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Reducing Air Pollution from Urban Transport

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Reducing Air Pollution from Urban Transport Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Todd Johnson Todd and MasamiKojima, Gwilliam, Ken Urban Transport from Pollution Reducing Air THE WORLD THE WORLD BANK Copyright © 2004 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. Telephone 202-473-1000 Internet www.worldbank.org All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America Published June 2004 The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed here do not necessarily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank cannot guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsi- bility for any consequence of their use. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply on the part of the World Bank any judgment of the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Cover: Todd Johnson, 2004; Shanghai, China. Contents Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................ix Foreword ...................................................................................................................xi List of Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Glossary............................................ xiii Preface ...................................................................................................................... xv Executive Summary ............................................................................................ xvii Background ................................................................................................... xvii A Framework for Decisionmaking ............................................................ xvii Policy Instruments for Reducing Transport Emissions and Reducing Human Exposure.................................................................................. xviii Conclusions ....................................................................................................xxv 1. The Context of the Problem ........................................................................... 1 The Air Quality Problem in Developing Countries ...................................... 1 Transport as a Source of Pollution .................................................................. 1 Air Pollution Levels and Trends ...................................................................... 2 Global Climate Change ..................................................................................... 3 Urban Transport Policy in Developing Countries ........................................ 4 The Policy Stance ............................................................................................... 5 2. A Systematic Approach to Controlling Urban Air Pollution from Mobile Sources ................................................................................................. 7 A Framework for Analysis ............................................................................... 7 Air Quality Monitoring and Standards .......................................................... 7 The Determinants of Transport Emissions ..................................................... 8 Assessing Air Pollution Mitigation Measures ............................................. 11 Cost-Effectiveness Analysis ........................................................................... 15 The Results of Analysis of Air Pollution Control ........................................ 17 Appraising Instruments: A Structure for Policy Appraisal ....................... 20 3. Reducing Emissions per Unit of Fuel Consumed .................................... 23 Cleaner Fuels .................................................................................................... 23 Maintaining Fuel Standards ........................................................................... 32 Alternative Fuels ............................................................................................. 34 Vehicle Technology .......................................................................................... 40 Vehicle Replacement Strategies ..................................................................... 48 4. Reducing Fuel Consumption per Unit of Movement.............................. 53 Improving Fuel Efficiency through Vehicle Technology ............................ 53 Increasing Fuel Efficiency through Vehicle Operation ............................... 54 Encouraging Nonmotorized Transport ........................................................ 55 Regulation and Control of Public Road Passenger Transport ................... 59 The Role of Mass Transit................................................................................. 63 5. Reducing Total Transport Demand ............................................................. 65 Land Use Policy ............................................................................................... 65 Road Pricing ..................................................................................................... 67 Physical Restraint Policies .............................................................................. 69 iii iv REDUCING AIR POLLUTION FROM URBAN TRANSPORT Parking Policies ................................................................................................ 69 The Special Problem of Motorcycles ............................................................. 70 6. Designing a Supportive Fiscal Framework ............................................... 71 Direct Taxation on Emissions ......................................................................... 71 Fuel Taxation .................................................................................................... 71 Taxation on Vehicles ........................................................................................ 74 Constructing a Road Transport Tax Package ............................................... 74 Property Taxation and Fees ............................................................................ 75 Public Expenditure Policies............................................................................ 75 7. The Supporting Institutional Framework ................................................. 77 The Range of Institutions Involved in Urban Air Quality ......................... 77 The Role of Central Government .................................................................. 77 The Hierarchy of Government and Inter-Jurisdictional Collaboration ... 78 The Organization of Municipal Government .............................................. 79 Involving the Private Sector ........................................................................... 80 Nongovernmental Organizations and Civil Society................................... 82 8. Synopsis: Constructing an Effective Package of Measures .................... 85 Adopting a Positive Policy Stance ................................................................ 85 Direct Policy Tools ........................................................................................... 86 Indirect Policy Tools ........................................................................................ 88 Political and Technical Consistency .............................................................. 89 “Horses for Courses” ...................................................................................... 90 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 92 Annex 1. Conventional Fuel Technology ......................................................... 93 Gasoline Quality Improvement ..................................................................... 93 Diesel Quality Improvement.......................................................................... 95 Impact on the Refining Industry ................................................................... 99 Annex 2. Trends in Vehicular Emission Standards and Fuel Specifications in the United States ........................................................... 103 Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 ........................................................... 103 Air Quality Improvement Research Program ........................................... 106 Tier 1 and Tier 2 Emission Standards ......................................................... 107 Annex 3. Trends in Vehicular Emission Standards and Fuel Specifications in the European Union ..................................................... 113 European Auto-Oil Programme .................................................................. 113 Current and Future Standards ..................................................................... 114 Annex 4. World-Wide Fuel Charter ................................................................. 119 Annex 5. Two- and Three-Wheelers ................................................................ 121 Relationships between Mass Emissions and Vehicle and Fuel/ Lubricant Technology ............................................................................ 122 Emission Standards for Two- and Three-Wheel Vehicles ........................ 125 Controlling Emissions from Two- and Three-Wheelers ........................... 127 Annex 6. Alternative Fuels...............................................................................
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