around the world;

3. Program- which briefly explains the objectives of the islands waste management strategy and the program

that was implemented;

4. Implementation- which gives insight into how a program was started, the key features that made it

successful, what the initial hurdles were and the financing; and finally the

5. Results- how the program has developed in the present day context, the adjustments that had to be made

and the benefits to the island.

16 The eighth chapter consists of a summary of the case studies, the actual analysis of the ‘operations framework matrix’ and findings in the form of the best practices framework development and the issues and reflections made by the author.

The ninth and the final chapter will be a synthesis of the lessons learned from the study. The ‘Best Practices

Framework’ with the author’s final thoughts; observations about the framework developed-its strengths and weaknesses as well as its applicability. Finally the chapter ends with a data filtration tool devised by the author. This tool can be applied impromptu to any island for preliminary investigation as to the likely waste management strategies available based on the cases studied. A section with ideas for possible improvements to be made on the framework and for future research is also incorporated.

17 2. THE BEST PRACTICES FRAMEWORK (METHODOLOGY)

Although, there are no universal solutions to the problem of solid waste management, one of the ways of upgrading prevalent methods and promoting environmentally healthy practices is by presenting good examples and models of well functioning solid waste management practices from different places and perspectives. One needs to look at what has worked within certain conditions; what lessons can be drawn from an example or, conversely, why a certain strategy failed and what can be learned from it. A study of models, examples and experiences from various parts of the world would definitely contribute to a faster and more correct development of good waste management practices in other such ecosystems by planners.

The methodology that is adopted in this study for achieving the aforementioned objectives is a combination of a

‘comparative case study analysis’ to derive best practices and ‘content analysis’ to analyze and understand the background under which certain strategies or practices have worked.

2.1 Methodology Outline – Refer to Figure 2.1 in text. The methodology consisted of seven basic steps:

1. Conduct background study (literature review)

2. Island (case study) selection criteria (refer to Table 2.1)

3. Identification and Selection of 15 islands that satisfy criteria (refer to Table 2.1)

4. Case study research

5. Extracting the Operations Framework Matrix

6. Extracting the administrative, technical and management innovations and creating the ‘Best Practices

Matrix’

7. Conclusions--Creating the ‘Data Filtration’ tool

The seven procedural steps are detailed below:

1. Conduct background study on solid waste management, islands and tourism in islands (Literature review): A study of solid waste management, its components, practices, processes and the various technologies contemporary and

18 indigenous was conducted to develop the background information. Further, island ecosystems were studied to identify the constraints and environmental problems faced by such eco-systems. The effect of a booming tourism industry in islands—its economic, social, cultural and environmental impacts were also studied.

Source: To understand islands and their unique ecosystem journal articles, web resources and publications such as

Environmental Impact Statements conducted by authorities such as development banks were studied. For data on tourism the United Nations SIDS database as well as national census bureaus and local government databases related to tourism were used. Books and recent journal articles were used for information on solid waste management and its issues.

2. Island selection criteria

The population of islands to be studied was identified based on satisfaction of either of the two criteria.

1. Islands satisfying the United Nations’ ‘Small Island Developing States’ (SIDS) definition of small islands

(islands covering less than 1000 sq. kms. or with a population under 1 million)

AND/OR

2. Islands that have been classified as being under imminent environmental threat by the United Nations

islands database.

Source: For the identification of islands the United Nations ‘Categorization of Small Island States’ (SIDS database) and United Nations’ island database-- databases produced by the United Nations and available online on its webpage—were referred to.

19 IMPORTANT SIDS ISLANDS SATISFYING CRITERIA 1&2

(With both less than 1000sqkm land area as well as high environmental risk)

Source: http://islands.unep.ch/Tiatrisk.htm (United Nations Islands Homepage)

Island Country Efate Vanuatu Fatuhiva France - French Polynesia - Marquesas Is Teraina Kiribati - Line Islands Hiva Oa France - French Polynesia - Marquesas Is

Ua Pou France - French Polynesia - Marquesas Is

Lakeba Fiji Nuku Hiva France - French Polynesia - Marquesas Is Basse Terre France - Guadeloupe Principe Sao Tome and Principe Tutuila United States - American Samoa Rarotonga Cook Islands Mangareva France - French Polynesia - Gambier Is. Tabuaeran Kiribati - Line Islands Eiao France - French Polynesia - Marquesas Is Taveuni Fiji Tinian United States - Northern Mariana Islands Kadavu Fiji St Vincent St Vincent Ascension United Kingdom - Ascension Island Bioko Equatorial Guinea Pohnpei Federated States of Micronesia Ovalau Fiji Sao Tome Sao Tome and Principe Santa Rosa United States - California Dominica Dominica Rotuma Fiji Tahiti France - French Polynesia - Society Is. Reunion France - Reunion

20 Island Country Rodrigues Mauritius - Rodrigues Guam United States - Guam Puerto Rico United States - Puerto Rico Vanua Levu Fiji Viti Levu Fiji St Helena United Kingdom - St Helena Rapa France - French Polynesia - Austral Is. Madeira Portugal - Madeira Bermuda Bermuda Malta Malta Mauritius Mauritius New Caledonia France - New Caledonia Glover Reef Belize Chelbacheb Palau Malden Kiribati - Line Islands Mussau Papua New Guinea - Bismarck Archipelago Ambae Vanuatu Napuka France - French Polynesia - Tuamotu Is. Oroluk Federated States of Micronesia Fernando de Noronha Brazil - Fernando de Noronha Tahuata France - French Polynesia - Marquesas Is Anjouan Comoros Kapingamarangi Federated States of Micronesia Uman Federated States of Micronesia Madeira Portugal - Madeira San Andres Colombia - Colombian Islands Jaluit Marshall Islands Rodrigues Mauritius - Rodrigues Rotuma Fiji Teraina Kiribati - Line Islands Lakeba Fiji Kadavu Fiji Tenerife Spain - Canary Islands Marion South Africa - Prince Edward Islands

21 Island Country Antipodes New Zealand Livingston Antarctic Islands Tol Federated States of Micronesia

22 Table 2.1: Criteria Matrix

Island Name SIDS T/A TI IEP PCI Information Availability Olongapo Sz(sq.km.):185 1,900,000 9.78 no $632 available Pop:194,260 websites, journals Bustos Sz(sq.km.):2625 1,900,000 0.85 no $762 available Pop:2234088 website Dumaguete Sz(sq.km.): 5402 1,900,000 2.05 no $359 available Pop: 925,311 website Santa Maria Sz(sq.km.):2625 1,900,000 0.85 yes (human impact) $761 available Pop:2234088 website Romblon Sz(sq.km.): 136 80,000 2.00 no $340 available website, journal, govt. Pop: 40000 reports Tonga Sz(sq.km.):260 33,000 0.47 no $2,200 available website, journal, govt. Pop:70000 reports Bahamas Sz(sq.km.):235(NP) 4,200,000 23.29 no $17,500 available website, journal, govt. Pop: 180317(NP) reports yes (species Galapagos Sz(sq.km.):1938 60,000 37.50 extinction) $1,450 available Pop:1600 website Isle of Wight Sz(sq.km.):380 2,700,000 21.43 no $28,250 available Pop:126000 website, journal Male Sz(sq.km.):298 (4M) 1,500,000 23.08 no $2,835 available Pop:329684(65000M) website Mauritius Sz(sq.km.):2040 605,000 0.50 yes (human impact) $10,600 available website, journal, govt. Pop:1210447 reports Saipan Sz(sq.km.):184 500,000 10.45 yes (human impact) $4,845 available Pop:47843 website Seychelles Sz(sq.km.): 455 140,955 1.76 no $7,550 available website, journal, govt. Pop:80000 reports La Palma Sz(sq.km.):700 100,872 1.26 yes (human impact) $21,200 available Pop:80000 website Jamaica Sz(sq.km.):10991 1,800,000 0.67 yes (human impact) $3,525 available Pop:2,695,867 website, journal

23 Key TA= Tourists per Annum TI= Tourism Index IEP= Imminent Environmental Threat PCI= Per Capita Income

Source: CIA World Factbook World Bank 'Size of Economy' Author

3. Identifying case study variables & Selection of 15 case studies (refer to Table 2.1)

The case study variables (criteria) were identified from the literature review. These consisted of the characteristics of islands and tourism for which background information would be needed. The five criteria that were found to be pertinent to the study were:

1. population (demographic data for at least year 2000)

2. size (land area of the island being studied)

3. per capita income (World Bank quotes for year 2000)

4. tourism index (ratio of the number of tourists arriving at an island per annum and local population of the

island)

5. Imminent environmental threat (as classified by the United Nations island database).

Fifteen cases from the population of islands identified in step 2 were chosen for detailed research on their solid waste management practices. These were ones that had the most information/literature on their Solid Waste Management systems as well as detailed information with respect to their socio-economic and geographic profile.

Source: For data concerning the fifteen selected islands, the World Bank economic statements and country handbooks, United Nations’ islands database, information from CIA World Fact-book and Department of Tourism websites for each island were referred to.

4. Case study research (refer to Chapter 7)

After selection, for each of the fifteen islands, a case study research was conducted under the following headings:

24 a) Island context/setting-- This enabled the researcher in understanding the dynamics and background of the island.

This consisted of characteristics such as size, climate, geography, soil conditions, political atmosphere, economic condition and demographics. b) Problem faced—A study of the environmental or socio-economic problems faced due to lack of or improper waste management system. c) Strategy or program—This section provided a briefing of the strategy adopted by the island to address the problem of waste. d) The implementation strategy-- This section included a study of the various practices (hi-tech, indigenous)/strategies/proposals/plans that were instituted, features of the program, finance mechanism (if any) and problems encountered. e) Results-- This was the conclusions section that related the final outcome of the adopted strategy or program and summarized the practices and whether they had (perceived or actual/quantitative) beneficial effects.

Source: Data on Island profiles were obtained from the United Nations SIDS database and USAID documents. Data on SWM practices were obtained from documentations (from books/ journal/articles/reports/ environmental impact assessment reports etc) of what other people/agencies have to say about the problems.

5. Extracting the Operations Framework Matrix (refer to Table 8.1)

After a detailed study of the waste management practices in each island, a summary or an ‘operations framework’ matrix outlining the range of viable operations or technologies with background information, special features and pre- requisites or constraints of the SWM features if any was framed. The findings were tabulated in the form of a ‘menu’ that depicted:

1. the program or strategy adopted (e.g.: zero waste through recycling),

2. the key features of the strategy (e.g.: segregation of waste),

3. the pre-requisites or conditions under which it has been a successful practice (e.g: willingness of residents to segregate at household level)

25 4. the underlying policy (e.g: making the island clean and beautiful)

5. and the governance/administration that has been instrumental in the successful implementation of the practice

(e.g.: NGO involvement in changing public attitude towards waste)

6. awareness and education component (e.g.: children’s’ education)

7. problems encountered (e.g. distance to collection points)

8. results (e.g: program served 85% population by end of year 3 and was successful)

Source: Author

6. Extracting the administrative, technical and management innovations and creating the ‘Best Practices Framework’

(refer to Table 9.1)

Since most of the waste strategies adopted by the islands were comprehensive or integrated, a detailed analysis of the key features was carried out to simplify the key features section and arrive at the: a) Administrative innovations b) Technical innovations c) Management innovations

Island typologies were created whereby the islands were grouped as:

Population: a) Greater than 1,000,000 b) Less than-equal to 1,000,000

Size: a) Greater than 1000 sq. km b) Less than-equal to 1000 sq. km.

Per Capita Income: a) Greater than $10,000 b) Less than-equal to $10,000

Imminent Environmental threat: a) Yes b) No

Tourism Index: a) Greater than 10 b) Less than-equal to 10

26 The Best Practices framework outlined the frequency with which each of the strategies were adopted by the islands based on administrative, technical and management options that were available, to arrive at the most popular options used by each island typology.

Source: Author

7. Conclusions--Creating the ‘Data Filtration’ tool (refer to Workbook 9.1)

The most popular innovations/strategies were listed as key findings and the options in each category were then analyzed to assess the conditions for the success of each innovation. The common problems faced in implementing these options were also discussed. Finally, the study was concluded by formulating a data filtration tool which would aid a decision-maker or planner in narrowing down to a range of options (based on the case studies) available to develop a solid waste management plan for their area.

Source: Author

27 Figure 2.1: Methodology Flowchart

Islands Solid Waste

1. Background Literature Information Review SWM practices

Tourism ISWM

Goals and Objectives

Environmental Threat

2. Identification of Island population

UN’s SIDS Database

3. Identification of Variables

Selection of 15 case studies

4. Case Study/Profile Analysis

5. Summarizing case studies / Operations Framework Matrix

6. Extracting Administrative, Technical and Management innovations

Creating Best Practices Framework

7. Creating Data Filtration Tool

Source: Author 3. UNDERSTANDING SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

3.1 What is Waste?

Definitions of ‘waste’ invariably refer to the lack of use or value or ‘useless

remains’. Waste is the by-product of human and animal activity which may

not be of immediate use when it arises. Physically it contains the same

materials as are found in useful products; it only differs from useful

production by its lack of value. The lack of value may be related to the Figure 3.1: Waste Source: http://www.trinitywaste.com/ mixed and often unknown composition of the waste.9 Separating the materials in waste generally increases their value if the recovered materials can be put to use.

Waste is classified by physical state (solid, liquid, gaseous), origin or detailed composition. Within solid waste, five classification schemes are used to characterize the waste stream: by original use (packaging waste, food waste etc.), by material (glass, paper etc), by physical properties (combustible, compostable, recyclable), by origin (domestic, commercial, industrial), and by safety level (hazardous, non-hazardous). 10 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is a sub- component of solid waste consisting of household and commercial waste. MSW generally accounts for a relatively small part (10-15%) of the total solid waste stream but needs to be addressed, as it is one of the most visible forms of solid waste.11 MSW composition is also variable, both seasonally and geographically from country to country and from urban to rural areas. Additionally, MSW is by nature one of the hardest sources of waste to manage effectively as it consists of a diverse range of materials (glass, metal, paper, plastics and organics) which are totally mixed together in no discernible quantities. In contrast, industrial and other solid wastes (that are discussed subsequently in the chapter) tend to be more homogeneous.

9 Gottlieb, Robert, et al. Solid Waste Management : planning issues & opportunities. Chicago, IL: American Planning Association, 1990. 16. 10 Gottlieb, Robert, et al. Solid Waste Management : planning issues & opportunities. Chicago, IL: American Planning Association, 1990. 16. 11 Gottlieb, Robert, et al. Solid Waste Management : planning issues & opportunities. Chicago, IL: American Planning Association, 1990. 16.

29 3.2 Generation of Solid Wastes – Sources and Types

3.2.1 Sources of Waste

Knowledge of the sources and types of solid waste better assist in the understanding of the design and operation of the functional elements associated with the management of solid wastes.

Sources of solid waste can be grouped as follows:12

1. Residential areas: domestic and garden refuse

2. Commercial areas: office, shops, restaurants and hotel refuse

3. Light industrial area: office, factory, packing and canteen refuse

4. Heavy industrial areas: process wastes

5. Port and harbor areas: ship refuse, spilled cargo, fishing boats refuse

6. Redevelopment areas: building and structure demolition waste and surplus spoil.

7. Open areas: special wastes, rubbish

8. Agricultural areas: agricultural refuse, hazardous wastes

3.2.2 Types and Characteristics of Solid Waste

Based on similarity in characteristics, waste can generally be categorized into seven typologies: food waste, rubbish, ashes and residues, demolition and construction waste, special waste, treatment plant waste and agricultural waste.

The type of waste and their characteristics are discussed below:

Food wastes: animal, fruit or vegetable residues resulting from the handling, preparation, cooking and eating of food.

The most important characteristic of these wastes is that they are organic and decompose rapidly, especially in warm weather. Decomposition will often lead to offensive odors.13

12 Communications and MIS Branch for the Industrial Technologies Division. Municipal Solid Waste Management. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1995. 6. 13 Communications and MIS Branch for the Industrial Technologies Division. Municipal Solid Waste Management. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1995. 6.

30 Rubbish: can be categorized as combustible and non-combustible wastes. Combustibles consist of materials such as paper, cardboard, plastics, textile, rubber, leather, wood and furniture. Non-combustibles consist of items such as glass, crockery, tin/aluminum cans, metals and dirt.14

Ashes and residue: materials that remain after the burning of combustibles come under this category. Cinders, clinkers, burned and partially burned materials are residual materials.15

Demolition and construction waste: waste from construction, remodeling, repairing and demolition come under this category. These wastes are variable in composition and may consist of materials such as stones, concrete, bricks, plaster, lumber, shingles, plumbing and electrical parts.16

Special wastes: consist of street sweepings, roadside litter, catch basin debris, dead animals and abandoned vehicles.17

Treatment plant wastes: The solid and semi-solid wastes from treatment facilities are included in this classification.

Their characteristics and composition vary depending on the nature of the treatment process.18

Agricultural wastes: include wastes and residues resulting from the diverse agricultural activities. These wastes may include quantities of hazardous wastes due to fertilizer and chemical content.

14 Communications and MIS Branch for the Industrial Technologies Division. Municipal Solid Waste Management. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1995. 7. 15 Communications and MIS Branch for the Industrial Technologies Division. Municipal Solid Waste Management. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1995. 7. 16 Communications and MIS Branch for the Industrial Technologies Division. Municipal Solid Waste Management. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1995. 9. 17 Communications and MIS Branch for the Industrial Technologies Division. Municipal Solid Waste Management. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1995. 9. 18 Communications and MIS Branch for the Industrial Technologies Division. Municipal Solid Waste Management. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1995. 10.

31 3.3 Concerns over Waste

Two broad areas of concern surround waste management: human impacts and environmental impacts. Public health and safety have been the major concerns in waste management. Wastes need to be managed in such a way so as to minimize the risks (such as disease, accidents) to human health and safety.

Environmental concerns over the management of waste can be divided into two major areas: conservation of resources and the pollution of the environment. The initial concern with waste management was the depletion of irreplaceable finite resources of the Earth due to the gluttonous consumption and disposal patterns. The present day concern, however, is about the pollution and deterioration of the existing natural resources which if not taken care of would be rendered useless.19 Generation of pollution and wastes should not exceed the ability of the planet’s natural sink to absorb and convert them into harmless compounds. Unfortunately however, the present day technological society is contributing to that very phenomenon.

3.4 Effects of Technological Advances

The development of a technologically advanced society worldwide can be traced to the beginnings of the industrial revolution; so can a major increase in solid waste disposal problems. An industrialized technology meant industrial processes which created more waste and effluents. It also meant a newer way of living which propagated the pollution of resources in every manner.

19 Gottlieb, Robert, et al. Solid Waste Management: Planning Issues & Opportunities. Chicago, IL: American Planning Association, 1990. 26.

32 Environment as supplier of natural Extraction resources

Processing

Manufacturing

Environment as an amenity Consumption

Residuals Waste generated by the system

Environment as a waste sink

Figure 3.2: Waste management in an industrial economy

Source: Wilson, David C. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University

Press, 1981. 17.

Figure 3.2 above illustrates how the various processes in the system generate waste and how the environment has been the supplier of resources (be it from nature or from recycled waste); as well as the sink for these wastes. Thus, along with the benefits of technology came the problems associated with the disposal of the resultant waste. Modern technological advances in the packaging of goods have created a constantly changing set of parameters for the designers of solid waste facilities. In order to devise a strategy to dispose waste efficiently, there needs to be constant stress on reduction of packaging material as well as use of biodegradable materials for packaging. Of

33 particular significance are the increase in use of plastics, disposables and frozen foods on a daily basis-product that entail extensive packaging with non-biodegradable materials and hence extensive refuse.

3.5 Evolution of Solid Waste Management

Waste disposal is no longer the simple process that it used to be. Solid waste disposal is a growing concern all over the world. Traditionally wastes have either been buried or incinerated. A few centuries ago the burial of waste was an easy process, today it is a complicated and time consuming one.20

The basic methods and principles underlying what is now known as the field of Solid Waste Management are not new to the civilized society and were well known even back in the late 19th century. For example, earlier where horse- drawn carts were used as the basic method for SW collection now technologically superior collection trucks are used.

The most commonly recognized methods for the disposal of solid wastes at the turn of the century were: 1. dumping on land (for disposal) and then incineration, 2. dumping in water, 3. plowing into the soil, (method of disposal used for food wastes and street sweepings) 4. feeding to hogs, (food waste disposal method) 5. recovery-reduction (method of treating raw waste to separate them into solid and liquid portion and recover grease) and 6. incineration (final disposal technique).21 Not all these were applicable to all types of waste. For example, feeding wastes to hogs for reduction was used specifically for food wastes only.

Enlightened solid waste management with emphasis on controlled tipping (now known as sanitary landfilling) can be traced to the early 1940’s in the United States. New York City under the leadership of Mayor La Guardia and Fresno

California’s Director of Public Works, Jean Vincenz, were the pioneers in sanitary landfill methods for large cities.

During World War Π, the U.S Army Corps of Engineers, under the direction of Vincenz, modernized its solid waste disposal programs to serve as model landfills for communities of all sizes. The California Department of Public

20 Rao, Sangeetha. "Analysis of Solid Waste Management Techniques being used by the City of Cincinnati." MCP diss., University of Cincinnati, 1991. 18. 21 Kirov, N.Y. ed. Solid waste treatment and disposal. Mich.: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, 1972.16.

34 Health, along with several other state health departments, established standards for municipal sanitary landfills and carried out aggressive campaigns for the elimination of conventional dumps.22 This set standards for waste management as it is now practiced in most parts of the country.

For many years, disposal of waste produced by an industrialized society was characterized by the maxim: ‘Out of sight, out of mind’. Gradually this attitude has begun to change as people see the inevitability of environmental destruction if an integrated control on all kinds of pollution and wastes is not accounted for. Additionally, with the growing shortages in energy and materials, waste is being seen as a potential resource.

3.6 Functional Elements of a Solid Waste Management System

‘Management’ can be defined as the carefully planned, judicious use of means to achieve an end. In the case of solid waste management the ‘end’ is the removal and disposal of unwanted material. To achieve this end, technical, environmental, administrative, economic and political issues must be addressed. Solid waste management (SWM) may therefore be defined as that discipline associated with the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing and recovery, and final disposal of solid wastes in a manner that is in accordance with the best principles of public health, economics, engineering, urban and regional planning, conservation, aesthetics, and other environmental considerations and that which is also responsive to public attitudes.23 In its scope, solid waste management includes all administrative, financial, legal, planning and engineering functions involved in the whole spectrum of solutions to the problem of solid waste. The solutions often involve complex interdisciplinary relationships among various fields such as planning, geography, economics, health science, engineering and political science.

To solve specific SW problems, the various functional elements are combined in what is usually known as a solid waste management system. As can be seen from Figure 3.3, in most places a SWM system comprises five functional

22 Kirov, N.Y. ed. Solid waste treatment and disposal. Mich.: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, 1972.16. 23 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Decision-maker's guide to solid waste management. 1995.

35 elements: waste generation, onsite storage, collection, transfer and transport and disposal. Intermediate recovery mechanisms are often used to recover valuable resources such as energy from wastes.

Waste generation

Storage

Collection

Transfer and Processing and transport recovery

Disposal

Figure 3.3: Interrelationship of the functional elements in a SWM system

Source: Author

Therefore one of the goals of SWM is the optimization of these systems to provide the most efficient and economic solution commensurate with all constraints imposed by the users of the system and those affected by it or controlling its use. The functional elements of a waste management system are explained below:

36 3.6.1 Waste Generation

Waste generation encompasses those activities in which materials are identified as no longer being of value and are either discarded or gathered together for disposal. Waste generation is an activity which is not very controllable; however, from the standpoint of economics, the best place to sort materials for the purpose of recovery is at this source of generation.24

3.6.2 Onsite handling, storage and processing

Onsite handling refers to the activities associated with the handling of solid waste until they are placed in the container used for their storage. Wastes are separated into components and stored for collection. Paper, cardboard, glass, plastics, aluminum cans, ferrous metals and yard wastes are some of these components. Onsite handling may also involve moving the loaded container to the collection point. Onsite storage requires consideration of the type of container to be used, its location, aesthetics and the collection method.25 This process/ element of SWM is of primary importance because of limited storage space on individual premises and because wastes cannot be tolerated for long due to their biodegradability. Often preliminary processing of wastes is also done onsite. This consists of activities performed to reduce the volume of waste, alter its physical form or to recover usable materials from it.

3.6.3 Collection

Collection not only includes gathering of solid waste and emptying containers into a suitable vehicle for storage, but also hauling the waste after collection to the location where the collection vehicle is emptied. This location maybe a transfer station, a processing station or a landfill disposal site.26In large cities where the hauling distance is long the solution is often complicated by the fact that the motor vehicles that are well-adapted to long distance hauling are not economical for house-to-house collection. Consequently in most cases supplemental transfer, transport facilities and

24 George, Tchobanoglous, et al. Solid Wastes: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. New York: Mc Graw Hill Book Company, 1987. 28. 25 George, Tchobanoglous, et al. Solid Wastes: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. New York: Mc Graw Hill Book Company, 1987. 28. 26 George, Tchobanoglous, et al. Solid Wastes: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. New York: Mc Graw Hill Book Company, 1987. 28.

37 equipment are needed. However, where small volumes of waste are involved, small waste management systems generally use collection vehicles to transport waste directly to the landfill.

3.6.4 Transfer and Transport

Transfer and transport involves basically two steps:

1. Transfer of wastes from smaller collection vehicles or manual hauling to the larger transport equipment, and

2. The subsequent transport of the waste usually over long distance to the disposal site. Although motor

vehicle transport is most common, rail and barges are also used to transport waste.

3.6.5 Processing and Recovery

Processing and recovery includes all the techniques, equipment and facilities used both to improve the efficiency of the other functional elements and to recover usable materials, conversion products or energy from solid wastes.27

The selection of any recovery process is a function of economics – cost of separation versus value of the recovered materials or products.

3.6.6 Disposal

Disposal is the final functional element. It is the ultimate fate of all solid waste irrespective of where they come from

(processing site, incinerators etc.). Thus, landuse planning becomes a primary determinant in the selection, design and functioning of landfill operations. Engineering principles must be followed to confine the wastes to the smallest possible area, to reduce them to the lowest practical volume by compaction and to cover them up after each day’s operation to reduce exposure to vermin.28

27 George, Tchobanoglous, et al. Solid Wastes: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. New York: Mc Graw Hill Book Company, 1987. 27. 28 George, Tchobanoglous, et al. Solid Wastes: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. New York: Mc Graw Hill Book Company, 1987. 27.

38 3.6.7 Other Practical Aspects Associated with Solid Waste Management Systems

Organizational structure (delegation of duties to departments or individuals), financing (methods of financing SWM systems), operations (number of divisions involved for each operation), equipment management (design of special features, maintenance, inventory), personnel management (training, selection and supervision), cost accounting and budgeting (to assess true costs of each activity and to aid in decision making), contract administration (for public- private partnership), ordinances and guidelines (developed by the SWM agency) and public communications (to build awareness about the processes followed).29

3.7 Summary and Conclusions

There is a general consensus globally that solid waste management is not just the problem of developing countries but also that of the developed nations. The issues related to waste management can be traced back to a few factors

– inability of the local authorities to pick up all the waste, lack of proper data, lack of financial resources, lack of skill, improper disposal facilities and lack of proper legislation, improper organizational structure of the waste management authority and lastly the lack of public participation.30

SWM practices were initially developed to avoid the adverse effects on public health that were being caused by the increasing amounts of solid waste being discarded without appropriate collection or disposal. Managing the waste effectively is what the societies have to deal with. In dealing with waste there are two fundamental requirements: less waste and an effective system for managing the waste still produced.

The Brundtland report of the United Nations, Our Common Future (WCED, 1987) clearly explained how sustainable development could only be achieved if society in general learnt to produce ‘more (goods and services) from less

(resources)’ while generating less pollution and waste. Waste minimization, waste reduction or source reduction are

29 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Decision-maker's guide to solid waste management. 1995. 30 John, Holmes, ed. Managing Solid Wastes in Developing Countries. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1984. 30.

39 generally placed at the top of the conventional waste management hierarchy. Source reduction affects the volume and to some extent the nature of waste. Beyond source reduction an effective system to manage waste is needed.

40 4. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT- BASIC TECHNOLOGIES

In order to understand the intricacies of the implementation of a solid waste management system it is necessary to know the techniques and technologies that are available for the reclamation, treatment or disposal of solid wastes and that can be applied to achieve a sustainable and cost-effective solution.31 Although many technologies in the solid waste management applications have evolved over the past 15 years, the various technologies can be essentially categorized under eight basic headings:

ƒ Landfill

ƒ Collection

ƒ Transfer or treatment prior to landfill

ƒ Incineration

ƒ Separation process

ƒ Production of a solid refuse-derived fuel (RDF)

ƒ Pyrolysis and other thermal processes

ƒ Biological processes

Each of the above is discussed in order below.

4.1 Landfill

The predominant method for the final disposal of solid waste is

burial in the ground as even after most treatments and

reclamation, a significant residue will remain for final disposal.

Landfill is the term used to describe a properly designed and

controlled operation for land disposal of wastes.32 The principles

of sound landfill management are based on four main criteria: 1. Figure 4.1 Landfill Source: http://www.trinitywaste.com/ nuisances such as odors, fires, vermin, insects, birds, windblown

31 Kanti, Shah. Basics of solid and hazardous waste management technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, 2000.206. 32 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 193.

41 litter and visual intrusion should be kept at a minimum, 2. good compaction of the waste should be ensured, 3. problems of water pollution and gas generation should be minimized, and 4. the management of the site should reflect the after-use for which the reclaimed land is intended.33

4.1.1 Compaction and Choice of Landfill Site Machines

Landfill space is becoming increasingly scarce near urban areas; therefore the quantity of waste that has to be deposited needs to be optimized. Similarly recently attention has focused on the types of landfill machines to be used and their comparative performances. Traditionally either tracked or four-wheel drive rubber-wheeled machines have been used, although more recently special landfill compactors have been introduced. These tractors are claimed to produce significant increase in achieved waste densities.34 The other factors apart from compaction that affect the choice of appropriate landfill machinery are: quantity of waste to be handled, availability and type of cover material, other site jobs that the machine must perform and reliability.35

4.1.2 Landfill Science

According to Bevan, a landfill site may be viewed as an inelegant biological reactor, in which waste decomposes over time.36 The temperature within the landfill will increase, giving rise to fire hazard if the site is not properly managed.

Settlement will occur as decomposition proceeds. Pollution problems may arise from two main sources:37

1. If water is allowed to come in contact with the waste, then an obnoxious mineralized leachate is produced;

also a water source may get contaminated by such contact.

2. Gases are generated from biodegradation of waste which may be flammable as well.

In order to eliminate chances of such hazards occurring proper site selection needs to be done.

33 Kanti, Shah. Basics of solid and hazardous waste management technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, 2000.329. 34 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 193. 35 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 198. 36 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 198. 37 Kanti, Shah. Basics of solid and hazardous waste management technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, 2000.293.

42 4.1.3 Landfill Siting

On the basis of research three hydro-geological categories have been suggested as an aid to landfill selection:

1. Class 1 sites: Those sites that provide a significant element of containment for wastes and leachates and

are situated on relatively permeable strata such as soft clays or fine grained compact rocks of low

permeability such as slates, shales and mudstones. This kind of a site is usually expensive as leachate

treatment and venting of gases may well be necessary.38

2. Class 2 sites: Sites allowing slow leachate migration and attenuation. An ideal site maybe a dry pit in silt or

fine sand through which flow is inter-granular and which is underlain by a significant unsaturated zone. This

type of site is usually recommended for municipal waste landfills.39

3. Class 3 sites: Sites which allow migration of leachates at such a rate that there is insignificant attenuation.

Such sites can be located on a variety of geological strata including hard calcareous rocks in which ground

water flow is mainly through fissures. Such sites are normally only suitable for the disposal of relatively inert

wastes.40

However, each site should be treated on its merits. For example, a coastal pit in fractured rock, where the aquifer is already contaminated by the intrusion of saline water maybe acceptable for waste disposal.

4.1.4 Cost Factor

The setting up of a landfill involves capital costs (expenditures made on capital goods procurement) as well as operating cost (daily expenditure on operating and maintaining the facility). Thus, the planning of a landfill site must take into account these factors in order to maximize efficiency.

Capital costs of a landfill site

The capital costs of a landfill site include the following elements most of which are site dependant:

Identification of a suitable site; Proving its merit/suitability (surveys, hydrology); Acquisition cost (leasehold or freehold); Site preparation (diversion of water courses, site grading, liners, monitoring boreholes installation); General

38 Kanti, Shah. Basics of solid and hazardous waste management technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, 2000.298. 39 Kanti, Shah. Basics of solid and hazardous waste management technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, 2000.293. 40 Kanti, Shah. Basics of solid and hazardous waste management technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, 2000.289.

43 site works (site office, telephone, water supply); Mobile equipment for handling waste and cover material; Restoration cost (doming, clay-cover, revegetation).41

Operating cost of a landfill site

The daily operating costs of a landfill site will include: labor, fuel requirements particularly for the mobile equipments, availability of daily cover material and transport cost in a collection vehicle.

Methods of depositing waste in the ground vary widely but, in general, good operating practice requires that waste is spread and compacted in layers, and that all exposed surfaces are covered regularly at least at the end of each working day with an inert material. Regular covering helps to reduce nuisance and to improve the visual impact of the landfill operation. However supplementary methods such as pest control and use of screens to control nuisance are often necessary. The main considerations for deciding on a landfill operation are: 1. distance to the site from the city and transfer stations, 2. economies of scale in the landfill operation 3. local hydro-geology (leachate management) 4. site management (degree of compaction, water content, future use of site) 5. collection and use of landfill gas. 42

4.2 Collection

Solid waste collection refers to the gathering of waste from places such as

residential, commercial, institutional and industrial areas and public parks.

Collection may occur once or twice a week or, in some cases daily

depending on the quantity generated and type of waste. Both storage and

collection operations must be coordinated. The collection and transport of Figure 4.2: Packer type Collection Truck Source:http://www.tigerdude.com/garba ge/ solid waste to processing and disposal sites accounts for roughly 70% of the total cost of the service; therefore this is a very important function of

41 Kanti, Shah. Basics of solid and hazardous waste management technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, 2000.288. 42 Communications and MIS Branch for the Industrial Technologies Division. Municipal Solid Waste Management. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1995. 23.

44 solid waste management.43 Before the initiative for recycling and recovery, collection and transport decisions were focused on selecting the proper number and size of vehicles, the most efficient collection routes and schedules and the location and design of transfer stations if needed. With the push for recycling and recovery, these operations have become more complicated. Now, a municipality or private collection agency may require separate storage containers, vehicles, routes, schedules and destinations for recyclable and recoverable materials, which must be coordinated with the existing collection system.

4.2.1 Types of collection systems and equipments

During the past decade, a variety of systems and equipment have been used in the collection of solid wastes. These systems may be classified in several ways such as by types of waste collected, mode of operation and equipment used. As per the mode of operation, collection systems may be divided broadly into two categories: stationary container system and hauled container system. In the former the container is emptied into a collection vehicle at the point of collection, in the latter, the container is hauled away from the collection point.

Stationary Container System (SCS)

In this system, the containers used for the storage of all types of waste remain at the point of generation, except when they are moved to the curb or other location to be emptied. These systems vary according to the type and quantity of waste to be handled and according to the number of generation points. There are two main types of SCS: where mechanically loaded collection vehicles are used or automated collection vehicles and manually loaded collection vehicles.

Automated Collection system: Automated collection is rapidly gaining in popularity throughout North America and has been a staple in Europe for some time. In areas where the system has been in operation for over 6 months, over

90% of residents report they are either pleased or very pleased with the new service.

Benefits of Automated Collection:

ƒ Reduced costs

43 Kanti, Shah. Basics of solid and hazardous waste management technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, 2000.175.

45 - Residents no longer have to purchase bags or cans.

- Operational savings, mostly through single worker operation.

- Work related injuries and Workers Compensation claims will decrease

- Increased diversion from landfills will mean lower disposal costs.

- Less number of trips as vehicles have compaction ability

ƒ Improved service

- Carts are convenient to use and sturdy- require little maintenance.

- Large wheels make carts easy to roll.

- Improved landscape through the elimination of piles of bags.

- Attached lids minimize animal scavenging.

- Better multi-family recycling service.

ƒ Environmental benefits

- Thousands of kilograms of plastic bags eliminated from the landfill annually.

- Dedicated carts for recycling will encourage residents to divert materials from their garbage.

- Increase diversion from garbage means less strain on landfills.

Hauled Container System

These container systems are suited for the collection from sources with a high waste generation rate. The collection vehicle delivers a large empty storage container to an institution or site and picks up a full one, which is then hauled to a processing or disposal facility. Usually the driver can perform the loading and unloading of the containers unless regulations require a helper. The most commonly used vehicles are the self-loading packer trucks, the tilt-frame hauled container system and the hoist truck. The type of truck used depends on the type and volume of waste.

Therefore, while the hoist truck is used for smaller loads, the tilt-frame and packer trucks are used for larger loads.

46 4.3 Transfer/ Treatment Prior to Landfill

When a landfill site is not available near a center of population,

consideration is usually given to ‘transfer’. This is a method whereby

collection vehicles deliver waste to a central transfer station. There it is

loaded into vehicles suitable for bulk transport. The advantage of such a

system is that the collection service has the benefit of a fixed point of

Figure 4.3 Transfer Prior to Landfilling 44 Source: http://www.trinitywaste.com/ waste delivery. A series of small landfill sites may be used without continuously re-routing collection vehicles. At the transfer station, wastes maybe simply loaded into a vehicle or loaded after compaction or pulverization. The bulk transportation from these intermittent sites is then done via road, rail or barge. Transfer stations consist of a concrete ramp and raised apron, so that the waste can be tipped directly through loading equipment into a waiting vehicle or container below. The operation maybe enclosed in a simple building.45

4.3.1 Transfer and Treatment Plant

A standard but relatively sophisticated transfer and treatment plant is

one where waste is discharged directly either into a hopper or a live-

bottom bunker (floor can be opened) from which it is conveyed to a

stationary compactor, storage being provided in fully enclosed

containers. These containers are moved around the site by slave

Figure 4.4: Transfer and Treatment Plant Source:http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&lr vehicles (smaller vans used for on-site transfer of waste), with the =&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&q=transfer road vehicles simply operating a shuttle service to and from landfill.46

A number of considerations with respect to design need to be made for such a station such as the type of compactors to be used (stationary ram, pre-baling press); type of conveyors and hoppers, traffic control in larger

44David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 217. 45 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 217. 46 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 217.

47 sites, provision of weighbridges, method of dust extraction, insulation to seal the noise, standards of building construction and the provision of safety equipment.47

4.3.2 Cost Factor

Capital costs for transfer

The capital costs associated with road, rail and barge transfers differ significantly. It is observed that larger plants that support road transfer generally require additional compactors, discharge bays, weighbridges and containers for storage of waste. Rail transfer is less common than road transfer. It involves four to five freightliner wagons, with a spare set of wagons and containers in case the train gets delayed, forklifts on the site to load containers on and off the trains, tractors that can tow waste carrying semi-trailers around the site, gantry crane and slave vehicles.48 Rail transfer requires a more sophisticated design and appears to be more expensive than road transfer. Barge transfer is the most uncommon of the three options and is used mostly for remotely located areas such as islands or for places that are along a water-mass. This kind of transfer requires open-top barges and unloading at the site by a gantry crane (specialized crane).

In all three cases, often, items such as dust extraction, noise insulation and employee amenities are compromised on as mere frills as they significantly increase the capital costs.49

Operating costs

The operating costs of transport and landfill would include manpower, electricity for conveyors and compactors and fuel for transfer and other vehicles. Distance is a major factor in the determination of costs. Depending on the mode of transfer the economies of scale will vary.

4.3.3 Treatment of Waste

Waste may be treated by pulverization and baling prior to landfilling. These processes are explained in brief below.

Pulverization

47 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 218. 48 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 218. 49 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 217.

48 The basic principle of pulverization is the use of a grinding or shredding process to reduce the particle size of the waste and to produce a material which is more homogeneous and easier to handle. The advantages of pulverization are: odor reduction, it does not get blown away by wind (if the particles are small in size), it does not attract vermin, daily cover is not necessary, requirement of landfill space is reduced by 30%, metal content may be recovered and it offers the flexibility to reclamation as and when that becomes a possibility. The most commonly used technologies for pulverization are dry pulverization: using a hammermill or an impact crusher or wet pulverization: using a rotary drum which may have swing hammers.50 In dry pulverization, the waste is fed onto a rapidly revolving rotor carrying a series of swing hammers. The waste is partly broken up by the initial impact and is then swept around the rotor and ground against grids or wear bars. In most hammermills the output particle size is controlled by the size of the grid openings. In wet pulverization, the waste is moistened and fed into a large slowly rotating drum, self-pulverization being achieved by the tumbling action of the hard particles. The retention time in the container is 3-4 hours; the fine material (about 60% by weight) being passed through screens and the coarse rejected at the end.51

Baling

The basic principle of baling is that the waste is compressed by

hydraulic rams into bales of a fixed weight and dimensions. These

bales can then be handled by fork-lift truck, transported on a flat back

vehicle and simply stacked at landfill sites. Leachate is also produced

during the baling operation that must be taken care of.52 The Figure 4.5: Baling Source:http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&lr advantage is that the landfill operation is simplified and nuisance is =&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&q=baling avoided. However, the densities achieved by baling are only marginally greater than those of modern compactors on untreated waste.

50 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 229. 51 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 239. 52 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 268.

49 4.4 Incineration

Incineration is an age old method of disposing of waste by their controlled combustion.

Earlier open fires were used to burn combustible wastes, however, over a period of

time incineration has developed into a sophisticated and environmentally acceptable

technology.53

4.4.1 Incineration Techniques The basic principles of incineration are simple. Waste is fed into a refractory-lined Figure 4.6: Incineration Source:http://images.google .com/images?hl=en&lr=&i furnace (specialized furnace that achieves high-combustion rates) which is designed to ensure complete combustion; this is achieved by proper control of temperature, excess air, gas turbulence, residence time in the hot zone and burnout time of the ash before discharge. Ash is periodically removed using a rake.

Supplementary fuel may be needed to preheat the furnace. A modification of the design is to add an afterburner to ensure complete combustion of the gases. This design is used in many small industrial incinerators to burn packaging and other similar material.54

The products of incineration are: gases and vapor which after cleaning are suitable for discharge into the atmosphere; inorganic ash which is either further processed for materials (metals) recovery or landfilled; an aqueous effluent resulting from ash quenching and gas cooling and heat which may be recovered for use as either steam or electricity.55 The gases produced by incineration consist primarily of carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrogen and excess oxygen and entrapped dust particles which must be removed. In addition to particulate removal, it may be necessary to remove acidic gases if the concentrations are in excess of permitted discharge levels. Heat recovery from incineration is one of the major options available for the utilization of solid waste as a resource. Technological advances have made it possible to have incinerators which are of various levels of sophistication and even material specific. However, the most serious problem hindering the more widespread practice of heat recovery is undoubtedly

53 Kanti, Shah. Basics of solid and hazardous waste management technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, 2000.229. 54 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 245. 55 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 245.

50 the difficulty of ensuring a steady market for low-temperature heat. Also, both steam and electricity must be used as it is produced since buffer storage would not be possible.56

One of the recent advances made in the incinerator technology is that of modular plasma incinerator (MPI). An MPI is a simple batch-loaded furnace where waste is burnt in an oxygen deficient atmosphere. The advantages of such a technique are: exhaust gases are clean, it enables small plants to be built and heat recovery is possible using a plug- in modular boiler on each unit.57

4.4.2 Cost Factor

Capital costs

The economics of incineration depend critically on the operating schedule of the plant as also on the capacity of the incinerator. The other costs involved maybe boilers, waterwalls to reduce the furnace temperature and gas cleaning equipment.58

Operating costs

The operating costs for an incinerator include labor, electricity, steam energy, maintenance equipment and personnel. However, for a plant generating electricity, process requirements are assumed to be supplied by self- generation reducing the net electricity for sale.

Economic analysis suggests that incineration may not be one of the most promising waste management options for the future as it is energy intensive; however, the technology is largely proven (despite public opposition due to fear of release of hazardous gases) and the uncertainties in the cost are such that it is always considered as a possibility in preliminary planning.59

56 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 243. 57 Kanti, Shah. Basics of solid and hazardous waste management technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, 2000.230. 58 Kanti, Shah. Basics of solid and hazardous waste management technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, 2000.212. 59 Kanti, Shah. Basics of solid and hazardous waste management technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, 2000.212.

51 4.5 Physical Separation of Waste

The majority of the processes used for the recovery of municipal waste

require some means of physically separating the waste. There are three

kinds of waste separation: primary separation- separating organic and

inorganic components of the waste; secondary separation- selective

separation of particular components for example the separation of

Figure 4.7: Physical Separation of Waste ferrous components from the inorganic fraction; tertiary separation- Source:http://images.google.com/images?hl=en &lr=&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF- used to upgrade separated fractions, for example separating glass from 8&q=waste+separation+facility&btnG=Google+ Search ceramics and stones.60

Properties such as particle size, density, specific gravity, magnetic nature or electrical conductivity may be used to separate waste. However, other properties are also important in some processes; examples include resilience, brittleness, malleability, shape, cross-sectional area, inertia, sliding friction and surface conditions.61

4.5.1 Methods for Separation of Organic and Inorganic Fractions

There are three broad methods of separating organic waste from the inorganic fraction. They are: wet pulping, wet pulverization and dry separation.

In wet pulping, waste is fed as aqueous slurry and is reduced in size by a segmented blade rotating at a very high speed. The processed waste passes out of the bottom of the pulper while materials not pulpable are rejected ballistically by the rotating blades to the outer portions of the pulper drum where they are removed. The pulped waste is largely organic in content; most of the remaining inorganics, which consist mainly of glass particles, are removed in a liquid cyclone. Various alternatives uses exist for the pulped organic fraction such as fibre recovery, dewatering or drying to give higher-grade fuel (which can be used for heating and other domestic uses) which can be sold.62

60 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 269. 61 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 269. 62David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 270.

52 Wet pulverization consists of feeding untreated moistened waste into a large slowly rotating drum in which self- pulverization is achieved by the tumbling action. This process has been discussed previously in section 4.2.

Dry separation is the most recommended process for reclamation of solid waste. The various sub-processes used to achieve this are: size reduction, screening, air-classification (use of air to separate materials based on their weight) and magnetic separation. The waste is first pulverized and the magnetic metals are removed. The actual separation is achieved by air classification where the mixed waste falls through an air stream in which light materials are separated. The efficiency of separation is particularly sensitive to changes in feed rate, air velocity and particle size.

For example separation is more efficient for larger particle sizes.63

A variation on the dry separation is the Swedish PLM process by which shredded waste is fed onto an oscillating inclined perforated surface. Light and flexible particles are thrown upwards, while rigid and heavy particles move down the inclined surface; fine particles pass through the perforated screen. The disadvantage of this process is that shredding of waste is often a high energy consuming process. Moreover, it tends to shatter glass and entrap organic contaminants within tin cans and contaminates paper with putrescible waste. This has led to several modifications in the kind of feed (initial waste) used for this process.64 Certain Dry separation techniques are effectively used to recover paper from waste. Secondary separation is extensively used for the separation of non-ferrous metals and glass.

4.5.2 Recovery of Paper

The prospect for the recovery of paper from the organic fractions of waste is improving. Several of the dry processing schemes for waste separation produce a mixed paper fraction. Further separation of this material is difficult although some success had been achieved with air classification, electrostatic separation and selective crushing.65

63 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 270. 64 Kanti, Shah. Basics of solid and hazardous waste management technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, 2000.214. 65 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 278.

53 4.5.3 Recovery of Metals

Secondary separation of the inorganic residue produces a glass-rich fraction and a metal rich fraction. The methods used for this separation typically combine one or more of: magnetic separation, screening, mineral jig, hydraulic classifier or heavy media separator.66

4.6 Refuse Derived fuels (RDF)

The concept of selling a solid fuel produced by physical processing of municipal wastes is a recent concept dating back to 1970. Such fuels are termed as refuse derived fuels (RDF’s) or more generically waste derived fuels (WDF) which include any waste derived fuel such as oil, gas, steam or electricity and are used for generating heat and

electricity in power plants. Wet pulping and dry separation are

broadly the processes by which RDF’s are obtained. The

simplest process for the production of an RDF by dry separation

involves pulverization of the waste in a hammermill and the

separation of ferrous metals by magnetic separation. As storage

Figure 4.8: Refuse Derived Fuel Facility of RDF’s often pose a serious problem due to its inflammable Source:http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&lr=&ie =UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&q=eco-fuel nature, various methods such as secondary shredding, baling, pellitizing and powdering may be used to upgrade the RDF. The disadvantages with implementing RDF’s on a large scale are: marketability, storage, handling and conveying material, depending on its content RDF may cause boiler slagging problems (excessive production of slag or residual material) and dust control equipment must be provided.67

4.6.1 Pulverized Waste as a Fuel

The simplest form of RDF is ordinary pulverized waste with only the magnetic metals removed. Pulverized waste is then directly fired into power station boilers. This system however, causes excessive wear in the feed system and also produces excessive ash. A subtle improvement on this system is where the pulverized waste with majority

66 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 278. 67 Kanti, Shah. Basics of solid and hazardous waste management technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, 2000.205.

54 particle size of less than 75mm is tipped onto an inclined conveyor and blown through burners in the rear wall of the boiler. The proprietary feed system is the key feature of this process.68 Here again technical feasibility and marketability due to excessive machine wear and production of ash, are the key concerns for the success of such a system.

4.6.2 Paper Based RDF

Several processes recover an RDF that consists mainly of paper and plastics. One of the demonstration plants in

England uses the more widely used conventional technology; whereby the waste is shredded coarsely in a hammermill before passing to a trammel (type of filter) screen to remove both under and over sized fractions. The material between 12 and 150 mm in size is fed into a rotating cone air classifier. The light waste fraction consisting mainly of paper and plastics should be largely free from putrescible organic material. This RDF product is then shredded and palletized to produce marketable products.69

4.6.3 Powder RDF (Eco-fuel 2)

A version of RDF is powder RDF or Eco-fuel 2. Production of the crude RDF is by screening with oversize materials recycled through a flail mill, followed by magnetic separation and air classification. The partially dried light-weight waste fraction passes to a secondary trammel (type of filter) which removes any fine incombustible material. An inorganic chemical ‘embrittling agent’ is added to the trammel which destroys the fiber strength of the cellulosic materials. The treated RDF then passes through a ballmill where it is dried and fine ground at high temperatures. The ballmill product is screened into three fractions, the oversize rejects passing to a landfill or for metal recovery, the middle fraction returning to the ballmill for further grinding and the fine fraction forming the Eco-fuel 2. The powdered fuel may be pelletized or briquetted for easier handling and storage and is suitable for co-firing in oil or gas fired boilers.70

68 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 291. 69 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 292. 70 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 292.

55 4.6.4 Upgrading an RDF

Upgrading an RDF may prove to be expensive but the fact that a relatively high-grade fuel is produced compensates

for the complexity of the process. However an interesting alternative to the use of RDF in a steam generating boiler is

its use in cement manufacture as the ash content of the waste is incorporated in the cement product so that little

remains for disposal.71 Incineration of RDF’s to produce energy is also simpler compared to untreated waste. A

noteworthy point is that all of the above discussed processes have been developed over the past 15 years and their

large scale commercial viability is yet to be proven. Also, many of the operational problems can be attributed to

problems in the apparently simple tasks of conveying, handling and storing materials, which have hitherto been taken

for granted.

4.7 Pyrolysis and Other Thermal Processes

The thermal processing of organic materials without complete

combustion such as carbonization of wood to give charcoal has

been practiced for many centuries. In response to the growing

shortage in fossil fuel reserves, several hundreds of processes

exist that convert waste or ‘biomass’ into useful fuels. However, Figure 4.9: Mobile Pyrolysis Facility Source:http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF- 8&oe=UTF-8&q=mobile+pyrolysis+facility only a few of them have been commercially implemented/marketed with success; the pyrolysis of tires being

the most advanced.72 The thermal processes may be subdivided

into various distinct categories as explained below.

4.7.1 Combustion: is the reaction of organic or other compounds with air to produce heat, carbon dioxide and water.

The complete combustion of waste is termed incineration.

71 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 293. 72 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 333

56 4.7.2 Pyrolysis: is the thermal decomposition of organic materials in the absence of oxygen. The products maybe solids, liquids and gases their yields depending on the process conditions. Destructive distillation refers to pyrolysis which has been optimized to produce liquids while carbonization produces solids, specifically carbon.73

4.7.3 Gasification: is the reaction of organic compounds with less oxygen or air than would be required for complete combustion. Partial oxidation and starved-air incineration are synonymous with gasification.74

4.7.4 Steam Reforming: is the reaction of organic compounds with steam to yield principally carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

4.7.5 Hydrogasification and Hydrogenation: is the pyrolysis of organic compounds in a hydrogen rich atmosphere under such conditions so as to yield predominantly gases and liquids.

4.7.6 Wet Oxidation: is the reaction of wet slurry containing organic compounds with oxygen at a high temperature and pressure. The products are a low-heating-value gas and a solution containing organic acids which can be recovered.75

The product of pyrolysis of waste or a solid RDF is a mixture of solid, liquid and gas depending on the process conditions. The relative yields of the various products maybe controlled by manipulating the environment within the reactor, one of the main controlling parameters being temperature.

4.7.7 Commercial Pyrolysis Processes

Although a great variety of processes have been proposed for the reclamation of waste, only a few have reached the plant stage and found implementation at a comparatively larger scale. These are the Occidental-flash pyrolysis, the

73 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 333. 74 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 333. 75 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 335.

57 Union Carbide Purox process, the Andco-Torrax process and the Monsanto-Langard process. While three of these are gasification processes only one is a true pyrolysis process.76

Occidental-flash pyrolysis process- The Occidental Petroleum Company developed this system to maximize the yield of oil. This pyrolysis process utilizes a high-quality RDF. Rapid reaction is achieved at a relatively low temperature to produce pyrolytic oil. This pyrolysis process is highly sophisticated but is plagued by low energy efficiency and high cost.77

Union Carbide Purox process- The Union Carbide Corporation developed this process. This process uses pulverized waste in a vertical shaft reactor. Combustion of charcoal at the base of the reactor provides the high heat that melts the ash to produce a medium-heating value gas. This process is not only technically sophisticated but also very capital intensive as it consumes tremendous amounts of electricity.78

Andco-Torrax process- This process was jointly developed by Andco Incorporated and the Carborundum Company.

It is similar to the Union Carbide process only the waste is introduced into the vertical shaft without pre-treatment and air is used as the source of oxygen for combustion. The product gas has a low heating value.79

Monsanto Landgard process- This process was developed by Monsanto Enviro-Chem Systems and utilizes pulverized waste and a rotary kiln reactor. Part of the waste is again combusted in a kiln to raise steam. The product gas has low heating value and the process is known to have low efficiencies. 80

The most common product from thermal processing is a low-to-medium heating value gas. The more dilute gases are best suited to combustion in situ to generate steam. The higher quality gases may be sold for use as supplementary fuel. Also pyrolytic oil obtained from some of the processes is a low quality product containing mainly highly oxygenated compounds. It is viscous, corrosive and tends to polymerize on storage. Although the concept of thermal

76 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 348. 77 Communications and MIS Branch for the Industrial Technologies Division. Municipal Solid Waste Management. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1995. 349. 78 Communications and MIS Branch for the Industrial Technologies Division. Municipal Solid Waste Management. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1995. 349. 79 Communications and MIS Branch for the Industrial Technologies Division. Municipal Solid Waste Management. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1995. 349. 80 Communications and MIS Branch for the Industrial Technologies Division. Municipal Solid Waste Management. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1995. 349.

58 conversion of solid wastes into useful fuels is highly promising and there are several variations to pyrolysis and incineration to achieve this, however, due to operating problems and high costs these techniques are not used at a very large scale.

4.8 Biological Processes

The use of biological processes for waste reclamation has its origins in history with cattle manure being composted and used as fertilizers. Recent developments have led to various alternatives in the biological processes. Anaerobic digestion of human sewage and animal wastes to produce methane gas has been applied in many parts of the world since the early 1900’s.81 Biological processes are however restricted in their application to only the organic part of municipal solid wastes. This is a very popular process of waste management in developing countries as 70% of the waste stream there comprises organics. Landfill can be viewed as a simple and inefficient method of composting although now it is also being viewed as a potential methane producer. The four major types of biological processes are composting, hydrolysis, annelidic recycling and anaerobic digestion.82 All of these processes require pre- treatment of the waste either to reduce particle size and remove magnetic metals or preferably to remove all of the inorganic materials.

4.8.1 Composting

Composting is the aerobic degradation of organic wastes to produce humus which is used as a conditioner in agriculture. The degradation is most effective with putrescible waste; paper and wood take a long time to degrade and are preferred to be excluded. Composting consists of four basic steps: preparation, digestion, curing and finishing.83

81 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 367. 82 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 367. 83 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 367.

59 ƒ Preparation usually involves separating the organic and inorganic

fractions of waste. Manual separation is the most common practice

together with magnetic extraction of ferrous metals.84

ƒ Digestion is a critical step as this is where most of the microbiological

action takes place. Many mechanical digesters such as the rotating

Figure 4.10: In-vessel drum digesters, tank digesters and silo digesters have been Composting Source:http://www.trinitywaste.co developed to speed up the rate of decomposition and forced

aeration.85 The typical retention time in the digester is about 3-6 days with frequent turning and aeration.

ƒ Curing is necessary after initial degradation to allow the decomposition of the remaining cellulose and lignin.

The time allowed depends on the proposed use, with an ideal time of around three months.86

ƒ The finishing of the compost depends both on its pre-processing and on the use. Screening to remove the

remaining inorganics, drying, grinding and pelletization are commonly used, the final product being

marketed in bags or in bulk. The presence of glass in the compost may be a problem but grinding at least

reduces the size of the particle.87

Composting is ideal for small rural communities or developing countries where land is plentiful, capital scarce, cheap labor available and where waste contains high amount of putrescible materials. In other situations composting using mechanical systems seems to be a good alternative.

4.8.2 Hydrolysis

This process is used for waste streams that have high paper content. Cellulose the major constituent of paper may be hydrolysed using acid at low temperatures or enzymatic catalysis to yield glucose. The glucose may in turn be

84 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 367. 85 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 374. 86 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 374. 87 David, Wilson. Waste management: planning, evaluation, technologies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. 374.

60 fermented to yield either ethanol or yeast. Hydrolysis does not recover any useful products from non-cellulosic components.88

The basic process features maybe outlined as follows:89

ƒ The feedstock must be mainly cellulosic and ground to very fine particle size.

ƒ Hydrolysis occurs at low temperatures (30-60 C). Retention time is about 48-64 hours.

ƒ Recovery of the enzymes for reuse is difficult as much is lost by absorption by the non-cellulosic fraction.

ƒ Sterile conditions must be maintained to prevent the loss of enzyme or sugar.

4.8.3 Annelidic Recycling

In this process organic wastes are used as feedstocks for the red earthworm population. This process effectively turns the waste into a rich fertilizer in the form of worm castings which can then be used in agriculture.90

4.8.4 Anaerobic Digestion

This process involves the digestion of organic material in the absence of air to yield a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide. Anaerobic digestion maybe viewed as either a three or four stage process. If a substantial part of the organic feedstock is cellulosic, then a preliminary hydrolysis must occur. The three basic steps then are the conversion of glucose, other carbohydrates, proteins and fats into short-chain fatty acids by acidogenic bacteria; conversion of these acids into acetate and bicarbonate by acetogens; and finally, conversion into methane and carbon dioxide by methanogens.91

Anaerobic digestion has been widely applied since the beginning of this century to waste water treatment and animal manures. Successful operation of the digester requires control of five parameters: temperature, anaerobic conditions, pH, nutrients supply and toxicity of the input waste. If the reactivity of the organic part of municipal waste is low and a large amount of undigested residue is generally produced although this problem is alleviated to some extent by pre-

88 George, Tchobanoglous, et al. Solid Wastes: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. New York: Mc Graw Hill Book Company, 1987. 286. 89 Hickey, James E, Longmire, Linda A, ed. The environment: global problems, local solutions. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1994. 4. 90 George, Tchobanoglous, et al. Solid Wastes: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. New York: Mc Graw Hill Book Company, 1987. 286. 91 Hickey, James E, Longmire, Linda A, ed. The environment: global problems, local solutions. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1994. 4.

61 hydrolysis of cellulosic materials.92 Finally, the undigested material remaining in the digester must be dewatered and disposed of. The effluent remaining after dewatering is generally of poor quality and may require on-site treatment.93

Current research in the field of biological treatment of waste is aiming largely at increasing the energy efficiency of the process as well as addressing the problem of marketability.

While this is just a broad review of the various technologies available, recent innovations have broadened the scope of these technologies. There are several ways of using biological processes for waste management by adapting the technologies to local conditions. Ongoing research in the various fields is aimed at making these technologies more cost-effective and easy to implement.

92 George, Tchobanoglous, et al. Solid Wastes: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. New York: Mc Graw Hill Book Company, 1987. 293. 93 George, Tchobanoglous, et al. Solid Wastes: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. New York: Mc Graw Hill Book Company, 1987. 293.

62 5. INTEGRATED SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (ISWM)

Studies show that waste management must be looked at as an integrated problem instead of looking at the technical, social and economical aspects separately. An integrated approach to SWM can deliver both environmental and economic sustainability. No one single method of waste disposal can deal with all materials in waste in an environmentally sustainable way as any waste management system is built up of several closely related processes integrated together. Solid waste management in practice must be based on integrated systems with a combination of many different methods. There should not be any contradiction between the different methods instead they should be regarded as complementing each other. 94

An Integrated system is one that has control over all types of solid waste materials and on all sources of solid waste.

An integrated system would include an optimized waste collection system and efficient sorting followed by: Materials recycling, biological treatment of organic wastes, thermal treatment and landfilling. Use of the other options before landfilling can both divert significant parts of the waste stream and reduce the volume and improve the physical and chemical stability of the final residue. This will reduce both the space requirement and environmental burdens of the landfill.

Thus, an integrated waste Management system assumes an overall approach by viewing the problem in its entirety as an interconnected system of component operations and functions. It thus combines waste streams, waste collection, treatment and disposal methods with the objective of achieving sustainability and economic optimization.

5.1 Advantages of a Holistic Approach

1. It gives the overall picture of the waste management process which is essential for planning.

94 Velma I, Grover, et al, ed. Solid Waste Management. Rotterdam; Brookfield, VT : A.A. Balkema, 2000.39-44.

63 2. Environmentally all waste management systems are part of the same global ecosystem. Looking at the

overall environmental burden of the system ensures that no imbalance is created by reduction of

environmental burden in part and its subsequent increase elsewhere in the system.

3. It is only by looking at the whole system can it be determined whether the system is operating efficiently and

whether it could run at break even cost and make a profit as only then the constituent parts/function can be

viable.

5.2 Sustainable Solid Waste Management

In order to ensure human health and safety, SWM systems must be safe for workers and must safeguard public health by preventing the spread of disease. Present day environmental concerns demand more: along with being safe, waste management must also follow the principles of sustainable development. Sustainability or sustainable development has been defined as ‘development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to do so’ (WCED, 1987). In the past the economic cost of waste management was the major controlling factor in the decision-making process.

More recently however, the environmental considerations and social aspects have come to play a more important role. Therefore, for SWM practices to be sustainable they must be:

1. Socially acceptable: the SWM systems must operate in a way that is acceptable to the majority of the

people in a community. They should involve the community to inform and educate, develop trust and gain

support.

2. Environmentally effective: the SWM systems must reduce the environmental burdens of waste management

such as various emissions and effluent discharges.

3. Economically affordable: the SWM systems must operate at a cost acceptable to the community, which

includes citizens, businesses and government.

64 The balance that would need to be achieved would be to reduce the overall environmental burdens and the waste management systems as far as possible within acceptable levels of cost.

5.3 Characteristics of a Sustainable SWM System

A sustainable waste management system would need to be integrated in its approach, market oriented, flexible and socially acceptable.95

5.3.1 Market Orientation

Any scheme that incorporates recycling, biological or thermal treatment technologies must recognize that in order for these technologies to be effective there must be a market for the output products.96 Businesses will have to be encouraged as they will be the key factors in building such markets. They must however recognize that such markets and needs will change over time and hence they cannot afford to be rigid.

5.3.2 Flexibility

An effective scheme will need an inbuilt flexibility to design, adapt and operate its systems in ways which best meet the current social, economic and environmental conditions.97 Using a range of waste management options will give the flexibility to channel waste via different treatments as economic or environmental conditions change. For example, paper can be either recycled, composted or incinerated with energy recovery. The option used can be varied according to the economics (market) of recycling, compost production or energy generation at the time.

5.3.3 Social Acceptability

For waste management systems to operate effectively, public participation is necessary. Whether it involves streetside recycling or sorting recyclable materials from their household waste, individuals must understand their role

95 Velma I, Grover, et al, ed. Solid Waste Management. Rotterdam; Brookfield, VT : A.A. Balkema, 2000.39-44. 96 Velma I, Grover, et al, ed. Solid Waste Management. Rotterdam; Brookfield, VT : A.A. Balkema, 2000.39-44. 97 Velma I, Grover, et al, ed. Solid Waste Management. Rotterdam; Brookfield, VT : A.A. Balkema, 2000.39-44.

65 in waste management systems and co-operate with the local authorities for the system to work. Communication, public consultation and education highlighting the benefits of the WM system must be employed to generate public participation. Public perception of a waste management facility will also affect the acceptance of a facility. Clean and well-managed facilities that meet regulatory standards are more likely to be accepted by the people. Good public support is critical to a waste management system as is good planning and good management.

66 6. TOURISM IN ISLANDS AND SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Small island states have many things in common, including pleasant weather, a laid-back social environment, wonderful accommodations for guests, and certain issues regarding waste management that are unique to the islands.98 Shiro Amano, JICA waste management expert.

This statement is a reminder of the fact that islands are extremely fragile integrated systems whose future development needs to be focused on sustainable and integrated options capable of reconciling the economy, human development and environmental conservation.

Tourism is a booming sector, with a strong capacity for transforming fragile environments, which constitutes both an opportunity and a challenge for small islands: an opportunity to diversify limited economic activities and employment in the islands, and a challenge, as tourism has considerable impacts on island systems, usually extremely vulnerable.

These impacts need to be fully taken into account and properly managed.

The Manila Declaration of the World Tourism Organization (WTO), the most comprehensive international statement adopted on the goals of modern tourism, emphasizes the importance of preserving both natural and cultural resources and the need for conservation to benefit both tourism and residents of the tourism area. The Joint

Declaration of the WTO and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), which formalized inter-agency coordination on tourism and the environment, states:

“The protection, enhancement and improvement of the various components of man's environment are among the fundamental conditions for the harmonious development of tourism.”99

The tourism sector provides over 2 million jobs in the Caribbean Basin. It accounts for half the employment and one- third of the GNP in the Bahamas. In Antigua it accounts for over 40% of GNP and one half the employment. In the

98 http://www.eduvinet.de/eduvinet/es002.htm. Accessed Dec 6, 2004. 99 http://www.eduvinet.de/eduvinet/es002.htm. Accessed Dec 6, 2004.

67 British Virgin Islands it contributes 50% of GNP and 30% of the jobs.100 The predominant product for tourism in these regions is the attraction of beaches and the appealing climate. These statistics further suggest that wherever nature- based tourism is important a balance must be struck between economic efficiency, environmental quality and political expediency. The point of balance is not obvious. It depends on many factors specific to the local tourism industry and images held by potential visitors. The potential benefit is an enhanced quality of life for residents from both environmental and economic improvements.

6.1 Effects of Tourism on Island Ecosystems

Tourism is the largest industry in the world and the competition is strong. Natural resources have long been major tourist attractions and their importance as part of the tourism product is growing. Attention is being focused on the quality of natural resources with the development of “nature-based” and “ecotourism” products. The image of an island conveyed by travel brochures, travel intermediaries and media coverage plays a major role in the final decision-making of a tourist's choice for a destination. The traveler's perception or image of a tourist destination enters his decision process the first time he is made aware of the destination, the moments when a purchase decision is being made and later when a repeat visit is contemplated.101 The image of a beach resort changes rapidly with the introduction of pollution or other marine debris and travelers are not hesitant to change plans very rapidly.

Local recreation and tourism industries can suffer considerable economic consequences because of lost image.

Extensive spills and washups can reduce numbers of visitors not only to affected beaches but also to quite distant unaffected areas. Even small differences in the amount of debris on a beach can affect the economic viability of tourist businesses because of reduced prices that can be charged.102

6.1.1 Tourists’ Perception

How do marine debris and other pollution translate into lost tourism industry revenues? Answers to this question vary according to the degree of pollution, the size of a tourism industry and the dependence of a tourism industry on the

100 http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/documents/sens-islands/chinaconference.doc. Accessed Dec 6, 2004. 101 http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/documents/sens-islands/chinaconference.doc. Accessed Dec 6, 2004. 102 http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/documents/sens-islands/chinaconference.doc. Accessed Dec 6, 2004.

68 marine environment. Apparently studies indicate that the level of personal tolerance of tourists (quality tourism) is more restrictive than that of the native islanders.103 For instance, a person from Mallorca can accept or ignore dirt in gardens and pine forests but many tourists cannot. If we transfer these similes to public services or landscape hygiene, it is easy to understand the effect on tourism. The level of damage can keep growing without arriving at the tolerance limit of the islanders and by the time it does come to their notice if is often too late as the tourists do not come back and talk badly of the Balearic Islands. In short, it is a loss of prestige along with the detrimental effect it has on the economy and environment. The constant complaints by the tourists about the environment are a very important alarm signal, which should not be ignored, much more for their indicative value than for their direct consequences.

6.1.2 Impact of Tourism on the Natural Resources of the Islands

The role of nature in attracting tourists to specific destinations is well understood and in this sense most tourism may be described as nature-based. In a 1987 study of the attractiveness of Hawaii, the two natural factors (natural beauty and climate) were ranked above fourteen other factors in ‘attractiveness’ for each of its four counties - Oahu, Maui,

Hawaii, and Kauai. The other factors were social, historical, recreational, infrastructure, food and shelter, shopping, educational and evening activities.104

Tourism, as any economic or/and social phenomenon, outlines dilemmas, causes effects and situations, and create conditions that affect positively and negatively people's lives and communities and their cultures. Tourism brings with it:

ƒ Increase in Construction material/debris

ƒ Water and energy use

ƒ Solid waste products

ƒ Water pollution

ƒ Noise

103 http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/documents/sens-islands/chinaconference.doc. Accessed Dec 6, 2004. 104 http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/documents/sens-islands/chinaconference.doc. Accessed Dec 6, 2004.

69 Several impacts of activities on natural areas (coast, beaches, dunes, mountains, forests, torrents, etc.).

Furthermore, while tourism and specifically mass tourism may have a beneficial effect on the islands’ economic base it also has several detrimental effects on the environment in terms of:

ƒ Displacement of Traditional Uses and Users

ƒ Physical Changes and Habitat Damage

ƒ Solid Waste Disposal

ƒ Toxic Chemicals and Nutrification from Surface Runoff

ƒ Groundwater Depletion and Contamination

ƒ Change in Sediment Loads

ƒ Visual Impacts

It is therefore in the best interest of all tourism industries to understand their relationship to the ecosystem in which they live and derive financial benefits. This relationship can be of critical importance to tourists and potential tourists in their primary target markets.

6.2 For Sustainable Tourism

In order to promote healthy and sustainable tourism which would impact the island eco-system and its dwellers minimally, the UNEP ‘Conference on Tourism in Small Island States’ came up with certain key guidelines. Three specific subjects considered as being the fundamental building blocks of the tourism industry for small islands and states in Asia and the Pacific were discussed during the Conference.105 These were:

1. The application of regulatory and voluntary frameworks for the sustainable development and management of tourism - policies, laws, regulations, eco-labels, certification schemes, environmental management systems, codes of conduct;

105 http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/documents/sens-islands/chinaconference.doc. Accessed Dec 6, 2004.

70 2. Environmentally sound building design and operational technologies - management of water and energy resources, treatment of solid and liquid waste, combining traditional construction materials and techniques with modern technologies, land use planning and landscaping of tourism facilities;

3. The socio-cultural issues of island tourism, considering the role of local communities – the involvement of local communities in the decision making process, community based tourism, human resources development, the preservation of local culture and identity.106

Key action areas for promoting sustainable tourism and island development were also proposed. At the state and island level, a stress on the following action areas was proposed:

ƒ A suitable institutional, legal framework and strategy

ƒ Integrated and preventive tourism planning

ƒ A sustainable orientation of the main policies and programmes of action: accessibility, economic resources,

infrastructures and training

ƒ A responsible management of natural resources

ƒ A commitment to environmental awareness, voluntary collaboration, and the monitoring of island

development.

ƒ and, technical support and promotion of sustainable tourism development Demo-Projects.107

At the regional level, it was proposed that cooperation be developed among islands in the same geographical region and that the boundaries of these regions should be based on common economic, cultural and political interests and goals, so that their delimitation is really operative.108

The international framework of SIDS and other islands is crucial in terms of evaluating situations and scenarios, formulating policies, facilitating access to resources, and developing guidelines from an international tourism

106 http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/documents/sens-islands/chinaconference.doc. Accessed Dec 6, 2004. 107 http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/documents/lanzarote-e.pdf. Accessed Dec 6, 2004. 108 http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/documents/lanzarote-e.pdf. Accessed Dec 6, 2004.

71 perspective. One cannot lose sight of the present globalization process, nor of the fact that many of the major agreements and guidelines which affect SIDS are formulated at international fora, both institutional, mainly UN, and private, big business associations, investment funds.

At the international level, there are many organizations and institutions that have connections with SIDS, other islands and their sustainable development. Mention should be made of the following on account of their influence and operative importance: Association of Small Island States (AOSIS), the SIDS Alliance, the UN and its departments and agencies (UNEP, UNDP, UNESCO and various others), the World Bank and regional development banks; and the World Tourism Organization.109 These organizations should get together to formulate and promote an itinerary of functions and programs on sustainable tourism development programs at the international level.

The viability of new sustainable tourism policies in SIDS and other islands is becoming increasingly influenced by the very broad participation of all stakeholders. In particular, it will be impossible to multiply the economic effects of tourism, achieve positive social and cultural development or conserve island ecosystems and natural resources without making the local community jointly responsible for meeting these aims.

In order to steer tourism and island development towards sustainability, criteria, instruments and lines of action must be established and implemented forthwith. The “carrying capacity” of the island system in relation to tourism is all- important, and integrated long-term strategies must be introduced as a preventive measure. Delaying the application of sustainable policies until the emergence of problems of economic downturn and cultural or environmental degradation can make it very difficult, even unfeasible, to correct these processes.

It is clear through these deliberations that maintaining and, in many areas, improving environmental quality is important for the sustainable success of a tourism industry. Tourists are increasingly seeking high-quality destinations and they are willing to pay a premium price to experience an attractive, pollution-free environment.

109 http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/documents/lanzarote-e.pdf. Accessed Dec 6, 2004.

72 It is recognized that one of the fastest growing sectors of international trade, especially for small island states and territories with limited alternative development opportunities, is tourism and the link between environmental quality and tourism is evident, especially in these islands, where the environment is the significant part of the product.110

110 http://www.eduvinet.de/eduvinet/es002.htm. Accessed Dec 6, 2004.

73 7. DOCUMENTATION OF CASE STUDIES (Solid Waste Management Programs)

This chapter presents the details of the fifteen case studies that were conducted in order to understand the successful waste management practices in these islands.

7.1 Olongapo City, Zambales (Philippines)

7.1.1 Problem

Like most cities in the Philippines, Olongapo had to grapple with the mounting garbage problem, the by-products of industrial and commercial development and residential living.

7.1.2 Context

The city of Olongapo is located in Zambales province, a good three- hour bus ride from Metro Manila. In 2000, it had a population of 194,260 people spread out in 17 Barangays (small section of municipality). Olongapo has a land area of 185 square kilometers.111

7.1.3 Program

The Olongapo Solid Waste Management Program was a garbage collection and disposal program designed to make the residents responsible in their handling of solid wastes. It was implemented by the Olongapo City government under then Mayor Richard Gordon.112

7.1.4 Implementation

Initial Attempts: To address the growing waste problem, city authorities at first tried a variety of solutions like using color-coded drums for receptacles. The scheme, however, did not catch because few households could afford the

111 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/profileguide.html. Accessed May 4,2004. 112 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Mar 11,2004.

74 cost of the drums. Besides, when the rains came, the lidless drums got filled with water, becoming too heavy for the garbage collectors to lift.113

Establishing the Solid Waste Management Program: In 1980, Olongapo made a determined effort to solve the problem of waste. The city recommended the Solid Waste Management Project as a top priority project for funding under the Economic Support Fund (ESF) of the city government. Funds from the ESF came from the rental of the

American bases in the country, one of which, Subic Naval Base, the city hosted.114

Information, Education, and Communication (IEC):

ƒ Campaign: From 1980 onwards, the program was implemented in fits and starts. It was only on September

4, 1989, that the integrated garbage collection system was formally launched after a massive IEC

campaign.115

ƒ Resistance: A central feature of the program was the collection of garbage fees. Many objected to the

garbage fees. Some thought the fees were exorbitant. Others believed that they should not pay any fees at

all, garbage being the responsibility of the city government. Despite the complaints hurled against the

proposal, the city government proceeded with the plan.116 Over time, as the residents saw how efficient the

collection was and how clean the city had become, their opposition softened.

Features of the Program: The following were the key features of the program:

ƒ Jingle to Attract Attention: The city’s garbage trucks each had a public address system which played a jingle

especially composed for the program. The jingle reminded residents of the need to guard their health, keep

their surroundings clean and dispose of their garbage properly in keeping with the city’s ordinances.117

113 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Mar 11,2004. 114 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Mar 11,2004. 115 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Mar 11,2004. 116 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Mar 11,2004. 117 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Mar 11,2004.

75 ƒ Slogans: such as Keep Olongapo Clean and Bawal angTamad sa Olongapo (meaning “lazy people are

banned in Olongapo”) were painted on the sides of the garbage trucks.118

ƒ Uniform and IDs: The garbage collectors and the truck drivers wore uniforms and IDs to signal their

presence.119

ƒ Garbage Bags: Residents were compelled to put their garbage in plastic bags. The garbage bags made

collection neater and faster. No garbage is to be collected unless it is placed in the prescribed plastic

bags.120

ƒ Strict Schedules: A collection schedule was strictly followed. Garbage collection was done twice a week in

residential areas and daily in commercial zones and markets.

ƒ Service Fees: The city government charged service fees ranging from P10 to P20 for households and from

P30 to P300 for business establishments.121 To make billing and collection easier, garbage fees were

incorporated into the electricity bill.122

ƒ Regular Inspections: Sanitary inspectors from the City Health Office regularly inspected their assigned

areas. Citation tickets were issued to residents and owners of business establishments whose premises had

been found to be violating sanitation ordinances.123

ƒ Organizing junk dealers: Junk dealers and scavengers were organized and instructed not to interfere with

the collection schedules. Children were strictly kept out of the dumpsites.

Financing the Program: The program operated on a budget of PhP4 million a year. The program generated a monthly income of PhP 500,000 or PhP 6 million annually from garbage fees.124 The garbage fees ensured the sustainability of the program. Most of the garbage trucks of the program were donations. The United States Agency for

118 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Mar 11,2004. 119 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Mar 11,2004. 120 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Mar 11,2004. 121 1 PhP=0.02 US Dollar (http://quote.yahoo.com/m5?a=1&s=PHP&t=USD&c=0). Accessed May 8, 2004. 122 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Mar 11,2004. 123 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Mar 11,2004. 124 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Mar 11,2004.

76 International Development (USAID) donated two garbage trucks. The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) through the Presidential Council on Solid Waste Management donated five compactor trucks and one dump truck.125

Participation of Other Agencies: The Department of Education, Culture and Sports helped facilitate project acceptance by incorporating the program concept in the curriculum. The slogan, essay-writing and poster-making contests that it conducted helped instill awareness of and interest in the program. The Olongapo City Tourism

Council held cleanliness competitions among the seventeen Barangays of the city, paving the way for the immediate adoption of the program by the Barangays. The City Health Office fielded its sanitary inspectors to insure that health guidelines are observed and citation tickets are issued to violators.126

Problems Encountered: The program could not serve all areas like the hilly portions of the city. To solve the problem, collection points were established where the residents living in the hilly areas brought their garbage to be collected.

Some residents in the inaccessible areas converted their backyards into mini dumpsites to insure proper disposal of garbage.127

7.1.5 Results

As of 1994, the program had served about 85% of the city’s population. That same year, the program hauled 350 cubic meters of garbage daily. This volume of waste was generated by 42,000 households, 4,213 commercial establishments, 9 private and public hospitals, 32 private and public elementary schools, 13 private and public high schools and 9 private and public collegiate and technical schools.128 As a result, the city has become cleaner. The garbage heaps and the residents’ penchant for throwing garbage everywhere and anywhere are now a story of the past. Water channels in the city have been cleared of obstructions. Garbage burning has stopped. Olongapo residents lived in a cleaner and healthier environment.

125 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Mar 11,2004. 126 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Feb 11, 2004. 127 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Feb 11, 2004. 128 http://www.iisd.ca/vol08/0828015e.html . Accessed Feb 11, 2004.

77 7.2 Bustos, Bulacan (Philippines)

7.2.1 Problem

In 1988, the town of Bustos, then a fourth-class municipality had no telephone lines, no water system, no public market, and no waste management. The lack of a proper waste disposal system led to an accumulation of waste that was posing a threat to the health of the people.

7.2.2 Context

The town of Bustos is located in the Bulacan province. This province is the closest to Metro Manila. Bustos had a population of 2,234,088 in 2000. It has a land area of 262,500 hectares.129

7.2.3 Program

The Bustos Zero-Waste Management program was launched by second-term mayor, Dr. Pablito Mendoza, and the newly constituted Local Health Board in August 1993. The program’s aim was to improve the quality of life of Bustos residents through a balanced ecology and sustained community development for a better environment. It hoped to eradicate respiratory diseases, promote a garbage-free environment and provide better access to health services

The Zero Waste Management Program had two main components: one was the Social Preparation and the other was the actual Community-Wide Implementation of the program.130 Both components of the program were focused on the program’s target of a garbage-free environment.

7.2.4 Implementation

Piloting: Before implementing the program municipal-wide, the Zero Waste Management Program was first piloted in

Barangay Tanawan in November 1993. Barangay Tanawan had a population of 2,257 people living in 386

129 http://www.iisd.ca/vol08/0828015e.html . Accessed Feb 12, 2004. 130 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Jan 4, 2004.

78 households. It was chosen because of its strong community spirit and its energetic and dynamic barangay name, popularly known as “Captain No Problem.”131

Appointment of Ecology Officer: Responsibility for the piloting was shouldered by the Barangay captain with the help of an Ecology Officer appointed by the municipality to serve as program manager. This Ecology Officer disseminated information and formed core groups composed of Government organizations (GOs), Non-government organizations

(NGOs), and community members. Assisting the Ecology Officer was a Barangay Health Worker that acted as volunteer coordinator for 20 households.132

Purok Clustering and Dialogues: The pilot test involved the clustering of the Barangay into ‘Purok’ (village district). A dialogue was held per Purok.

General Cleaning and Household Cleaning: A general cleaning of the barangay followed with the household as a center. The household was responsible for cleaning its own backyard.

Each household was required to have a ‘sack-hanger’ (for storing recyclables). An eco-aide with pushcart went around the Barangay collecting recyclable matter. Every garden-owner maintained pits, tower tires, plastic bags, and pots for materials that could be used as compost.133 They used the compost as the organic fertilizer for backyard planting.

Municipal-Wide Implementation (Features of the program): The piloting lasted for five months. In that time, Barangay

Tanawan was transformed into a cleaner and greener community. With the successful pilot test, the program was replicated in the thirteen other Barangays of Bustos. The municipal-wide implementation involved the following activities:

131 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Jan 4, 2004. 132 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Jan 4, 2004. 133 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Jan 4, 2004.

79 ƒ Promotions: The Municipal Health Office (MHO) persuaded the people to attend Purok discussions and

assemblies. The municipal mayor, Local Health Board members and Barangay captains, went house-to-

house campaigning for Zero Waste Management. One of the Barangays also helped in putting-up posters

and billboards all over the municipality. The implementing agencies devised catchy slogans to drive home

the message of cleanliness, beautification, and proper waste management.134

ƒ Passage and Strict Enforcement of Ordinances: Ordinances were passed to instill discipline such as:

- No burning in backyards, streets, vacant lots and school grounds

- Conversion garden wastes like leaves, twigs and weeds into compost

- Sorting of domestic waste at source

- Cleaning individual surroundings, canals and immediate premises

- Planting of fruits and ornamental plants

Violation of any of the above ordinances led to any of the following: a fine of P500; apprehending two

violators and presenting them the following day to the mayor; detention for at least a day at the municipal

jail.135

ƒ Incentives/Recognition: In recognition of the people’s efforts, an annual search for Model Barangay and

Model Backyard were held. An annual contest was also held in the schools called the “Search for Princess

Nutrition.” To win the contest, one must have the highest number of ballots using the seedlings of fruit-

bearing trees like santol, atis, mango and others.136

ƒ Adopt-A-Barangay: Municipal employees were to adopt a Barangay and assist in waste management efforts

through the use of recycled materials in street beautification. For their part, residents were encouraged to

plant trees in the side streets and vegetables in the backyards and to use organic fertilizers in the process.

Every Friday afternoon, there were cleanliness and beautification campaigns participated in by the local

government employees.137

134 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Jan 4, 2004. 135 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Jan 6, 2004. 136 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Jan 6, 2004. 137 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Jan 6, 2004.

80 ƒ Showcase of Recycled Materials: People joined in the beautification of their respective Barangays by

hanging decors made of recycled materials in the streets, house roofs, and fences during special occasions

like Christmas, Valentine’s and flower festivals. Contests were held on which house had the most creative

decorations and made the most creative use of garbage.

ƒ Garbage Collection: Garbage was collected daily by three eco-trucks in accordance with a prescribed

schedule. The trucks played a jingle to warn residents of their approach. Those that brought their garbage

out before the eco-trucks arrived and dumped them in the street were charged with violating the anti-littering

ordinance. Instead of being sent to jail, violators were made to turn in another offender.138

ƒ The Little Doctors of Bustos: Students in 11 elementary schools in Bustos were trained as “little doctors.”

These elementary students were taught simple health practices and the proper way to dispose waste in

school, including candy wrappers. By educating them, the Bustos municipal government was investing in a

pool of health practitioners and civic leaders of the future.139

ƒ Formation of Purok Clusters: The program operated at the municipal, Barangay, and Purok levels.

Contiguous Puroks were grouped together and placed under an Ecology Officer who acted as coordinator.

This Ecology Officer was often the Barangay Health Worker (BHW) who managed and monitored

segregation and recycling in twenty households. Twenty to thirty Barangay Health Workers were managed

by one midwife. All the BHWS or Ecology Officer constituted the Environmental Sanitation Brigade.140

Cluster meetings were held once a month.

ƒ Training Activities: Volunteers composed of Barangay captains, eco-aides, school children, teachers, and

DSWD staff were given training in handicraft-making, paper production using cogon and water lily, soap

making, and vinegar production out of santol, banana, and papaya.141

ƒ Partnership with GOs and NGOs: Linkages with various sectors were likewise established to strengthen the

implementation of the program, such as with Bustos Environmental Task Force, Lingkod Lingap sa Nayon,

138 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Jan 6, 2004. 139 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Jan 7, 2004. 140 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Jan 7, 2004. 141 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Jan 7, 2004.

81 Soroptimist International, Sto.Nino de Bustos, Knights of Columbus, Parish Pastoral Council, Barangay

Health Workers, National Council of Women of the Philippines, and the Catholic Women’s League.142

ƒ Establishment of Storage Center: The municipal government installed 10-sq. ft. storage center in seven

Barangays. These served as storehouses of recyclable/returnable solid waste materials. The Local Health

Board negotiated with buyers of the materials. Income derived from the sale was divided equally among

members of the Purok according to the volume of recyclable materials that they had supplied. The

municipality also established ecology training centers where residents were taught on how to make organic

fertilizers.143

ƒ Monitoring and Assessment: The Local Health Board conducted monthly meetings. Feedback from the

municipal and Barangay levels was discussed and analyzed to further improve the program.

7.2.5 Results

Mobilization of the Community: Although the program was tight on its budget, it was able to get the interest of the community by holding various contests and activities which promoted environmental consciousness. Consequently, the constituents of Bustos realized that solid waste management benefited not only the town’s environs but also augmented and added to their income as well, therefore, they did not hesitate to finance the program themselves. In

1996, the total budget for the program amounted to P668,866.32, representing 4.3% of the municipal budget appropriation for the said year. As more and more private donations poured in, this amount was reduced to

PhP356,866.32 for 1997 or 2.3% of the total municipal budget.144

Reduced Garbage: The most evident result of the program was the reduction in the amount of garbage collected from ten tons per day to seven tons, or a reduction of 30%.145

142 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Jan 4, 2004. 143 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Jan 5, 2004. 144 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Jan 4, 2004. 145 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Jan 4, 2004.

82 Additional Income: The program encouraged children to earn from making paper mache out of discarded paper. On one year, eighty children earned PhP24, 960 making Christmas décor, bags, and tray holders out of recycled materials.146 Junk materials also provided additional income for the family.

Cleaner Environment: The program evaluators commented: “We saw clean streets and yards. We saw proper disposal of garbage. We saw evidence of recycled garbage as well. Bustos is a clean and green municipality.”147

They also pointed out that the most important benefit was the empowerment of the community in undertaking a self- help project, wherein the town of Bustos had achieved an overall socio-economic redemption and a breakthrough in consciousness.

7.3 Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental (Philippines)

7.3.1 Problem

Like many expanding urban centers, the city of Negros Oriental was experiencing problems in waste disposal.

Dumaguete’s waste disposal area was a dumpsite of dried riverbed located in Barangay Canduay, seven kilometers away from the town center. The dumpsite was opened in the 60s, but as the population increased, it could no longer accommodate the waste generated by the city. By 1997, it had become a small mountain of refuse that contaminated the Banica River. Around 52 scavenging families lived in the area. Initially, the campaign for proper waste management proved to be a losing proposition. In 1994 alone, the city government spent P3.3 million to collect 37 tons of solid wastes daily while the collected fees from 22 Barangays only amounted to P350,000.148

7.3.2 Context

Negros Oriental is a province in the Philippines with two major town centers. Dumaguete City is the provincial capital of Negros Oriental. It has a population of 925,311 in 2000 and a land area of 5402 sq kms.149

146 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Jan 4, 2004. 147 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Jan 4, 2004. 148http://216.239.39.104/search?q=cache:ZlWp95BMEcJ:www.oneocean.org/download/20010825/negros_profile/chap2b.pdf+negros+oriental+ waste&hl=en&ie=UTF-8. Accessed Dec 14, 2003. 149 http://www.iisd.ca/vol08/0828015e.html. Accessed Dec 14, 2003.

83 7.3.3 Project

The Dumaguete City Ecological Park was a sanitary landfill cum recreation park and livelihood center designed to address the city’s solid waste disposal problems while providing additional sources of income for scavenger families and open space for city residents and visitors.

7.3.4 Implementation

In 1998, city government started implemented measures to address the garbage problem. The Department of

Environment had issued an administrative order directing the city to close the dumpsite by the year 2005. The City

Council approved an ordinance on Solid Waste Management Program.150 The program had several components as discussed below.

Ordinance on Waste Management: The Council issued an ordinance on Solid Waste Management. This promoted the principle of waste reduction at source and encouraged residents to reuse, recycle, and segregate their garbage.

The ordinance likewise provided a schedule of fees to be paid by homes or business owners, engineering and information-education component, and penalties to be imposed for non-compliance.151

Organizing the Scavengers: To prepare them for the phase out of the dumpsite, the scavengers were organized into a cooperative, providing them livelihood. As a result, 31 families who had been scavenging at the dumpsite since the

1970s were organized into the Balugo-Canduay Scavengers Multi-purpose Cooperative, which was registered and recognized by the Cooperative Development Authority. The cooperative raised an initial capital of P23,000 generated from membership and other fees.152 The members were trained in garbage segregation, composting and recycling of wastes into items such as floor wax, candles, slippers and hats.

150 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Dec 4, 2003. 151 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Dec 4, 2003. 152 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Dec 4, 2003.

84 Division of the Area into Two Sections: The area covered by the dumpsite was divided into two sections: 1.8-hectare dumping section and 1.2-hectare ecological park section. The ecological park section stretched across a wide tree- covered area containing the program office, cooperative building, an aviary of rare and exotic species of birds, amphitheater, carpentry shop, grotto, children’s playground, lagoon, and orchidarium.153

7.3.5 Results

In 1999, 24 families had transferred to their new homes built under an agreement between the city government and the Bulacan-based Mother Rita Outreach and Livelihood Foundation. The other families, including 60 non- cooperative members, had been provided with temporary shelters beside the park’s mini-forest. The dumpsite was a rich source of organic composting materials which was as additional income source for the scavengers. They manually sifted humus into fine compost which they could produce an average of 50 bags daily, each costing PhP10.

For every bag of compost sold, a scavenger remitted Php1 to the cooperative.

In the last quarter of 1998, the cooperative had earned more than P46,000 for 2 shipments of recyclables, junk materials and compost fertilizers sold to the sugar cane planters of the province.154 The dry riverbed had likewise become a source of construction materials for the city’s infrastructure projects. In 1998, a concrete hollow block and sand and gravel production facility was set-up, and the products from the facility were being used in the city’s infrastructure projects.155

7.4 Santa Maria, Bulacan (Philippines)

7.4.1 Problem

Four years ago, the town of Santa Maria, Bulacan was becoming a byword among Local Government Units (LGU’s) for its innovative waste management program. Called the Santa Maria Ecological Resource Recovery System or

Zero Waste Management, the program attracted widespread domestic attention, and won the Galing Pook Award in

153 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Dec 4, 2003. 154 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Dec 4, 2003. 155 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Dec 4, 2003.

85 1996. The program was lionized, and visitors trooped to Santa Maria to see the program. Governor Joey Lina and 17 mayors from Laguna visited Sta. Maria with plans of adopting the program. The Metropolitan Environmental

Empowerment Program (MEEP) of the World Bank went to Santa Maria to evaluate the program for possible replication in the Paco Market and three other Barangays in Metro Manila.156 Santa Maria Mayor Reylina Nicolas was invited by the House Committee of Ecology to comment on 21 bills pending in the chamber on waste processing and recycling. AWARE Inc., the operator of the Waste Recycling and Processing Plant was appointed consultant to the

Program project.157

7.4.2 Context

Santa Maria is a town in the Bulacan province of Philippines. Bulacan had a population of 2,234,088 in 2000 and a land area of 2625 sq km.158 The island attracts a large tourist population every year and suffers from severe environment related problems.

7.4.3 Project

The Santa Maria Ecological Resource Recovery System or Zero Waste Management had its beginnings in 1992 when the dumpsite in the neighboring town of Marilao, which Santa Maria had also been using, closed down. The program actually started in 1994 and was originally called the Santa Maria Waste Processing and Recycling Plant.

The program was a brainchild of then Mayor Reylina G. Nicolas. The program was innovative for its emphasis on waste reduction, recovery, and re-use. The guiding principle behind the program was, ‘Waste is a resource that has not found its rightful place or proper use.’159

7.4.4 Implementation

Waste Segregation: When other islands were indiscriminately dumping their garbage, Santa Maria pioneered the

156 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Dec 4, 2003. 157 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Dec 4, 2003. 158 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/profileguide.html. Accessed May 4, 2004. 159http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Dec 4, 2003.

86 practice of waste segregation, separating the biodegradable materials from the non-biodegradable.

Processing: The biodegradable waste was processed into organic fertilizer and sold. The non-biodegradable waste was sold for recycling. For the processing into organic fertilizer, the Santa Maria municipal government entered into a contract with AWARE, Inc., a non-government organization. The LGU provided AWARE with a no-interest loan of

PhP582,350 payable in ten years, for setting up a Waste Processing and Recycling facility. The LGU also acquired a dumpsite for PhP1,580,700 and appropriated PhP670,000 for its maintenance. As counterpart, AWARE, Inc. spent

PhP1,000, 000 for the initial operational expenses of the plant and for the completion of the plant’s structures.

AWARE employed 15 personnel to operate the plant.160

Definition of Responsibilities: As per agreement, AWARE would operate the plant. The LGU would handle the collection, separation, and delivery of the waste and would enforce the ordinances. Another NGO, the Sta. Maria

Economic Foundation, would take care of program promotion. The Department of Science and Technology (DOST) would develop and provide the technology of the program.161

Setting the Legal Basis: The LGU passed ordinances prohibiting and punishing littering. It also bought and installed separate public bags and cans for biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes, and conducted anti-littering and information campaigns on proper waste disposal with the aid of religious, civic, and school organizations. The LGU assigned the municipal engineer, the market master, and his staff to the program. The LGU also employed on a full- time basis 22 sweepers, four waste collectors, two garbage truck drivers, and a utility worker whose job was to segregate the waste.162

Piloting: For the initial stages, the program was piloted in the town’s market area, which generated the most waste in the municipality. The Santa Maria Economic Foundation conducted information dissemination campaigns to change

160 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Dec 4, 2003. 161 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Dec 4, 2003. 162 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Dec 4, 2003.

87 the people’s traditional mentality about garbage. It undertook demonstrations on the effective application of organic fertilizers and on efficient ways of waste collection, separation, and delivery.163

Performance: As of April 1996, the Waste Processing and Recycling Plant was producing 90 bags of organic fertilizer daily or 2,700 bags monthly. Each bag was sold for PhP100 to farmers.164

7.4.5 Results

As of 2001, the much-ballyhooed Waste Recycling and Processing Plant is now an abandoned building with overgrown grass and remnants of its raw materials and finished products strewn around. According to key informants interviewed by Local Government Academy (LGA) interns who visited Santa Maria and the site in Barangay Catmon, the plant closed down some two years ago. AWARE, Inc. was said to have been unable to repay its loan. An agreement, which key informants were not willing to disclose, was forged between the LGU and AWARE, apparently about the interest-loan that the latter got from the former.

7.5 Odiongan, Romblon (Phillipines)

7.5.1 Problem

With a rapidly growing population and lack of adequate disposal sites, solid waste has become a major problem for most medium to large-size cities in Phillipines. In recent years, inadequate solid waste management systems have posed serious health risks particularly in densely populated areas. In Manila, for example, the closure of the largest disposal site in the year 2000 combined with the inadequate capacity at other sites resulted in the disposal of tons of waste along city streets, empty lots, and in the waterways and bays in and around the city. Scavenging for recyclable materials at open dumps is very common throughout many parts of the Philippines. Tragically, excessive open dumping of solid waste combined with the seasonal monsoon rains at the Payatas site in July 2000 caused a large - scale slope failure that resulted in the deaths of hundreds of scavengers.

163 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Dec 4, 2003. 164 http://www.galingpook.org/al_cs_detail.php?intcm_id=3&txtTitle=Managing+the+Environment. Accessed Dec 4, 2003.

88 Currently, there is a lack of active sanitary landfills throughout the entire country. Solid waste in small island communities is managed primarily through open dumping and open burning. However, several permitted “controlled dumps” have been constructed and they employ a minimum of environmental controls. Controlled dumps differ significantly from open dumps in that cover material is used to bury waste. In some progressive communities, composting, recycling, and resource recovery operations have been implemented. In the more remote areas of the country, solid waste is managed at the household level since there are no community-wide collection and disposal services.

7.5.2 Context

The Province of Romblon, one of the 10 poorest provinces in the Philippines, consists of 20 islands located in the central portion of the country known geographically as the Visayan Region. The Municipality of Odiongan is located

275 km southeast of Manila on the west coast of Tablas Island. Tablas Island is the largest island in the province and has a total area of 66,046 ha (slightly smaller than Singapore). Odiongan is comprised of 25 villages with an estimated residential population of 40,000 and encompasses a total area of 13,603 ha. Odiongan is the largest in population and third largest in land area for the entire province. Fishing and agriculture are two of the main industries.

However, a significant portion of the community makes a living as subsistence farmers and fisherfolk.

7.5.3 Former Solid Waste Management

From 1995 to 2001, unsegregated solid waste was collected from the downtown area using an open flatbed truck and transported six kilometers away to an open dump in the village of Anahao. Unfortunately, the Municipality originally purchased the open dump property for use and development as a public cemetery. Development of the cemetery ceased in 1995 after the open dumping of solid waste commenced. The Municipality assessed an annual solid waste fee of $3 for select businesses but assessed no fee at the household level.

During the annual monsoon season (June to October), frequent disruptions in collection occurred because the unpaved access road to the cemetery became impassible. Families of scavengers combed through the unsegregated waste searching for recyclable material. Hospital waste, including used needles, had also been deposited at the

89 cemetery site. Surface runoff and leachate from the property flowed to cultivated rice paddies immediately adjacent to the property. Ironically, the village of Anahao produces the largest amount of rice in all of Odiongan.

7.5.4 Program

The municipal government of Odiongan in the Province of Romblon implemented an ecological solid waste management program (or ESWMP). The objectives of the ESWMP included the following:

ƒ Manage solid waste in a manner that protects the public health and minimizes impacts to the environment

by using systems that are simple, sustainable, and economically affordable,

ƒ Create and promote alternative livelihoods for community residents,

ƒ Provide beneficial resources (i.e. compost) to the community to reduce the dependence on outside

resources.

In order to implement the ESWMP components, the Municipality developed a waste processing center. In 1996, the

Municipality purchased a 4.4-ha property with the intent of developing it into a solid waste processing center (SWPC) and later transferring all waste disposal operations from the open dump (public cemetery) to the new SWPC upon completion. The landfill component of the SWPC was developed first in order to accommodate an unsegregated waste stream. The Municipality later added a composting and recycling structure in order to reduce the amount of residual waste and create alternative livelihoods.165

7.5.5 Implementation

Initial implementation of the various components of the ESWMP was conducted over a period of three years beginning in 1999 and continuing through 2002. Operations at the new SWPC formally commenced in November

2001 with the opening of the landfill component, interim composting, and recycling operations. Waste disposal at the

165 Congress of the Philippines. Republic Act No. 9003. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. Manila: January, 2001.15.

90 open dump officially ceased in November 2001. The ESWMP operations were implemented by the Municipality and other government organizations.166

Public Awareness Campaigns: In 1999, the Municipality formed a solid waste task force to help educate and promote the objectives of the ESWMP, and to help enforce local ordinances on littering and illegal disposal of liquid and solid waste. The task force included volunteers from different government organizations and non-government organizations, as well as concerned citizens of Odiongan. Members of the task force conducted periodic patrols of the community and issued citations and fines for violations such as littering or urinating in public. In 2001, a house-to- house information campaign was conducted by the Municipality with the assistance of the respective village councils.167 The purpose of the information campaign was to educate and instruct residents within the waste collection area on how to segregate their waste into biodegradable, recyclable, and residual waste fractions. The

Municipality with the assistance of other government agencies prepared and distributed fliers with written instructions on how to segregate waste to each household.

Waste Segregation and Collection: The Municipality established a collection schedule for the collection of the three waste fractions. Solid waste is collected five days a week (Monday through Friday) by means of two open flatbed trucks. Biodegradable waste is collected three times a week while recyclable and residual wastes are collected twice a week on alternating days. Since implementation began in 2001, sanitation workers assigned to each truck often assist with the final segregation during collection and before placement onto the truck. After collection, the waste is then covered and transported to the SWPC. Although the intention of the Municipality was to minimize segregation activities at the SWPC, there are now families of scavengers present at the SWPC who remove recyclable material from the newly deposited waste before the completion of the residual waste disposal process.168

166 Congress of the Philippines. Republic Act No. 9003. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. Manila: January, 2001.15. 167 Congress of the Philippines. Republic Act No. 9003. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. Manila: January, 2001.15. 168 Congress of the Philippines. Republic Act No. 9003. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. Manila: January, 2001.15.

91 Composting Operations: In November 2001, composting operations began on an interim basis with the opening of the new SWPC. A simple uncovered and unlined compost bin was used to contain shredded biodegradable waste where it was allowed to decompose for a period of approximately one month. However, the amount of biodegradable waste delivered to the center greatly exceeded the capacity of the interim composting operations and much of the biodegradable waste collected during this period was deposited into the landfill. In October 2002, composting capabilities were greatly enhanced with the completion of a covered five-chamber structure.169

Upon arrival at the SWPC, biodegradable waste is mechanically shredded and placed into one of the five composting chambers. Each composting chamber is roughly 2.5 meters by 3 meters in area and about 1.5 meters in height. In order to enhance the decomposition process, one of two types of organic composting additives is added and mixed with the newly shredded waste. The composting additives consist of 1) a mixture of pure culture trichoderma and water and 2) a compost fungus activator (CFA) comprised of sawdust, leaves, vinegar, water, and pure culture trichoderma. 170

Both of these additives are produced locally. Shredded waste within each chamber is allowed to decompose for an average of one month before being removed from the bin and sun-dried. Once the compost has sufficiently dried, the compost material is then placed in sacks and stored within the field office building.

With the completion of the composting structure, compost produced at the SWPC was then tested for carbon, potassium, phosphate, and nitrogen content in order to determine it’s viability as an organic fertilizer. The carbon, potassium, and phosphate were reported at acceptable levels. However, the nitrogen content was reported at around

2%, which is well below the required 7% for the compost product to be called “fertilizer” per requirements of the

169 Congress of the Philippines. Republic Act No. 9003. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. Manila: January, 2001.15. 170 Congress of the Philippines. Republic Act No. 9003. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. Manila: January, 2001.20.

92 Philippine Fertilizer and Pesticides Authority. Therefore, the compost has been termed a “soil conditioner” due to the low nitrogen content.171

As of December 2002, approximately 6,100 kilograms of biodegradable waste per week was being processed at the

SWPC.172 However, frequent disruptions due to equipment failures have prevented the compost operation from maintaining a consistent production level. Proposals were submitted to the Municipality requesting that the composting operation be handed over to an NGO.

As of July 2003, the soil conditioner was being sold at P50 per 50 kilogram sack and used for primarily for small farming projects.173 Unfortunately, local commercial farmers, a key sector of intended beneficiaries, are hesitant to rely on the soil conditioner due to the low nitrogen content and unreliable production rate.

Recycling Operations: In November 2001, recycling operations were initiated with the opening of the SWPC.

Segregated recyclable materials collected by the sanitation workers are delivered to the center where they are stored in the field office building. The recyclable materials are then periodically transported from the center to buyback centers located in a neighboring village. Families of scavengers also comb through newly deposited residual waste in the landfill to recover additional recyclable material.

Recyclable material resold to the buyback center includes the following:

- Car and Truck Batteries

- Cardboard

- Metal (tin, aluminum, copper wire)

- Glass

- Plastic containers

- Rubber

171 Congress of the Philippines. Republic Act No. 9003. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. Manila: January, 2001.20. 172 Congress of the Philippines. Republic Act No. 9003. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. Manila: January, 2001.20. 173 Congress of the Philippines. Republic Act No. 9003. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. Manila: January, 2001.20.

93 - Paper (mixed and white)

As of December 2002, approximately 0.4 m3/week of recyclable material was recovered by the Municipality and resold to the buyback centers.174

Landfill Operations: In November 2001, landfill operations commenced in the Phase I disposal area of the landfill.

Under the planned operation of the landfill, incoming residual waste is placed into a waste deposition bin (i.e., tipping area) where it is then transferred to the working face within the Phase I disposal area. At the end of each day, daily cover is placed on the newly deposited residual waste. Surplus rice hull available from local farmers is used as daily cover material.175 Once the waste is covered, it is then compacted with a front loader or equivalent. Due to frequent equipment breakdown during startup operations (e.g., front loader), a gravel road was constructed from the paved access road directly to the Phase I disposal area in order to bypass the tipping area and allow the trucks to deposit residual waste near the working face.176 Frequent breakdown of the mechanical shredder resulted in large amounts of biodegradable waste being deposited into the landfill.

Due to the frequent dramatic fluctuations in the amount of waste disposed in the landfill, it is difficult to estimate the actual deposition rate. However, the daily deposition rate is estimated at between 3 and 7 cubicM/day. Despite the disruptions, the composting and recycling operations have reduced the overall amount of residual waste deposited into the landfill. Consequently, the lifespan of the Phase I disposal area has been lengthened beyond the 2.4 years estimated. Samples of effluent from the leachate treatment tank were analyzed for compliance with DENR discharge requirements.177

174 Congress of the Philippines. Republic Act No. 9003. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. Manila: January, 2001.20. 175 Congress of the Philippines. Republic Act No. 9003. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. Manila: January, 2001.20. 176 Congress of the Philippines. Republic Act No. 9003. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. Manila: January, 2001.22. 177 Congress of the Philippines. Republic Act No. 9003. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. Manila: January, 2001.22.

94 Farming Activities: As part of the ESWMP, the Municipality, other government agencies, and local community groups have conducted a variety of farming activities at the SWPC in an effort to enhance the SWPC’s capability and raise community awareness. These activities include the following:

ƒ Organic Mango Research Project – A mango orchard has been planted at the SWPC as part of a research

project sponsored by the provincial government of Romblon using the soil conditioner produced by the

composting operation. The orchard will serve a dual purpose of producing a reusable resource as well as

serving as a visual barrier.

ƒ Organic Farming Projects – Using the soil conditioner produced by the compost operation, local farmers in

cooperation with the Municipality have planted a variety of fruits and vegetables at the SWPC.

ƒ Tree Planting Activities – Over the last three years, mahogany, coconut, and other seedlings have been

planted in boundary areas throughout the SWPC property in efforts to create visual and physical barriers.

All of the operational expenses and most of the capital expenses (98%) were funded by Philippine government institutions.178

7.5.6 Results

Due to frequent disruptions in production caused by equipment failures, compost production has been frequently interrupted and a significant amount of biodegradable waste has been deposited in the landfill. In addition, local farmers are reluctant to rely on the soil conditioner produced by the composting operation because of the low nitrogen content and inconsistent production rates. Much of the soil conditioner produced at the center has been used for small farming projects. Despite frequent disruptions in the compost operation, the amount of solid waste deposited in the landfill has been reduced and thus, the lifetime of the landfill has been lengthened. The Municipality is considering transferring the management of the compost and recycling operations to a local NGO.

178 Congress of the Philippines. Republic Act No. 9003. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. Manila: January, 2001.22.

95 7.6 Tongatapu, Tonga (Pacific Islands)

7.6.1 Problem

The management of solid waste (garbage or rubbish) on Tongatapu is poor and is having a detrimental impact on the health of the community and the environment. Poor solid waste management practices occur not only in Nuku’alofa but in many villages across the island of Tongatapu, including many villages around the Fanga’uta and Fanga Kakau lagoon. The results of the poor solid waste management practices include:

ƒ Unsightly littering and indiscriminate dumping of solid waste in drains, waterways, on public and unoccupied

private land;

ƒ The attraction and proliferation of insects, vermin and pests;

ƒ The creation of unsanitary (unhealthy) conditions and consequent risks to the health of the community; and

ƒ The pollution and degradation of local drains and waterways such as lakes, mangroves, and wetlands,

which is having a detrimental impact on local flora, fauna and the livelihood of the local community.179

7.6.2 Context

Spread across the South Pacific Ocean, the Kingdom of Tonga consists of 171 islands of which less than 40 are inhabited. Tongatapu is the main island of Tonga, with a land area of 260 sq km Tongatapu constitutes one third of the country's territory. The population of Tongatapu is approaching 70,000, approximately 70% of the nation’s population.180 The majority of the island's population lives in the capital Nuku’alofa and its adjoining villages. The island is a pancake flat coral atoll, tilting slightly toward the north. Cliffs on the southern shore rise to 30m while the northern coast is submerging, evidenced by the maze of inlets, and mangrove-choked lagoons.181

7.6.3 Former Solid Waste Management

There have been several attempts to improve the management of solid waste on Tongatapu. However, few of the programs, activities or recommendations contained in the resulting documents have been successfully implemented.

179 Williams, Martin, et al. Solid Waste Management Challenges in Pacific Island Countries Project Information Document, 2000. 15. 180 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/profileguide.html. Accessed Mar 22nd, 2004. 181 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/profileguide.html. Accessed 5th May, 2004.

96 The upgrading of the existing waste disposal site at Tukutonga was partially successful but once the funding from the

World Health Organisation ceased in late 1997 the landfilling operation reverted to its previous poor and unsanitary condition.182

7.6.4 Program

Considering the poor state of waste management and the lack of any comprehensive plan on how to overcome the problems within Tonga, there was an urgent need to revisit solid waste management on the main island of

Tongatapu. The authors were initially engaged to prepare and implement an effective Solid Waste Management Plan

(SWMP) for Tongatapu. It was recommended in the SWMP that the Tapuhia Quarry site be developed as a modern waste management facility. It was proposed that the site incorporate recycling facilities, an engineered sanitary landfilling operation and other site facilities to service the waste management needs of Nuku'alofa and the other villages on Tongatapu.183

The proposed Tapuhia waste management facility is not conventional for Tonga or the Pacific. The Tongans will be stepping up from an open dump on swampy ground to a modern waste management facility that incorporates an engineered landfill as well as recycling and composting facilities. This presents some significant challenges in terms of funding, design, construction, management and operation.

Suitable land for waste disposal is scarce; therefore the exhausted quarry at Tapuhia that is currently redundant in its current form was recommended by the Authors and supported by the government as an appropriate landfill site. This is a very appropriate use for the quarry as it will allow it to be rehabilitated and available for future beneficial uses such as animal grazing, which is undertaken on adjoining rural properties.184

182 Williams, Martin, et al. Solid Waste Management Challenges in Pacific Island Countries Project Information Document, 2000. 15. 183 TEMMP, Solid Waste Management Plan for Tongatapu. March, 2000.3. 184 TEMMP, Solid Waste Management Plan for Tongatapu. March, 2000.2.

97 7.6.5 Implementation

Design Concept

The Tapuhia Waste Management Facility is a modern waste management facility encompassing a gatehouse / vehicle reception facility, staff amenities, small vehicle waste disposal facility, recycling centre, a garden and wood waste processing facility, an engineered sanitary landfilling operation, and a storage shed / workshop for the landfilling plant and equipment.185

Management and Operation Plan

The Management and Operation Plan was identified in the SWMP as an essential part of the establishment of the

Tapuhia Waste Management Facility (WMF). The Management & Operation Plan included:186

ƒ Details of the existing site including location, land-use, ownership, site geology and hydrology, existing

surface and groundwater quality, site soil characteristics;

ƒ The sources and characteristics (quantity and types) of waste to be managed at the WMF;

ƒ A general description of the proposed WMF including the layout of the facility;

ƒ Approval Process

ƒ The Management and operation framework for the WMF including the roles and responsibilities of the

various Government authorities;

Details of the proposed landfilling operation included:

ƒ The final landform;

ƒ Staging of the landfilling operation;

ƒ Waste disposal cell establishment including details of the leachate containment and management system;

ƒ Deposition and covering of landfilled waste;

ƒ Details of landfilling equipment;

185 TEMMP, Solid Waste Management Plan for Tongatapu. March, 2000.2. 186 TEMMP, Solid Waste Management Plan for Tongatapu. March, 2000.3.

98 Details of other proposed site activities including the re-use and recycling centre and the mulching / composting operation;

ƒ Management of stormwater at the site;

ƒ Site supervision and staffing;

ƒ Hours of operation;

ƒ Environmental management measures;

ƒ Environmental monitoring;

ƒ Health and safety management;

ƒ Fire controls;

ƒ Operation and maintenance of equipment;

ƒ Daily, monthly, quarterly and yearly checklists;

ƒ Record keeping and reporting;

ƒ Site rehabilitation and post closure management

ƒ Contingency Plans

ƒ Funding

ƒ and Estimates for capital and operating costs

A sub-committee was formed of the personnel from various organizations. This group was used to brainstorm and review alternative operational techniques for inclusion in the Management and Operations Plan. The sub-committee was also used to network with the various stakeholders in order to maximize ownership and input to the project.

The Management & Operation Plan was drafted based upon outcomes from the sub-committee, the directions provided in the Waste Management Plan and inputs from each of the relevant organizations. AusAid, the Australian

Agency for International Development was instrumental not only in terms of funding the project but also in terms of capacity building and research and study of the area and its problem.187

187 TEMMP, Solid Waste Management Plan for Tongatapu. March, 2000.3.

99 Future Opportunities

Future planned stages of the project are to continue with the implementation of the Waste

Management Plan, including the construction and operation of the new landfill site and associated facilities. The new site is not located within the populated area of Nuku'alofa, but central to the island. To make it easy for people to dispose of their waste in an environmentally sound manner when the new site is operational, it was recommended that:188

ƒ A transfer station be provided in the Nuku'alofa area. This Transfer Station should be a prelude to a network

of transfer stations across Tongatapu.

ƒ The current skeletal waste collection system, within Nuku’alofa be overhauled and expanded and an island

wide, if not national, recycling strategy be devised and implemented.

ƒ Review of opportunities for privatization.

ƒ Maximize existing viable recycling initiatives, such as organic waste, aluminum cans, semiprecious metals

(copper, brass etc).

ƒ Scavenging rights for reusable waste deposited at the facility, for example timber, fire wood and other

goods.

ƒ Initiatives to enable other wastes to be recycled or reused, such as waste oil, car batteries, plastic bottles;

and

ƒ Initiatives to enable troublesome wastes to be recycled or reused, for example import levies.

7.6.6 Results

The authors and their Government of Tonga counterparts gained a great deal of experience, which can be applied elsewhere, by working through challenges such as:

ƒ Limited suitably skilled staff are available to dedicate to the project;

ƒ On island resources are limited and generally requires importing materials;

188 TEMMP, Solid Waste Management Plan for Tongatapu. March, 2000.3.

100 ƒ Locating and designing a new landfill when town water is supplied from a scarce and diminishing

groundwater resource;

ƒ Obtaining landfill cover material on a coral atoll.

ƒ Landfilling is currently used as a means of swamp reclamation for valuable residential land;

ƒ Traditional land ownership by Nobles who are very reluctant to sell or lease land for waste management

facilities;

ƒ Recycling in locations which are very remote from reprocessing facilities;

ƒ Widespread dumping and littering due to the lack and cost of services;

ƒ Traditional cultural waste disposal methods, in an era in which modern consumables can not be fed to

domestic animals and should not be burnt.

These issues are not unique to the pacific island countries. However, in these small coral islands the lack of resources, infrastructure and skills make the challenges even greater.

This project is successfully addressing a range of waste management challenges, which face many small, remote, coral island countries with emerging economies. The project provides an example of how countries that are similar to

Tonga can work, through the local challenges, towards sustainable development.

7.7 New Providence (Bahamas)

7.7.1 Problem

Most islands in the Bahamas have a very poor waste disposal system. This inadequacy is being highlighted more due to the amount of waste that is being generated in the family islands and the lack of infrastructure to address the problem. Bahamians and visitors together generate more than 264,000 tons of municipal solid waste annually. This waste has been disposed of in dumps, with little protection from scavengers, vermin, cover material and dumping along roadsides and on abandoned land - a generally unsanitary situation in most islands.189 A clean environment,

189http://216.239.39.104/search?q=cache:ece0XmAy6fUJ:www.iadb.org/EXR/doc98/apr/bh1170e.PDF+solid+waste+islands&hl=en&ie=UTF-8. Accessed Mar 8th, 2004.

101 free from litter and garbage, is essential to protect the health of residents and visitors and to maintain the attractiveness of the islands.

7.7.2 Context

The islands of the Bahamas lie in the southwest Atlantic Ocean near Florida in the USA and stretching down to

Cuba. The islands have a combined land area of 13,939 sq km. They comprise of more than 4,000 islands, islets and cays of which about 37 are inhabited islands with a population of 297,477.190 There are about fifteen main islands and they are mainly composed of coral with a limestone base. The climate is sub-tropical with frequent thunderstorms. The government of the Bahamas is modeled on the British system and has one of the world's oldest parliamentary democracies, celebrating 250 years in 1979.

7.7.3 Program

In order to support the Government of Bahamas' (GOBH) efforts to improve the solid waste management services for the Family Islands the following program (Solid Waste Management Project – Bahamas) was outlined by the

Department of Environment Health and Services (DEHS). The project consisted of the following components:191

(i) priority investments for disposal facilities at New Providence and ten of the Family Islands: Abaco, Andros, Bimini,

Cat Island, Eleuthera, Great Exuma, Grand Bahama, Inagua, Long Island and San Salvador (US$21 million);

(ii) Hazardous waste disposal (US$600,000);

(iii) Institutional support of DEHS and studies (US$800,000) and;

(iv) an environmental health education and awareness program (US$600,000).

The New Providence disposal system will include two components:

(i) The Harrold Road sanitary landfill and;

(ii) a yard waste shredding facility.

190 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/profileguide.html. Accessed Mar 28th, 2004. 191http://216.239.39.104/search?q=cache:ece0XmAy6fUJ:www.iadb.org/EXR/doc98/apr/bh1170e.PDF+solid+waste+islands&hl=en&ie=UTF-8. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004.

102 The Family Islands will have 18 modified sanitary landfills and four transfer stations. A central hazardous waste storage facility will be constructed adjacent to the Harrold Road site. Small hazardous waste containment facilities will be built at each of the sanitary landfills at the Family Islands. DEHS will be strengthened in supervisory and financial management. The activities will include technical assistance and training at all levels. The environmental health education component will educate, inform and increase the awareness of the general public in the following areas: waste generation, storage and containerization, collection, scheduling and procedures, litter, illegal dumping, bulky waste materials, backyard composting, waste materials exchange and derelict vehicles.192

7.7.4 Implementation

Objectives: The objective of the project is to support the GOBH to improve solid waste management services for New

Providence and the Family Islands. The improved systems will aim to be efficient, financially sustainable, protect the environment and the standard of public health in the Commonwealth of The Bahamas.

Projects Role in the Bank’s Country and Sector Strategy: The Bank's strategy in The Bahamas is to support the

Government's continuing efforts to improve sustained economic growth by improving competitiveness, diversifying the economy, improving inter-sectoral linkages, and effectively managing the country's environment for sustainable development. As part of the strategy, the Bank supports the necessary environmental regulation of new regulatory framework and policies. The proposed operation will contribute to the protection of the environment and the improvement of sanitary conditions in the country. By strengthening the role of the public sector in environmental regulation and monitoring, as well as by establishing the mechanisms for cost recovery, the operation will improve the efficiency of the solid waste management system and enhance the preservation of natural resources and health conditions in the islands.193

192http://216.239.39.104/search?q=cache:ece0XmAy6fUJ:www.iadb.org/EXR/doc98/apr/bh1170e.PDF+solid+waste+islands&hl=en&ie=UTF-8. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004. 193http://216.239.39.104/search?q=cache:ece0XmAy6fUJ:www.iadb.org/EXR/doc98/apr/bh1170e.PDF+solid+waste+islands&hl=en&ie=UTF-8. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004.

103 Environmental/ Social Review: The environmental aspects of this project are overwhelmingly positive because benefits are derived from the totality of the programs components. Namely, improved final waste disposal for New

Providence with a sanitary land fill, modified landfills in the Family Islands, improved collection, reduction of illicit dumping, initiation of a hazardous waste handling and storage program, improved institutional ability to manage, regulate and monitor the solid waste sector, initiation of derelict vehicle recycling, and educational programs to assist in raising the consciousness of the population for anti-littering, composting and recycling.194

Some Efforts: In 2001 the Government has made advances in solid waste management. Along with proposing new regulations and amendments to the existing Act, progress has been made in the management of the Harrold Road land fill (New Providence) by providing better and more regular cover material which has reduced fires and odor, improved the financial management system in DEHS and purchased new collection vehicles. It has also constructed new modified landfills in Bimini and North Eleuthra, is developing recycling agreement with a private firm for the disposal of derelict vehicles, and has developed environmental education curriculum and presented workshops in domestic recycling, composting and litter control.195

Financing:

The project shall be financed in the following manner:196

Borrower and Guarantor: GOBH

Executing Agency: DEHS of the Ministry of Consumers Welfare and Aviation

Amount and Sources:

IDB: US$23,500,000

Local counterpart funding: US$ 10,000,000

Total: US$33,500,000

194http://216.239.39.104/search?q=cache:ece0XmAy6fUJ:www.iadb.org/EXR/doc98/apr/bh1170e.PDF+solid+waste+islands&hl=en&ie=UTF-8. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004. 195http://216.239.39.104/search?q=cache:ece0XmAy6fUJ:www.iadb.org/EXR/doc98/apr/bh1170e.PDF+solid+waste+islands&hl=en&ie=UTF-8. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004. 196http://216.239.39.104/search?q=cache:ece0XmAy6fUJ:www.iadb.org/EXR/doc98/apr/bh1170e.PDF+solid+waste+islands&hl=en&ie=UTF-8. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004.

104 7.7.5 Results

Benefits: The Program resulted in significant environmental and health benefits from improved collection, transportation, disposal and the reduction of littering and illicit dumping. This led to a cleaner environment, less water and soil pollution, with a resulting positive impact on quality of life, recreation and health. From the economic point of view, the benefits of the Program can be measured as foregone damage costs if the Program was not implemented.

These are principally: (i) losses in tourist revenue ;( ii) costs associated with increasing nuisance associated with overall solid waste mismanagement ;( iii) costs associated with health problems;(iv) costs associated with loss of ecosystems; and(v) replacement costs of contaminated groundwater resources.197

Risks: The risk that can be foreseen in the future implementation of the program is the sustained institutional capacity of DEHS to fulfill its mandate as the environmental enforcing agency of the GOBH and to maintain responsibility for the New Providence residential collection and disposal services. Some mitigating factors in order to avert the risk could be: (i) All operating functions within DEHS will be consolidated under a specific unit reporting to the Deputy

Director presently responsible for the existing Roads and Parks Division, while separating the supervisory and regulatory functions under a different Deputy Director; (ii) Performance and efficiency indicators for the collection and disposal activities will be implemented and monitored; (iii) DEHS will be strengthened to supervise and monitor the compliance with the operating and environmental standards.198

7.8 Galapagos (Ecuador)

7.8.1 Problem

Isabela is the largest island in Galapagos but only 1% of its area is populated. In the last decade, the population has increased by about 1,600 inhabitants.199 This has increased solid waste which has, traditionally, been dumped a few kilometers from the populated area, causing serious health and conservation problems.

197http://216.239.39.104/search?q=cache:ece0XmAy6fUJ:www.iadb.org/EXR/doc98/apr/bh1170e.PDF+solid+waste+islands&hl=en&ie=UTF-8. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004. 198http://216.239.39.104/search?q=cache:ece0XmAy6fUJ:www.iadb.org/EXR/doc98/apr/bh1170e.PDF+solid+waste+islands&hl=en&ie=UTF-8. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004. 199 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/profileguide.html. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004.

105

Two years ago, the old dumping ground was relocated, as it was a short distance from the water source, but the problems did not cease. The Council does not have a special refuse collection lorry so the rubbish is transported on open lorries (vans) and often the waste is blown away and pollutes the roads. The actual location of the dump is very near to the road that leads to the high part of the island; this has made it into a source of contamination for farmland.200

Until now, no recycling has taken place in Puerto Villamil and it has not been possible to keep the area as clean as the Council would like, despite new public bins and the increase in waste collections. The health of the population in

Puerto Villamil has notably been affected by epidemics due to the inadequate management of waste solids. Rain has helped release some toxic chemical components into the environment. Day by day the accumulation of non- biodegradable material is increasing and there will come a time when it will adversely affect the environment and will encourage pests and vermin.

7.8.2 Context

The Galapagos Islands are located 650 miles off the west coast of Ecuador, in the Pacific Ocean and are one of the

20 provinces of Ecuador. There are six larger and several smaller islands lying on or near the equator of which only two, Isabela and San Cristobal, are inhabited. Galapagos has an area of 3086 sq miles with a population of around

8,300.201 The Galapagos are known the world over for their tame and unique wildlife, sea lions, birds and iguanas, living amidst barren volcanic scenery. Many of the species found in the Galapagos can be found nowhere else on

Earth. More than 1,900 of its more than 5,000 species are endemic.202

200 http://www.gct.org/recycle.html. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004. 201 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/profileguide.html. Accessed May 4th, 2004. 202 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/profileguide.html. Accessed May 4th, 2004.

106 7.8.3 Program

Objective

ƒ A local population aware of the importance of waste disposal in Puerto Villamil.

ƒ A system for the recycling of waste in Isabela which will work long term, with the collaboration of the

Municipal Government, Galapagos National Park, Charles Darwin Foundation and the Ecuadorian Navy.

ƒ A clean environment, free of pollution caused by badly managed waste disposal.

Program: Recycling of Solid Waste in Puerto Villamil, Isabela Island

The principal activity in Puerto Villamil is fishing. Currently, tourism to Puerto Villamil is being encouraged with the participation of the local community, as it provides an alternative way of life to the villagers who are more conservation friendly. One of the main problems in the development of sustainable tourism is the current inadequate disposal of solid waste. The Galapagos Conservation Trust is looking to raise funds to recycle waste, including plastic, metal and glass. It aims to encourage the local people and institutions to recycle via a permanent environmental education project.203

The material collected will be taken to recycling centers on mainland Ecuador. Organic waste from each island will be deposited in a sanitary landfill on the same island, which will later be reforested. The funds raised in the sale of waste will be used to encourage people to recycle and guarantee the sustainability of the project long term.204

7.8.4 Implementation

Design and Implementation: The Municipal Government of Isabela, with the support of the Galapagos National Park and the Charles Darwin Foundation, will be in charge of planning the strategy to promote recycling which will guarantee the support of the local community, emphasizing the huge benefits that it will mean for the local population.205

203 http://www.gct.org/recycle.html. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004. 204 http://www.gct.org/recycle.html. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004. 205 http://www.gct.org/recycle.html. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004.

107 ƒ This campaign will be done door to door and with meetings of different local bodies - fishermen, schools,

craftsmen, builders, retailers, etc.

ƒ Videos will be made on the collection of toxic waste, showing families how they can safely dispose of their

waste.

ƒ Above all, work will be done with children by way of open air cleaning campaigns and litter collection on the

coast and the urban area.

ƒ Recycling containers will be placed in strategic public sites with signs showing what can be disposed within

each. This way the local people will, little by little, become accustomed to recycling.

ƒ Children's activities will be planned around recycling.

ƒ Recycling activities by children and local people will be filmed and shown on local television so as to

encourage further recycling.

ƒ 'Mingas' (work groups) will be organized by the Municipal Government to clean up the town on special

occasions e.g. festivals, etc.

ƒ Various different colored rubbish bags will be distributed so that they can be easily is distinguished. These

will be used exclusively for the disposal of plastic, glass and tins.

ƒ A Galapagos National Park lorry will collect non-organic rubbish twice a week. This will then be taken to a

waste centre where 3 local people will sort and pack it. Every 15 days, the main agricultural zones will be

visited to collect bags of tins, plastic and glass.

ƒ Biodegradable and non-recyclable waste will be collected every day, and deposited it in the public dump.

Every 20 or 30 days (at least) the rubbish will be covered with earth so that it is not left open. In this way

layers of earth will be formed until they become small mounds which will finally be reforested with endemic

or native species.

ƒ An installation will be constructed to receive, sort, pack and store recyclable waste collected in the village.

This will be near Puerto Villamil in the El Chapin area. Three local people will be employed to sort the

different waste, reduce and pack it so that it takes the minimum space possible in the cargo boats, which will

then take the recycled waste to the city of Guayaquil.

108 ƒ Certain materials will be especially packed and donated to the community or sent to the mainland e.g.

i. Batteries - through an information campaign, special attention will be given to the recycling of

batteries. They are highly polluting and are heavily used for night-time diving and control of

introduced frogs.

ii. Paper - all the paper used in private and public offices will be collected fortnightly and donated to

women's groups in the area. They use it to make craft recycled paper for sale.

iii. Jam pots - these will not be ground down, as local women will use them in the production of jam.

This will be donated to local women to encourage small businesses and avoid the importation of

processed products from the mainland.

ƒ Once the recycled material has been packed it will be loaded on to cargo ships that are returning to

Guayaquil. These usually return to the mainland with empty cargo space once they have delivered their

merchandise to the islands. The local community and government bodies will ask the cargo ship owners to

transport the recycled material free or at a minimum cost.

ƒ Once the recycled waste arrives in Guayaquil, the factories involved will be responsible for unloading the

product and dealing with its disposal. Profits generated will be shared amongst the people in Isabela who

are involved with the project. It is not expected that much income will be raised, due to the low prices of

recycled material in the market. However, it will provide an incentive for the workers who carry out the

sorting and packing in Galapagos. 206

Financing: The total cost of the project for the first year is £60,355. Some of the funds have already been raised - now another £36,915 is required to help get this project off the ground.207

The Galapagos Cruise Ships: The cruise ships that operate in and around Galapagos or come to their coasts have adopted certain measures to ensure tourists’ enjoyment while doing less harm to the fragile ecology.

206 http://www.gct.org/recycle.html. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004. 207 http://www.gct.org/recycle.html. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004.

109 The ships have incorporated the following policies to contribute to environmental safety of the islands:208

ƒ All soaps, detergents and shampoos used on board are biodegradable.

ƒ Waste waters are treated appropriately. The residual water is filtered and purified with ozone.

ƒ Water is produced on board (not all ships) utilizing a desalinization plant by reverse osmosis

ƒ Since each island has its particular species of flora and fauna, the introduction of other animals can

devastate the ecology. Ships are the usual transport to these migrating animals, lured by the bright lights.

Therefore, we have installed pale yellow lights in our ships, according to the Charles Darwin Research

Station's recommendations, to minimize this risk.

ƒ Non-toxic solids, that are not recyclable, are incinerated; metal cans are compacted and together with non-

biodegradable waste are returned to port. Biodegradable waste is ground into fine particles and dumped in

open waters according to the regulations of the Galapagos National Park Service.

ƒ Passengers have three wastebaskets to assist with the sorting of recyclable waste.

7.8.5 Results

The incorporation of the recycling and sanitary landfill program promises to effectively eliminate 100% of waste produced on the island. The program would lead to economic, social and health benefits for the residents.209

However, the program is still in its infant stages and currently additional funds are needed to:

1. Recycle non-biodegradable waste in Puerto Villamil and send it to mainland Ecuador for sale to various

factories.

2. Create a sense of conservation in local people with regards to the recycling of waste solids.

3. Stop the accumulation of non-biodegradable waste in Isabela.

4. Support the local council to clean the urban zones.

5. Involve local people in recycling work.

6. Avoid damage to human health and to the environment due to badly managed waste disposal.

208 http://www.nkf-mt.org.uk/eco_concerns.Galapagos.htm. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004. 209 http://www.gct.org/recycle.html. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004.

110 7. Restore sites where waste has been disposed in the past with reforestation using native and endemic

plants.

7.9 Isle of Wight (England)

7.9.1 Problem

Having regard to the relatively small land mass of the Island, planning restrictions and the geology of the Island, it is extremely difficult to find new sites for the disposal of waste. The transport of waste from the Island to the mainland, despite fairly short distances across Solent, has been rejected because the costs would be prohibitive. Furthermore,

Members of the Council have been strongly opposed to the principle of mass incineration. Indeed, local authorities in the southern part of the mainland have found extreme difficulty in obtaining planning permission for mass incineration and there has been enormous public opposition to proposed sites.210

7.9.2 Context

The Isle of Wight is a small island, 38,000 hectares, off the south coast of England with a static population of some

126,000 people and attracts some 2.7 million visitors per annum.211 Both employment and GDP rely heavily on the tourism industry. Much of the Isle of Wight is designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and Heritage

Coast. In addition, large parts of the Island comprise chalk from which water is drawn.212

7.9.3 Program

As an Island, the Isle of Wight has to deal with all types of waste. The Council is very conscious of the principles of sustainability, land is a finite resource and therefore new solutions have to be found on the Island itself for recycling and the disposal of waste. As the Isle of Wight is not designated an Objective 1 or Objective 2 (high-priority) area for the purposes of European structural funds, it has not been able to obtain any European finance to assist with these major problems.

210 http://www.islandwaste.co.uk/waste.html. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004. 211 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/profileguide.html. Accessed May 8th, 2004. 212 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/profileguide.html. Accessed May 8th, 2004.

111

When the new Council was formed in 1995 waste disposal was still being carried out directly and the Council had one landfill site, three basic public disposal (civic amenity) sites and a waste derived fuel plant producing pellets for an adjacent privately owned electricity generating plant. Household waste collection was carried out by two private sector contractors. Following re-organization, the Council invited tenders for an integrated waste management contract comprising household waste collection, recycling and disposal. After an extensive tender process, a contract commenced in October 1997.213

7.9.4 Implementation

Implementation: In the first three years of the Contract the contractor has achieved a recycling/diversion from landfill rate of 33.4%, 41.38% and 45.09%.214 The contractor has installed a new purpose built in-vessel composting system using North American technology and by combining that system with the existing waste derived fuel plant, we have been able to achieve these high recycling rates without mass burn. Alterations to the waste derived fuel plant and the adjacent privately owned electricity generating plant are currently being undertaken which will increase the capacity of both plants. This should enable the recycling/diversion rate for household waste to rise to over 50% and also allow some 30% of the Island’s commercial waste to be treated. The upgrading of the power plant will mean that enough electricity will be produced to power 1,000 island homes.215

Finance: Dealing with the Island’s waste is an expensive item for the Council and the costs of all the waste collection and disposal operations are £5.4 million out of a net Council budget of £128.2 million.216

7.9.5 Results

With the partnership working between the Council and its contractor, the Isle has an excellent example of rural waste

213 http://www.islandwaste.co.uk/waste.html. Accessed Mar 20th, 2004. 214 http://www.eurisles.org/Textes/Strategy/NonPub/IOW_Gestion%20dechets_EN.htm. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004. 215 http://www.eurisles.org/Textes/Strategy/NonPub/IOW_Gestion%20dechets_EN.htm. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004. 216 http://www.islandwaste.co.uk/waste.html. Accessed Mar 20th, 2004.

112 management which will be of interest to many European municipalities and regions. All waste arising on the Island is dealt with on the Island and the only materials that are shipped off are glass and some paper for recycling.

7.10 Male (Republic of Maldives)

7.10.1 Problem

A major pressure on the environment arises from the wastes and pollutants produced as a by-product of domestic and industrial activities. Solid waste disposal is now one of the most critical environmental issues in the Maldives.

The amount and the rate of solid waste generated vary throughout the country and there is a significant difference between the amount of waste generated in Malé and that of in the Atolls. The amount of solid waste generated in

Malé has been increasing at an alarming rate over the past 10 years. The solid waste generated almost doubled within the period 1990 to 1995 and in the next five years (1995 to 2000) the amount of waste generated increased by eight fold. On average 2.48 kg of waste are generated per capita per day in Malé while in the atolls this value is around 0.66 kg of waste per capita per day. Average waste generation in the resorts stands at 7.2 kg per guest per day.217 The rapidly developing construction industry is contributing significantly to the composition of the waste.

The large quantity of waste generated coupled with limited land area and technology makes the disposal of waste a challenge for the country.

7.10.2 Context

Maldives are a group of atolls in the Indian Ocean located in Southern Asia, southwest of India. A group of 1,190 coral islands grouped into 26 atolls (200 inhabited islands, plus 80 islands with tourist resorts), Maldives is an archipelago with a strategic location astride and along major sea lanes in the Indian Ocean.218 Maldives covers a land area of about 300 sq kms and has a population of 329,684.219 The climate is tropical and the low level at which these islands are makes them very susceptible to sea-level rise.

217 http://www.rrcap.unep.org/reports/soe/maldives_solid.pdf. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004. 218 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mv.html. Accessed May 4th, 2004. 219 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mv.html. Accessed May 4th, 2004.

113 7.10.3 Program

Until 1991, solid waste generated in Malé was used for land reclamation in Malé. Presently, solid waste generated in

Malé is collected and taken to a transfer station. From the transfer station, the waste is transported to Thilafushi, a municipal landfill, located 5 km away from Malé. The Thilafushi landfill site has now become a landfill for the central region of the country. In addition to waste from Malé, it now receives waste from islands in Malé atoll, the resorts and the Malé International Airport.220

Solid wastes generated in the atolls are disposed using various methods. Organic wastes are composted at home backyards in most of the islands. Non-biodegradable waste such as plastics is dumped near the beach in many islands and buried in a few islands. Burning of combustible waste at designated areas in the islands is also widely practiced in many islands.

Current waste disposal practices adversely affect the environment through habitat destruction and pollution. Often, wetland areas such as swamps and mangroves are considered as ‘useless’ areas and therefore dumping of solid waste in such areas is acceptable practice and reclamation of such areas to increase land space often takes place.

Dumping of solid waste near beaches also has adverse effects on the reefs and lagoons of the islands. To deal with the problems that waste disposal poses, Maldives has come up with several policy responses and initiatives.221

7.10.4 Implementation

Major Policy Responses and Initiatives: Environmentally unsound practices in solid waste and sewage disposal pose the most serious threat from tourism to the delicately balanced coral reef ecosystem of the Maldives. Though solid waste is a cause of environmental concern, at current levels it is more of an aesthetic problem. In the past, waste and garbage which could not be burned was dumped into the sea. This practice is now prohibited by law and waste

220 http://www.rrcap.unep.org/reports/soe/maldives_solid.pdf. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004. 221 http://www.rrcap.unep.org/reports/soe/maldives_solid.pdf. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004.

114 incinerators and crushers have to be used in all resorts.222 The Maldives has developed a very suitable form of tourism, appropriate for the small island environment.

The present form of tourism development has not generated any serious environmental impacts. This has been accomplished through appropriate policies, legislation and plans and instituted mechanisms to apply strict standards and regulations. However, the increasing number and magnitude of coastal modifications on the islands, including reclamation, harbor dredging and beach replenishment are serious environmental issues that need to be addressed in the tourism sector.223

The management of solid wastes is identified as a key environmental issue in the Second National Environment

Action Plan. In 1998, a study on The Solid Waste Management for Malé City in the Republic of Maldives was carried out with the assistance of Japan International Co-operation Agency (JICA), to assess the solid waste disposal problems in inhabited islands and resorts.224

The Ministry of Home Affairs, Housing and Environment is currently in the process of developing a national waste management strategy for the country. An interagency technical committee was formed in April 2000 to advice the

Ministry on the national waste management strategy. Under the South Regional Development Project, and with the guidance of the technical committee, a solid waste disposal site has been developed in Hithadhoo. A similar site has been developed under the Northern Regional Development Project in Kulhudhufushi. These waste disposal sites have become operational since 2002.225

7.10.5 Results

Barging of solid waste collected at the transfer station from Malé to Thilafushi has proved practical and efficient. The

222 http://www.rrcap.unep.org/reports/soe/maldives_solid.pdf. Accessed Mar 18th, 2004. 223 http://www.rrcap.unep.org/reports/soe/maldives_solid.pdf. Accessed May 2nd. 2004. 224 http://www.rrcap.unep.org/reports/soe/maldives_solid.pdf. Accessed May 2nd. 2004. 225 http://www.rrcap.unep.org/reports/soe/maldives_solid.pdf. Accessed May 2nd. 2004.

115 experience gained from this operation is planned to be utilized in all the inhabited islands of Malé Atoll in 2002. The solid wastes collected from the inhabited islands in Malé atoll are barged to the Thilafushi landfill. Since this project implementation, the problem of solid waste disposal in Malé Atoll has been significantly improved.

7.11 Mauritius (Africa)

7.11.1 Problem

Mauritius has made considerable progress in solid waste management in the past decade to:

ƒ Extend collection service to virtually all urban residents, collecting solid waste at least twice weekly in

residential neighborhoods and daily in central commercial districts;

ƒ Improve waste transport through use of a system of modern transfer stations, which handle about 50

percent of the country's solid wastes;

ƒ Improve disposal through construction of an environmentally sound sanitary landfill (Mare Chicose) able to

eventually handle about 40 percent of the country's solid wastes;

ƒ and involve the private sector through partial contracting out of collection, transfer and disposal operations.

However, much needs to be done to strengthen the country's capacity to safely manage its solid wastes, and the issue has emerged as one of the top priorities identified in the recent report of the Government, ‘Environmental

Strategies for the Next Decade.’

The main issues and problems faced in implementing a good waste management program can be summarized as follows:226

ƒ Insufficient knowledge of quantities, nature and characteristics of the wastes;

ƒ Lack of a clear strategy for the sector, and apparent lack of consensus on how to address the sector issues;

ƒ Lack of transparency and accountability in sector organization and management;

ƒ Nonperforming procurement procedures, financial controls and contracts monitoring;

ƒ Inadequate and inefficient management of the logistic chain (storage, collection, transfer and disposal);

226 Mauritius - Environmental Solid Waste Management. Project Vol. 1. Report no. PID7926, Project Information Document. June, 1999. 8.

116 ƒ Lack of disposal capacity (existing disposal capacity covers only 40 percent of waste generated

countrywide);

ƒ No planned investment program for the coming decade to address the estimated annual increases in solid

wastes;

ƒ Lack of appropriate institutional, legal and regulatory frameworks;

ƒ Little cost recovery;

ƒ and Low quality of services at high costs.

7.11.2 Context

A part of Southern Africa, the Republic of Mauritius is a group of 3 islands in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar with a land area of 2,040 sq km and a population of 1,210,447.227 The main island, from which the country derives its name, is of volcanic origin and is almost entirely surrounded by coral reefs. Mauritius has a tropical climate and is prone to cyclonic weather. The country has a democratic form of government with jurisdiction covering 9 districts and

3 dependencies.228

7.11.3 Program

Project Name: Mauritius-Environmental Solid Waste Management Project

Implementing Agency Ministry of Local Government

Project Objective: The primary project objective is to assist the Government manage solid wastes in a safe, environmentally-sound and cost-effective manner.

Description: The Environmental Solid Waste Management Project would be an integrated, countrywide program,

227 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mv.html. Accessed May 4th, 2004. 228 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mv.html. Accessed May 4th, 2004.

117 comprising the following components:229

Component A: Support for implementation of an integrated solid waste management system to meet urgent needs and anticipated future waste disposal requirements. This component would support studies and investment in:230

ƒ A sanitary landfill (20 to 40 hectares, depending on depth of fill, with capacity of 400-500 tons per day) for

dewatered wastewater treatment plant sludge, compost residues, incinerator ashes and other non-

hazardous solid wastes. This is needed immediately to handle waste diverted from unsanitary dumps that

are scheduled for closure.

ƒ One or two pilot windrow-pile compost facilities for biodegradable wet organics, with capacity of 50-100 tons

per day. One or two incinerators for dry combustibles and infectious clinical wastes with capacity of 150-200

tons per day.

ƒ One or two transfer stations, depending on need

ƒ Collection vehicles to improve local authority’s performance and to provide competition to the private sector.

Component B: Pilots of innovative approaches. This component would support pilot activities intended to develop and test innovative approaches to reduce the stream of wastes needing final disposal, such as waste minimization, source segregation, and creation of waste exchange networks among countries of the region. The project would also support pilots intended to develop market demand for recycled materials. This component would be implemented during the first two to three years of the project.231

Component C: Institution building. This component would assist with the development of a solid waste management system, addressing issues such as private sector involvement, performance monitoring, cost recovery, institutional structure, legal instruments, regulatory framework, cost accounting, and use of management information systems.

This component would also include support to the Government for activities to increase public awareness of the issues and participation in decision-making throughout the period of project preparation and implementation.232

229 Mauritius - Environmental Solid Waste Management. Project Vol. 1. Report no. PID7926, Project Information Document. June, 1999. 10. 230 Mauritius - Environmental Solid Waste Management. Project Vol. 1. Report no. PID7926, Project Information Document. June, 1999. 10. 231 Mauritius - Environmental Solid Waste Management. Project Vol. 1. Report no. PID7926, Project Information Document. June, 1999. 13. 232 Mauritius - Environmental Solid Waste Management. Project Vol. 1. Report no. PID7926, Project Information Document. June, 1999. 13.

118 7.11.4 Implementation

Objectives: The proposed project will assist the Government of Mauritius manage solid wastes in a safe, environmentally-sound and cost-effective manner. Specific project objectives are to: (a) provide safe, cost-effective, environmentally sound solid waste collection and disposal services to waste generators nationwide (islands of

Mauritius and Rodrigues) for all wastes (urban, hazardous, medical, waste oils, and the like), with an optimal system of waste minimization, recycling and resource recovery; (b) develop cost-recovery systems which ensure that services are financially self-sustaining; and (c) put in place the appropriate institutional arrangements (including private sector involvement), legislative instruments, and regulatory frameworks for the sector, and strengthen institutions responsible for solid waste collection, transfer and disposal.233

Rationale for Bank's Involvement: The Bank has been actively involved with environmental initiatives in Mauritius.

The Bank currently has a highly supportive and productive working relationship with the Government on environmental and infrastructure matters. Bank involvement with developing a solid waste management system will help ensure institutional and financial sustainability of the sector by helping to define and implement appropriate institutional, regulatory and legal frameworks, by assisting with the design and implementation of a medium and long- term investment program, by supporting the development of a cost recovery system, and by helping define the most appropriate role of the private sector. Bank involvement is also critical in mobilizing the most attractive financing package for Mauritius.234

Implementation: The Ministry of Local Government will execute the project. A steering committee will be responsible for policy guidance and overall project oversight, and will ensure coordination and cooperation between public departments, local authorities, other government organizations involved with project implementation, and the private sector. The steering committee will be chaired by the Ministry of Economic Development, Productivity, and Regional

233http://www.wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1999/07/22/000094946_99072205191762/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.p df. Accessed May4th, 2004. 234http://www.wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1999/07/22/000094946_99072205191762/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.p df. Accessed May4th, 2004.

119 Development (MEDPRD) and comprise senior officials from the Ministry of Finance; Ministry of Local Government

(MLG); Ministry of Health and Quality of Life; Ministry of Public Utilities; Ministry of Housing and Lands; Ministry of

Agriculture, Food Technology and Natural Resources; Ministry of Environment, Human Resource Development and

Employment; Ministry of Tourism and Leisure; Waste Water Authority and representatives from urban and rural authorities.235

Environment Aspects (including any public consultation): The construction and operation of waste disposal facilities have potential negative consequences for the environment. Leachates from landfills can contaminate groundwater and destroy source water for drinking or irrigation. Emissions of carbon dioxide from landfills and incinerators can contribute to global warming. Emissions of methane from landfills can contribute to global warming and pose a risk of explosion. Leachates and emissions from transfer stations can pose a nuisance and even a threat to health of nearby residents. Finally, the collection and transport of wastes over narrow roads can cause accidents, emit annoying noises, and pollute the air. The project is environmental category A, and a comprehensive environmental assessment will be carried out, financed by a Japanese Grant.236

Financing

Sources:237

Government: $10.5mn

IBRD: $20.3mn

Other Bilateral Financing Institutions: $35.0mn

Other Private Commercial Sources: $20.0mn

Total: $85.8mn

235http://www.wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1999/07/22/000094946_99072205191762/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.p df. Accessed May4th, 2004. 236http://www.wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1999/07/22/000094946_99072205191762/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.p df. Accessed May4th, 2004. 237http://www.wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1999/07/22/000094946_99072205191762/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.p df. Accessed May4th, 2004.

120 Lessons learned from past operations in the country/sector:

ƒ Cost recovery: Implementation of cost-recovery mechanisms improves financial performance and

sustainability of solid waste services and leads to better decisions about technology and services, since

citizens have a strong interest in trade-offs they wish to make. The project therefore includes studies to

define the most appropriate cost recovery system.238

ƒ Institutional: Under Japanese PHRD Grant funding, a study will be carried out to define an appropriate

institutional framework. The project will assist with implementing new institutional arrangements. It will also

help build capacity through training and technical assistance, investment phasing and careful supervision

and monitoring. This will help create effective, efficient and sustainable institutional arrangements for sector

management.239

ƒ Preparation: The Bank has secured a Japanese Grant to assure that all feasibility studies, institutional

studies, the environmental impact assessment, detailed engineering designs, and tender documents are

fully prepared prior to loan effectiveness. This will reduce the financial costs of borrowing (commitment fees)

and lessen implementation delays.240

7.11.5 Results

Environmental, health and economic benefits will be sustained by the continuous functioning of an appropriate solid waste management system. This will depend on the availability of resources for regular collection and disposal services and for maintenance of facilities. Compliance with environmental regulations is also critical to sustain project benefits. Sustainability should be assured by the cost-recovery mechanisms to be introduced with the project (tariffs, economic incentives for environmental compliance and the like), through diligent environmental monitoring and enforcement of environmental regulations, and through improved sector management.241

238 Mauritius - Environmental Solid Waste Management. Project Vol. 1. Report no. PID7926, Project Information Document. June, 1999. 13. 239 Mauritius - Environmental Solid Waste Management. Project Vol. 1. Report no. PID7926, Project Information Document. June, 1999. 15. 240http://www.wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1999/07/22/000094946_99072205191762/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.p df. Accessed April 24th, 2004. 241 Mauritius - Environmental Solid Waste Management. Project Vol. 1. Report no. PID7926, Project Information Document. June, 1999. 15.

121 7.12 Saipan, Pacific Islands (US Commonwealth)

7.12.1 Problem

Solid waste disposal problems are particularly acute in the Pacific Islands. Land area is limited, shipping garbage is seldom practical and the Islands’ pristine environments are fragile. Increasing volumes of trash, heightened awareness of the long-term consequences of improper disposal mean that solid waste is a growing problem throughout the Pacific.

7.12.2 Context

Saipan is one of fourteen islands of the Northern Marianas Group stretching northward from Guam and it competes with Guam for the hordes of Japanese tourists who flock to its shores. In year 2004 it has a population 47,843.242

Saipan has gentle beaches on its western and southern coasts, a rugged and rocky eastern coast, hilly interior and dramatic cliffs on the northern coast. The island is about 14 miles (23km) long and 5 miles (8km) wide.243 Saipan today is a modern, clean and thriving community comprising several 'villages' that are more like small towns. A former trust territory of the US, Saipan enjoys US Commonwealth status and its people are US citizens.

7.12.3 Program

As most Islands grapple with this seemingly insurmountable problem, the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas has put together a solid waste management plan, the linchpin of which is a state-of-the-art landfill. The 43-acre landfill is in Saipan's northern district of Marpi and is accompanied by a transfer station.244

7.12.4 Implementation

Initial attempts: Construction of the landfill stalled for more than 10 years after it was first proposed in a 1988. During the interim, political bickering about alternate sites kept the project from moving forward. The matter became more

242 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mv.html. Accessed April 24th, 2004. 243 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mv.html. Accessed April 26th, 2004. 244 http://www.pacificislands.cc/pm102003/pmdefault.php?urlarticleid=0005. Accessed April 14th, 2004.

122 urgent as the now-closed Puerto Rico dump became increasingly offensive and it was reaching maximum capacity.245

The Puerto Rico Dump began as a military disposal site for heavy metal scrap in the years after World War II. Since the mid-1950s the area was used for municipal waste, though it did not become the island's primary disposal site until the 1970s-when burning trash and ocean dumping were outlawed. At the same time, the economic boom of the

1980s and 1990s was producing a boom in the volume of trash produced in the community. The first official estimate of trash volume was 128 tons per day in 1994; in 2003 it had grown to 320 tons per day.246

Shortly after Gov. Pedro P. Tenorio began his third term in 1998 (following an eight-year hiatus) he created the Solid

Waste Task Force to expedite the construction of the new landfill and the closure of the Puerto Rico Dump. A request for proposal for the design of the new landfill was published in July 1998.247

Features: The open pit itself covers 27 acres and is divided into three cells. An impermeable high-density polyethylene liner prevents leachate from seeping into ground water or finding its way into the ocean. Water accumulating within the liner is pumped out (on the side of the landfill farthest from the shore) and into a separate treatment pond before it is tested and disposed of when acceptably clean. Soil cover is applied to the refuse daily to minimize noxious fumes and to ward off rats, dogs and insects.248

To increase the life of the landfill-estimated at 20 to 25 years-an active program to reduce the volume of waste that goes into it is underway. Trash haulers and individuals can avoid the tipping fees by taking recyclables-aluminum, glass, paper-to a collection station run by Ericco/Maeda Joint Venture. The aluminum and paper are shipped to Asian scrap markets. Glass is ground to sand for use in construction. The government subsidizes recycling costs and the

245 http://www.pacificislands.cc/pm102003/pmdefault.php?urlarticleid=0005. Accessed April 14th, 2004. 246 http://www.pacificislands.cc/pm102003/pmdefault.php?urlarticleid=0005. Accessed April 14th, 2004. 247 http://www.pacificislands.cc/pm102003/pmdefault.php?urlarticleid=0005. Accessed April 17th, 2004. 248http://www.wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1999/07/22/000094946_99072205191762/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.p df. Accessed April 14th, 2004.

123 program is aided by an island-wide awareness campaign.249

Companies like Ericco Enterprises along with recycling paper and aluminum cans also processes and ships appliances and automobiles off island for recycling. Cloth scraps from Saipan's garment factories, estimated by U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency at 30 tons per day, are also recycled. Green waste, such as leaves, grass and branches, is separated and turned into mulch with the assistance of a chipper.250

Financing: Though the scrap market for cloth is limited, the recycling program-funded by tipping fees and government subsidy-has reduced the cloth going into the landfill by more than half. In order to provide funds for the operation of the landfill, as well as its eventual closure, possible emergency cleanup and for the final disposition of the old dump in the Puerto Rico section of Saipan, a separate ‘Solid Waste Management Revolving Account’ was established in

December 2002. Funding for the account includes a 0.42 percent Environmental Beautification Tax on all consumer goods sold in the CNMI as well as tipping fees. Residential customers may dispose of one cubic yard of waste per week at no charge.251

7.12.5 Results

Groundbreaking on the new landfill took place in February 2002. The project was carried out by a joint venture of

Dick Pacific and Pacific Drilling. The Marpi landfill was finally opened in February 2003. The next solid waste project for the CNMI government is the final closure of the Puerto Rico dump. ‘It may have stopped receiving trash, but it's not closed,’ says Bearden, ‘and part of the EPA order is closing Puerto Rico dump.’ Options currently being studied include covering with a liner and stabilizing the area, removing the trash and restoring the site to its original condition, and constructing a recreation area on top of the site-the preferred choice.252

249http://www.wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1999/07/22/000094946_99072205191762/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.p df. Accessed April 14th, 2004. 250http://www.wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1999/07/22/000094946_99072205191762/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.p df. Accessed April 14th, 2004. 251http://www.wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1999/07/22/000094946_99072205191762/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.p df. Accessed April 24th, 2004. 252 http://www.pacificislands.cc/pm102003/pmdefault.php?urlarticleid=0005. Accessed April 24th, 2004.

124 Finally for the CNMI, a working solid waste plan is in place and the island, after years of delay, now has a landfill with cutting-edge design that will keep the commonwealth's land and water safe from contamination into the foreseeable future.

7.13 Seychelles (Africa)

7.13.1 Problem

The human generation of solid wastes has increased as there has been a general increase in the consumption of packaged goods and other waste-related products in Seychelles. There is also a lack of appropriate land for the siting of disposal facilities. This increase in waste and inadequacy in dealing with it has led to the explosion in vermin and mosquitoes, which are disease-vectors, and common in many parts of Madagascar and Comoros. Solid wastes have also been found to clog up drains leading to flooding. There is an overall lack of in-country know-how to deal with the disposal of the waste.253

7.13.2 Context

Seychelles is an Indian Ocean island state with a population of 80,000 and with an estimated growth rate of 2.2% p.a.254 The GDP per capita of the state is $ 7,000. Seychelles covers a land area of 455 sq. km, including, Mahé, 153 sq. km, and Praslin, 38 sq. km.255 It enjoys a tropical climate.

7.13.3 Program

Seychelles Waste and Cleaning (SWAC) was created in 1995 to manage waste in the Seychelles. An international tender for managing waste in the Seychelles was held in 1996 and it was the locally registered foreign company

STAR (Seychelles) a subsidiary of SITA (France) who was awarded the contract. The contract was signed in

February 1997 for duration of 20 years.256

253 http://www.seychelles-online.com.sc/archives/10200103.html. Accessed April 24th, 2004. 254 http://www.seychelles-online.com.sc/archives/10200103.html. Accessed April 23rd, 2004. 255 http://www.seychelles-online.com.sc/archives/10200103.html. Accessed April 23rd, 2004. 256 http://www.seychelles-online.com.sc/archives/10200103.html. Accessed April 23rd, 2004.

125 7.13.4 Implementation

Implementation Features: SWAC's role is that of supervision of the contractor to ensure that the contracted work is being carried out successfully. The waste collection, treatment and disposal are carried out by STAR whilst the beach cleaning and part of the waste collection is subcontracted. Road cleaning was initially being done by STAR but was later subcontracted.

With a team of only 38 workers SWAC has a technical section which inspects the contracted work and an Accounts section to manage the budget and an Administration section. SWAC has an inspectorate unit on Praslin and La

Digue to oversee waste management and cleaning there also. Initially private individuals were operating on Praslin and la Digue but when STAR took over, the contractors were bought out. Cleaning of the feeder roads, i.e. the smaller roads that feeds into the districts from secondary roads are done by local contractors. SWAC pays these people directly for the road cleaning works which are carried out every three months.257

SWAC also issues contract for trimming of branches above primary and secondary road, cleaning of inter-island quay car park, delittering and cutting of grass at Beau Vallon and maintenance of the public toilet at taxi stand. Currently the country produces about 3000 tons of waste per month a third of which comes directly from residential bin sites and retail shops. STAR is yet to practice sorting out of waste but due to the presence of a scrap metal company at

Providence, most of the scrap metals are sorted on site by the disposer.

Green wastes are also composted at STAR but again this depends on the disposer transporting green waste only.

Hoteliers are being urged to proactively manage the large volumes of solid and hazardous wastes that their establishments generate as this practice could reduce their operating costs, preserve local nature attractions, reduce odors and pest infections and ensure the development of sustainable tourism.258

257 http://www.pps.gov.sc/enviro/html/solid_waste_management.html. Accessed April 24th, 2004. 258 http://www.pps.gov.sc/enviro/html/solid_waste_management.html. Accessed April 24th, 2004.

126 STAR Seychelles, SITA subsidiary, has brought into service a new composting plant built on the site of a former

Material Recovery Facility, in Providence. The centre produces 1000 tones of compost a year, and its quality was approved by the Standard Bureau of Seychelles (SBS), which has adopted Canadian standards. The centre recovers around 140 tones of waste a month.259

In order to compost this green waste, the centre uses husks (beer filtration residues) from a neighboring brewery.

These accelerate degradation and eliminate odors. The process is also speeded up by favorable climatic conditions, heat and 80% humidity. Once matured, the compost goes through a screen which takes out any pieces exceeding 20 mm in diameter. Marketing trials for this compost are being carried out in the United Arab Emirates by SITA's subsidiary Trashco.260

Existing Institutional Arrangements: Under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Planning and Environment, there is a

Division of Environment which is responsible for policy and program matters on environmental protection, conservation and forestry. The three main implementing arms of the Division are the National Parks and

Conservation section, the Forestry section and the Environmental Assessment and Pollution Control section. The specific portfolio of the Division since June 1992 has been to keep the environment clean in respect of streams and rivers outside Victoria, preserve marshes, national parks and reserves, protected areas (including beaches in marine parks), public parks and gardens and the general administration of the Environment Protection Act.261

Other agencies involved in environmental pursuits are:

ƒ Solid Waste Agency Corporation (SWAC): responsible for collection and disposal of solid waste.

ƒ Seychelles Bureau of Standards: Responsible for drafting environmental standards and providing laboratory

facilities to national research institutions.

259 http://www.pps.gov.sc/enviro/html/solid_waste_management.html. Accessed April 24th, 2004. 260 http://www.pps.gov.sc/enviro/html/solid_waste_management.html. Accessed April 24th, 2004. 261 http://www.unep.org/eaf/Docs/SAPEaf5/seychel.htm. Accessed April 23rd, 2004

127 ƒ Seychelles Fishing Authority: Mandate includes the control and development of fisheries and protection of

marine species. Carries out research on the marine and coastal environment and controls pollution in the

fishing ports.

ƒ Department of Tourism and Transport (Ports and Marine Services Division): Responsible for the control of

pollution discharges and accidental oil spills from ships in the harbor and within the territorial waters.

Some Priority of Actions to Mitigate Land-Based Sources of Coastal and Marine Pollution

In view of the upward trend of land-based pollution of the Seychelles marine and fresh water environments, the following recommendations are made that will contribute towards mitigating further degradation of these natural resources:

Solid Waste Disposal

ƒ The present solid waste disposal site, which is situated within the coastal environment, poses the risk of

leaching contaminants into the coastal ecosystem. The water quality within that ecosystem should be

monitored in order to assess any degradation in its quality. Moreover, an alternative site for solid waste

disposal should be identified further inland.262

ƒ Solid waste classification should be encouraged right from the households to the industries.

ƒ Alternatives should be sought to the burying of plastic waste, as this practice cannot be taken as a long-term

solution due to the limited space available on the islands. Recycling and re-use of such waste should be

encouraged.

ƒ Scrap metal should be recycled or exported as a possible means of its disposal.

Environmental Education

Environmental education should be strengthened through the national educational program. Public awareness of the importance of environmental protection should be extended through the use of television and radio.263

Economic Incentives

262 http://www.unep.org/eaf/Docs/SAPEaf5/seychel.htm. Accessed April 23rd, 2004 263 http://www.unep.org/eaf/Docs/SAPEaf5/seychel.htm. Accessed April 23rd, 2004

128 Economic incentives should be offered to industries as a means of safeguarding and protecting the environment. A scheme of Environmental Awards could be applied to industries.264

Legislation

Conflicting views among governmental agencies charged with similar environmental responsibilities hinders the efficient implementation of tasks. It is necessary to reassess the legislative mechanism so that enforcement of environmental laws becomes more efficient.265

Barriers: Management instruments; Public participation; Institutional arrangements, Monitoring and Assessment,

Capacity Building, Evaluation, Compliance.

ƒ Planning-programming: Proper follow-up of inspectors is essential as well as spot checking to ensure that

the house visits are being done satisfactorily. School talks needs to be an ongoing process.266

ƒ Management instruments: Other than having a good legal instrument it is important to have well trained

officers in both technical and legal enforcement to ensure success. Environmental Standards should be

country specific taking into consideration climatic conditions, baseline data and economic feasibility.267

The Sita group’s work will be concerned with the collection, recycling, recovery and treatment of waste and the cleaning of roads and beaches.

7.13.5 Results

Acknowledging that poor solid waste management does not only contaminate water sources, but also destroys the very environment that is the prime reason tourists come to our shores, MTT has found it apt to create public awareness on this subject.

A lot of effort has gone into public sensitization especially with regard to good waste management practices and promulgation of the 3 R's. During early 2003 SWAC and STAR launched the sorting out at source program at Roche

264 http://www.unep.org/eaf/Docs/SAPEaf5/seychel.htm. Accessed April 23rd, 2004 265 http://www.unep.org/eaf/Docs/SAPEaf5/seychel.htm. Accessed April 23rd, 2004. 266 http://www.sitagroup.com/english/savoir/metiers/compostage/focus.htm. Accessed April 22nd, 2004. 267 http://www.sitagroup.com/english/savoir/metiers/compostage/focus.htm. Accessed April 22nd, 2004.

129 Caiman. Three different skips were placed for residents to sort out plastic, green waste, and scrap metal/bulky waste.

The response has been good with green waste and bulky waste but not so for the plastic.268 More sensitization and education is being envisaged to overcome these problems.

7.14 La Palma, Canary Islands (Spain)

7.14.1 Problem

Waste management in La Palma is at present a serious obstacle to guaranteeing, both now and in the future, a minimum level of balanced and sustained development in accordance with its resources and potential. Perhaps the most urgent requirement for achieving sustained development in La Palma is to make a drastic correction to the current state of waste management, undoubtedly the main environmental problem the island faces, and recognized as such by both the island authorities and society in general.

7.14.2 Context

Situated in the N.W. of the Canary Island chain, La Palma is a mountainous island (max. altitude of 2,500 m.) covering a surface area of 700 sq km and has a population of 80,000.269 The island of La Palma is in a privileged situation if considered as a whole. It has a series of aspects, values and natural, economic and social resources, such as its extraordinary natural landscape of great beauty and a wealth of bio-diversity that underpin its privileged position. It also has a pleasant climate that supports a highly productive agricultural sector. This is important because it means that the local economy is not solely dependent on tourism, but does have the conditions to attract a more select type of tourism in search of something different and charming.270

7.14.3 Program

La Palma Integral Waste management Plan

An island with all the territorial, economic, social and environmental parameters mentioned above, is an appropriate framework for applying the most advanced waste management policies, with all their consequences: prevention,

268 http://www.sitagroup.com/english/savoir/metiers/compostage/focus.htm. Accessed April 22nd, 2004. 269 www.insula.org/islands/lapalma.htm. Accessed Mar 2, 2004. 270 www.insula.org/islands/lapalma.htm. Accessed May 2, 2004.

130 selective collection and maximum re-use of waste, by integrating these policies in the island economy and society.

Reducing waste generation to a minimum is essential for two reasons on an island as small as La Palma and as far away from re-cycling centers: on the one hand, in order to prevent the whole island from becoming a rubbish tip and on the other, to eliminate unnecessary costs.271

Making the most of waste materials from ‘all’ solid waste (not just solid domestic waste) on the island itself implies, in turn, avoiding extractions (aggregates for building, etc.) and imports (organic compost and peat for banana production), leading to the consequent development in the island economy, cost savings and increase in self- sufficiency and sustainability in integral resource management. From a technical standpoint, by basing a waste policy on prevention, separation at source and selective collection of the different components of rubbish as a key factor for achieving high re-cycling levels without excessive and complex mechanical facilities, means opting for winning public participation to reach the target of an island without waste, or landfills or incinerators.272

This ambitious objective, described in an extensive and detailed report, based on field work (data collection, opinions, willingness to co-operate) and experimental work (analyses, pilot composting schemes) is called the La Palma

Integral Waste management Plan (1997). The PLAN is currently being approved by the La Palma Island Government

(Cabildo).273 It has been drawn up by a multi-disciplinary team made up almost exclusively of top experts in selective collection, re-cycling and high quality composting.

7.14.4 Implementation

The PLAN, with the intervention of a dozen experts, has taken two years to complete. Given the complex, difficult and serious state of waste management, with three highly-polluting incinerators (two of which are in a very bad state)

271 www.edcodisposal.com/la-palma.htm. Accessed Mar 22, 2004. 272 www.edcodisposal.com/la-palma.htm. Accessed Mar 22, 2004. 273 www.insula.org/islands/theplan.htm. Accessed May 1st, 2004.

131 and several uncontrolled tips (the one in Santa Cruz is in a dangerous state), the PLAN has been drawn up to be put into operation within a short period of time (6 months to 1 year).274

The contents of the PLAN have been widely publicized before being approved, via a conference that was held in April

1997, in which the authors of the PLAN, among others, spent a week explaining the contents to the people of La

Palma. The conference, organized by the Island Cabildo, attracted large numbers of the local population and enabled the authorities to disseminate the objectives and how these were to be achieved, and to start informing the general public and involving them in the management of the serious problem of waste that the island has.275

Contents of the Plan: The Plan is divided in two parts:

ƒ Analysis of the present situation

ƒ Proposed Actions

Analysis of the present situation:

This first part consists of elaborating an exhaustive ‘Census of Solid Waste’ generated in the islands: these include: domestic and compatible waste, industrial waste, agricultural waste, livestock waste and forestry waste. The local team has spent a year working on identifying sources of waste, quantities and qualities (analysis), current and potential levels of re-cycling, system of management (including costs), environmental impacts and existing facilities.

They have also studied the willingness of those who generate waste, to collaborate with the new management model.276

A detailed study has been carried out on the quantity and quality of solid domestic waste, including weighing, qualitative compositional analysis of the waste from each borough, differentiating between residential (divided into districts) and rural areas. Some areas were also classified as commercial and tourist districts.

274 www.insula.org/islands/theplan.htm. Accessed May 1st, 2004. 275 www.insula.org/islands/theplan.htm. Accessed May 1st, 2004. 276 www.insula.org/islands/theplan.htm. Accessed May 1st, 2004.

132

Eleven components of a rubbish bag have been separated and analyzed. Collection and treatment (incineration and landfill) have also been studied, along with detailed costs and quality of service. The same methodology was also applied to the other categories of waste, with special emphasis being placed on waste generated by banana production, the second largest source of solid waste.277 The ‘Waste Census’ has been used to draw a La Palma

‘waste map’, which has enabled the authorities to analyze the generation, management and potential re-cycling structure of the Island's solid waste from a geographical perspective and accordingly develop action programs.

7.14.5 Results

Application to Other Islands: The La Palma Integral Solid Waste Management Plan is a model of environmental, economic and social management in a privileged and fragile area. It offers a method of analysis and proposed solutions that can be adapted to other small and medium sized islands in which waste generation has become a difficult problem to solve. The structure of the PLAN, divided into ‘Action Programs’, makes it possible to prioritize objectives and applications according to the needs and possibilities of each island.278

The priority of reusing fermentable organic waste, the final product of which - compost - is always useful to the soil, be it arid or fertile soil, makes it possible to almost completely eliminate landfills, which would only be used as a solution for inert waste with minimum environmental impact. In the same way, re-cycling building and demolition waste reduces the need for excavations and harm to the landscape, and also provide material for new construction

(cement and earth for covering and filling), practically eliminating the unpleasant environmental impact involved in the uncontrolled dumping of rubble.279

The PLAN is based on user friendly technological systems that can be transferred with the due vocational training for local workers. The technological investment is a relatively moderate one, and the creation of ecological and socially

277 www.insula.org/islands/theplan.htm. Accessed May 1st, 2004. 278 www.insula.org/islands/theplan.htm. Accessed May 1st, 2004. 279 www.insula.org/islands/theplan.htm. Accessed May 1st, 2004.

133 useful jobs is one of the results of this investment, because of the intense activity forecast in the fields of communications and reuse of waste. By organizing the integral management of the PLAN on an island-wide scale, a coherent organization of the public education, information and communications programs is possible. It also makes it possible to organize selective collection and treatment systems, with considerable savings in investment and maintenance costs.280

7.15 Jamaica

7.15.1 Problem

Solid waste disposal has been identified as the top environmental concerns for the island nation of Jamaica. A recent study showed that its municipal solid waste (MSW) stream had a high organics content-55 percent food residuals and yard trimmings. Another study indicated two-thirds of the island’s MSW- some 408,000 tons- were taken to

Kingston’s Riverton landfill, pointing out that the uncollected one-third was illegally dumped and was the main contributor to decreased water quality.281

7.15.2 Context

Jamaica is an island in the Caribbean Sea, south of Cuba. It has a total land area of 10,991 sq km. and a population of 2,695,867.282 Jamaica has a typically tropical climate and the terrain is mostly mountainous, with narrow, discontinuous coastal plains. Jamaica has 14 administrative divisions (Parishes) and has a democratic form of government.283

7.15.3 Program

The University of Georgia’s Outreach Service was invited by Jamaica Tours to assess the potential for composting in two high-profile locales- Hellshire Beach and the Blue Mountains of Jamaica- as a low cost, decentralized alternative

280 www.insula.org/islands/theplan.htm. Accessed May 1st, 2004. 281 Britt, Faucet, Laura, Ediger. Composting Boosts Tourism and Coffee Production-Case Study Jamaica. BioCycle, Volume II. December, 2003. 59. 282 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/profileguide.html. Accessed May 4th, 2004. 283 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/profileguide.html. Accessed May 4th, 2004.

134 to landfilling and to discourage illegal dumping.

7.15.4 Implementation

Findings

Hellshire Beach:

Hellshire Beach is located just outside of Kingston and is one of the main destinations where Kingston natives go to the beach. Hellshire is also a traditional fishing village that has been able to maintain its way of life partly due to the influx of Jamaican tourists. Fish fry shacks and seafood restaurants are the largest employers in the village and mainly cater to the recent influx of Jamican and international tourists. Consequently fish and food waste are the largest waste streams and there is no system for disposal. Most of it is stockpiled and burned on beaches or dumped into nearby mangrove swamps. It is believed that this practice is negatively affecting tourism in the area both due to environmental as well as aesthetic reasons.284

Composting organic residuals will yield a much needed soil amendment as soils are quite sandy and imported soil amendments are very expensive. It is proposed that community garden plots will be established with the compost and will be used to grow vegetables for needy families and also be sold to the seafood restaurant, which are the leading source of income for the town.285

Growing Certified Coffee- Blue Mountains:

The Content Gap region is located in the Blue Mountains just above Kingston. It is in this region that the world famous Blue Mountain coffee is grown and processed. To be certified as Blue Mountain coffee, coffee plants must be grown at an elevation above 35,000 feet. Because this type of coffee must be grown at high elevations, typically on

284 Britt, Faucet, Laura, Ediger. Composting Boosts Tourism and Coffee Production-Case Study Jamaica. BioCycle, Volume II. December, 2003. 59. 285 Britt, Faucet, Laura, Ediger. Composting Boosts Tourism and Coffee Production-Case Study Jamaica. BioCycle, Volume II. December, 2003. 59.

135 mountain slopes, most farms are small and are interested in reducing inputs to increase farm stability.286

The city of Refuge owns 12 acres of certified Blue Mountain coffee under production. It is planning to expand its operations and is interested in transitioning to organic agricultural practices as two adjacent farms that practice organic agriculture have greater yields and a broader market. The city of Refuge believes that composting is an important element in the transition. Currently the Refuge coffee farm buys chicken litter for fertilizer, uses a well- known herbicide for weed control and insecticide to control its main pest the berry borer. The fields are interspersed with banana trees for shade grown coffee production and to help stabilize the steep mountain slopes. It is proposed that compost will be produced from a children’s home in Refuge and from agricultural waste from the farm.287

7.15.5 Results

The composting system would become an educational component for the children, and finished compost will be used in the coffee fields and vegetable gardens to reduce the need for imported manure and potentially reduce the need for pesticide. In addition excess compost and mulch material could be used to control erosion and stabilize the steeper slopes as 80 bushes were recently lost due to heavy rains characteristic to this region. Refuge plans to use the composting system and product as a model for other coffee farms interested in sustainable coffee production.288

Deteriorating economic conditions during the 1970s led to recurrent violence and a drop-off in tourism. Political violence marred elections during the 1990s. The system of composting is seen as a way of not only increasing coffee production and boosting the economy, but also as a means of revitalizing the aesthetics of the island and hence promoting tourism.

A summary of the case studies discussed here as well as the analysis of the key features is presented in the succeeding chapter (8).

286 Britt, Faucet, Laura, Ediger. Composting Boosts Tourism and Coffee Production-Case Study Jamaica. BioCycle, Volume II. December, 2003. 59. 287 Britt, Faucet, Laura, Ediger. Composting Boosts Tourism and Coffee Production-Case Study Jamaica. BioCycle, Volume II. December, 2003. 60. 288 Britt, Faucet, Laura, Ediger. Composting Boosts Tourism and Coffee Production-Case Study Jamaica. BioCycle, Volume II. December, 2003. 60.

136 8. SUMMARY AND ANALYSIS OF CASE STUDIES

The fifteen case studies have been summarized in the operations framework matrix (Table 8.1).

The Operations Framework Matrix

The operations framework matrix outlines the key ‘operational’ features of each case study. The matrix features the following:

ƒ Strategy adopted

ƒ Key features of the strategy

ƒ Prerequisites for the success of the program

ƒ Underlying policy or ideology

ƒ Administrative or institutional support obtained and the finance mechanism if listed

ƒ Awareness and education component associated with each program

ƒ Problems encountered

ƒ Results

The analysis below focuses on the ‘key features’ section of the operations framework matrix as that embodies the key ideas of each case study. The other sections though not explicitly discussed are sometime linked to the discussion on the key features section or find appropriate mention in later discussions.

137 Table 8.1: The Operations Framework Matrix

Island Management Key Features Pre-requisites Underlying policy Governance Awareness/education Problems Results Strategy/Operation/ /conditions for influence/ encountered Practice success administrative innovation involved Olongapo city, Citywide garbage Administrative Innovation 1. Willingness of 1. Making Olongapo a 1. Program instituted by 1. Jingles, Slogans 1. Initial resistance to 1. The program Zambales collection and 1. Inspections and levying fines residents to pay fee clean city the Olongapo city payment of a garbage served 85% of the (Phillipines) disposal program and abide with government under then 2. children poster making fees as it was city's population Technical Innovation prescribed disposal and 2. Making residents Mayor Richard Gordon and essay writing contests percieved as the 1. Use of garbage bags for disposal collection regulations responsible in their responsibility of the city 2. Water bodies handling of waste, 2. Garbage truck 3. cleanliness competition government cleared of waste and Management Innovation 2. Inter-agency (Dept. through information, donations made by among barangays waste-related 1. Service fee of Sports, City Health education and USAID and JICA 2. the program could pollution 2. Organising junk dealers Office, Dept. of communication not serve hilly sections 3. Waste collection on regular basis Education and Culture of the city due to 3. Garbage burning 4. Garbage trucks with jingle to attract attention and City Toursim 3. Revenue earned inaccessibility-- along sea-shores and spread awareness Council) collaborations ensured sustainability collection points were ceased and support of the of the program established but their program distance proved to be 4. Residents have a disincentive cleaner and healthier environment Bustos, Reuse-Reduce- Administrative Innovation 1. Strong leadership Zero Waste 1. Program instituted by 1. Dialogues were held at 1. Initial deficiency of 1. Mobilization of the Bulacan Recycle 1. Passage and strict enforcement of ordinances Management- to the second-term Mayor the Purok level (house-to- finances for meeting community- self-help (Phillippines) 2. Local government employees were required to 2. Willingness of provide residents with Pablito Mendoza and house campaigning) the budget of the adopt a Barangay and assist in waste residents for a self-help good health and better the newly constituted municipality- however 2. reduced garbage - management efforts system of management quality of life through a Local Health Board 2. People were persuaded by piloting in select cleaner and healthier garbage-free by the Municipal Health Barangays and environment Technical Innovation 3. Strict vigilance and environment 2. Partnerships with Office to attend zonal implementing in stages 1. Household and Backyard cleaning--separating enforcement of several governmental dialogues and assemblies this deficit was soon 3. Additional income recyclables and maintaining pit for organic material ordinances organisations as well as overcome through reuse of 2. Establishment of local storage centers for NGO's were 3. 'Little Doctors of Bustos'- recycled material recyclables or returnable waste material 4. Formation of established program for educating collaborations and children Management Innovation partnerships at various 3. Mobilization of 1. Program involved two stages- levels Volunteers 4. Showcase of recycled a) social preparation and materials b) community-wide implementation 2. Program piloted at the Barangay level before 5. Recognition of people's municipality-wide implementation efforts- annual Model 3. Appointement of Ecology Officer and a Backyard and Model Barangay Health worker by municipality Barangay contests held 4. Purok clustering and dialogues 5. Regular collection 6. Monthly monitoring and 6. The Little Doctors of Bustos- educating children assessment of all the 7. Showcase of recycled materials Barangays 8. Recognition of people's efforts- annual Model Backyard and Model Barangay contests held 7. Training centers for 9. Training centers for recycling materials recycling materials established by municipality established by the 10. Monthly monitoring and assessment of all the municipality Barangays

139 Dumaguete Converting a sanitary Technical Innovation 1. Willingness of Program was crafted 1. Program initiated by The program apart from Initially the city's solid 1. Creation of a City, Negros landfill (located on 1. Dumpsite divided into two sections: a)dumping scavengers to forgo (to under the city's Solid the city government training the scavengers did waste management livlihood center to Oriental dry riverbed) into a section b) ecological park and temporary shelter a certain extent) their Waste Management supported by bussiness have an educational program was proving provide additional (Phillippines) recreational park for the scavenger families conventional job and Ordinance for proper owners, residents and component to it--the city to be a losing source of income for 2. The dry riverbed became a source of learn new techniques of diposal of solid wastes above all scavengers in residents were educated proposition--mainly scavengers construction material for the city's infrastructural earning money from as well as revenue that area and informed through due to lack of interest projects waste recycling and generation for the city various media about the and lack of funding--it 2. Provided open compost manufacturing program and its viability was when the project space for city Management Innovation 'creation of a residents and visitors 1. Scavengers organized into a co-operative and 2. Ensuring that the rectreational park on imparted training in garbage segregation, dumpsite would not the dumpsite' was 3. The closure of the composting and recycling pose health risks post- proposed that the dumpsite promoted a 2. The 91 co-operative members earned income closure program caught new solid waste by producing and selling compost fertilizer and attention and people management recyclable materials 3. willingness of started taking keen ordinance of reduce, residents to use such a interest reuse, recycle and facility for recreational segregate purposes--educating them about its safety

Santa Maria, Reduction, recovery Administrative Innovative 1. Ensuring clear and Zero Waste 1. Program was the 1. NGO AWARE and Santa 1. Initial funding was a 1. A model program Bulacan and reuse of waste 1. Partnership with NGO sound contract Management- guiding brainchild of then Maria Economic problem that attracted (Phillipines) 2. Various ordinances were passed conditions between all principle being that Mayor Reylina Nicolas Foundation launched a widespread domestic parties involved 'waste is a resource massive information 2. The program attention Technical Innovation that needs to be used 2. LGU received dissemination and provided good results 1. waste segregation at household and 2. Extensive educating properly' extensive support from education campaign during and although it was 2. Santa Maria municipality level and campaigning to AWARE an NGO as a its pilot application well accepted, the became a cleaner 2. processing of both biodegradable and non- change people's consultant as well as recycling plant closed and healthier place biodegradable fractions traditional mentality other governemnt down in 2001 due to 3. Installation of separate bags for bio-degradable about garbage departments and local foul play by the NGO 3. Boosted the and non-biodegradable waste in public spaces agencies economy through 3. Strict vigilance and job-creation and Management Innovation adherance to ordinaces 3. LGU provided a income-generation 1. LGU acquired dumpsite interest-free loan to 2. NGO and various departments were assigned AWARE for operational 4. Promoted organic responsibilities expenses farming 3. Anti-littering campaigns organised through various civic bodies 4. AWARE on their part 5. Waste Recycling 4. Piloting of program in town market area made significant Plant closed down 5. Information dissemination campaigns organised donations to complete due to non-payment 6. Demonstrations on the use of organic fertilizer the structure of the of loan and foul play and effecient ways of waste management recycling plant by NGO 7. Production and sale of organic fertilizer earned revenue for AWARE and LGU 8. Creation of 30 jobs in the waste sector by LGU

140 Odiongan, Development of a Administrative Innovation 1. use of indegeneous Ecological Solid Waste 1. Implemented by the 1. Distribution of fliers 1. Frequent equipment 1. Most soil- Romblon waste processing 1. Enforcement of ordinances on littering and technology Management Program- municipality and other failure often interrupted conditioner used for (Phillippines) center with: landfill, illegal disposal of solid waste Objectives: government 2. ESWMP task force compost production small farming composting and 2. Willingness of local a) create a sustainable organizations launched a house-to-house projects recycling operations Technical Innovation population and method to manage information campaign 2. Biodegradable 1. Segregation of waste at household level into bussinesses to use solid waste 2. 98% of the initial waste deposited in 2. Despite three fractions: biodegradable, recyclable and recyclables and locally capital and operational landfill disruptions, amount residual produced reusable b) create and promote expenses were funded of solid waste in 2. sophisticated five chamber composting facility resources alternative livlihoods by the Phillipines 3. Local farmers landfill reduced started as organic waste fraction was significant government reluctant to use soil- thereby incresing the 3. formal sanitary landfill developed that uses rice- 3. forming partnerships c) provide conditioner produced lifespan of the landfill hull as daily cover-material reducing odor and cost with other GO's and resources/reduce by compost plant due 4. Extensive farming has been done in the SWPC NGO's and sharing dependence on outside to low nitrogen content area to produce reusable resource as well as management resources and inconsistent create a visual and physical barrier production rates 4. ensuring a smooth Management Innovation finance mechanism 1. Public awareness campaigns through a 'solid waste task force' 2. Different collection schedules for the three fractions 3. scavengers aid in segregating recyclables at the facility 4. low-nitrogen content compost/soil-conditioner produced and sold to local farmers 5. recycling centre collects recyclables and sends them to a buy-back center in the adjoining villages

141 Tongatapu, Proposal for Technical Innovation 1. Availability of Devising a method of 1. Intra-departmental Departments and sub- 1. Limited skilled staff The project was Pacific Islands development of a 1. Detailed design of the waste facility finances, skills and waste disposal that is partnerships were committees of the project successful in (Kingdom of modern waste emcompassing a vehicle reception facility, staff resources (land) economically forged to help devise networked with the various 2. Limited island addressing a range Tonga) management facility amenities, small vehicle waste disposal facility, sustainable, socially the management and stakeholders in order to resources of waste on a redundant recycling center, garden and wood waste 2. Solution has to be and politically operations plan maximise ownership and management quarry site (Tapuhia) processing facility, engineered sanitary landfill, politically and socially acceptable input 3. Giving waste challenges and storage shed/workshop acceptable andenvironmentally 2. The Australian management priority taking the community 2. Establishing a network of transfer stations responsible Agency for International over other issues a step towards throughout Tonga 3. Educating and Development (AusAid) sustainable training the local people was instrumental as not 4. Obtaining landfill development Management Innovation only a primary funding cover material on a 1. An extensive description of the waste facility and 4. Extensive education agency, but also in coral atoll its layout, details of site, site supervision and and awareness capacity building, as staffing campaigns well as research and 5. Reluctance to sell 2. The sources and quantities of waste to be study of the area land for waste managed management facilities 3. Detailed management including the roles and due to traditional forms responsibilities of the various governmental of land ownership authorities 4. Contingency plans 6. Recycling in 5. Estimates of capital and operating costs locations that are very 6. Maximise existing viable recycling initiatives remote from 7. Establish scavenging rights for reusable waste reprocessing facilities deposited at the facility

142 New Comprehensive solid Administrative Innovation 1. Assurance of Solid Waste 1. Poject initiation and 1. Extensive health and 1. DEHS may not be 1. The proposed Providence waste management 1. Priority investment for disposal facilities - continued availability of management project - feasibility study environmental educational able to sustain its program has (Bahamas) strategy for waste sanitary landfills,transfer stations and a yard waste finances (involvement Improving the solid undertaken by the campaigns institutional capacity significant disposal shredding facility of Banks) waste management Government of the enviromental, social, 2. Amended acts and waste regulations services (especially Commonwealth of 2. Technical training and 2. Maintenance of economic and health 2. All operational disposal) in the Family Bahamas' Department assistance at all levels collection and disposal benefits Technical Innovation functions within the islands to protect the of Environment, Health services 1. Providing better and regular daily cover in DEHS to be environment and public and Services 2. It would greatly landfills consolidated under a health reduce illicit littering 2. Construction of modified landfills single unit 2. Extensive support by and dumping 3. Backyard composting operations the Bank in terms of 3. Performance and finance and compliance 3. It would lead to a Management Innovation efficiency indicators to with new regulations cleaner environment- 1. Environmental health education and awareness be established for less water and soil program collection and disposal pollution 2. Partnership forged with private agency for activities recycling derelict vehicles 3. Institutional support to DEHS (capacity building) 4. Regular monitoring and research (environmental and social reviews) and capacity building to ensure compliance with operating and environmental standards

5. Public-Private sector partnerships

143 Isabela, Recycling of solid Administrative Innovation 1. Ensured initial Awareness building Program initiated by the 1. Media: television, video 1. Raising the initial 1. Recycling reduced Galapagos wastes and 1. Meetings with various stakeholders for funding financing and providing the local Galapagos recordings at public places funds took a long time the amount of waste (Ecuador) promoting eco- and support population a clean and Conservation Trust and and newspapers were as several sources had to be disposed by tourism 2. Adoption of certain measures by the Galapagos 2. Existing market for healthy environment the Galapagos Cruise extensively used for public to be relied upon for Isabela significantly cruise ships to ensure minimal damage to fragile recyclables free of pollution and ships awareness and education money ecology disease through proper on proper waste disposal 2. The urban zones 3. Support and co- disposal and reuse of practices and the benefits 2. Changing the local had a clean and Technical Innovation operation between all waste of recycling populations' mindset disease-free 1. Landfilling of the organic and non-recyclable stakeholders : was a challenge environment component of waste; providing weekly earth cover bussinesses, industry, 2. Door-to-door education and reforesting after closure of landfill administration, public campaign was launched to 3. Getting the local 3. Local council 2. Construction of a facility for recieving, sorting, change the mindsets of population involved received a lot of packing and storing recyclables; certain materials 4. Public education on people with the recycling support for recycling especially packed and donated to community proper waste disposal efforts was a challenge members (such as women groups) or sent to and the use of 3. meetings between the 4. The derelict sites mainland recyclables municipality and the GCT where waste had with various stakeholders been deposited in Management Innovation 5. Willingness of the were commenced to gain the past were 1. Use of media and door-to-door campaign (on tourist industry to their support restored through proper method of waste disposal); educating propagate eco-friendly reforestation using children about recycling tourism practices native plants 2. Clean-up work groups organised by the municipal government 3. Placement of recycling containers in public areas; distribution of various colored bags for disposal of the various waste components 4. Establishing weekly waste collection routine; 5. Arrangement with cargo ships to carry back packaged recyclables free of cost 6. Recycling factories on mainland responsible for conversion or disposal of the recyclables and profit-sharing thereafter

Isle of Wight Household waste Administrative Innovation 1. willingness of For small islands land Council contracted Educating people on the Initial momentum and 1. Only materials (England) collection, recycling 1. Waste disposal given priority in the Council government to is a finite resource- waste management to use of RDF, backyard government support shipped to mainland and disposal budget appropriate a significant hence alternative a private contractor composting and proper were a challenge for recycling are amount of the budget to solutions for waste waste disposal techniques paper and glass Technical Innovation waste management disposal have to be 1. Recycling plant set up-45% recycling/diversion encouraged 2. Good private- rate from landfill achieved in first 3 years 2. willingness of public partnership 2. In-vessel composting system used in residents to use low- conjunction with a refuse-derived-fuel plant to energy value fuel and 3. Excellent rural achieve high recycling rates electricity waste management 3. RDF used to generate electricity-powers 1000 with all the waste island homes 3. private-public arising on the island partnerships being dealt with there Management Innovation 1. Tenders invited for integrated system of waste management- waste management contracted

144 Male (Republic Policy responses and Administrative Innovation 1. Strict adherance to To improve the waste 1. Government of Inter-agency capacity Absence of legislation 1. Barging of solid of Maldives) initiatives for proper 1. Detailed study of solid waste management for the policies and laws disposal practices so Maldives instrumental building pertaining to coastal waste using transfer waste management Male conducted by JICA as not to adversely in developing suitable modifications such as station at Male to 2. Dumping of waste in sea and wetland areas is 2. Regular inspections affect the environment legislations reclamations using Thilafushi landfill is strictly prohibited and monitoring through habitat waste practical and efficient 3. Backyard composting encouraged destruction and 2. Extensive support of 4. Open burning of waste is prohibited 3. efficient waste pollution Japan International Co- 2. Adherance to laws 5. Sustainable form of tourism has been developed collection system in operation Agency pertaining to waste through strict standards of legislations and plans place (JICA) in carrying out disposal have been 6. Inter-agency technical committee formed to waste management largely effective advise on national waste management strategy strategic studies

Technical Innovation 1. Developed a transfer station to collect residual wastes that are then barged from Male to Thilafushi landfill

Management Innovation 1. Two new solid waste disposal sites to be developed

145 Mauritius A sanitary landfill, Administrative Innovation 1. good knowledge of The Environmental 1. The Ministry of Local 1. Training and technical 1. Implementation was 1. Though the (South Africa) pilots of innovative 1. Strengthen Institutional arrangements, private sources, quantities and Solid Waste Government is the key assistance was provided delayed increasing the program approaches and sector involvement, legal instruments responsible nature of waste Management Project: implementing agency financial cost of implementation was institution building as for solid waste collection, transfer and disposal to enable the 2. Educating the people borrowing delayed, it was an approach to 2. Inter-agency collaborations between public 2. Consensus on how government manage 2. Japanese Grant about the proposal for a sucessful in Integrated system of departments, local authorities and the private to address the sectoral solid wastes in a safe funding was secured supplementary waste gathering momentum waste management sector issues environmentally sound management system by and ensuring and cost-effective 3. Inter-agency linkages the use of media sustainability Technical Innovation 3. Transparency and manner were established 1. Provision of a sanitary landfill for compost accountability in 2. Environmental, residue, incinerator ashes and other non- management health and economic hazardous solid wastes benefits were 2. Pilot compost facilities for wet organics; pilot 4. Plan investment sustained transfer stations program, establish financial controls, cost- Management Innovation recovery mechanism 1. Provision of safe, cost-effective and and contracts environmentally sound system of collection and monitoring disposal services to waste generators 2. Cost recovery systems which ensure that 5. Good communication services are financially self-sustaining and inter-agency 3. Involvement of the bank to ensure institutional linkages and financial sustainability 4. Addressing environmental concerns such as 6. Training and groundwater contamination from leachate technical assistance production or global warming from methane availability production 7. Educating the people about the disposal method in use

8. Availability of resources for regular collection and disposal

9. Compliance with environmental regulations

146 Saipan (Pacific State-of-art landfill Administrative Innovation 1. willingness of people Long-term improper 1. The Commonwealth Training people as skilled The project took a long 1. The old dump is Islands) facility (Marpi) 1. Funding comes primarily from beautfication tax to pay higher taxes and disposal of waste of the Northern labor for the landfilling time before it was undergoing closure on consumer goods as well as tipping fee tipping fee would render the island Marianas proposed the operation implemented due to after which a non-viable new landfill and the political bickerings recreational area will Technical Innovation 2. ensuring smooth finance mechanism about the location of be constructed on 1. 27 acres landfill divided into three cells with hi- funding mechanism the new landfill top of the site tech liner system 2. Leachate pumped out and treated before 3. Existence of private 2. Saipan has a disposal companies dealing with working solid waste 3. Glass is ground to sand for use in construction scrap and recycled plan in place and a 4. Organic waste is separated and turned into material landfill with cutting mulch edge design which 4. Regional market for will keep the ground Management Innovation recyclables water safe from 1. Creation of the solid waste task force contamination 2. Landfill at Marpi proposed 5. a good working 3. High tipping fee to discourage landfilling partnership between (increasing the life of landfill) and encourage the public and private segregation and recycling sector 4. Restriction on the amount of residential waste that may be deposited in the landfill at no charge 5. Aluminum, appliances, automobiles and paper shipped to Asian scrap market by private companies 6. Creation of a 'solid waste management revolving fund' for possible emergency clean-up and final closure of the landfill

147 Seychelles Public-Private Adminstrative Innovation 1. Public education and 1. To protect the Seychelles Waste and A lot of effort has been 1. Allocated agency 1. A lot more effort is (South Africa) partnership to 1. Legislative mechanisms in place participation environment by Cleansing (SWAC) a made towards public budgets had to be needed towards achieve proper waste protecting the water local government took sensitization with regard to increased due to public sensitization management Technical Innovation 2. Good institutional sources from the initiative to invite a good waste management inflation in costs 1. Sorting of scrap metal due to regional presence arrangements contamination private professional practices through training 2. The sorting and of the market waste management and media 2. There was no strict recycling program 2. Indegenous composting operations using husk 3. Capacity building 2. To instill the company (STAR) to adherance to could not achieve 3. Managing leachate to prevent groundwater technical know-how of demonstrate and environmental much success with contamination 4. Evaluation and how to deal with solid educate them on the regulations plastics compliance wastes proper management of Management Innovation solid wastes 3. Lack of well-trained 3. There has been a 1. Sub-contracting solid waste management 5. Monitoring and officers significant reduction (collection, treatment, disposal, cleaning of roads assessment in the overall waste and beaches) to a private agency stream 2. Hoteliers trained and assisted in managing their 6. Active involvement of solid wastes all stakeholders 4. Ground water 3. Different governmental divisons are responsible contamination has for various aspects of waste management 7. Good been averted 4. Extensive environmental education communication, 5. Industries given environmental awards as transparent inter- 5. Slowly the people incentives for proper waste management agency collaboration have become aware of the need for good waste management if the local tourism economy has to be sustained

6. Waste management has had positive health, environmental and economic effects

148 La Palma, Prevention, selective Technical Innovation 1. Availability of La Palma Integral A committee of experts 1. The Plan was greatly The approval process 1. The plan is flexible Canary Islands collection and 1. Two main programs were: composting and finances to conduct Waste Management conducted the detailed publicised at conferences took a long time in that it can be (Spain) maximum reuse of recycling of building/demolition wastes detailed analysis and Plan- for achieving study and developed and local political meetings adapted to other waste draw a plan balanced sustainable the plan islands in the area Management Innovation development in 2. Action programs utilize that are facing the 1. A detailed Plan based on user-friendly 2. Feasibility of accordance with the user-friendly technology problem of waste technological systems was drawn up by a solutions islands resources and that can be transferred to management committee of 12 experts potential local workers with due 2. Plan contained a detailed analysis of the present 3. Public acceptance of vocational training 2. The action situation and a course of proposed actions the proposed course of programs were key 3. A waste map was drawn to enable the actions 3. People were invited to in creating authorities to propose a potential management and share their opinions and ecologically and recycling structure in lieu of the geographical contribute to the proposed socially useful jobs perspective waste management system 4. Detailed cost and quality of service were 3.It provided assessed considerable savings 5. The Plan was divided into 'Action Programs' that in investment and can be prioritized as per the needs of an island maintenance costs 6. The plan was publicized to gain public acceptance

Jamaica Composting as a Technical Innovation 1. Demand and utility Enhancing economy University of Georgia's Educating farmers about Collection of waste in 1. The unsightly means of solid waste 1. Utilization of fish, food and farm wastes as raw- for compost through use of locally Outreach Service was the benefit of using hilly areas was a organic waste that management as well material for compost available material invited by Jamaica traditional compost and challenge was strewn all-over as economy booster 2. Organic soil-conditioner minimizes importing of 2. Economy of scale in (waste) for indegenous tours to conduct the soil-conditioner as opposed the island was soil amendments production production study and assess the to the imported chemical reduced enormously 3. Compost used for establishing community feasibility of compost variety garden plots and growing vegetables for needy production and use in 2. Coffee production families two high-profile in the farms that 4. Use of organic agricultural practices for locations practices organic increased coffee production farming reached an all-time high

3. A cleaner more beautiful island gave the tourism industry a boost

149 8.1 Analysis and Findings

The operations framework analysis and findings are discussed in the sections below.

8.1.1 Innovative Solid Waste Management

According to Borins ‘innovation’ is defined as ‘something newly introduced or something that had previously not been tried and tested’.289 The solid waste management programs outlined in this study include the many initiatives undertaken by the various islands for the socio-economic development of the people; to create a healthy environment that would safeguard the health, safety and welfare of the local as well as tourist population. The practices described here are ‘innovative’ because they are context sensitive, culturally attuned, accepted by the people and hence follow the existing socio-economic pattern of development in the islands. The various waste management practices may be categorized under three typologies:

ƒ Administrative Innovation: may be defined as the creation of a new organizational design or legislative

thinking style that supports the better creation, production and delivery of products and services.

ƒ Technical Innovation: consists of scientific ideas applied to the use of machinery, technology or a system of

interlinked and symbiotic processes that have a physical design and engineering component to it.

ƒ Management Innovation: consists of the implementation of effective organizational change, or the

translation of new ideas into practice usually at the project implementation or strategic planning stage.

In the case studies presented, the four major factors that appeared to have led to these three innovations in the sector of solid waste management are: initiatives that came from the political system, crisis- pollution which was leading to the degradation of the environment, economic devastation especially in the islands’ major economy generating sector namely tourism and lastly new opportunities that indigenous technology afforded.

8.1.2 Administrative Innovation

Administrative innovation in the cases was seen mostly in the form of policy formulation, passage of legislations,

289 Borins, Sandford. Encouraging Innovation in the Public Sector. Journal of Intellectual Capital. Vol 2. Toronto: MCB University Press, 2001. 315. amended acts and regulations pertaining to waste. The following are the four main components of administrative innovations identified in the islands studied:

ƒ Ordinances/Policy Formulation

ƒ Formation of Partnerships

ƒ Political Will

ƒ Collaborative Research

Ordinances: Formulation of policies was one of the key measures adopted by most islands to ensure the addressal of the problems and issues related to waste and its management. The setting up of ordinances had five components.

These are illustrated by means of examples from the islands below:

1. Changing administrative focus: In Bahamas, administrative innovation was involved when waste

management was acknowledged as a pressing issue and priority investments were made in that sector.

2. Mandates: In most of the Philippine islands, the use of bags for household garbage disposal or color coded

bags in public places for disposing recyclables was mandated by law. One of the interesting manifestations

of the use of administration as a tool for sustainable solid waste management was seen in Bustos,

Philippines where every government employee was required to adopt a Barangay (section of municipality)

and assist in waste management efforts through the use of recycled materials in street beautification. In fact

Friday afternoon of every week was devoted to cleaning and beautifying the Barangay with the participation

of the local government employees.

3. Restrictions: Most of the ordinances that were passed were done with the primary motive of instilling

discipline in the way that people dispose garbage. In several islands restrictions were placed on the

common waste disposal practice of open burning as it was environmentally hazardous. There were other

ordinances that required people to take care of the organic fraction of the household wastes by themselves.

151 4. Training programs: These reforms were supported through widely instituted training programs to help

households with backyard composting, cleaning individual surroundings and teaching proper disposal

methods. Beautification at household and neighborhood levels was also required by ordinances at times for

which education, support and training were provided.

5. Enforcement and Monitoring mechanisms: One of the key factors that seem to have led to the success of

such policy decisions is the strict enforcement and vigilance mechanisms in place. Although most laws

carried fines and detention-at-jail structures if non-compliance was observed, there were however, in some

Philippine islands, legal instruments that required apprehension of another violator by the offender as fine.

This system worked fine since although there was no monetary pressure this was certainly a way of not only

ensuring compliance but also changing community attitudes towards waste management and ensuring

inherent sustainability.

Formation of Partnerships: Partnerships between organizations, especially ones between public and private sector or with NGO’s were often spearheaded by the administration. Partnerships assumed two main forms. These are illustrated by means of examples from the islands below:

1. Public-Private partnerships: In the case of the Galapagos Island, the tourist industry (cruise ships) took

the initiative when it formulated ordinances to promote ecological tourism in the environmentally rich and

sensitive islands.

2. Consultations/Awareness building: In most cases policies were formulated and legislations passed after

undertaking detailed discussions and consultations with all the concerned people/agencies involved in the

islands’ waste management process. Through education and awareness-building campaigns people were

made conscious of the fact that the increase in taxes or this indirect way of charging user fees was required

to get the project started and was a way of ensuring long-term sustainability.

152 Political Will: Often it was observed that efforts by a strong and progressive leadership were responsible for passing legislations and setting up strict ordinances. Political will as a component of administrative innovation had two main focuses as illustrated below with examples from the islands:

1. Community mobilizing through leadership: The islands of the Philippines such as Olongapo, Bustos and

Puerto Princesa are cases where the Mayor was instrumental in mobilizing an entire community and

changing people’s mindset by their efforts. Often times the Mayor and their families were responsible for

spearheading such programs through education and awareness building.

2. Creation of funding mechanism: Another case where political will transformed a situation was Saipan

where additional taxes were levied on consumer goods as a means of funding the new and improved landfill

that was under construction.

Collaborative Research: Collaborative research and studies were often carried out as a means of educational capacity building. Collaborative research was carried out with the support of two main institutions as illustrated below with examples from the islands:

1. Academic Institutions: The administration was also instrumental in cases where academicians from

universities were invited to conduct assessment and feasibility studies. The tourism sector in Jamaica took a

pro-active stance by inviting academicians from the University of Georgia to assess the situation in the

island and propose sustainable means of waste disposal as well as assess the feasibility of composting and

the economic benefits it would accrue.

2. International agencies: Often technical panels of researchers from international institutions were engaged

in conducting studies to assess the condition of environment with regards to waste management and

accordingly make suggestions/proposals for alleviating the situation. Male is a case in hand where the

Japan International Co-operation Agency (JICA) was invited to conduct a study on the existing condition of

waste management and advise on a national waste management strategy. Many times these international

agencies also acted as financial aides or donors.

153

Administrative innovations have had a significant effect on the way in which an island treats its waste; however they cannot be used as stand-alone mechanisms if a sustained effort towards managing wastes is required. In most cases ordinances were used as a support mechanism for technical or management innovations. All the islands that instituted strengthening of institutional structures as a means of good waste management had either technical or both technical and management strategies as a backbone to complement the legislations. In many places we find very good legal instruments which rust away due to the lacunae in the administrative powers and enforcement. Most of the islands studied here seem to have recognized and addressed the issue of disjointedness by marrying the two components of administrative innovation to provide a better more efficient and wholesome system.

8.1.3 Technical Innovation

Technical innovations in the studied islands may be seen as the locally adapted or advanced technologies that islands designed and implemented for the physical treatment of waste. This usually had to do with the appropriate use of machinery, technology or a system of interlinked and symbiotic processes that had a physical design and engineering component to it. The level of sophistication in the use and deployment of technical innovation depended on several factors such as availability of finances, skills, training, raw materials, social and political acceptance.

Knowledge about these factors can make it comparatively easy to assess the requirement of an island vis-à-vis its suitability for supporting a certain type of technology.

Technical innovation may have several connotations. In most of the Philippine islands, technical innovation often meant implementing the use of bags for garbage disposal or color coded bags in public places for disposing recyclables. Although this practice may be basic to many islands, in the Philippines, it had to be mandated by law.

For the Filipinos, this was an entirely new way of dealing with garbage as opposed to the more traditional practices such as open dumping or burning that had been in vogue for several decades. Therefore, there was a learning curve involved and people had to be trained and educated about the new practice. In most cases, it was observed that typically, the technology had to be flexible and culturally attuned for it to gain acceptability, usability and popularity.

154 The most common types of technical waste management methods include:

ƒ Waste segregation

ƒ Recycling

ƒ Composting

ƒ Landfill

ƒ Comprehensive waste facility

ƒ Storage centers/ Transfer stations

Waste segregation: Component separation is an essential operation if future recovery of resources is to be accomplished or if different fractions require different methods of disposal for efficiency in management. Segregation may be done manually and/or mechanically. Segregation of waste was carried out principally at two strategic points as illustrated with examples below:

1. Segregation at source: Waste segregation occurs at the source typically by the installation of separate

bags for biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes in households, public spaces, at the collection center

or by a combination at all the three levels. At the household level waste is generally segregated into the

organic or biodegradable component, the inorganic or non-biodegradable component and residual. The

organic component is usually put into a pit in the backyard which is then used as compost for backyard

planting or is sold to a compost center. The inorganic (non-biodegradable/recyclable) fraction is sometimes

further segregated into plastics, paper and aluminum. These are usually sold to buy-back centers by the

households or are collected by the municipality on specific days of the week. The municipality then sends

them to the central storage centers or the recycling facilities after municipal-wide collection. In some cases

like in Romblon, Philippines, sanitation workers are assigned to each truck with the responsibility for

assistance with the final segregation during collection and before placement into the truck.

155 2. Segregation at waste facility: Although the intention of source segregation is to minimize segregation

activities at the solid waste processing center, often additional segregation is required once the waste

reaches the processing facility in order to further sort the materials.

ƒ Role of scavengers: Often scavengers are organized into groups and employed by the processing

center to remove recyclables from the newly deposited material (Romblon). An interesting example

of organization of scavengers for sorting was seen at Negros Oriental, Philippine where scavenger

families were organized into a co-operative, given a place to live and were required to work at the

Dumaguete dumpsite segregating recyclables.

ƒ Donations: Yet another interesting practice in the island of Galapagos is the cleaning, packing and

donation by the municipality, of certain recyclable materials such as paper and glass jars to various

women’s groups in the area. These women then use the paper to make craft items for sale and use

the glass jars as jam pots.

ƒ Role of regional markets: Sorting of scrap metal is a common practice in Seychelles where a

regional market for scrap exists. In most cases it is observed that when the recyclable materials

have to be sent to mainland, they are neatly packaged so as to occupy minimal space in the

barges.

Recycling: Recycling is the processing of both the biodegradable as well as non-biodegradable fractions of waste in order to recover useful materials. It is slowly becoming one of the most popular mediums by which waste is managed. In most islands, from a supporting role in waste disposal, recycling is now a preferred method of getting the maximum return from a shrinking supply of resources. Other than keeping the surroundings clean, recycling has some other obvious advantages:

- It reduces water, air and soil pollution especially in dumpsites.

- It saves 30% of both energy and water in the production of goods

- It saves space at dumpsites

- Conserves raw-materials and virgin resources

156 - Earns money for households and provides jobs to people

Recycling of materials may broadly be sub-divided into two categories: recycling of the organic (bio-degradable) fraction and recycling inorganic (non-biodegradable) fraction.

1. Recycling organic materials: Depending on the waste stream composition, different islands have come up

with different resources through the recycling of waste. In Negros Oriental, Philippine wastes are recycled

into floor wax, candles, slippers and hats. In Santa Maria most of the organic waste is recycled and used as

organic fertilizer. In the Isle of Wight waste is dried, shredded and mixed with combustible material to

produce pellets which are then used to power the thermal station and 1000 houses on the island.

2. Recycling other materials: In Saipan yet another interesting use of glass is made by grinding it down for use

as sand in construction. In La Palma, building and demolition wastes are recycled into cement and earth to

provide raw material for construction.

Recycling and Eco-tourism: One of the most encouraging practices has been the adoption of eco-friendly

practices by the Galapagos cruise ships. These ships use mostly recycled materials (soaps, water, linen,

detergents) and in fact have a water recycling facility on board. The rest of the materials such as glass and

aluminum are stored and taken to the port where they are recycled.

Composting: Composting is a method of disposal as well as resource recovery from the organic waste fraction. If the organic portion of the waste is subjected to bacterial decomposition, an end product (a soil conditioner) called humus is obtained. The entire process from organic fraction separation to bacterial conversion is called composting.

Over 50% of the waste stream in islands is organic. The waste usually has high moisture content and is ideal for composting. From micro to macro, composting is practiced in various capacities on these islands. These are illustrated below through examples:

1. Backyard composting: Backyard or domestic composting is mostly practiced in islands where the organic

fraction of household waste is significant. In the islands of the Bahamas backyard composting is

157 encouraged as a means for keeping the environment clean and promoting good health. Training is available free of cost for households who want to start a composting operation. In Male an ordinance on waste management required every household to have a backyard composting facility.

2. Large-scale composting: Large-scale composting in the islands was usually carried out by forming partnerships with waste management agencies, individuals or NGO’s. Partnerships with private contractor:

Composting was used as an innovative tool in the Isle of Wight where a contractor was given the task of diverting waste from the one and only landfill site on the island. Installation of a new in-vessel composting facility, aided in the process, by reducing the waste that went to the landfill by 45% by the third year.

Similarly, in Mauritius, two pilot windrow-pile compost facilities were setup for biodegradable organic waste which went on to reduce the volume of waste in the landfill by 50 tones per day.

Partnerships with NGO: In Santa Maria, the local government has worked out a contract with an NGO for the construction and operation of a composting facility. As per the agreement the municipality would be in charge of collection, separation and delivery of waste whilst the NGO would be in charge of ensuring smooth operation of the plant and sale of the organic fertilizer. This arrangement not only strengthens institutional capacity but safeguards the environment, forges good relations between stakeholders and provides jobs.

Composting for soil replenishments: In Romblon, a sophisticated five chamber composting facility has started due to high content of organic fraction in the waste. The compost produced has low-nitrogen content and is hence used as soil-conditioner. This works perfectly where islands have soils that need replenishments on a regular basis to continue to be productive.

3. Indigenous composting operations: Seychelles instituted an indigenous practice of composting green waste by using waste husk from a beer brewery to accelerate compost production and reduce odors. The compost is being successfully marketed in the United Arab Emirates. Jamaica was one of the most interesting cases where fish and food waste was composted and subsequently used for organic coffee

158 production. This not only reduced the need of importing pesticides and soil stabilizers but also promoted the

local economy by a 10% annual increase in coffee production. Composting provided employment to a lot of

people in the area and is perceived as a means of revitalizing the aesthetics of the islands (less garbage)

and promoting tourism.

In most of the islands studied, depending on the size of the island and on marketability, composting at various scales has created a win-win situation in the islands where formerly dearth for resources and land was raising concerns about the islands’ sustainability.

Landfill: Disposal on land or landfilling is perhaps the most common method of dealing with residual waste. However for practicing good landfilling the very first pre-requisite is availability of space or a suitable location. For controlled landfills priority consideration needs to be given to geo-hydrological and climatic conditions. Improper siting, especially in cases where financial problems impose limitations on investment in bottom liners, may cause severe groundwater contamination. Hence landfilling is a method of waste disposal that needs to be dealt with sensitively.

Landfilling has certain advantages over other methods of waste disposal:

- It is the most economical method of waste disposal

- It is a complete or final disposal method as compared to incineration the end products of which need additional handling.

- It can receive all types of waste

- Land can be reclaimed for use as parking lots or recreational facilities

In the islands discussed here there are examples of various kinds of landfilling operations from indigenous (locally adapted) to sophisticated depending on factors such as need and social acceptance.

1. Mixed (Dual) use: One of the very ingenious treatments of landfills can be found in Negros Oriental where a

part of the Dumaguete sanitary landfill was converted into a recreational park housing an aviary of rare

species, a carpentary shop, a grotto, a children’s playground, a lagoon and an orchidarium. In the remaining

part (dumping section) controlled landfilling was practised. The dumping section was used to provide

159 scavenger families with livelihoods by sorting recyclables and organic material and preparing compost. This

landfill was a success largely due to scavengers’ participation and people’s acceptance and use of the

recreational facility built on the dump.

2. Locally adapted landfills: Romblon in its sophisticated waste handling facility incorporated a landfill which

was technologically sophisticated yet had an element of local adaptation to it. At the end of each day,

surplus rice hull available from local farmers was used as daily cover material. This helped reduce odors,

fires and infestation by vermin and hence was an innovative method of reusing and reducing waste.

3. Land reclamation: An example of good landfill siting can be found in Tonga where an exhausted quarry at

Tapuhia which is redundant in its current form was proposed for landfilling operation. This turned out to be a

very appropriate use for the quarry as this would put scarce resources into use and allow it to be

rehabilitated for future beneficial uses. Furthermore, the landfilling operation was detailed out and the cost

estimates were worked out prior to implementation so that stakeholders could network and maximize

ownership and input to the project. In Bahamas a lot of research has gone into designing the modified

landfills. Cost-recovery systems were well-established before commencing the project to ensure

sustainability. The landfilling operation in Bahamas is accompanied by recycling and composting efforts in a

bid to increase the life of the landfills. Like Dumaguete, Galapagos has set forth a proposal of reforesting

their landfill post-closure. Currently, two separate landfills are used for the organic and inorganic fractions of

waste and weekly earth cover is provided.

4. Hi-tech landfills: Mauritius has proposed a regional sanitary landfill that would be devoted to receiving

compost residue, incinerator ashes and other non-hazardous solid wastes. The landfill would be 40 hectares

and has been proposed as a result of a regulation which would close down unsanitary dumps in the region

and would be needed for immediate diversion of waste. Similarly Saipan has constructed a state-of-the-art

landfill at Marpi which covers 27 acres and is divided into three cells. High-technology liner system has been

designed that would prevent groundwater contamination and would allow the leachate to be pumped out

160 and treated before being released. To increase the life of the landfill an active program to reduce the volume

of waste that goes into the landfill was implemented. In Seychelles the landfilling operation supported by

sophisticated groundwater monitoring and leachate management mechanisms was a huge success.

Comprehensive waste facility: Most of the technical components in a waste management system are interlinked and interdependent. Therefore, in several instances, especially to conserve resources and reduce costs it becomes imperative to consider options, whereby, a self-sufficient and sustainable system of these inter-linked components can be established as one facility. Of the fifteen researched islands only three have instituted this system yet but in the places where it is operational; it is a success in several ways.

1. Increasing landfill lifespan (Romblon): In Romblon, the waste processing center (WPC) facility was an

outcome of a crisis whereby a cemetery had been turned into a waste disposal site. In order to protect the

environment from severe degradation a new WPC was proposed which would include landfill, composting

and recycling components. This was supported by ordinances, waste segregation at household level,

stakeholder participation and extensive public awareness campaigns. The composting operation was

handed over to an NGO, while the recycling was supported by local businesses and a buy-back center.

Locally adapted technology was used in the landfilling operations. Due to the functional support of

composting and recycling to relieve the burden on the landfill, the lifespan of the landfill was increased by an

estimated 2.4 years.

2. Reclaiming a redundant quarry (Tonga): Tonga was yet another island to have implemented a

comprehensive waste facility. This facility was proposed after a team of solid waste management experts

recommended that the Tapuhia quarry which was presently redundant be used to develop a comprehensive

waste facility to take care of the islands’ waste problems. It was proposed that this central facility take care

of all the other villages on Tonga and also relieve the pressure on the Nukualofa landfill. It was

recommended that the site incorporate an engineered landfill facility, a composting plant, a recycling plant

161 and other site facilities. This initially seemed like a very foreign proposition as for the Tongans it would mean

taking a big leap from an open dump on a swampy ground to a modern waste management facility.

However, supported by the government and an appropriate site the program was undertaken and is today

responsible for solving the waste problems that Tongans on a small, remote coral island were facing. There

was a review of opportunities for privatization and establishment of scavenging rights. There is already a

proposal for reforesting the landfill post-closure and using it as a recreational area.

3. Supporting existing waste facilities (Bahamas): The experience of siting a waste facility in the Bahamas

was different than that from Romblon and Tonga mainly because Bahamas is a high-income island with a

stable economic structure. In the Bahamas a solid waste facility with a landfill, yard waste shredding and

transfer station was proposed to support other existing facilities. Since there was no financial constraint or

political hesitation, the plan was quickly approved and within a year the facility was put in place. The

benefits derived from the totality of the facility were overwhelmingly positive. This also led to initiation of a

hazardous waste management facility. All the environmental reviews were undertaken to ensure compliance

and extensive training was imparted through workshops.

Transfer stations/ Storage centers: Transfer stations and storage centers usually act as support functions to most waste management facilities. These are places where waste can be stored for a few days before it is carted off to its final destination. Examples of both types from the case studies are presented below:

1. Storage center network: Transfer stations are also used as a network of storage areas in the case of

islands which are big in size where hauling distances are economically not feasible. For instance, in the

case of Bustos, storage centers were established for storing recyclable or returnable waste materials which

were picked up on a bi-weekly basis. In Tonga a network of transfer stations was established so as to

service the outlying villages which sent their waste to the central waste facility. Isabela had a system of

storage centers for recyclables as these were periodically distributed among local groups and also carried

away to the mainland for recycling by barges and hence had to be near the port.

162

3. Transfer centers for shipping convenience: Since inter-island and island-mainland exchanges of waste are

quite common practices, most islands require some kind of a transfer or storage center for logistical or

transportation convenience. Male is a classic example where a transfer center was used to store residual

waste which would then be barged away to the Thilafushi landfill on another island. Similarly, in Seychelles,

a transfer station was established as scrap needed to be carted away to the regional Asian scrap market.

The ideology behind establishing a waste processing center was often economic incentive. It was cheaper in terms of real and projected costs to establish a waste facility which encompassed all the functions in a single location and hence for low-income islands it was a lucrative option. The conversion of landfills into recreational areas was perhaps one of the most advanced uses of technology. The success of such recreational sites was also a positive sign as it reflected a high level of awareness amongst the local population.

8.1.4 Management Innovation

Most of the project implementations and strategies in the studied islands involved innovation at the management level. Socio-economic condition, cultural background, political will and willingness amongst agencies to collaborate were some of the primary agents for the successful implementation of waste strategies.

The most common strategies adopted for the studied islands may be categorized under the following headings:

ƒ Social preparation

ƒ Structural changes in institutions

ƒ Education

ƒ Partnerships with ‘Agents of change’

ƒ Financing

ƒ Human Resource Development

163 Social preparation: The social preparation phase was very important to ensure a well-functioning waste management strategy as it laid the groundwork for the social and cultural changes that would commence post project- implementation. Social preparation consisted of two components as illustrated below with the help of relevant examples from case studies:

1. Piloting of projects: Piloting of projects often involves testing a program at a smaller scale before large-scale/mass implementation. In some islands such as in Bustos, the preparatory phase was very extensive. The program was piloted at the Barangay level before being implemented municipality-wide. The pilot test involved clustering of

Barangays into Puroks and then exchanging views/ideas and holding brain-storming sessions. Piloting of projects before actual implementation was done in several of the islands. For most islands especially those that had in the past had unsuccessful experiences with implementing programs, it was one of the ways to assess future feasibility and sustainability. In Santa Maria the waste management program was first piloted in the town market area, which had maximum problems related to littering and open dumping. In Galapagos recycling containers were placed in public areas; the municipality distributed various colored bags for disposal of the various waste components among people. This was also an exercise in training people to behave in a more responsible and civic manner.

2. Participation in planning phase: One of the interesting and practical innovations that was seen was in La Palma, where a detailed Plan, based on user-friendly technological systems was drawn up by a committee of 12 experts.

The Plan contained a detailed analysis of the present situation and a course of proposed actions. Detailed cost estimates and quality of services to be implemented were assessed. The plan was then publicized to gain public acceptance and people were asked to prioritize action programs based on their needs. This was a good example of social preparation as it involved active participation of the people for whom the plan was drawn up for. This very successful strategy was imitated in various capacities by some other islands as well. Furthermore, people joined the beautification of their Barangays by using recycled materials to decorate their homes.

164 Structural changes in Institutions: Structural changes in institutions implied a change in the outlook or way in which daily duties were carried out. In several islands institutional structural changes led to a more efficient waste management strategy. The four components that reflect structural reforms are presented below:

1. Collection schedules established: In Olongapo, Romblon and Bustos, strict waste collection schedules were

established and various fractions of the garbage were picked up on separate days with varying frequency.

For example, household garbage would be picked up thrice a week whereas recyclables would be collected

once a week or bi-weekly.

2. Training and education: In Bustos, training centers for the local residents were set up by the municipality to

teach and demonstrate recycling of materials. In Santa Maria, as in Bustos, demonstration camps were set

up where the use of organic fertilizers was exhibited. The municipality at Romblon set up a ‘solid waste task

force’ to spread public awareness.

3. Monitoring: In Bustos, monthly assessments and monitoring of all the Barangays was carried out to ensure

compliance with procedures and statutes. The Galapagos municipal government organized cleanup work

groups to supervise and assist with weekly cleaning in the municipality.

4. Collaborative studies and research: In Tonga detailed research about the site, capital and operating cost

structures and waste stream was carried out before setting up the waste facility at the Tapuhia quarry site. A

contingency plan was also made taking into account the risks involved in the project. A plan to maximize the

existing viable recycling initiatives was drawn to support this initiative. Similarly in Mauritius, detailed

research was undertaken by the government to address environmental concerns such as groundwater

contamination from leachate production or global warming from methane production. Inter-departmental

partnerships were forged in order to help devise the management and operation plan. One of the most

innovative and cost-effective schemes was implemented in Jamaica, where the University of Georgia’s

165 Outreach Services were invited by Jamaica Tours to study and suggest measures for their waste

management.

Education: Education and spreading public awareness, in the same way as social preparation, plays a crucial role in changing people’s mindsets and affecting change in their habits and perceptions. Education and awareness programs often consisted of the four elements listed below. Some of the most low-cost yet innovative and effective approaches were seen in most of the islands.

1. Children’s education and awareness building exercises: Childrens’ poster making and essay writing

contests were held to educate children about the proper method of disposing waste. Furthermore, in Bustos,

children were trained as ‘Little Doctors’. They were taught simple health practices and proper way to

dispose waste in schools. In Galapagos a similar campaign was undertaken whereby the children were

educated about the value of recycling.

2. Instituting Contests: Cleanliness competitions were held among Barangays and the best Barangay and

the cleanest backyard were given awards and publicity. This system was effectively put into practice in

Bustos as well. The municipality of Romblon was instrumental in launching a house-to-house waste disposal

information campaign.

3. Role of Media: In Olongapo the collection trucks had jingles to attract attention and were used as a

medium of spreading public awareness. Even in an economically and socially advanced island such as the

Bahamas, environmental health and education programs were launched prior to program implementation.

Media was put to constructive and effective use in Mauritius as a means for educating the people and

gaining consensus on the proposed waste management program.

4. Educational programs: Educational programs were often extended to certain sections of the community

only. For example, in Jamaica farmers were educated about the benefits of using organic fertilizer and soil

166 conditioner as opposed to the chemical imported variety. Similarly, in the Isle of Wight the government

educated the people about the uses of refuse derived fuels and backyard composting to realize garbage

deposition reduction in the landfill.

Agents of change: Despite technical and administrative innovations, it has been observed that certain agencies or groups of people act as catalysts without whose involvement and support the program would not find successful implementation. These are the ‘agents of change’. In waste management the participation of international and national agencies is common as is the participation of local groups such as women and grassroots level organizations such as NGO’s. Support may range from financial support to capacity building exercises as is illustrated below:

1. International agencies: In addition to extending financial support, in Olongapo, JICA and USAID made

donations of collection vehicles. JICA was also responsible for conducting extensive studies pertaining to

waste management in Male.

2. Organizing the informal sector: For promoting recycling it was common practice in the Philippine islands

(Olongapo and Negros Oriental) to organize junk dealers and scavengers. This was done in order to

formalize recycling by ensuring a market for recyclables as well as for provision of livelihood. In Negros

Oriental, scavengers were organized into a co-operative and imparted training in garbage segregation,

composting and recycling.

3. Public-private partnerships: In Santa Maria and Tonga public-private partnerships were formed whereby

different departments were relegated different responsibilities. In Tonga, departments networked with

stakeholders to maximize ownership and input. Similarly, in Bahamas partnerships were forged with private

companies to recycle derelict vehicles. In the Isle of Wight and Seychelles the integrated waste

management was contracted to a private agency. In Galapagos recycling was promoted in a big way by the

167 private sector. Furthermore, recycling factories on mainland were responsible for conversion or disposal of

the recyclables and profit-sharing with the municipality of Galapagos thereafter. As in Galapagos, in Saipan,

private companies shouldered the responsibility of shipping the recyclable materials to the Asian scrap

market thereby reducing transportation costs significantly so as to make the recycling program viable.

4. Involving commerce: In Seychelles there was a very interesting innovation whereby industries were given

awards as incentives for proper waste management and recycling efforts. In Galapagos yet another

interesting strategy took effect whereby, the Galapagos Conservation Trust and the Galapagos Cruise ships

were largely responsible through funding and research, for putting the new waste management system in

place.

Finance Mechanism: Despite all the efforts and plans many times it was the finance mechanism each island had that dictated the route to be taken for waste management. The five strategies with examples listed below were adopted in most of the islands.

1. Service fees: In Olongapo and in most of the Philippine islands levying a service fee was a common

practice. The garbage fees ensured the sustainability of the program. In most islands the tipping fee in

landfills was different for wastes that came from residences as compared to businesses. This system

therefore indirectly promoted source segregation and recycling as waste disposal alternatives. In Saipan,

there were restrictions on the amount of residential waste that could be deposited in the landfill without fee

and there was a high tipping fee as a means to discourage deposition and increase the life of the landfill.

2. Setting up a revolving fund: For Saipan’s Marpi landfill, a ‘solid waste management revolving fund’ was

created for possible emergency clean-up and final closure of the landfill. The funds came from taxes called

beautification taxes levied on consumer goods.

168 3. Formalizing the informal sector: In Negros Oriental the 91 member scavengers’ co-operative earned

income by producing and selling compost fertilizers. A similar practice was carried out in Romblon where

organic soil conditioner was sold by the municipality at subsidized rates to the farmers registered with a co-

operative.

4. Public-private partnerships: In Santa Maria organic fertilizer was produced by the municipality in

conjunction with an NGO (AWARE) and was sold on a shared profit basis. In Romblon, a recycling centre

was setup to collect recyclables and send them to a buy-back center in the adjoining villages. The

municipality at Galapagos made arrangements with the cargo ships that came to supply materials to the

island whereby they would carry back the recyclable materials to the mainland free of cost.

5. External funds/grants: In Saipan, the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas proposed the Marpi landfill

as well as financed it. The municipality at Mauritius had a mechanism whereby a cost-recovery system was

put in place and it was ensured that the services would be financially self-sustaining for the years to come.

Additionally Japanese Grant funding was ensured for the initial years until the program gained momentum.

Human Resource development: As in organizational setups, in most cases for the islands, human resource development involved professionalization of the bureaucracy. Human resource development was affected in the following four ways:

1. New appointments: In Bustos, an ecology officer was designated for information dissemination (door-to-

door campaigning) and for getting all the interest groups together. A Barangay health worker that acted as

volunteer was appointed by the municipality to assist the Ecology officer and was responsible for 20

households.

2. Creation of jobs: Manufacturing and sale of organic fertilizers was used to create 30 new jobs in the

waste sector in Santa Maria.

169

3. Organizing the informal sector: In Tonga scavenging rights for reusable wastes deposited at the facility

were established.

4. Capacity building: Capacity building by external or internal agencies was used as a means for instilling

self-sufficiency in most cases. AusAID, the Australian agency for international development helped as the

major funding and capacity building agency. Similarly, in Bahamas, the Bank supported capacity building

programs for the Department of Environment, Health and Services. One of the progressive stances was

taken by Seychelles where local hoteliers were trained and assisted in managing their solid wastes. In

Saipan capacity building was achieved by training local people as skilled labor for the cutting-edge landfilling

operation at Marpi.

It must be noted that since usable land in these islands was scarce and also because tourism economy depended largely on the image an island projected, eco-tourism was a good selling proposition and was an effective way of keeping the islands clean. The vested economic interest of the tourism industry positively helped in this direction.

A word of caution

It must be mentioned here that the innovations outlined are not risk-free. In fact several of the islands were faced with failures when they initially started out (as will be discussed in the following section). However, it was to a great extent recognition of the risks involved and incorporation of the strategies to mitigate these risks that led to the success of these programs and innovations.

8.2 Some Common Problems Encountered- Potential Constraints and Pitfalls

The constraints or problems that were faced during implementation or plan formulation of the existing system of solid waste management in the islands are listed below.

8.2.1 Administrative Constraints/Problems

1. Dumping and littering due to cost of services

170 2. Traditional land ownership by people who are very reluctant to sell their land for siting a waste management

facility

3. Lack of political will

4. Public sector resistance to private sector involvement

5. Non-recognition of informal sector (scavengers)

8.2.2 Technical Constraints/Problems

1. Deciding on a suitable location for landfill

2. Obtaining landfill cover material on a coral atoll

3. Level of service (frequency of collection)

4. Transport of refuse in suitable vehicles

5. Study of acceptable disposal methods

8.2.3 Management Constraints/ Problems

1. Recycling in locations that are very remote from processing centers

2. Limited number of suitably skilled staff

3. Financial constraints: no dedicated income stream for solid waste management, inaccessibility to finance

4. Marketing of recovered materials

5. Donor biases towards particular technical approaches

6. Demands placed by dominant economic partners

8.3 Other Aspects

Apart from the key features and their implementation problems, there are other aspects in the case studies that merit discussion as some key lessons can be learned from them.

171 8.3.1 Ecological and Human Health Aspects

Improper waste disposal in the islands has had several environmental impacts mainly related to: 1. destruction of local ecosystem 2. Ground and surface water contamination due to leakage 3. Air-pollution due to the release of biogas and open burning

Human contact with waste implies a high-risk for a variety of diseases including tetanus, typhoid, hepatitis and cholera. Infectious diseases can be spread either by direct contact with waste, through animals or by windborne distribution. In most of the islands studied it was encouraging to note that healthcare awareness is increasing. Even in the low-income islands like those in the Philippines, sorting plants require personnel to wear masks and gloves. In waste facilities and in scavengers’ co-operatives, facilities such as lunchrooms and showers have been constructed for the benefit of the staff and scavengers.

8.3.2 Technology Transfers and Maintenance

There are numerous examples of technology-transfers from high-income areas to low-income ones which do not help solve any problems and are a failure. It is noteworthy in the islands studied here, that in most cases, detailed studies were carried out to gauge the potential effects before introducing a new system. These included not only the technical and economic effects but also social effects. In fact in almost all the projects there was an attempt to incorporate indigenous knowledge or practice to the new technology that was introduced (use of rice hull as daily cover in Romblon). Large scale construction was usually avoided if it was found not to be sustainable. Piloting was part of all the projects. Projects were first pilot-tested in small areas to ascertain feasibility before deploying them on a large scale.

Concerning maintenance, in majority of the projects the following aspects were given paramount importance:

1. Equipment used was designed locally and meant for local use

2. Spare parts were manufactured or stored locally

3. Workshop staff were trained by the manufacturers

4. Any machinery purchased had to be of a good standard and in good supply.

172

8.3.3 Elements of Successful Research

The research and studies carried out in these islands by local authorities, national or international organizations or universities for assessing appropriate solid waste management strategies for the islands included the following:

ƒ Study of waste streams (quantity and composition analyses), recovery/recycling systems, markets for

recyclables, and problems of existing practices

ƒ Examination of the existing socio-economic and cultural baseline projects

ƒ Study of the existing collection systems and the modes of transportation for wastes

ƒ Examination of the existing disposal facilities with respect to location and capacity of landfill sites,

environmental issues, fires and scavengers

ƒ Considerations for land reclamations through engineered landfill practices

ƒ Examination of groundwater close to landfill sites

ƒ Resource recovery programs-recycling with a view of reduction and employment generation; study of

feasible markets

ƒ Examination of the existing equipment and their maintenance

ƒ Existing or prospective institutional and finance arrangements

ƒ Privatization of a part of the program such as recycling

8.3.4 The Issue of Sustainability

The development of waste management in islands has undergone several stages. In the earlier stage, waste facilities were provided simply to satisfy the need of accommodating solid waste and minimal consideration was given to pollution control. In the second stage, improvement in the environmental precautionary measures in the waste management facilities was noted however the authorities failed to recognize the more profound need in waste management- that is resource management and sustainability. At present in several of these islands waste authorities are beginning to realize that there are more important goals than simply to reduce the pollution from solid waste and that resource conservation is key to the sustainability of these fragile eco-systems.

173 9. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

9.1 Issues and Reflections

It is quite evident from the case studies and discussions in the previous chapters that in most of these islands the administration and bureaucracy is becoming aware of the problems related to the mismanagement of solid wastes and thus background studies and research are forming a critical component of plan preparation and implementation.

However, the prospects for success of these plans depend largely on two factors:

1. to what extent the plans are being implemented

2. and how best the methods selected are suited to the needs of the local conditions.

The following section attempts to draw lessons and guiding principles from the past experiences in the islands studied.

9.1.1 Key Lessons and Guiding Principles

Experience in these islands shows that there is no one type of approach and no single formula by which a solid waste management strategy can or should be undertaken. Every island will need to determine, for itself, how best to approach preparation and implementation. To a great extent, the process decided upon will be fashioned by prevailing political, bureaucratic and cultural circumstances. Furthermore, economic, environmental and social conditions will differ in each country. As a consequence, a "blueprint" approach is neither possible nor desirable.

Rather, a recent review of a wide range of past strategies from around the world suggests that there are a number of key lessons and guiding principles for successful strategies.

Most of the islands discussed here did not arrive at ‘the’ solution in the very first try. In many cases several trials and failures were involved. It would be beneficial to briefly list these experiences and the lesson learned from each, so that other islands hoping to institute a SWM strategy would be able to avoid the detours made earlier.

In sum, the following four lessons can be extracted from the myriad waste management experiences in these islands:

174 Lesson1. Prevention is better than cure: Although commonplace, this is not observed. Remedial and pollution control oriented measures are not enough to deal with the environmental impacts especially depletion of resources resulting from poor waste management. The key therefore is to promote sound resource management.

This can be realized through the example of failed initial attempts in Romblon.

Romblon: Initial attempts towards management of solid wastes were unsuccessful for the following reasons:

1. Open flatbed trucks were used for transporting solid wastes; this practice proved to be a failure especially

during the monsoon season.

2. The road which led to the dumpsite was not paved causing severe problems during rains and otherwise

3. There was no regulation preventing deposition of hazardous waste such as hospital wastes in the dumpsite.

4. No measures were adopted to control surface runoff and leachate dispersion from the site which flowed into

the adjoining rice fields causing health concerns.

Lesson 2. Waste Facilities should be planned and equipped to suit local conditions: Waste facilities must be planned and designed so as to fit into the islands’ long-term scheme of things. Since the demographic trends are difficult to predict, it would be wise to equip the facilities with adequate pollution control devices and mechanisms. Furthermore, the equipment used should be locally adapted to fit the islands’ socio-cultural and climatic conditions.

This can be realized through the example of failed initial attempts in Olongapo due to unplanned use of equipment.

Olongapo: To address the growing waste problem, the city authorities at first tried a variety of solutions like using color-coded drums for receptacles. The scheme however, did not catch because few households could afford the cost of the drums. Besides when the rains came, the lidless drums got filled with water, becoming too heavy for the garbage collectors to lift. Hence these initial attempts had to be aborted.

Lesson 3. Long-term planning and consideration is necessary-looking at the bigger picture: Many times for islands with limited resources, the cheaper option is the more appealing one. However, these plans may not be the cheapest in the comprehensive analysis or simply put ‘in the larger scheme’. Sometimes in a bid for a quick-fix solution we

175 often create more problems which often lead to further depletion of resources. Caution needs to be exercised when making decisions regarding which plan to go with. For example in the case of Tonga, a plan that seemed almost impractical due to its social and economic implications turned out to be the most sustainable option for the island in the long run. Therefore environmental gains of resource recovery should always be kept in mind when planning facilities. This can be learned through two examples: Saipan and Mauritius.

Saipan: The construction of a landfill was stalled for more than 10 years after it was proposed due to political bickering about the alternative sites. By the time the project could be implemented it was found that the landfill site was too small to handle the waste that had increased over the last 10 years. Improper planning delayed the implementation increasing significantly the financial cost of borrowing from the banks.

Mauritius: Attempts made in the 1980’s proved to be a failure for the following reasons:

1. Insufficient knowledge about the quantities, nature and characteristics of waste

2. Lack of consensus on how to address the issue

3. Lack of transparency and accountability in the management

4. Inefficient management of the logistics chain

5. No planned investment program for the coming decade to address the estimated annual increase in solid

waste

Lesson 4. For any waste facility, the cost-recovery mechanism should be inbuilt-: Implementation of cost-recovery mechanisms improves financial performance and sustainability of solid waste services and leads to better decisions about the technology and facilities, since citizens have a string interest in the trade-offs they wish to make. The initial attempt towards waste management in the island of Tonga illustrates this point.

Tonga: Initial attempts towards improving the management of solid wastes in Tongatapu could not be successfully implemented primarily due to lack of sustainability or inbuilt cost-recovery mechanisms. Hence once the aid from the

World Health Organization ceased most waste operations reverted to their previous unsanitary conditions.

176 The failed experiences in these islands and the lessons they provide prove that the solutions to most challenges are rarely simple but they must always be: economically sustainable, socially and politically acceptable and environmentally responsible.

9.1.2 Guidelines for successful SWM

Certain broad-based guidelines can be formulated from studying the cases and especially the lessons from each island’s experiences in instituting a successful waste management strategy. Experience in these islands shows that, for an SWM strategy to be successful and effective:

ƒ It should be a cyclical process of planning and action, in which the emphasis is on managing progress

towards sustainability goals, rather than producing a "plan" or end product

ƒ It should be genuinely multi-sectoral and integrative, aimed at engaging relevant interest groups and

overcoming institutional and policy fragmentation

ƒ It is crucial to focus on priority issues, and identify key objectives, targets and means of dealing with them;

the strategy must not get swamped by a huge agenda at any one time

ƒ It needs to involve the "widest possible participation"; this means sharing responsibility and building

partnerships among all concerned - business, community and interest groups, as well as governments

ƒ It must take an adaptive and flexible approach, recognizing that problems are characterized by complexity

and uncertainty, and policy responses and technological capability change over time

ƒ It is therefore vital to set up mechanisms for monitoring, evaluation and learning from experience, as an

integral part of the process; the principles of precaution and continuous improvement are important; and

ƒ It is necessary to recognize that preparing an SWM plan is an exercise in capacity-building, and should be

organized to enhance institutional arrangements, sharpen concepts and tools, foster professional skills and

competence, and improve public awareness.

9.1.3 Successful Policies

The following are the broad-based policies that were successful as support systems to the waste management

177 programs:

Public education/ information

Waste and recycling research

Support for source separation

Assistance for enterprises

Assistance to pickers, buyers

National waste reduction legislation

Export of recyclables (if economical)

Promotion of innovative uses

It is a well-known fact that the deterioration of islands erodes indigenous economic and social potentials. Natural ecosystems are exceptionally important for island societies, even though their total area may be minuscule on a world scale. The economic demands placed on island resources, particularly by dominant economic partners, are frequently overwhelming and destabilizing. The susceptibility of small islands to the environmental problems associated with these demands, and their vulnerability to other external climatic and environmental influences, are both high. In contrast, the capabilities of most islands to analyze these issues and to respond appropriately are limited. However, the islands studied here have to a great extent been able to overcome these constraints and problems and have moved forward with the challenges.

9.2 The Best Practices Framework

The Best Practices Framework is a menu which presents the range of viable options for solid waste management that have been found to be suitable for islands belonging to different typologies (size, population, income, tourism index and environmental threat). The framework draws from the case studies as well as from the operations framework matrix and lists the frequency with which administrative innovations, technical innovations and management innovations have been used across the fifteen islands studied. It also lists the number of islands that belong to each typology to enable a comparative study.

178

For example, amongst the items listed under administrative innovation, ‘formation of partnerships’ seems to be the most widely applied innovation. The ‘public-private partnerships’ component seems to be the most prevalent as it has been applied in fourteen of the fifteen islands studied. Further, it is clear that the strategy has been applied to all islands that have 1. population greater than 1million 2. size greater than 1000 sq. kms. 3. per capita income less than

10,000 4. tourism index greater than 10 5. and no imminent environmental threat. Thus the elements in the matrix can be compared from various latitudes to see which strategies were most widely adopted (and hence perceived to be successful). The best practices framework therefore comprehensively illustrates the key options available and the successful strategies adopted in the various island typologies based on the experiences of the fifteen islands studied.

179 Table 9.1: Best Practices Framework

BEST-PRACTICES MATRIX

KEY FEATURES POPULATION SIZE PER CAPITA TOURIS IMMINEN INCOME M INDEX T ENVIRO NMENTA L THREAT Pop>1 million Pop<1 million Size>1000 Size<1000 PCI>10,000 PCI<10,000 TI>10 TI<10 Yes No % Islands TOTAL = 4 TOTAL = 11 TOTAL = 6 TOTAL = 9 TOTAL=5 TOTAL=10 TOTAL=6 TOTAL=9 TOTAL=6 TOTAL=9 Max=100% Administrative Innovation Ordinances/Policy Formulation Changing administrative focus (2:15) 1 (0.25) 1 (0.01) 0 (0.00) 2 (0.22) 2 (0.40) 0 (0.00) 2 (0.33) 0 (0.00) 0 (0.00) 2 (0.22) 13% Mandates (3:15) 2 (0.50) 1 (0.01) 2 (0.33) 1 (0.11) 0 (0.00) 3 (0.30) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 20% Restrictions (7:15) 2 (0.50) 5 (0.45) 3 (0.50) 4 (0.44) 0 (0.00) 7 (0.70) 4 (0.67) 3 (0.33) 3 (0.50) 4 (0.44) 47% Training Programs (12:15) 4 (1.00) 8 (0.73) 5 (0.83) 7 (0.77) 5 (1.00) 7 (0.70) 4 (0.67) 8 (0.89) 5 (0.83) 7 (0.78) 80% Enforcement/Monitoring Mechanisms (6:15) 2 (0.50) 4 (0.36) 3 (0.50) 3 (0.33) 1 (0.20) 4 (0.40) 3 (0.50) 3 (0.33) 2 (0.33) 4 (0.44) 40%

Formation of Partnerships Public-Private partnerships (14:15) 4 (1.000) 10 (0.91) 6 (1.000) 8 (0.88) 4 (0.80) 10 (1.00) 6 (1.000) 8 (0.89) 5 (0.83) 9 (1.000) 93% Consultations/Awareness building (11:15) 3 (0.75) 8 (0.73) 5 (0.83) 6 (0.67) 2 (0.40) 9 (0.90) 4 (0.67) 7 (0.78) 5 (0.83) 6 (0.67) 73%

Political Will Community Mobilizing-leadership (5:15) 3 (0.75) 2 (0.18) 3 (0.50) 2 (0.22) 1 (0.20) 4 (0.40) 1 (0.17) 4 (0.44) 2 (0.33) 3 (0.33) 33% Creation of public funding mechanism 1 (0.25) 3 (0.27) 1 (0.17) 3 (0.33) 0 (0.00) 4 (0.40) 2 (0.33) 2 (0.22) 2 (0.33) 2 (0.22) 27% (4:15)

Collaborative Research Academic Institutions (2:15) 1 (0.25) 1 (0.009) 1 (0.17) 1 (0.11) 1 (0.20) 1 (0.10) 0 (0.00) 2 (0.22) 2 (0.33) 0 (0.00) 13% International agencies (5:15) 1 (0.25) 4 (0.36) 1 (0.17) 4 (0.44) 2 (0.40) 3 (0.30) 2 (0.33) 3 (0.33) 2 (0.33) 3 (0.33) 33%

Technical Innovation Waste segregation Segregation at source (6:15) 2 (0.50) 4 (0.36) 2 (0.33) 4 (0.44) 3 (0.60) 3 (0.30) 2 (0.33) 4 (0.44) 1 (0.17) 5 (0.55) 40% Segregation at waste facility (13:15) 4 (1.00) 9 (0.82) 6 (1.000) 7 (0.77) 5 (1.000) 8 (0.80) 5 (0.83) 8 (0.89) 6 (1.000) 7 (0.78) 87%

Recycling Recycling organic material (6:15) 1 (0.25) 5 (0.45) 2 (0.33) 4 (0.44) 1 (0.20) 5 (0.50) 2 (0.33) 4 (0.44) 2 (0.33) 4 (0.44) 40% Recycling other materials (11:15) 2 (0.50) 9 (0.82) 4 (0.67) 7 (0.77) 4 (0.80) 7 (0.70) 4 (0.67) 7 (0.78) 4 (0.67) 7 (0.78) 73%

Composting Backyard composting (3:15) 1 (0.25) 2 (0.18) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 1 (0.20) 2 (0.20) 2 (0.33) 1 (0.11) 0 (0.00) 3 (0.33) 20% Large-scale composting (7:15) 3 (0.75) 4 (0.36) 3 (0.50) 4 (0.44) 4 (0.80) 3 (0.30) 1 (0.17) 6 (0.67) 4 (0.67) 3 (0.33) 47% Indegeneous composting operations (3:15) 1 (0.25) 2 (0.18) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 2 (0.40) 1 (0.10) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 20%

Landfill Mixed/dual use (2:15) 0 (0.00) 2 (0.18) 2 (0.33) 0 (0.00) 0 (0.00) 2 (0.20) 1 (0.17) 1 (0.11) 1 (0.17) 1 (0.11) 13% Locally adapted landfills (3:15) 0 (0.00) 3 (0.27) 1(0.17) 2 (0.22) 0 (0.00) 3 (0.30) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 20% Land reclamation (4:15) 0 (0.00) 4 (0.36) 2 (0.33) 2 (0.22) 1 (0.20) 3 (0.30) 2 (0.33) 2 (0.22) 1 (0.17) 3 (0.33) 27% Hi-tech landfills (3:15) 1 (0.25) 2 (0.18) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 2 (0.40) 1 (0.10) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 2 (0.33) 1 (0.11) 20%

Comprehensive waste facility Increasing landfill lifespan (3:15) 0 (0.00) 3 (0.27) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 1 (0.20) 2 (0.20) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 0 (0.00) 3 (0.33) 20% Supporting existing facilities (3:15) 1 (0.25) 2 (0.18) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 2 (0.40) 1 (0.10) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 20%

Storage centers/ Transfer stations Storage center network (3:15) 1 (0.25) 2 (0.18) 2 (0.33) 1 (0.11) 0 (0.00) 3 (0.30) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 20% Transfer station (2:15) 0 (0.00) 2 (0.18) 0 (0.00) 2 (0.22) 1 (0.20) 1 (0.10) 1 (0.17) 1 (0.11) 0 (0.00) 2 (0.22) 13%

Management Innovation Social preparation Piloting projects (4:15) 3 (0.75) 1 (0.01) 4 (0.67) 0 (0.00) 0 (0.00) 4 (0.40) 1 (0.17) 3 (0.33) 3 (0.50) 1 (0.11) 27% Participation in planning phase (4:15) 1 (0.25) 3 (0.27) 2 (0.33) 2 (0.22) 1 (0.20) 3 (0.30) 0 (0.00) 4 (0.44) 2 (0.33) 2 (0.22) 27%

Structural changes in institutions Establishing collection schedules (3:15) 1 (0.25) 2 (0.18) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 0 (0.00) 3 (0.30) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 0 (0.00) 3 (0.33) 20% Training and education (3:15) 2 (0.50) 1 (0.01) 2 (0.33) 1 (0.11) 0 (0.00) 3 (0.30) 0 (0.00) 3 (0.33) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 20% Monitoring (5:15) 2 (0.50) 3 (0.27) 3 (0.50) 2 (0.22) 2 (0.40) 3 (0.30) 2 (0.33) 3 (0.33) 3 (0.50) 2 (0.22) 33% Collaborative studies and research (4:15) 2 (0.50) 2 (0.18) 2 (0.33) 2 (0.22) 2 (0.40) 2 (0.20) 0 (0.00) 4 (0.44) 1 (0.17) 3 (0.33) 27%

Education Children's education (3:15) 1 (0.25) 2 (0.18) 2 (0.33) 1 (0.11) 0 (0.00) 3 (0.30) 2 (0.33) 1 (0.11) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 20% Instituting contests/incentives (4:15) 1 (0.25) 3 (0.27) 1 (0.17) 3 (0.33) 1 (0.20) 3 (0.30) 1 (0.17) 3 (0.33) 0 (0.00) 4 (0.44) 27% Media participation (8:15) 1 (0.25) 7 (0.64) 3 (0.50) 5 (0.55) 4 (0.80) 4 (0.40) 3 (0.50) 5 (0.55) 3 (0.50) 5 (0.56) 53% Educational programs (2:15) 1 (0.25) 1 (0.01) 1 (0.17) 1 (0.11) 1 (0.20) 1 (0.10) 1 (0.17) 1 (0.11) 1 (0.17) 1 (0.11) 13%

Partnerships with ‘Agents of change’ International aid agencies (6:15) 1 (0.25) 5 (0.45) 1 (0.17) 5 (0.55) 2 (0.40) 4 (0.40) 3 (0.50) 3 (0.33) 2 (0.33) 4 (0.44) 40% Organizing informal sector (4:15) 0 (0.00) 4 (0.36) 1 (0.17) 3 (0.33) 0 (0.00) 4 (0.40) 1 (0.17) 3 (0.33) 0 (0.00) 4 (0.44) 27% Public-private partnerships (7:15) 1 (0.25) 6 (0.55) 2 (0.33) 5 (0.55) 3 (0.60) 4 (0.40) 4 (0.67) 3 (0.33) 3 (0.50) 4 (0.44) 47% Involvement of commerce (6:15) 1 (0.25) 5 (0.45) 2 (0.33) 4 (0.44) 2 (0.40) 4 (0.40) 3 (0.50) 3 (0.33) 3 (0.50) 3 (0.33) 40%

Financing Service fees (2:15) 0 (0.00) 2 (0.18) 0 (0.00) 2 (0.22) 0 (0.00) 2 (0.20) 2 (0.33) 0 (0.00) 1 (0.17) 1 (0.11) 13% Setting up a revolving fund 0 (0.00) 1 (0.01) 0 (0.00) 1 (0.11) 0 (0.00) 1 (0.10) 1 (0.17) 0 (0.00) 1 (0.17) 0 (0.00) 7% Formalizing the informal sector (4:15) 0 (0.00) 4 (0.36) 1 (0.17) 3 (0.33) 0 (0.00) 4 (0.40) 1 (0.17) 3 (0.33) 0 (0.000) 4 (0.44) 27% Private-public partnerships (3:15) 1 (0.25) 2 (0.18) 2 (0.33) 1 (0.11) 0 (0.00) 3 (0.30) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 2 (0.33) 1 (0.11) 20% External funds/grants (4:15) 1 (0.25) 3 (0.27) 1 (0.17) 3 (0.33) 1 (0.2) 3 (0.30) 1 (0.17) 3 (0.33) 2 (0.33) 2 (0.22) 27%

Human Resource Development New appointments (3:15) 1 (0.25) 2 (0.18) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 0 (0.00) 3 (0.30) 1 (0.17) 2 (0.22) 0 (0.00) 3 (0.33) 20% Creation of jobs (5:15) 2 (0.50) 3 (0.27) 3 (0.5) 2 (0.22) 0 (0.00) 5 (0.50) 1 (0.17) 4 (0.44) 2 (0.33) 3 (0.33) 33% Organising the informal sector (4:15) 0 (0.00) 4 (0.36) 1 (0.17) 3 (0.33) 0 (0.00) 4 (0.40) 1(0.17) 3 (0.33) 0 (0.00) 4 (0.44) 27% Capacity building (4:15) 0 (0.00) 4 (0.36) 0 (0.00) 4 (0.44) 2 (0.40) 2 (0.20) 3(0.50) 1 (0.11) 1 (0.17) 3 (0.33) 27%

Source: Author

181 9.3 Findings (From the Best Practices Matrix)

The section below is a summary of the findings from the best practices framework based on island typologies and innovations. It lists the most popular (top 80%) options used in each category.

9.3.1 The Population Factor

1. For islands with population greater than 1 million:

ƒ Most popular administrative options used:

Training programs

Public –Private partnerships

Consultations/awareness building

Community mobilization under a strong leadership

ƒ Most popular technical options used:

Segregation of waste at the waste facility

Large-scale composting

ƒ Most popular management options used:

Piloting of projects

2. For islands with population less than 1 million

ƒ Most popular administrative options used:

Training programs

Public –Private partnerships

Consultations/awareness building

ƒ Most popular technical options used:

Segregation at waste facility

Recycling of plastics, paper and other inorganic fractions

ƒ Most popular management options used:

None

It is observed that perhaps the only difference between highly populated (>1million) and less populated (<1 million) islands is the use of pilot projects (management innovation) as a tool for waste management. This might largely be due to the fact that less populated islands use management options as support function only.

9.3.2 The Size Factor

1. For islands with size greater than 1000 sq kms.

ƒ Most popular administrative options used

Training programs

Public –Private partnerships

Consultations/awareness building

ƒ Most popular technical options used:

Segregation of waste at the waste facility

ƒ Most popular management options used

None

2. For islands with size less than 1000 sq.kms.

ƒ Most popular administrative options used

Training programs

Public –Private partnerships

ƒ Most popular technical options used

Segregation at waste facility

Recycling of plastics, paper and other inorganic fractions

ƒ Most popular management option used

None

It is observed that many of the options used by the different island sizes are similar. However, islands with a smaller size (<1000sq km) seem to support recycling better than islands with a larger size (>1000sq km), whereas, islands with a larger size support consultations and awareness building as a popular administrative option. From the listing

183 above we can see that the island population and size have equal relevance during decision-making--either can be used.

9.3.3 The Per Capita Income Factor

1. For islands with per capita income greater than $10,000

ƒ Most popular administrative options used

Training programs

Public-private partnerships

ƒ Most popular technical options used

Segregation at waste facility

Recycling of plastics, paper and other inorganic fractions

Large-scale composting

ƒ Most popular management options used

Media participation

2. For islands with per capita income less than $10,000

ƒ Most popular administrative options used

Public-private partnerships

Consultations/awareness building

ƒ Most popular technical options used

Segregation at waste facility

ƒ Most popular management options used

None

In general it is observed that there is not much of a difference in approach towards instituting a waste management practice in high (>$10,000) versus low-income (<$10,000) islands. There are differences in the techniques used and, a blueprint approach would not work, as not only the strategy but the background research that would go into formulating a suitable solution would have to be specific to the needs of that island.

184

9.3.4 The Tourism Index Factor

1. For islands with tourism index greater than 10

ƒ Most popular administrative option used

Public-private partnerships

ƒ Most popular technical options used

Segregation at waste facility

ƒ Most popular management innovation used

None

2. For islands with tourism index less than 10

ƒ Most popular administrative options used

Training programs

Public-private partnerships

ƒ Most popular technical options used

Segregation at waste facility

ƒ Most popular management innovation

None

Training programs is a popular option with islands that have a low tourism index (<10). All the islands regardless of their tourism index category use management options only as ancillary functions.

9.3.5 The Environmental Threat Factor

1. For islands with imminent environmental threat

ƒ Most popular administrative options used

Training programs

Public-private partnerships

Consultations/awareness building

185 ƒ Most popular technical options used

Segregation at waste facility

ƒ Most popular management options used

None

2. For islands with no imminent environmental threat

ƒ Most popular administrative options used

Public-private partnerships

ƒ Most popular technical options used

None

ƒ Most popular management options used

None

Islands with imminent environmental threat seem to exercise far more caution as compared to ones with no threat.

They have several administrative options in place to ensure a smooth functioning of the waste management.

9.3.6 In Administrative Innovation

The most effective and widely used feature was the ‘formation of partnerships’. Almost 90% of the islands have used this feature to their advantage. Among others, ‘training programs’ was another popular option with about 85% of the islands implementing it in some form or the other.

9.3.7 In Technical Innovation

Segregation of wastes at the waste facility and recycling of plastics, paper and other forms of inorganic wastes seem to be the most widely used components of technical innovation. It was implemented in 87% of the islands with success. Recycling of plastics, paper, construction debris and other inorganic wastes was another innovation that was common to 75% of the islands. In general a hierarchy of waste management was observed with regards to technical options whereby: 1. Source reduction 2. Recycling 3. Composting 4. and Landfilling were opted for in that order. In several cases all the four functions were present in conjunction.

186

9.3.8 In Management Innovation

Except for media participation and public-private partnerships, there seem to be no other management innovations that were implemented as stand-alone strategies for waste management. Even these strategies were implemented in only 50% of the islands. In all the island typologies, it was noted that that there were in fact no strategies that had found implementation in at least 80% of the islands. This appears to be the case since, in most islands management innovations were used as support functions and not as techniques that could be applied to solve waste problems.

However, it would be appropriate to mention that although strategies such as capacity building might not have been carried out formally by most islands; there were several instances of informal attempts some of which were highly successful. It is also noteworthy that management options such as levying user fees, organizing the informal sector, human resource development and education were in many cases key catalysts that enabled the institution and sustainability of waste management strategies.

9.4 To Summarize

After investigating the case studies (islands) and the best-practices framework closely some common underlying principles that were followed for both the high-income as well as low-income islands emerged, to which the success of the waste management strategies can be attributed to. These are as follows:

ƒ Determining if conditions are appropriate - for example a conducive political and social climate, high-level

political support, and adequate funds.

ƒ Deciding on an entry point - An integrated system of waste management should be a cyclical process.

Some elements follow one from the other (for example generation--collection--disposal), others proceed

throughout the cycle. A new strategy took account of what had transpired before and perhaps started at

whatever stage a significant ongoing or past strategy had reached.

187 ƒ Establishing an engine to drive the process - Often, a committee was formed, comprising committed staff

with good management skills. Other times collaborations and partnerships were forged with entities that can

partake in the responsibilities and be efficient.

ƒ Deciding the process design - the committee determined the scope of the strategy, the main stakeholders

to be involved, the issues to address, the approach, and how to manage the individual elements which

comprised the strategy cycle.

ƒ Determining the participants - Participation implied full involvement of relevant groups (both public and

private) in appropriate tasks including strategy design, exchanging information, decision-making and

implementation. The committee or local government decided on how much participation was possible and

necessary, and developed mechanisms for participation, such as core groups, workshops or community-

based techniques.

ƒ Information assembly and analysis - This was usually undertaken through background studies and

workshops or meetings, by government or international agencies, universities, research and policy

institutions or independent professionals.

ƒ Policy formulation and priority-setting. Principles, goals and objectives of the strategy, and targets for

achieving the objectives, through fora, such as policy dialogues or meetings were established.

ƒ Addressing the hard questions - the major issues, obstacles and risks subject to differing opinions and

attitudes were discussed. Many times it was agreed upon that trade-offs would be necessary. Also risk

assessment and mitigation strategies were decided upon.

ƒ Action planning and budgeting -Macro approaches and micro actions were discussed. These included:

policy, legislative, institutional and organizational changes; capacity-building for government, NGOs and

local communities; finances involved and a range of programs and projects.

ƒ Implementation and capacity-building – Included embracing the corporate sector, NGOs and communities,

as well as government. Governments created an enabling environment for action by all sections of society,

while NGOs played a key role in catalyzing participation and local action.

188 ƒ Communication - Participants were kept informed of progress, participation was encouraged and wider

understanding of solid waste management through briefings, newsletters, media coverage, and workshops

was generated.

ƒ Monitoring and evaluation - of both the process and products was encouraged and conducted

In summary, strategies appeared to be almost immediately successful where there was: high-level of political backing from the beginning of the exercise; a strong ethic for cross-sectoral/institutional collaboration; extensive public consultation and effective social structures for consensus-building.

9.5 Strengths and Weaknesses (What was considered-What was not considered)

The outcome of the study particularly the ‘Operations framework matrix’ and the ‘Best practices matrix’ are significantly detailed analyses based on fifteen case studies from around the world. It would not be erroneous to say that the number is significant enough so as to generate a somewhat accurate picture of the ongoings in the islands’ waste management. However, since the sampling was not geographically uniform (from all over the world) and homogeneous, the study cannot be expected to produce conclusive results. It must be noted that for the islands studied the data and interpretations are the most recent and accurate reflections of the current situation. For this reason, every island can be said to have accurately represented their geo-political context. For a study that was comprehensive and a first of its kind at this level, the data and results provided are significant and pertinent.

9.6 Applicability/ Feasibility

The research conducted here has been designed to provide other islands considering adoption of a solid waste management strategy, with not only a methodology of assessing possible solutions for their waste management but also prematurely considering the options they would have or the domain within which they would have to operate based on the best practices presented here. It would also provide them with information on potential pitfalls and the research strategy they should adopt in order to reach a scientific conclusion.

189 For a given island (X), based on the criteria category (island typology) island X fits into, the best practices framework maybe used to extract the ‘best’ or ‘most popular practices’ that have been implemented in the fifteen islands studied here. The practices could be individually examined and assessed in terms of administrative options, technical options and management options exercised. Further the operations framework matrix details out not only the practices but also the pre-requisites for implementing the options as well as the potential problems that might be encountered. It also gives information about the funding agencies or other institutions that supported the innovations in various capacities.

9.6.1 Data Filtration Tool (Refer to Table 9.2)

The data filtration tool has been designed to lead the user through a step-by-step analysis whereby the range of potential solutions would be arrived at based on other islands that best match the criterion of island X. This tool is an add-on feature to the best practices framework by which waste management strategies or experiences of other similar islands can be seen at a glance.

Using the Data Filtration tool:

1. Rank the five criteria (Population, Size, Per Capita Income (PCI), Environmental Threat, Tourism Index) in

order of importance for island X.

2. Determining the category to which island X belongs to for each of the five criteria:

Population: a) Greater than 1,000,000 b) Less than-equal to 1,000,000

Size: a) Greater than 1000 sq. km b) Less than-equal to 1000 sq. km.

PCI: a) Greater than $10,000 b) Less than-equal to $10,000

Environmental threat: a) Yes b) No

Tourism Index: a) Greater than 10 b) Less than-equal to 10

3. Filtering data as per assigned criteria ranks (one by one or until best-fit is achieved in all categories) to

obtain island or group of islands that best matches the criterion of island X.

4. Link/Refer to the operations framework matrix or case studies for greater detail on the island group arrived

at.

190 5. After this assessment, a closer look at the patterns of economic development, finance availability, climate,

soil conditions and political climate of island X would further enhance the range of solutions available and

aid in the final decision-making.

For implementation purposes on island X it is suggested (based on the experience of the studied islands) that the following factors be prioritized carefully:

Island’s long term vision

Strategies available

Financial Issues

Human Resource Development potential

9.7 For Advanced Documentation and Research

This research has examined the range of potential solutions for a sustainable solid waste management in an island ecosystem. Various influences and aspects including: geographic, demographic, cultural, political, social and economic parameters were studied. Although the scope of the thesis was broad there are other aspects/criteria that need to be examined in order to provide a more accurate analysis of the strategies available for waste management.

One of the ways to enhance the resultant matrix would perhaps be the inclusion of more islands. A geographically homogeneous representation would also enhance the framework.

Ease of acquisition of land for the purpose of siting a waste facility especially where there are more traditional systems of land tenure would be an interesting study. To refine the matrix, areas that merit further study and which could not be dealt with in greater depth here are:

ƒ Finance mechanisms

ƒ Climatic influence

ƒ Soil conditions

ƒ Waste stream study

ƒ Adapting technology

191 ƒ International influence/domination of the high-income nations in providing solutions.

Examination of the above issues would perhaps require extensive field research and surveys as in the near future data availability through other resources is questionable.

192 Table 9.2 Data Filtration Tool

Islands Population Size PCI Tourism Index Env. Threat Link Olongapo 1million- 1000- 10,000- 10+ No Olongopo Bustos 1million+ 1000+ 10,000- 10- No Bustos Dumaguete 1million- 1000+ 10,000- 10- No Dumaguete Santa Maria 1million+ 1000+ 10,000- 10- Yes Santa Maria Romblon 1million- 1000- 10,000- 10- No Romblon Tonga 1million- 1000- 10,000- 10- No Tongatapu Bahamas 1million- 1000- 10,000+ 10+ No Bahamas Galapagos 1million- 1000+ 10,000- 10+ Yes Galapagos Isle of Wight 1million- 1000- 10,000+ 10+ No Isle of Wight Male 1million- 1000- 10,000- 10+ No Male Mauritius 1million+ 1000+ 10,000+ 10- Yes Mauritius Saipan 1million- 1000- 10,000- 10+ Yes Saipan Seychelles 1million- 1000- 10,000+ 10- No Seychelles La Palma 1million- 1000- 10,000+ 10- Yes La Palma Jamaica 1million+ 1000+ 10,000- 10- Yes Jamaica

Source: Author

193 Bibliography

Creswell, John W. Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2003.

Clayton, K.C, Huie, J. Solid Waste Management – the regional approach. Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger Publishing Company, 1973.

Communications and MIS Branch for the Industrial Technologies Division. Municipal Solid Waste Management. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1995.

Congress of the Philippines. Republic Act No. 9003. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. Manila: January, 2001.

Faucet, Britt, Ediger, Laura. Composting Boosts Tourism and Coffee Production-Case Study Jamaica. BioCycle, Volume II. December, 2003.

Gottlieb, Robert, et al. Solid Waste Management : planning issues & opportunities. Chicago, IL: American Planning Association, 1990.

Grover, Velma I, et al, ed. Solid Waste Management. Rotterdam; Brookfield, VT : A.A. Balkema, 2000.

Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2003.

Hickey, James E, Longmire, Linda A, ed. The environment: global problems, local solutions. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1994.

Holmes, John, ed. Managing Solid Wastes in Developing Countries. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1984.

Kirov, N.Y. ed. Waste management, control, recovery, and reuse. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ann Arbor Science, 1975.

Kirov, N.Y. ed. Solid waste treatment and disposal. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, 1972.

Mauritius - Environmental Solid Waste Management. Project Vol. 1. Report no. PID7926, Project Information Document. June, 1999.

Rao, Sangeetha. "Analysis of Solid Waste Management Techniques being used by the City of Cincinnati." MCP diss., University of Cincinnati, 1991.

Sandford, Borins. Journal of Intellectual Capital. Vol 2. Encouraging innovation in the public sector. Toronto: MCB University Press, 2001.

Shah, Kanti L. Basics of solid and hazardous waste management technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, 2000.

TEMMP, Solid Waste Management Plan for Tongatapu. March, 2000

Tchobanoglous, George, et al. Solid Wastes: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. New York: Mc Graw Hill Book Company, 1987.

194 Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1987.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Decision-maker's guide to solid waste management. Volume II. Washington, D.C.: Office of Solid Waste, Municipal and Industrial Solid Waste Division, 1995.

Victor, P.A. Pollution: economy and environment. London: University of Toronto Press and Allen and Unwin, 1987.

Williams, Martin, et al. Solid Waste Management Challenges in Pacific Island Countries Project Information Document, 2000.

Wilson, D. J. ed. Handbook of Solid Waste Management. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1997.

Wilson, David C. Waste management : planning, evaluation, technologies. New York : Oxford University Press, 1981.

Yin, Robert K. Case study research: design and methods. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2003.

CIA World Factbook. 2003. Internet on-line. http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/profileguide.html Accessed [Mar 18, 2004].

Department of Environment and Natural Resources. Model LGU-Wide Ecological Solid Waste Management System Dumaguete City. 2001. Internet on-line. http://216.239.39.104/search?q=cache:ZlWp95BMEcJ:www.oneocean.org/download/20010825/negros_profile/chap2 b.pdf+negros+oriental+waste&hl=en&ie=UTF-8 Accessed [10th Jan, 2004]

Environmental Planning Issues. Small Island States and Sustainable Development: Strategic Issues and Experience. 2001. Internet on-line. http://216.239.37.104/search?q=cache:LculSCyN5dcJ:www.iied.org/docs/spa/epi8.pdf+The+preparation+of+an+integ rated+wastes+management+strategy+and+plan+for+the+Falkland+Islands+covering+all+existing+and+future+waste +streams&hl=en&ie=UTF-8. Accessed [2 October 2003].

Environmental Planning Issues. Application of Waste-to-Energy Solutions in Islands Opportunities & Considerations. 2001. Internet on-line. http://216.239.37.104/search?q=cache:n7KUNGTBe5AJ:www.europeanislands.net/Downloads/Docs/Applicationsof WTESolutionsinIslands-EXERGIA.pdf+solid+waste+management+shetland&hl=en&ie=UTF-8

Environmental Protection Agency. Governance for sustainability: towards a 'thick' analysis of environmental decision- making. 2000. Internet on-line. http://www.pion.co.uk/ep/epa/abstracts/a35/a35289.html Accessed [11 November 2003].

Eurisles. Waste management on the Isle of Wight. 2002. Internet on-line. http://www.eurisles.org/Textes/Strategy/NonPub/IOW_Gestion%20dechets_EN.htm Accessed [9th Feb, 2004].

Government of the Commonwealth of Bahamas. Solid Waste Management Program-Bahamas. 2000. Internet on- line. http://216.239.39.104/search?q=cache:ece0XmAy6fUJ:www.iadb.org/EXR/doc98/apr/bh1170e.PDF+solid+waste+isl ands&hl=en&ie=UTF-8. Accessed [9th Feb, 2004]

195

Galapagos Conservation Trust. Recycling of Solid Waste in Puerto Villamil, Isabela Island. 2003. Internet on-line. http://www.gct.org/recycle.html. Accessed [9th Feb, 2004]

Integrated Skills. Waste Management Strategies World-wide. 2000. Internet on-line. http://www.integrated-skills.com/projects.asp?categoryID=13 Accessed [10th Jan, 2004]

Island Waste. Working Together to Conserve the Islands’s Resources. 2002. Internet on-line. http://www.islandwaste.co.uk/waste.html. Accessed [19th Oct, 2003].

Insula. La Palma Integral Waste Management Plan. 2001. Internet on-line. www.insula.org/islands/lapalma.htm. Accessed Mar 22, 2004.

Insula. La Palma Waste Management. 2001. Internet on-line. www.edcodisposal.com/la-palma.htm. Accessed Mar 22, 2004.

Insula. La Palma– A Model of Waste Management. 2002. Internet on-line. www.insula.org/islands/theplan.htm. Accessed Mar 22, 2004.

Ministry of Environment. Waste Management in the Seychelles. 1999. Internet on-line. http://www.pps.gov.sc/enviro/html/solid_waste_management.html Accessed Feb 3, 2004.

Muirs Tours. Responsible Tourism. 2003. Internet on-line. http://www.nkf-mt.org.uk/eco_concerns.Galapagos.htm. Accessed [9th Feb, 2004].

Radegonde, V. UNEP. Eastern African Action Plan. 2003. Internet on-line. http://www.unep.org/eaf/Docs/SAPEaf5/seychel.htm. Accessed Feb 3, 2004.

Santa Maria, Administrative Reforms in Asia: The Philippine Experience. 1999. Internet on-line. http://216.239.39.104/search?q=cache:CRZ_76fCXUkJ:unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan0 00232.pdf+santa+maria+bulacan+waste&hl=en&ie=UTF-8 Accessed [10th Jan, 2004]

Seychelles Nation Online. Solid Waste Management. 2003. Internet on-line. http://www.seychelles- online.com.sc/archives/10200103.html. Accessed Feb 3, 2004.

SIDSNET. Solid Waste Management in Seychelles. 2002. Internet on-line. www.sidsnet.org/docshare/other/20031105165027_Solid_Waste_Management_in_Seychells.ppt. Accessed Feb 3, 2004.

SIDSNET. Tourism in islands. 2003. Internet on-line. http://www.sidsnet.org/latestarc/tourism- newswire/msg00085.html. Accessed Apr 12, 2004.

STAR Seychelles. Composting Services. 2003. Internet on-line. http://www.sitagroup.com/english/savoir/metiers/compostage/focus.htm Accessed Feb 3, 2004.

UNEP. UNEP Islands Website. 2003. Internet on-line. http://islands.unep.ch/. Accessed May 02, 2004.

196 United Nations Environment Program. Solid Waste Management Report-Maldives. 2002. Internet on-line. http://www.rrcap.unep.org/reports/soe/maldives_solid.pdf. Accessed [15th Dec, 2003].

United Nations Environment program. Key Environmental Issues: Management of Solid Waste and Sewage, Maldives. 2002. Internet on-line. http://www.rrcap.unep.org/reports/soe/maldives_solid.pdf Accessed [10 October 2003].

Whitman, Frank. Pacific Islands- A Solid Plan for Solid Waste. 2001. Internet on-line. http://www.pacificislands.cc/pm102003/pmdefault.php?urlarticleid=0005 Accessed [Feb3, 2004].

Whitman, Frank. A Solid Plan for Solid Waste: Saipan’s New Marpi Landfill Is Cutting Edge. Pacific-islands Magazine. 2003. Internet on-line. http://www.pacificislands.cc/pm102003/pmdefault.php?urlarticleid=0005 Accessed [15 October 2003].

World Bank. Waste Management Mauritius. 2001. Internet on-line. http://www.wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1999/07/22/000094946_99072205191762/Rend ered/PDF/multi0page.pdf. Accessed [15th Dec, 2003].

Other References of Interest http://www.lib.kth.se/~lg/ejourn.htm http://www.iadb.org/EXR/doc98/pro/ubl0021.pdf

http://community.wow.net/eclac/SIDSDATA/Proj2/577.htm

http://www.integrated-skills.com/projects.asp?categoryID=13

http://www.gdrc.org/oceans/a-island.html

http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/ESTdir/Pub/MSW/SP/SP2/SP2_4.asp

http://www.gdrc.org/uem/waste/island/islands-waste.html

http://www.islands.org/recaribe/ http://www.irf.org/index.html http://www.iisd.ca/linkages/vol08/0828020e.html http://www.pacificislands.cc/pm62003/pmdefault.php?urlarticleid=0014 http://216.239.39.104/search?q=cache:ece0XmAy6fUJ:www.iadb.org/EXR/doc98/apr/bh1170e.PDF+solid+waste+isl ands&hl=en&ie=UTF-8 http://forest.and.nic.in/frst-environment1.htm.

197 http://www.islands.org/cii/ciipage.htm http://members.tripod.com/Carib_Coastal/html/sewage.html http://www.iisd.ca/linkages/vol08/0828015e.html http://www.gdrc.org/uem/waste/z-doc.html http://community.wow.net/eclac/SIDSDATA/Wastsids.htm http://www.irf.org/index.html http://www.jxj.com/wmw/index.html http://www.pwmag.com/articles/article_index/index_refuse_collection.htm

198 APPENDIX A

Glossary of terms

Collection the process of picking up wastes from residences, businesses, or a collection point, loading them into a vehicle, and transporting them to a processing, transfer, or disposal site. Controlled dump a planned landfill where controlled waste picking is permitted and that incorporate to some extent some of the features of a sanitary landfill such as: siting with respect to hydro-geological suitability, grading, compaction in some cases, leachate control, partial gas management, regular (not usually daily) cover, access control and basic record- keeping. Compost the material resulting from composting. Compost, also called humus, is a soil conditioner and in some instances is used as a fertilizer. Composting Biological decomposition of solid organic materials by bacteria, fungi, and other organisms into a soil-like product. Disposal The final handling of solid waste, following collection, processing, or incineration. Disposal most often means placement of wastes in a dump or a landfill. Dump Usually an informal and non-designated place where trash is thrown. Energy recovery The process of extracting useful energy from waste, typically from the heat produced by incineration or via methane gas from landfills. Garbage in everyday usage, refuse in general. Incineration the process of burning solid waste under controlled conditions to reduce its weight and volume, and often to produce energy. Inorganic waste waste composed of material other than plant or animal matter, such as sand, dust, glass, and many synthetics. Integrated solid waste management coordinated use of a set of waste management methods, each of which can play a role in an overall solid waste management plan. In-vessel composting composting in an enclosed vessel or drum with a controlled internal environment, mechanical mixing, and aeration. Landfill gases gases arising from the decomposition of organic wastes; principally methane, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. Such gases may cause explosions at landfills. Landfilling The final disposal of solid waste by placing it in an orderly and controlled fashion in a place intended to be permanent. The UNEP Source Book uses this term for both controlled dumps and sanitary landfills. Leachate Liquid (which may be partly produced by decomposition of organic matter) that has seeped through a landfill or a compost pile, and has accumulated bacteria, and other possibly harmful, dissolved or suspended materials. If uncontrolled, leachate can contaminate both groundwater and surface water. Materials recovery Obtaining materials that can be reused or recycled.

199 NGO Nongovernmental organization. May be used to refer to a range of organizations from small community groups, through national organizations, to international ones. Frequently these are not-for-profit organizations. Open dump An unplanned ‘landfill’ that incorporates few if any of the characteristics of a controlled landfill. There is typically no leachate control, no access control, no cover, no management, and many waste pickers. Organic waste Technically, waste containing carbon, including paper, wood, food wastes, and yard wastes. In practice in Municipal Solid Waste Management, the term is often used in a more restricted sense to mean material that is more directly derived from plant or animal sources, and which can generally be decomposed by microorganisms. Processing Preparing solid waste materials for subsequent use or management, using processes such as baling, magnetic separation, crushing, and shredding. The term is also sometimes used to mean separation of recyclables from a mixed waste stream. Putrescible Subject to decomposition or decay. Usually used in reference to food wastes and other organic wastes that decay quickly. Pyrolysis Chemical decomposition of a substance by heat in the absence of oxygen, resulting in various hydrocarbon gases and carbon-like residue. Recyclables Items that can be reprocessed into feedstock for new products. Common examples are paper, glass, aluminum, corrugated cardboard, and plastic containers. Recycling The process of transforming materials into raw materials for manufacturing new products, which may or may not be similar to the original product. Refuse A term often used interchangeably with solid waste. Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) Fuel produced from MSW that has undergone processing. Processing can include separation of recyclables and noncombustible materials, shredding, size reduction, and pelletizing. Resource recovery The extraction and utilization of materials and energy from wastes. Reuse The use of a product more than once in its original form, for the same or a new purpose. Rubbish A general term for solid waste. Sometimes used to exclude food wastes and ashes. Sanitary landfill An engineered method of disposing of solid waste on land, in a manner that meets most of the standard specifications, including sound siting, extensive site preparation, proper leachate and gas management and monitoring, compaction, daily and final cover, complete access control, and record-keeping. Solid waste All solid waste generated in an area except industrial and agricultural wastes. Sometimes includes construction and demolition debris and other special wastes that may enter the municipal waste stream. Generally excludes hazardous wastes except to the extent that they enter the municipal waste stream. Sometimes defined to mean all solid wastes that a city authority accepts responsibility for managing in some way. Solid waste management (SWM) Planning and implementation of systems to handle solid waste. Source reduction The design, manufacture, acquisition, and reuse of materials so as to minimize the quantity and/or toxicity of waste produced.

200 Source separation Setting aside of compostable and recyclable materials from the waste stream before they are collected with other MSW, to facilitate reuse, recycling, and composting. Tipping fee A fee for unloading or dumping waste at a landfill, transfer station, incinerator, or recycling facility. Tipping floor Unloading area for vehicles that are delivering solid wastes to a transfer station or incinerator. Transfer The act of moving waste from a collection vehicle to a larger transport vehicle. Transfer point A designated point, often at the edge of a neighborhood, where small collection vehicles transfer waste to larger vehicles for transport to disposal sites. Transfer station A major facility at which solid wastes from collection vehicles is consolidated into loads that are transported by larger trucks or other means to more distant final disposal facilities, typically landfills. Waste picker/Scavenger A person who picks out recyclables from mixed waste wherever it may be temporarily accessible or disposed of. Waste reduction All means of reducing the amount of waste that is produced initially and that must be collected by solid waste authorities. This ranges from legislation and product design to local programs designed to keep recyclables and compostables out of the final waste stream. Waste stream The total flow of waste from a community, region, or facility. Waste-to-energy (WTE) plant A facility that uses solid waste materials (processed or raw) to produce energy. WTE plants include incinerators that produce steam for district heating or industrial use, or that generate electricity; they also include facilities that convert landfill gas to electricity. Water table Level below the earth's surface at which the ground becomes saturated with water. Windrow An elongated pile of aerobically composting materials that are turned periodically to expose the materials to oxygen and to control the temperature to promote biodegradation.

Source: UNEP-IETC, International Source Book on Environmentally Sound Technologies for Municipal Solid Waste Management. Technical Publication Series no. 6. Osaka/Shiga: UNEP International Environmental Technology Centre, 1996 (pp. 421-427)

201 World Map Showing Location of Case Study Islands

Isle of Wight

Bahamas La Palma

Jamaica Phillippines Islands

Seychelles Maldives Galapagos

Saipan Mauritius