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Transfer inovácií 24/2012 2012

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF LAND

Ing. Baryalai Tahzib systems. They are often of higher Ing. Lenka Zvijáková consequence than direct impacts, but the Technical university, Faculty of , involved relationships are often Department of Environmental Engineering, misunderstood and difficult to establish. Vysokoškolská 4, 042 00 Košice, Slovak republic  Cumulative impacts: The additive, e-mail: [email protected] multiplicative or synergetic consequences e-mail: [email protected] of transport activities. They take into account of the varied effects of direct and

indirect impacts on an ecosystem, which Abstract are often unpredicted. The development of transport networks The complexities of the problems have led has played an essential role in the economic to much controversy in environmental policy and in development in all countries. Emissions from the role of transportation. The transportation sector transport are a major contributor to is often subsidized by the public sector, especially greenhouse gases and are suspected to be linked to through the and maintenance of road respiratory problems and diseases. The which tend to be free of access. environmental impact of transport is important Sometimes, public stakes in transport modes, because it is a major user of energy, and burns most terminals and infrastructure can be at odd with of the world's . This creates air environmental issues. If the owner and the regulator and it is a significant contributor to global warming are the same, then there is a that regulations through emission of . Other will not be effectively complied to. It can also lead environmental impacts of transport systems are to another extreme where compliance would lead to , , and climate inefficient transport systems, but which costs are change. This article discusses the environmental subsidized. Total costs incurred by transportation impacts of land transport activities, notably environmental damage, are generally not fully assumed by the users. The lack Key words: Transport, Pollution, Emission, Noise of consideration of the real costs of transportation could explain several environmental problems. Yet, a complex hierarchy of costs is involved, ranging INTRODUCTION from internal, compliance, contingent to external. The issue of transportation and the For instance, external costs account on average for environment is paradoxical in nature. From one more than 30% of the estimated automobile costs. side, transportation activities support increasing If environmental costs are not included in this mobility demands for and freight, and appraisal, the usage of the car is consequently this ranging from urban areas to international . subsidized by the society and costs accumulate as On the other side, transport activities have resulted environmental pollution. This requires due in growing levels of motorization and congestion. consideration as the number of vehicles, especially As a result, the transportation sector is becoming automobiles, is steadily increasing. The increasingly linked to environmental problems. relationships between transport and the With a relying heavily on the environment are multidimensional. Some aspects combustion of hydrocarbons, notably with the are unknown and some new findings may lead to internal combustion engine, the impacts of drastic changes in environmental policies, as it did transportation over environmental systems has in regards of acid rain and in increased with motorization. This has reached a the 1970s and 1980s. The 1990s were characterized point where transportation activities are a dominant by a realization of global environmental issues, factor behind the emission of most pollutants and epitomized by the growing concerns between thus their impacts on the environment. These anthropogenic effect and . impacts, like all environmental impacts, can fall Transportation also became an important dimension within three categories: of the concept of sustainability, which is expected  Direct impacts: The immediate to become the prime focus of transport activities in consequence of transport activities on the the coming decades, ranging from environment where the cause and effect emissions to green management relationship is generally clear and well practices. These impending developments require a understood. deep understanding of the reciprocal influence between the physical environment and transport  Indirect impacts: The secondary effects of and yet this understanding is often transport activities on environmental

70 Transfer inovácií 24/2012 2012 lacking. The main factors considered in the physical of these gases, particularly , also environment are geographical location, topography, participate in depleting the stratospheric (O3) geological structure, climate, hydrology, , layer which naturally screens the earth’s surface natural vegetation and animal life. The main from ultraviolet radiation. environmental dimensions of transportation are Air quality: Highway vehicles, marine related to the causes, the activities, the outputs and engines, and aircraft are the sources of the results of transport systems. Establishing pollution in the form of gas and particulate matters environmental policies for transportation thus have emissions that affects air quality causing damage to to take account of the level of contribution and the health. Toxic air pollutants are associated geographical scale, otherwise some policies may with cancer, cardiovascular, respiratory and just move the problems elsewhere and have neurological diseases. Carbon monoxide (CO) unintended consequences. A noted example are when inhale affects bloodstream, reduces the local, regional policies that have forced the availability of oxygen and can be extremely construction of higher chimneys for coal burning harmful to public health. An emission of nitrogen facilities and induced the continental diffusion of dioxide (NO2) from transportation sources reduces acid rain. Thus, even if an administrative division lung function, affects the respiratory immune have adequate environmental enforcement policies, defense system and increases the risk of respiratory the geographical scale of pollutants diffusion problems. The emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2) obviously goes beyond established jurisdictions. In and nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the atmosphere form addition to the environmental impacts of the various acidic compounds that when mixed in cloud network, traffic and modes, economic, industrial creates acid rain. Acid precipitation has processes sustaining the transport system must be detrimental effects on the built environment, considered. These include the production of fuels, reduces agricultural crop yields and causes forest vehicles and construction materials, some of which decline. The reduction of natural visibility by smog are very energy intensive and the disposal of has a number of adverse impacts on the quality of vehicles, parts and infrastructure. They all have a life and the attractiveness of tourist sites. Particulate life cycle timing their production, utilization and emissions in the form of dust emanating from disposal. Thus, the evaluation of the transport- vehicle exhaust as well as from non-exhaust environment link without the consideration of sources such as vehicle and road abrasion have an cycles in the environment and in the product life impact on air quality. The physical and chemical alike is likely to convey a limited overview of the properties of are associated with health situation and may even lead to incorrect appraisal such as respiratory problems, skin irritations, and policies [3]. eyes inflammations, blood clotting and various types of allergies. Noise: Noise represents the general effect THE IMPACT OF TRANSPORTATION ON of irregular and chaotic sounds. It is traumatizing THE ENVIRONMENT for the hearing organ and that may affect the quality Transportation activities support of life by its unpleasant and disturbing character. increasing mobility demands for passengers and Long term exposure to noise levels above 75dB freight, notably in urban areas. But transport seriously hampers hearing and affects human activities have resulted in growing levels of physical and psychological wellbeing. Transport motorization and congestion. As a result, the noise emanating from the movement of transport transportation sector is becoming increasingly vehicles and the operations of ports, and linked to environmental problems. The most railyards affects human health, through an increase important impacts of transport on the environment in the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Increasing relate to climate change, air quality, noise, water noise levels have a negative impact on the urban quality, soil quality, biodiversity and land take: environment reflected in falling land values and Climate change: The activities of the loss of productive land uses. transport industry release several million tons of : Transport activities have gases each year into the atmosphere. These include an impact on hydrological conditions. Fuel, lead (Pb), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide chemical and other hazardous particulates discarded (CO2; not a pollutant), methane (CH4), nitrogen from aircraft, cars, and or from port oxides (NOx), nitrous oxide (N2O), and terminal operations, such as de-icing, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), perfluorocarbons can contaminate rivers, lakes, wetlands and oceans. (PFCs), silicon tetraflouride (SF6), benzene and Because demand for shipping services is increasing, volatile components (BTX), heavy metals (zinc, marine transport emissions represent the most chrome, copper and cadmium) and particulate important segment of water quality inventory of the matters (ash, dust). There is an ongoing debate to transportation sector. The main effects of marine what extent these emissions are linked to climate transport operations on water quality predominantly change and the role of anthropogenic factors. Some arise from dredging, waste, ballast and oil

71 Transfer inovácií 24/2012 2012 spills. Dredging is the process of deepening harbor species. The need to maintain road and rail right-of- channels by removing sediments from the bed of a way or to stabilize slope along transport facilities body of water. Dredging is essential to create and has resulted in restricting growth of certain plants maintain sufficient water depth for shipping or has produced changes in plants with the operations and port accessibility. Dredging introduction of new species different from those activities have a two-fold negative impact on the which originally grew in the areas. Many animal marine environment. They modify the hydrology by species are becoming extinct as a result of changes creating that can affect the marine in their natural habitats and reduction of ranges. biological diversity. The contaminated sediments Land take: Transportation facilities have and water raised by dredging require spoil disposal an impact on the urban landscape. The development sites and decontamination techniques. Waste of port and airport infrastructure is significant generated by the operations of vessels at sea or at features of the urban and peri-urban built ports cause serious environmental problems, since environment. Social and economic cohesion can be they can contain a very high level of bacteria that severed when new transport facilities such as can be hazardous for public health as well as elevated and highway structures cut across an marine ecosystems when discharged in waters. existing urban community. Arteries or transport Besides, various types of containing metals terminals can define urban borders and produce and plastic are not easily biodegradable. They can segregation. Major transport facilities can affect the persist on the sea surface for long periods of time quality of urban life by creating physical barriers, and can be a serious impediment for maritime increasing noise levels, generating odors, reducing navigation in inland waterways and at sea and urban aesthetic and affecting the built heritage [3]. affecting as well berthing operations. Ballast waters Emissions from vehicle are are required to control ship’s stability and draught responsible for five major categories of costs which and to modify their center of gravity in relation to may be carried and the variance in weight distribution. Ballast waters acquired in a region monetized: human health impacts, may contain invasive aquatic species that, when materials damage, agriculture damage, visibility discharged in another region may thrive in a new degradation and global warming. marine environment and disrupt the natural marine ecosystem. There are about 100 non-indigenous MODEST OF THE TRANSPORT species recorded in the Baltic Sea. Invasive species : As one of the most effi have resulted in major changes in nearshore cient and environmentally friendly ways to move ecosystems, especially in coastal lagoons and inlets. people and goods, railways have a tremendous Major oil spills from oil cargo vessel accidents are potential to reduce the environmental impact of one of the most serious problems of pollution from transport and improve the quality of life of EU activities. citizens. European policy up to now has failed to Soil quality: The environmental impact of properly address the impacts of increasing transport transportation on soil consists of soil erosion and demand, which is a major source of greenhouse gas . Coastal transport facilities have emissions and a driver of global climate change. significant impacts on soil erosion. Shipping There is now an urgent need for action to cut activities are modifying the scale and scope of wave transport-related CO2 emissions. It is widely actions leading to serious damage in confined accepted that a modal shift towards railways can channels such as river banks. The removal of contribute to meeting EU targets on climate earth’s surface for highway construction or protection and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. lessening surface grades for port and airport A stronger role for rail will help to achieve real developments have led to important loss of fertile progress towards the 2020 target of a 20% cut in the and productive . Soil contamination can occur EU’s greenhouse gas emissions. However, through the use of toxic materials by the transport concerted action must be taken by and industry. Fuel and oil spills from motor vehicles are policy-makers to help bring this about. The rail washed on road sides and enter the soil. Chemicals sector is doing its part, having already agreed on a used for the preservation of railroad ties may enter voluntary target for 2020, to cut its 1990 levels of into the soil. Hazardous materials and heavy metals specifi c emissions by 30%. It is also funding have been found in areas contiguous to railroads, research to work towards standardised ports and airports. that will further improve environmental Biodiversity: Transportation also performance. More needs to be done now to get influences natural vegetation. The need for traffi c off the and on to rail. Real prices have construction materials and the development of land- to be charged that refl ect the real costs caused by based transportation has led to deforestation. Many polluters. The wider use of market-based transport routes have required draining land, thus instruments will bring about more cost-oriented reducing wetland areas and -out water plant pricing and fairer market conditions, which would

72 Transfer inovácií 24/2012 2012 lead to modal shift, behavioural changes, and help ships, although recreational marine vehicles are pay for improvements in rail infrastructure. The also increasing in popularity. Marine vessels emit greater use of combined transport will allow each both nitrogen oxides and particulate matter which mode to use its strengths best – particularly over contributes to . Scientists estimate that long distances, where the use of road and rail can within 25 years, the marine transport sector could complement rather than compete with each other be responsible for doubling the amount of smog- [5]. forming pollution. To address the problem, recent : Road transport involved regulations have mandated drastic cuts in the sulfur about 1/5 of the European Union's (EU) total level of marine diesel fuel and in the emissions of emissions of carbon dioxide, the main greenhouse nitrogen oxide and fine particulate matter. The gas. Carbon dioxide emissions from road transport majority of waste from marine transport is sludge- increased by nearly 23% between 1990 and 2010. like: , graywater, and bilge water, although Without the economic downturn growth could have the sector also produces its share of solid and been even bigger. Transport is the only major sector . Graywater carries with it a variety in the European Union where greenhouse gas of chemicals and residues, while bilge water can emissions are still rising. Road transport is the contain oil, cleaning agents, paint, or metal from principal in the EU for both routine ship operations. Although many believe that passengers and goods. The European Union has these wastes are greatly diluted when emptied into almost one vehicle for every two residents, and water, they can still have an effect on mammal and road freight traffic represents more than 2/3 of the marine life, water quality, and the overall health of total tonnage. EU action focuses essentially on the marine ecosystem. Oil spills are rare - spills controlling the multiple costs of road transport. from marine vessels account for only a small Transport development must comply with safety percent of oil in the ocean but they can also have requirements as well as environmental protection. long-lasting effects on marine organisms, introduce Numbers of aspects of transport are the subject of toxics into the food chain, and degrade beaches and European regulation, whether this is competition coastal areas. Finally, the release of ballast water between transport operators, access to the taken in by ships in order to help stabilize the profession, working conditions or the technical vessels can introduce new and invasive species into standards of vehicles [6]. areas where they do not naturally occur [7]. Research and development on alternative fuels Marine transport: The sea and inland (biodiesel and hydrogen fuel cells) for watercraft is water infrastructure revolves around ports, typically very important. found at the edge of an ocean, sea, river, or lake which receive ships and transport cargo. Most sea travel occurs on ferries and cruise

1,6% 0,8% Road transport 869

12,2% Sea and inland water ways 183 150 14,9%

70,5% Rail ways 20

Other (pipeline) 10

Fig. 1 CO2 emissions 2005 in EU – 27 by transport mode (million tonnes). Source: European Commission 2007

AIR POLLUTANTS influence the biosphere are subject to much controvers. On the positive side, emissions of the Air pollution is very important source of most harmful air pollutants, such as Carbon environmental externalities for transportation. Monoxide and Volatile Organic Compounds, have Although the nature of air pollutants is clearly declined in spite of a substantial growth in the identified, the scale and scope on how they number of vehicles an indication of growing levels

73 Transfer inovácií 24/2012 2012 of environmental compliance of vehicles. Carbon cycle, particularly in water where it influences Dioxide emissions have increased proportionally algae blooms. with the growth of transportation usage. One Hydrocarbons and Volatile Organic geographical dimension of air pollution is at the Compounds - (HC/VOC): Hydrocarbons (HC) are local and regional levels where its externalities are a group of chemical compound composed of carbon immediately felt. The higher the level of and hydrogen. When in a gaseous form, HC are concentration of transport activities, the higher their called Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC). environmental impacts are being felt by the local Several HC and VOC are heavy gazes or volatile community. This is particularly the case for large compounds with a strong odor. They are mostly the transport terminals, such as ports, rail yards and result of the incomplete combustion of gasoline or airports. Many air pollutants have been identified as by-products of the petrochemical industry. They being closely related to transportation: include methane (CH4), gasoline (C8H18) and diesel Carbon Monoxide (CO): Carbon vapors, benzene (C6H6), formaldehyde (CH2O), monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas, the result of butadiene (C4H6) and acetaldehyde (CH3CHO). the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. Transportation accounts from 40 to 50% of total Transportation accounts from 70 to 90% of total emissions of HC/VOC. They can be emitted by carbon monoxide emissions. It is thus the air incomplete combustion (70%), during refueling pollutant the most strongly associated with (10%) or by evaporation from storage units (20%), transportation. Carbon monoxide is often present particularly gas tanks. For instance, a car parked near major traffic intensive arterials, notably in overnight during summer emits approximately 4 urban areas. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas. grams of HC/VOC. Other important sources are When inhaled, it combines with hemoglobin to petrochemical (plastics and solvent) industries. All form carboxyhemoglobin, preventing absorption of HC/VOC are carcinogen (cases of leukemia linked oxygen and resulting in asphyxiation. 0.5% of with benzene) to some extent, fatal at high carbon monoxide in air may prove fatal in less than concentrations, harmful to crops and accumulates half an hour by transforming over 50% of the within the food chain (poisoning). However, heavy hemoglobin in carboxyhemoglobin. Lower hydrocarbons (like benzene) are far more concentrations of carbon monoxide may cause carcinogen than light hydrocarbons (like methane). poisoning symptoms and affect people with heart, All HC/VOC have several global effects. They are lung and circulatory system weaknesses. It also components of smog, catalysts for ozone and effects the respiration of plants by inhibiting components of acid rain. photosynthesis. Since carbon monoxide is not Particulates: Particulates include various chemically very stable, direct global effects are solids in suspension in the atmosphere such as strongly limited. Indirectly, carbon monoxide smoke, , and dust and results of the incomplete contributes to the formation of greenhouse gazes as combustion of fossil fuels, notably coal. They may a catalyst. also carry traces of other toxic substances like Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Nitrogen oxide HC/VOC. Transportation accounts for around 25% (NO or NO2) is a brown, odorless gas. A by-product of total emissions of particulates. Diesel engines are of combustion when energy is used to oxide the main emitters. Other important sources are nitrogen instead of an hydrocarbon. Transportation thermal power plants using coal. Particulates are accounts from 45 to 50% of total emissions of carcinogen. They are also harmful to lungs tissue nitrogen oxides. Other sources are chemicals and worsen respiratory and cardiovascular (notably nitrates) industrial production and problems, notably if their size is smaller than 5 combustion of fossil fuels in thermal power plants. microns. Particulates depositions may alter the Nitrogen oxides are not very harmful to aesthetic of structures. The accumulation of (particularly NO), but when released from an particulates in the atmosphere and deposition on internal combustion engine, high concentrations are leafs may reduce photosynthesis and plant growth. often toxic. It irritates and infects the respiratory Smog: Mixture of solid and liquid fog and system and the eyes. Some decreases in the ability smoke particles formed through the accumulation to resist bacterial infection were also observed of carbon monoxide, ozone, HC/VOC, nitrogen when the subject is exposed to significant oxides, sulfur oxide, water, particulates, and other concentrations of nitrogen dioxide. Nitrogen oxides chemical pollutants. Photochemical smog are those are known to prevent the growth of crops and thus with a higher concentration of ozone and HC/VOC. reduce agricultural yields. Nitrogen oxides are Smog is strongly linked with transportation and known to be associated with several global effects industrial activities, notably in urban areas. Smog is and have increased at a rate of 0.2% annually over particularly dense during a thermal inversion (static the last decades. They are a catalyst for ozone, a regional air masses that enable the accumulation of component of acid rain and a component of smog. pollutants). The effects of smog are the conjunction Depositions of nitrogen oxides influence the nitrate of those of its major components (see the effects of carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide,

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HC/VOC, particulates and ozone). Based upon gasoline, 16% from diesel fuel and 15% from jet historical observations (like London in the 50s), the fuel. Carbon dioxide emissions by transportation number of deaths among susceptible persons have the following modal breakdown: cars (43%), (respiratory and cardiovascular problems) grows light trucks (20%), heavy trucks (14%), airplanes sharply during thermal inversions. Several large (14%), rail and marine (7%) and non-oil based (like Los Angeles, Tokyo and Mexico) have (2%). Other significant natural sources are volcanic serious smog problems to the point that emissions eruptions and the metabolic respiration of living reduction policies are established. Smog impairs organisms (including decomposition). Carbon visibility considerably and causes different dioxide is a harmless gas and an essential element annoyances (odors, irritations, etc.). Because of its of photosynthesis. Although limited concentrations components, smog is highly associated with acid of carbon dioxide have no effects on human beings, rains and greenhouse effects. high concentrations (5000 ppm) may be harmful by Lead (Pb): Lead is a toxic metal mainly causing breathing disorders. Growing quantities of used as an anti-knock agent in gasoline (Lead carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are assumed to be linked with climate change. tetraethyl - Pb(C2H5)4) and in batteries (lead dioxide as an anode and lead as a cathode). Until recently, Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): Sulfur dioxide is a lead tetraethyl was a main source of atmospheric heavy, colorless gas with a strong odor. It is the lead emissions in developing countries. This result of the combustion of fossil fuels like coal contribution has dropped in absolute numbers but (particularly bituminous coal) and hydrocarbons. still accounts for 30 to 40% of total emissions. Transportation accounts for around 5% of total Batteries are now an important source of lead for sulfur dioxide emissions. Although transportation is transportation, but a very limited amount of this a minor source of SO2, related activities like lead is carried through the atmosphere (see water and petrochemical industries are important emitters. pollution). Extremely poisonous metal. Lead has One of the most important artificial source are effects on the metabolism and accumulates in living thermal power plants using low quality coal. tissues. May causes anemia, and mental retardation Volcanic eruptions are an important natural source for young children. For instance, an extremely high of sulfur dioxide. Sulfur dioxide causes and occurrence of mental retardation in some parts of worsens respiratory and cardiovascular problems. Mexico was directly linked with lead In sufficient concentration, it irritates the eyes and poisoning. Small doses may cause behavioral causes discomfort (odor). Sulfur is an essential changes. Lead is fixed by plants and animals and nutrient for plants but sulfur dioxide is regarded as re-contaminate the food chain. It has a high an inhibitor of physiological activity. Most affected potential to accumulate in the environment. Lead plants are those having a high physiological activity can also be transported in the atmosphere over wide like crops and commercial timber forests. A major distances. component favoring the genesis of acid rain. Sulfur Odors: Odors are the subjective perception dioxide has a counter effect on greenhouse gases by of the sense of smell. They exists different "shapes" blocking radiation. This effect is significant enough of odors perceived as pleasant, neutral, or to be included in climatic models. unpleasant. A long run exposition to specific odors Ozone: Ozone is a pale blue gas with a will attenuate their perception. Diesel and gasoline strong odor and a powerful oxidant. It is the most engines are the major sources of odors accounted common photochemical oxidant. Ozone is created by transportation. Odors are particularly prevalent naturally in the high atmosphere when an oxygen during smog conditions. Odors are at worst an molecule is broken apart by ultraviolet radiation annoyance, but they are linked with the presence of and combines with another oxygen molecule. harmful air pollutants like sulfur dioxide, ozone and Ozone is also the result of the action of light over a HC/VOC. People tend to stay or move away from mixture of HC/VOC and nitrogen oxides in the areas having a significant prevalence of odors. lower atmosphere. It is thus directly linked with Although the pollutants below can have local and transport emissions, notably in urban areas. Ozone regional impacts, their scope is more global. is poisonous, hampers breathing and irritates the eyes and the respiratory system at concentrations Carbon Dioxide CO2: Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas that composes 0.04% of the higher than 0.15 ppm. The normal/natural atmosphere. Whenever there is combustion concentration is around 0.01 ppm at ground levels. (oxidation) of fossil fuels, there is an emission of It degrades structures (metal and ) through carbon dioxide. Important temperature regulator for oxidation. It damages crops and vegetation and the atmosphere, keeping it a +15oC instead of -15oC leads to losses of leafs. Depending on the crops and if carbon dioxide was absent. Transportation the concentration involved, ozone may reduce accounts for around 30% of total carbon dioxide yields from 1 to 20%. Ozone impairs visibility. emissions in developed countries (15% worldwide). Ozone is essential in the upper atmosphere, as it About 66% of carbon dioxide emissions from absorbs light in the ultraviolet band. A drop of 5% transportation come from the combustion of

75 Transfer inovácií 24/2012 2012 in the concentration of ozone may lead to an extremely stable properties. They are a long term increase of 10% of skin cancer and eye cataracts. component of the atmosphere. CFCs emitted during Acid Rain and Acid Depositions the 1990s are likely to damage the ozone layer for 200 years. Indirect effects of CFCs (increase in (Sulfuric and Nitric Acid (H2SO4, HNO3): Sulfuric acid is a corrosive, oily colorless liquid, ultraviolet rays exposition) include growths in the which forms when sulfur oxides and water vapors incidence of skin cancer, eye cataracts, damage to are mixed. Nitric acid is a corrosive and colorless crops and plants, deficiencies of the immune system liquid and forms when nitrogen oxides and water and increase of ozone at ground levels (through vapor are mixed. The level of formation of acid photochemical smog). Even though transportation (sulfuric and nitric) is influenced by the level of contributes significantly to the emission of air exposition to sun light. It may also exists in dry pollutants new technologies (catalytic converters) form, which is called acid deposition. When and policies have reduced emissions significantly dissolved in water, sulfuric and nitric acids lower [8]. the pH (higher concentrations of hydrogen ions). The standard pH of fresh water ranges between 6.5 CONCLUSION and 7.5. Since transportation accounts for 5% of The growth in vehicle numbers and use is sulfur dioxide emissions, 45% of nitrogen oxides a threat to the environment and the health of emissions and for 40% of HC/HOV emissions, European citizens. The thematic strategy on sources may range from 10 to 30% of acid rains, atmospheric pollution fixes targets for the reduction depending on regions. This figure is of 25% in of certain pollutants and reinforces the legislative Western Europe. Sufficient concentrations of framework to combat atmospheric pollution using a sulfuric of nitric acids are known to damage two-pronged approach: improving Community artificial structures, thus historical monuments are environmental legislation and including air quality particularly vulnerable. When inhaled as a mist, considerations in related policies. As provided for may cause respiratory organs irritation. Change the in the strategy, the Commission has proposed a new chemical composition of soils by breaking down "EURO V" standard to reduce polluting emissions complex organic matter in simpler elements. At a from light motor vehicles and in particular reduce small scale, this is beneficial, but at a large scale, it emissions from vehicles with diesel engines by reduces the available biomass. By altering the pH 80%. The strategy also envisages a number of of fresh water, acid rains gradually destroy life in measures to reduce emissions of SO2 and NOx lake and rivers. Sulfuric and nitric acids are carried from ships [9]. The Clean Air Act encourages over large distances through weather systems. It development and sale of alternative fuels. later falls down either as rain or fog. Acid rain and Alternative fuels are transportation fuels other than acid depositions are known to alter the ecological gasoline and diesel, including , propane, balance of continental ecosystems, notably in methanol, ethanol, electricity, and biodiesel. These industrialized areas. fuels can be cleaner than gasoline or diesel and can Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): CFCs are reduce emissions of harmful pollutants. Renewable colorless and poisonless gases (or liquids). They are alternative fuels are made from biomass materials very stable, non-flammable and non-toxic like wood, waste paper, grasses, vegetable oils, and components and they have been widely used as corn. They are biodegradable and reduce carbon dispersing agents () or as refrigerants dioxide emissions. In addition, most alternative (notably Freon, R-12). For transportation, motor fuels are produced domestically, which is better for vehicle air-conditioning systems are the main our economy, energy security and helps offset the source and account for about 20% of all CFCs cost of imported oil [4]. Vehicle noise emission emissions. In fact, during its life cycle, an air- limits have not been technology-forcing since their conditioning system will release 100% of its CFCs introduction and were last tightened in 1995. This in the atmosphere. With recent legislations, CFCs means these limits have not been updated for emissions have considerably subsided in developed twelve years, in stark contrast to vehicle air countries but not in developing countries. Because pollution emission standards, which have been of its chemical properties (stable and non-toxic), tightened three times over the same period. In the CFCs have no noticed effects on living organisms. case of both road and rail traffic, there are already Current concentrations of CFCs in the atmosphere vehicles/rolling stock available that are well within reach about 0.35 ppm (all types of CFCs) but the current noise standards. Besides the vehicles most widely used type, R12, has 20,000 times more themselves, examples of silent tyres/ and infrared absorbency than carbon dioxide. Thus one road pavements/tracks show also room for noise ton of Freon will have the same greenhouse effect reduction. At noise ‘hotspots’ additional, local than 2,000 tons of carbon dioxide. CFCs reduce the measures can be implemented. Low-noise road concentration of stratospheric ozone, which absorbs surfaces, such as thin-layer, double-layer, porous harmful ultraviolet rays. CFCs may stay in the and poroelastic pavements, offer considerable atmosphere from 70 to 200 years, due to their potential to cut road noise dramatically, and are

76 Transfer inovácií 24/2012 2012 very complementary to technical measures to [3] http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch8en/co reduce engine, exhaust and tyre noise from cars and nc8en/ch8c1en.html (cit. 12.11.2012) trucks. Such surface measures have the advantage [4] http://www.epa.gov/airquality/peg_caa/carstruc of bringing immediate benefits, particularly for use ks.html (cit. 10.11.2012) in noise hotspots. The noise of a road can also be reduced by influencing the speed or flow of the [5] Krohn, O. – Ledbury, M. – Schwarz, H.: traffic it carries. Limiting traffic speed reduces its Railways and environment. noise, especially between 50 and 80km/h. As an http://www.uic.org/homepage/railways_and_the_en initial step to reduce the noise emissions of rail vironment09.pdf (cit. 11.11.2012) transport, the use of composite brakes on freight [6] http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/transport wagons should be promoted [10]. Reducing /road_transport/index_en.htm (cit. 10.11.2012) transportation’s greenhouse gas emissions will be difficut because demand for mobility of both people [7] http://www.enviroliteracy.org/article.php/1356. and goods will certainly continue to grow. html (cit. 12.11.2012) Increasing transportation activity will result in [8] Rodrigue, J. P.: Pollutants Emitted by Transport growing energy use and greenhouse gas emissions, Systems (Air, Water and Noise). unless the energy efficiency of vehicles can be http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch8en/appl8e increased, alternative energy sources developed, n/ch8a2en.html (cit. 9.11.2012) and ways found to improve the ability of [9] Rudy, V.: Building of production systems for and transportation systems to provide accessibility processing of problematic car wreck components- with less motor vehicle travel. rire recycling / V. Rudy - 2009. In: Sovremennyj naučnyj vestnik. Serija, Informatika, matematika, References stroumeľstvo, technika. Vol. 67, no. 11 (2009), p. [1] Daneshjo, n. – Hlubeň, d. – Danishjoo, e. – 132-138. - ISSN 1561-6886 Kopas, m.: Diagnostics, maintenance and reliability [10] http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/environ of manufacturing systems. Germany : dr. ment/sustainable_development/l28165_en.htm (cit. Enayat Danishjoo - 2011. - 136 p.. - isbn 978-3-00- 11.11.2012) 035706-0. [11] Boer, L.C. – Schroten, A.: Traffic noise [2] KRÁLIKOVÁ, Ružena - PAULIKOVÁ, reduction in Europe. Alena.: Monitoring a diagnostika životného http://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/default/f prostredia - Košice : Technická univerzita, - 1999. - iles//docs/publications/2008/2008- 150 s. - isbn 80-7099-435-5. 02_traffic_noise_ce_delft_report.pdf(cit.12.11.201)

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