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Home , Estates General (France), French Revolution, Georges Danton, Great Fear, Jacobin, Louis XVI

EVENTS AND PROCESSES EVENTS ANDPROCESSES SECTION that wereessentialtothe workingofademocraticsociety.Theideals ofsocialism, andmechanisation ofagriculture,itdeniedtherights ofcitizens it facedandthemeasures itundertook.WhileSovietRussiapushed aheadwith you aboutthechangesthatwereinitiatedby newSovietgovernment,theproblems economic equalityandthewell-beingofworkers andpeasants.Thechapterwilltell soughttochangesocietyinadifferent way.Itraisedthequestionof events thatforcedtherulingmonarch,TsarNicholas II,togiveuppower.TheRussian In ChapterII,youwillreadaboutthecomingof socialisminEurope,andthedramatic a languagethatgainedcurrencyonlyfromthe lateeighteenthcentury. ,producedideasthatwereinnovativeandoriginal,buttheyspokein in manydifferentways.Theanti-colonialmovementsIndiaandChina, ideas ofanewage;butindifferentcountriestheywerereinterpretedandrethought new languageofpolitics.Thesenotionsequalityandfreedomemergedasthecentral The ideathatallindividualshadrightsandcouldclaimequalitybecamepartofa of theRightsManduringrevolution,announcedcominganewtime. society basedonprivilegesgavewaytoanewsystemofgovernance.TheDeclaration of thathistory.TheFrenchRevolutionledtotheendmonarchyinFrance.A also haveahistory.BylookingattheFrenchRevolutionyouwillreadsmallpart freedom andequalityforgranted.Butweneedtoremindourselvesthattheseideas IisontheFrenchRevolution.Todayweoftentakeideasofliberty, making ofthemodernworld. and theriseofNazism.Indifferentwaysalltheseeventswereimportantin In SectionI,youwillreadabouttheFrenchRevolution,Russian I I III 2021–22 1

T h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n India and the Contemporary World 2 and .Ithasalsobeenastoryofviolencetyranny,deathdestruction. The historyofthemodernworldisnotsimplyastoryunfoldingfreedom ideas ofHitlerbutmostwatchedtheriseNazismwithhorror. system whichoperatedatdifferentlevels.SomeinIndiawereimpressedwiththe about massacresandkillings.Itistheworkingofanelaboratefrightening . ButthestoryofNazism’sriseisnotonlyaboutafewspecificevents, to persecutetheJews,andhowitwagedarelentlessbattleagainstdemocracy minorities arighttolive,howitdrewuponlongtraditionofanti-Jewishfeelings about schoolsandconcentrationcamps.YouwillseehowNazismdeniedvarious ofNazism.YouwillreadaboutthechildrenandwomeninNaziGermany, Chapter IIIwilltakeyoutoGermany.ItdiscusstheriseofHitlerand century ithasbeenapowerfulforceintheshapingofcontemporaryworld. the SovietUnionhasbrokenupandsocialismisincrisisbutthroughtwentieth however, becamepartoftheanti-colonialmovementsindifferentcountries.Today 2021–22 The FrenchRevolution The FrenchRevolution The FrenchRevolution this outcome.Howandwhydidhappen? of thekinginFrance,thoughmostpeopleattimedidnotanticipate the beginningofachaineventsthatultimatelyledtoexecution Much later,whenhistorianslookedbackuponthistime,theysawitas countryside. Mostpeoplewereprotestingagainstthehighpriceofbread. The daysthatfollowedsawmoreriotingbothinParisandthe those whowishedtokeepasouvenirofitsdestruction. demolished anditsstonefragmentsweresoldinthemarketstoall because itstoodforthedespoticpowerofking.Thefortresswas though therewereonlysevenofthem.YettheBastillewashatedbyall, the commanderofBastillewaskilledandprisonersreleased– hoped tofindhoardedammunition.Inthearmedfightthatfollowed, part ofthecityandstormedfortress-prison,,wherethey Finally, agroupofseveralhundredpeoplemarchedtowardstheeastern buildingsinsearchofarms. decided toformapeoples’.Theybrokeintonumberof Some 7,000menandwomengatheredinfrontofthetownhall spread thathewouldsoonorderthearmytoopenfireuponcitizens. alarm. Thekinghadcommandedtroopstomoveintothecity.Rumours On themorningof14July1789,cityPariswasinastate The FrenchRevolution The FrenchRevolution 2021–22 artists madeprintscommemorating theevent. Soon afterthedemolitionof Bastille, Fig.1 –StormingoftheBastille . 3

T h T eh e F r e n Fc h r R e ev o l un t i oc n h R e v o l u t i o n Chapter I India and the Contemporary World than abillion fromthecommonenemy,Britain.Thewaraddedmore XVI, FrancehelpedthethirteenAmericancoloniestogaintheir extravagant courtattheimmensepalaceofVersailles.UnderLouis resources ofFrance.Addedtothiswasthecostmaintainingan an emptytreasury.Longyearsofwarhaddrainedthefinancial princess MarieAntoinette.Uponhisaccessionthenewkingfound ofFrance.Hewas20yearsoldandmarriedtotheAustrian In 1774,LouisXVIoftheBourbonfamilykingsascended and f The Churchtooextracteditsshareoftaxescalled in thear to r f the sta birth. Themostimportantofthesewasexemptionfrom payingtaxesto esta richer membersofthethirdestate.Thefirsttwo 60 percentofthelandwasownedbynobles,Churchandother only asmallnumberofthemownedthelandtheycultivated.About madeupabout90percentofthepopulation.However, Fig society andinstitutionsofFrancebefore1789. the middlea The societyofestateswaspartthefeudalsystemthatdatedbackto into threeestates,andonlymembersofthethirdestatepaidtaxes. have sufficed.Frenchsocietyintheeighteenthcenturywasdivided state wasforcedtoincreasetaxes.Yeteventhismeasurewouldnot an ,thecourt,runninggovernmentofficesoruniversities, alone. Tomeetitsregularexpenses,suchasthecostofmaintaining to spendanincreasingpercentageofitsbudgetoninterestpayments 10 percentinterestonloans.SotheFrenchgovernmentwasobliged billion livres.Lenderswhogavethestatecredit,nowbegantocharge These includedadirecttax, called by thethirdestatealone. The burdenoffinancingactivities ofthestatethroughtaxeswasborne w 4 eudal dues 1 hic . ender ser 2sho tes FrenchSocietyDuringtheLateEighteenthCentury h w inally, te , tha er m . T . ws ho e le y ortopar , allmember t is he nob w vices tothelor g vied onar hic , es the livres w thesystemof . T . h the les fur c he ter ler ticipa toadebtthathadalreadyrisenmorethan2 y e tic gy s of xtr ther enjo les of m OldR andthenobility te inb acted fr thethir d –tow e esta v uilding r er om thepeasants yed f egime isusuall d estatehadtopa y or tes inF da k inhishouseandf y consumptionlik eudal pri , andanumberofindirecttaxes oads , enjo r enc . yed cer fromthepeasants, h societyw vile y usedtodescribethe . P g easants w y es 2021–22 tain pri . T . e saltortobacco ields –toser es tothesta hese inc as or er vile e ob g anised. g luded es b lig te ed ve y . . Taille –Taxtobepaiddirectly tothestate one-tenth oftheagricultural produce –Ataxleviedbythechurch, comprising special functionsinthechurch Cler discontinued in1794 Livre –UnitofcurrencyinFrance, New words rich andotherspoor. Note thatwithintheThirdEstatesomewere Fig.2 –ASocietyofEstates. g y –Gr oup of 2nd estate 3rd estate 1st estate officials, lawyersetc. merchants, Big businessmen, per servants landless labour Small peasants, artisans Peasants and sons in v ested with , This ledtoa Things becameworsewhenever droughtorhailreducedtheharvest. the riseinprices.Sogap betweenthepoorandrichwidened. whose ownerfixedtheirwages.Butwagesdidnot keeppacewith rapidly.Mostworkerswereemployedaslabourers inworkshops demand. Sothepriceofbreadwhichwasstaplediet ofthemajority foodgrains. Productionofgrainscouldnotkeep pacewiththe million in1789.Thisledtoarapidincreasethe demandfor The populationofFrancerosefromabout23million in1715to28 1.1 TheStruggletoSurvive in FranceduringtheOld Regime. An Fig.3 –TheSpiderandtheFly. the peasantfly ‘The noblemanisthespider anonymous subsistence crisis etching. .’ , , somethingthatoccurred frequently ‘The morethedevilhas,hewants.’ 2021–22 unknown Anonymous –Onewhose nameremains the basicmeansoflivelihood areendangered Subsistence crisis–Anextremesituationwhere New words as thefly nobleman asthespiderandpeasant Explain whytheartisthasportrayed Activity not evencaretogracehimwithalook.’ sits there,readytoacceptitall.Hedoes grain, fruits,money ‘This poorfellowbringseverything, . , salad. The fatlord 5

T h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n India and the Contemporary World 1.2 HowaSubsistenceCrisisHappens 6 Locke soughttorefutethe doctrineofthedivineandabsoluteright Loc opportunities forall,were putforwardbyphilosopherssuchasJohn envisaging asocietybasedonfreedomandequal lawsand person’s socialpositionmustdependonhismerit. Theseideas that nogroupinsocietyshouldbeprivilegedby birth. Rather,a or administrativeofficials.Allofthesewereeducated andbelieved manufacturers, thethirdestateincludedprofessions suchaslawyers richer membersofsociety.Inadditiontomerchants and woollen andsilktextilesthatwereeitherexportedor boughtbythe expanding overseastradeandfromthemanufacture of goodssuchas termed themiddleclass,whoearnedtheirwealththroughan The eighteenthcenturywitnessedtheemergenceofsocialgroups, access toeducationandnewideas. groups withinthethirdestatewhohadbecomeprosperousand a changeinthesocialandeconomicorder.Thiswaslefttothose programmes tocarryoutfull-scalemeasuresthatwouldbringabout increasing taxesandfoodscarcity.Buttheylackedthemeans In thepast,peasantsandworkershadparticipatedinrevoltsagainst 1.3 AGrowingMiddleClassEnvisagesanEndtoPrivileges Fig.4 –Thecourseofasubsistencecrisis. k e andJ harvest Bad ean J acques R ousseau. Inhis Tw o T epidemics Disease r eatises of 2021–22 Gover nment, weaker bodies. number ofdeaths,risingfoodprices, Food riots,scarcityofgrain,increased appropriate termsfromamongthefollowing: Fill intheblankboxesFig.4with Activity The poorestcanno longer buybread Source A of privileges. expenses ofthestategeneratedangerandprotestagainstsystem Louis XVIplannedtoimposefurthertaxesbeablemeetthe benefit ofthosewhocouldnotreadandwrite.Thenewsthat newspapers. Thesewerefrequentlyreadaloudingroupsforthe and coffee-housesspreadamongpeoplethroughbooks The ideasofthesephilosopherswerediscussedintensivelyinsalons example forpoliticalthinkersinFrance. anditsguaranteeofindividualrightswasanimportant colonies declaredtheirindependencefromBritain.TheAmerican government wasputintoforceintheUSA,afterthirteen the legislative,executiveandjudiciary.Thismodelof proposed adivisionofpowerwithinthegovernmentbetween and theirrepresentatives.In form ofgovernmentbasedonasocialcontractbetweenpeople of themonarch. Activity should notcomplaini treated men.Andhewhochoosestodinetheaccompaniment ofhisvictims’groans, very differentfromthathewouldbein,hadchosen theservicesoffreeandwell- be fullyawarethatbydoingsoheisplacinghisproperty and hislifeinasituationwhichis ‘He whodecidestobeservedandwaiteduponbyslaves, ill-treatedslavesatthat,must saw. 1789 andwrotedetaileddescriptionsofhisjourneys.Heoftencommentedonwhathe 2. AnEngl education wi sou. Myoldfriendsturnedtheirbackstome…thesystemhadprovideduswithan church toocouldnotoffermearefuge.Ibuyanofficeasdidpossess army wasnotopentomeasIanoblebybirth,nordidhavepatron.The post. ItwasimpossibletofindoneatthelawcourtsinParis.Thechoiceofacareer important men…Oncemystudiesended,Iwasleftwithnothing.startedlookingfora ‘I waseducatedintheresidentialcollegeofPlessis.ThereIcompany 1793, lookingbackuponthetimewhenhehadjustcompletedhisstudies: 1. GeorgesDanton Accounts oflivedexperiencesintheOldRegime ishman, ArthurY Rousseau carriedtheideaforward,proposinga thout howev Who ishecriticising?Whatdangers doeshesenseinthesituationof1787? What messageis , who laterbecameactiveinrevolutionarypolitics,wrotetoafriend f duringariothisdaughtergetskidnappedorson’ er of The SpiritoftheLaws, oung, tr f ering afieldwher av Y oung tryingtoconveyhere?Whomdoeshemeanwhen he speaksof‘ el led thr ough Fr e ourtalentscouldbeuti ance duringthey 2021–22 ears f s thr l ised. r om 1787to oat issl ’ i t. ’

Source ‘ slaves’? 7

T h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n India and the Contemporary World delivered powerfulspeeches tothecrowdsassembledatVersailles. with asocietyoffeudal privilege. Hebroughtoutajournaland was borninanoblefamily butwasconvincedoftheneedtodoaway the .TheywereledbyMirabeauandAbbé Sieyès. Mirabeau had draftedaconstitutionforFrancethatwouldlimit thepowersof themselves aNationalAssemblyandsworenotto disperse tillthey of anindoortenniscourtinthegroundsVersailles. Theydeclared for thewholeFrenchnation.On20Junetheyassembled inthehall The representativesofthethirdestateviewedthemselves asspokesmen in . this proposal,membersofthethirdestatewalkedout oftheassembly like Rousseauinhisbook was oneofthedemocraticprinciplesputforwardbyphilosophers assembly asawhole,whereeachmemberwouldhaveonevote.This the thirdestatedemandedthatvotingnowbeconductedby XVI wasdeterminedtocontinuethesamepractice.Butmembersof to theprinciplethateachestatehadonevote.ThistimetooLouis intheEstatesGeneralpasthadbeenconductedaccording had broughtwiththem. demands werelistedinsome40,000letterswhichtherepresentatives were deniedentrytotheassembly.However,theirgrievancesand prosperous andeducatedmembers.Peasants,artisanswomen had tostandattheback.Thethirdestatewasrepresentedbyitsmore each otherontwosides,whilethe600membersofthirdestate estates sent300representativeseach,whowereseatedinrowsfacing Versailles waspreparedtohostthedelegates.Thefirstandsecond General topassproposalsfornewtaxes.Aresplendenthallin On 5May1789,LouisXVIcalledtogetheranassemblyoftheEstates last timeitwasdonein1614. monarch alonecoulddecidewhentocallameetingofthisbody.The which thethreeestatessenttheirrepresentatives.However, proposals fornewtaxes.TheEstatesGeneralwasapoliticalbodyto call ameetingoftheEstatesGeneralwhichwouldthenpasshis power toimposetaxesaccordinghiswillalone.Ratherhehad this? InFranceoftheOldRegimemonarchdidnothave previous section.Howdoyouthinkhecouldhavegoneaboutdoing Louis XVIhadtoincreasetaxesforreasonsyouhavelearntinthe 8 2 TheOutbreakoftheRevolution The SocialContract . Whenthekingrejected 2021–22 Activity (Fig.5) been David’sintentioninplacing Bailly assembled deputies?What could have would havestoodwithhisbacktothe think thatduringtheactualeventBailly standing onatableinthecentre.Doyou Bailly oath raisingtheirarmsinthedirectionof Representatives oftheThirdEstatetake defeatedatWaterloo. 1815 annexes largepartsofEurope. Napoleon becomesemperorofFrance, 1804 Directory rulesFrance. Overthrow oftheJacobinrepublic,a beheaded. becomesarepublic,thekingis 1792-93 all humanbeings. of thekingandtoguaranteebasicrights A constitutionisframedtolimitthepowers 1791 countryside. Bastille isstormed,peasantrevoltsinthe Est Convocation ofEstatesGeneral,Third 1789 within societyoftheOldRegime. empty treasuryandgrowingdiscontent Louis XVIbecomeskingofFrance,faces 1774 Some importantdates ate formsNational , thePresidentof the wayhehasdone? Assembly Assembly , the , result, thegovernmentacquired assetsworthatleast2billionlivres. abolished andlandsowned bytheChurchwereconfiscated.Asa of theclergytoowereforced togiveuptheirprivileges.Titheswere decree abolishingthefeudalsystemofobligationsand .Members constitution. Onthenightof4August1789,Assembly passeda principle thathispowerswouldfromnowonbe checkedbya accorded recognitiontotheNationalAssemblyand acceptedthe Faced withthepowerofhisrevoltingsubjects,Louis XVIfinally homes, manyofthemmigratingtoneighbouringcountries. records ofmanorialdues.Alargenumbernobles fledfromtheir They lootedhoardedgrainandburntdowndocuments containing several districtsseizedhoesandpitchforksattacked way todestroytheripecrops.Caughtinafrenzyoffear,peasants lords ofthe In thecountrysiderumoursspreadfromvillagetothat On 14July,theagitatedcrowdstormedanddestroyedBastille. shops. Atthesametime,kingorderedtroopstomoveintoParis. queues atthebakery,crowdsofangrywomenstormedinto the situationandhoardedsupplies.Afterspendinghoursinlong had meantabadharvest;thepriceofbreadrose,oftenbakersexploited constitution, therestofFranceseethedwithturmoil.Aseverewinter While theNationalAssemblywasbusyatVersaillesdraftinga ‘What istheThirdEstate’? Abbé Sieyès,originallyapriest,wroteaninfluentialpamphletcalled Preparatory sketchforalargepaintingbyJacques-LouisDavid.ThewasintendedtobehungintheNational Assembly. Fig.5 –TheTennisCourtOath. manor hadhiredbandsofbrigandswhowereontheir chateaux 2021–22 . lands andhismansion Manor –Anestateconsisting ofthelord’s residence belongingtoaking oranobleman Chateau (pl.chateaux)–Castleorstately New words from onepointtoanother. The mapshowshowbandsofpeasantsspread Fig.6 –ThespreadoftheGreatFear. The spreadoftheGreatFear Epicentres ofmainpanicmovements Areas ofagrarianrevoltearly1789 Regions notaffectedbytheGreatFear 9

T h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n India and the Contemporary World . Fig.7explainshowthenewpoliticalsystemworked. , executiveandjudiciary.ThismadeFranceaconstitutional were nowseparatedandassignedtodifferentinstitutions–the powers insteadofbeingconcentratedinthehandsoneperson, 1791. Itsmainobjectwastolimitthepowersofmonarch.These The NationalAssemblycompletedthedraftofconstitutionin 2.1 FranceBecomesaConstitutionalMonarchy 10 a manhadtobelongthe highestbracketoftaxpayers. citizens. Toqualifyasanelector andthenasamemberoftheAssembly, vote. Theremainingmen andallwomenwereclassedaspassive were giventhestatusofactivecitizens,thatis,they wereentitledto of agewhopaidtaxesequaltoatleast3daysa labourer’swage all citizens,however,hadtherighttovote.Onlymen above25years voted foragroupofelectors,whointurnchosethe Assembly.Not ,whichwasindirectlyelected. That is,citizens The Constitutionof1791vestedthepowertomake lawsinthe Fig.7 –ThePoliticalsytstemundertheConstitutionof1791. Judge E T O V Ministers population of28million Active citizens: Women, childrenandyouthbelow25. Passive citizens: 2021–22

CONTROL CONTROL entitled tovote. no votingrights. About 4millionofa National Assembly About 3millionmen Electors Legislature (50,000 men) VOTE VOTE

(745 members) protect eachcitizen’snaturalrights. by birthandcouldnotbetakenaway.Itwasthedutyofstateto and inalienable’,thatis,theybelongedtoeachhumanbeing freedom ofopinion,equalitybeforelaw,wereestablishedas‘natural and Citizen.Rightssuchastherighttolife,freedomofspeech, The ConstitutionbeganwithaDeclarationoftheRightsMan Source B L’ Marat commentedinhisnewspaper The revolutionaryjournalistJean-Paul S owners ofweal the yokeofaristocrats, theywilldothesametoother agree toobeythem.Andwhentheyhavemanaged castoff influences thela we haveabsoluteproofofhowwealth improved bypeacefulmeansalone.Here the poorandoppressedwillneverbe has beengiventotherich…lotof ‘The taskofrepresentingthepeople the NationalAssembly: people) ontheConstitutiondraftedby our Ami du peuple du Ami ce: Anextr th. act f w ( . Y ’ The f r et la om thenewspaper ws wi riend ofthe l l lastonlyaslongthepeople L’ Ami du peuple du Ami 2021–22 . Source C The figureontheleftsymboliseslaw. 1790. ThefigureontherightrepresentsFrance. and Citizen,paintedbytheartistLeBarbierin Fig.8 compensation mustbegiven inadvance. requires it.Inthatcase ajust a legallyestablishedpublic necessity right, noonemaybedeprived ofit,unless 17 on allcitizensinproportiontotheirmeans. indispensable; itmustbeassessedequally administration acommontaxis force andfortheexpensesof 12. Forthemaintenanceofpublic by thelaw. abuse ofsuchlibertyincasesdetermined freely; hemusttakeresponsibilityforthe 11. Everycitizenmayspeak,writeandprint the . detained, exceptincasesdeterminedby 7 before it. representatives. Allcitizensareequal in itsformation,personallyorthroughtheir . Allcitizenshavetherighttoparticipate 6. Lawistheexpressionofgeneral actions thatar 5. Thelawhastherighttoforbidonly whatever isnotinjurioustoothers. 4. Libertyconsistsofthepowertodo from thepeople. exercise authoritythatdoesnotcome the ;nogrouporindividualmay 3. Thesourceofallsovereigntyresidesin oppression. pr inal the preservationofnaturaland 2. Theaimofeverypoliticalassociationis in rights. 1. Menarebornandremainfreeequal Citizen The DeclarationofRightsManand . Nomanma –TheDeclarationoftheRightsMan . Sincepr operty ienable rightsofman;thesear , securi opert e injurioustosociet y beac y isasacr t y andr cused, arr ed andin esistance to ested or e l violable y. ibert y, 11

T h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n India and the Contemporary World Box 1 12 these symbols. (Fig. 8)usesmanysuchsymbolstoconveythecontentofDeclarationRights.Letustryread were frequentlyusedinsteadofprintedwordstocommunicateimportantideas.ThepaintingbyLeBarbier The majorityofmenandwomenintheeighteenthcenturycouldnotreadorwrite.Soimagessymbols Reading politicalsymbols bundle. Strengthliesinunity can beeasilybroken,butnotanentire The bundleofrodsorfasces A brokenchainstandsfortheactofbecomingfree. The brokenchain: Eternity Snake bitingitstailtoformaring: : Onerod . will driveawaythecloudsofignorance. seeing eyestandsforknowledge.Theraysofthesun The eyewithinatriangleradiatinglight . Aringhasneitherbeginning norend. 2021–22 Chains wereusedtofetterslaves. Sceptre : Symbolofroyalpower Symbol of : Theall- . and allareequalbeforeit. The LawTablet: P The wingedwoman: upon becomingfree. Phrygiancap: ersonification ofthelaw The lawisthesameforall, wornbyaslave . national coloursofFrance. --red : The 2021–22 Activity 5. ImaginetheimpactofeventsinFrance 4. WhichgroupsofFrenchsocietywouldhave 3. Comparethepoliticalrightswhich 2. Explainthemeaningofpainting 1. what washappeninginFrance? the clergyherehavereactedto thenewsof traders, peasants,noblesor membersof absolute .Howwouldthekings, - orS on neighbouringcountriessuchasPrussia, Marat (SourceB)anticipateinthefuture? be dissatisfied?Whatdevelopmentsdoes Which groupswouldhavehadreasonto gained fromtheConstitutionof1791? the sameidea? consistent? Dothetwodocumentsconvey (Source C). with Constitution of1791gavetothecitizens (Fig. 8)byreadingonlythesymbols. Declaration ofRightsManandCitizen for Identify thesymbolsinBox1whichstand Articles 1and6oftheDeclaration , equalityandfraternity Are thetwodocument p , allofwhichwere . s 13

T h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n India and the Contemporary World T Assembly votedinApril1792todeclarewaragainstPrussiaandAustria. there sincethesummerof1789.Beforethiscouldhappen,National plans tosendtroopsputdowntheeventsthathadbeentakingplace countries toowereworriedbythedevelopmentsinFranceandmade negotiations withtheKingofPrussia.Rulersotherneighbouring Although LouisXVIhadsignedtheConstitution,heenteredintosecret T 14 sections ofsociety,especiallynobles,whoworeknee .It dock workers.Thiswastosetthemselvesapartfrom thefashionable to startwearinglongstripedtrouserssimilar those wornby Maximilian Robespierre.AlargegroupamongtheJacobins decided as wellservantsanddaily-wageworkers.Their leaderwas artisans suchasshoemakers,pastrycooks,watch-makers, printers, prosperous sectionsofsociety.Theyincludedsmall shopkeepers, The membersoftheJacobinclubbelongedmainlytoless you moreabouttheiractivitiesanddemands. period, formedtheirownclubs.Section4ofthischapterwilltell Jacob inParis.Womentoo,whohadbeenactivethroughoutthis the ,whichgotitsnamefromformer own formsofaction.Themostsuccessfultheseclubswasthat people whowishedtodiscussgovernmentpoliciesandplantheir of society.Politicalclubsbecameanimportantrallyingpointfor Constitution of1791gavepoliticalrightsonlytotherichersections convinced thattherevolutionhadtobecarriedfurther,as looking aftertheirfamilies.Largesectionsofthepopulationwere women werelefttocopewiththetasksofearningalivingand to thepeople.Whilemenwereawayfightingatfront, The revolutionarywarsbroughtlossesandeconomicdifficulties name. TheMarseillaiseisnowthenationalanthemofFrance. volunteers from composed bythepoetRogetdeL’Isle.Itwassungforfirsttime over .Amongthepatrioticsongstheysangwas They sawthisasawarofthepeopleagainstkingsandaristocraciesall 3 3333 religious life Convent – New words he situa housands of FranceAbolishesMonarchyandBecomesaRepublic FranceAbolishesMonarchyandBecomesaRepublic FranceAbolishesMonarchyandBecomesaRepublic FranceAbolishesMonarchyandBecomesaRepublic FranceAbolishesMonarchyandBecomesaRepublic tion inF B v uilding belongingtoacommunity devotedtoa olunteer r ance contin s thr as theymarchedintoParisandsogotits ong ued tobetenseduringthef ed fr om thepr o vinces tojointhear 2021–22 convent ollo Marseillaise wing y ofSt ear m y s , . . Fig.9 –Asans-culottescouple. the peopleelectgovernment includingtheheadof wearers ofknee was awayofproclaimingtheendpowerwieldedby a . 21 The newlyelectedassemblywascalledtheConvention. On to vote. on allmenof21 voted toimprisontheroyalfamily. the kinghimselfashostageforseveralhours.Later the the PalaceofTuileries,massacredking’s guards andheld and highpricesoffood.OnthemorningAugust 10 theystormed large numberofParisianswhowereangeredbythe shortsupplies In thesummerof1792Jacobinsplannedaninsurrectiona Women howeverwerenotallowedtodoso. menworeinadditiontheredcapthatsymbolisedliberty. sans-culottes, literallymeaning‘thosewithoutkneebreeches’.Sans- S eptember 1792itabolished themonarchyanddeclaredFrance A s youknow

breeches. TheseJacobinscametobeknownasthe years and above,regardlessofwealth,gottheright , a republicisaformofgovernment where E lections wereheld.Fromnow A 2021–22 ssembly is, thefemaleformsymbolisesideaoffreedom. The paintingisafemaleallegoryofliberty–that exhibition heldeverytwoyears. exhibit theirworksintheSalon,whichwasan women totrainwithestablishedpaintersand The revolutionaryeventsmadeitpossiblefor This isoneoftherarepaintingsbyawomanartist. Fig.10 Activity st of theDeclarationRights).Thepyramid Box 1(brokenchain,redcap,,Charter objects whicharepoliticalsymbolsyousawin Look carefullyatthepaintingandidentify female figureofliberty painting. Describeyourimpressionsofthe triangle. Usethesymbolstointerpret ands forequality – NanineVallain, , of ten representedbya . Liberty . 15

T h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n India and the Contemporary World 3. same fateshortlyafter. Place delaConcorde.ThequeenMarieAntoinettemetwiththe Louis XVIwassentencedtodeathbyacourtonthechargeof when andhowtheybecameso. find outaboutsomeothercountriesthatarerepublicsandinvestigate government. Thereisnohereditary poles andabladewithwhichperson were guillotined.Theguillotineisadeviceconsistingoftwo tribunal.Ifthecourtfoundthem‘guilty’they his methods–werearrested,imprisonedandthentriedbya parties, evenmembersofhisownpartywhodidnotagreewith republic –ex-noblesandclergy,membersofotherpolitical punishment. Allthosewhomhesawasbeing‘enemies’ofthe . Robespierrefollowedapolicyofseverecontroland The periodfrom1793to1794isreferredastheReignof sent totheguillotine. convicted byacourtinJuly1794,arrestedandon thenextday supporters begantodemandmoderation.Finally, hewas Robespierre pursuedhispoliciessorelentlesslythateven buildings convertedintobarracksoroffices. and Citoyenne(Citizen).Churcheswereshutdowntheir (Madam) allFrenchmenandwomenwerehenceforthCitoyen address. InsteadofthetraditionalMonsieur()andMadame was alsosoughttobepractisedthroughformsofspeechand d’égalité flour wasforbidden;allcitizenswererequiredtoeatthepain prices fixedbythegovernment.Theuseofmoreexpensivewhite were forcedtotransporttheirgrainthecitiesandsellitat on wagesandprices.Meatbreadwererationed.Peasants Robespierre’s governmentissuedlawsplacingamaximumceiling after DrGuillotinwhoinventedit. 16 1 Activity down? Discussyourviews onthesubjectinclass. What didtheconstitutional ontherightsofindividualslay does Desmoulinsperceive liberty? ReferoncemoretoSourceC. Robespierre meanby‘thewaroflibertyagainsttyranny’? How each oneunderstandtheuseofstateforce?Whatdoes Compare theviewsofDesmoulinsandRobespierre.How does TheReignofTerror (equalitybread),aloafmadeofwholewheat.Equality . On21January1793hewasexecutedpubliclyatthe monarchy. Youcantryand is beheaded. Itwasnamed 2021–22 Source D government Tr New words R Quite theopposite.LibertyisHappiness, being discipl child, whichneedstogothroughaphaseof ‘Some peoplebelievethatLibertyislikea of T w Desmoulins wrotethefollowingin1793.He The revolutionaryjournalistCamille What isliberty?Twoconflictingviews: enemies amonghisrelationsandfriends?’ to thescaffoldwithoutmakingtenmore Would itbepossibletobringasingleperson anyone heardofsomethingmoresenseless? your enemiesbyguillotiningthem.Has of Rights…Y a democr or elseweshallperish.IntimeofRevolution enemies oftherepublicathomeandabroad, against tyranny….Wemustannihilatethe laws, wemustfirstfinishthewarofliberty achieve thepeacefulruleofconstitutional ‘T right ofthef the enemiesofLibertythrough terroristhe most ur and inflexible;…isusedtomeetthe T err eason, Equal eason –Betr o establ as ex or isnothingbutjustice,swi err or ecuted short gent needsofthef . atic go ish andconsol ined bef ounder oftheR i ou wouldl ty v , Justice,i a ernment ma y al of ly after or Universel newspaper then carriedbythe Convention, whichwas speech atthe Robespierre madea On 7February1794, extract fromit: e i idate democr one’ ik t istheDeclar t at , duringtheR atherland. T e tofinishof y r tains maturi epubl s countr . Hereisan ely onterr Le Moniteur Le ft, sev ic. ’ acy o curb ation eign f al y or , to er or ty e . . l during thef ideals thatmotivatedpolitical movementsinFranceandtherestofEurope freedom, ofequalitybefore thelawandoffraternityremainedinspiring Through allthesechangesintheformofgovernment, theidealsof Napoleon Bonaparte. of theDirectorypavedwayforriseamilitary dictator, councils, whothensoughttodismissthem.Thepolitical instability the Jacobins.However,Directorsoftenclashedwith thelegislative against theconcentrationofpowerinaone-manexecutive asunder an executivemadeupoffivemembers.Thiswasmeant asasafeguard for twoelectedlegislativecouncils.Thesethenappointed aDirectory, denied thevotetonon-propertiedsectionsofsociety.Itprovided classes toseizepower.Anewconstitutionwasintroducedwhich The falloftheJacobingovernmentallowedwealthiermiddle 3. impression ofarevolutionaryfestivaldoesthisimageconvey? perishable materialthatcouldbedismantled.Describethegroupsofpeople,theirclothes,rolesandactions. What the auraofahallowedhistory.Thepaviliononraisedplatforminmiddlecarriedbyclassicalcolumnswas madeof them wasthestagingoffestivalslikethisone.SymbolsfromcivilisationsancientGreeceandRomewereused toconvey Fig.11 2 ADirectoryRulesFrance –Therevolutionarygovernmentsoughttomobilisetheloyaltyofitssubjectsthroughvariousmeansone ollo wing centur y. 2021–22 17

T h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n India and the Contemporary World 18 Republican Womenwas the mostfamousofthem.Onetheir in differentFrenchcities. TheSocietyofRevolutionaryand political clubsandnewspapers. Aboutsixtywomen’sclubscameup In ordertodiscussandvoice theirinterestswomenstartedown look afterthechildren.Theirwageswerelowerthan thoseofmen. their families,thatis,cook,fetchwater,queueup forbreadand arranged amarriageforthem.Workingwomenhad alsotocarefor third estatecouldstudyataconvent,afterwhich theirfamilies job training.Onlydaughtersofnoblesorwealthier members ofthe prosperous people.Mostwomendidnothaveaccess toeducationor market, orwereemployedasdomesticservantsin thehousesof seamstresses orlaundresses,soldflowers,fruitsandvegetablesatthe women ofthethirdestatehadtoworkforaliving.Theyworkedas government tointroducemeasuresimprovetheirlives.Most They hopedthattheirinvolvementwouldpressurisetherevolutionary which broughtaboutsomanyimportantchangesinFrenchsociety. From theverybeginningwomenwereactiveparticipantsinevents 4 4444 and broughtthekingbackwiththemtoParis. This printisoneofthemanypictorialrepresentationsevents5October1789,whenwomenmarchedto Versailles Fig.12

Did WomenhaveaRevolution? Did WomenhaveaRevolution? Did WomenhaveaRevolution? Did WomenhaveaRevolution? Did WomenhaveaRevolution?

– ParisianwomenontheirwaytoVersailles. 2021–22 of them?Discussyourviews intheclass. with thewomen’sactivities orishecritical do youthink:doestheartist sympathise were expectedtobehaveinpublic?What reflect traditionalideasofhowwomen stand for?Dotheactionsofwomen artist includedintheimage?Whatdothey same socialgroup.Whatsymbolshasthe see whetherallofthemcomefromthe objects theyarecarrying.Lookcarefullyto Fig. 12–theiractions,postures,the Describe thepersonsrepresentedin Activity Source E It wasfinallyin1946thatwomenFrancewontherighttovote. during therevolutionaryyearswaskeptaliveasaninspiringmemory. centuries. TheexampleofthepoliticalactivitiesFrenchwomen movementduringthelatenineteenthandearlytwentieth The fightforthevotewascarriedoutthroughaninternational through thenexttwohundredyearsinmanycountriesofworld. Women’s movementsforvotingrightsandequalwagescontinued prominent womenwerearrestedandanumberofthemexecuted. closure ofwomen’sclubsandbanningtheirpoliticalactivities.Many During theReignofTerror,newgovernmentissuedlawsordering Women’s struggleforequalpoliticalrights,however,continued. become artistsorrunsmallbusinesses. both womenandmen.Womencouldnowtrainforjobs, under civillaw.Divorcewasmadelegal,andcouldbeappliedforby Marriage wasmadeintoacontractenteredfreelyandregistered fathers couldnolongerforcethemintomarriageagainsttheirwill. of stateschools,schoolingwasmadecompulsoryforallgirls.Their that helpedimprovethelivesofwomen.Togetherwithcreation In theearlyyears,revolutionarygovernmentdidintroducelaws felt, wouldtheirinterestsberepresentedinthenewgovernment. elected totheAssemblyandholdpoliticaloffice.Onlythen,they them topassivecitizens.Theydemandedtherightvote,be men. WomenweredisappointedthattheConstitutionof1791reduced main demandswasthatwomenenjoythesamepoliticalrightsas this shewasexecuted ,which chargedherwithtreason.Soonafter for forciblyclosingdown women’sclubs.Shewastriedbythe it. In1793 members oftheNational Woman andCitizen, entitled to.So they excludedwomenfrombasicrightsthateach humanbeingwas C active womeninrevolutionaryFrance.Sheprotested againstthe Olympe deGougeswasoneofthemostimportant ofthepolitically (1748-1793) The lifeofarevolutionarywoman–OlympedeGouges onstitution andtheDeclarationofRightsMan andCitizenas , OlympedeGougescriti , in1791 which sheaddressedtotheQueenand . , shewrotea Assembly , demandingthattheyactupon cis Declaration oftheRights ed theJacobingovernment 2021–22 19

T h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n India and the Contemporary World Source F 20 Fig.13 –Womenqueuingupatabakery. Some ofthebasicrightssetforthinOlympedeGouges’ 1. Declaration 5 4 3. 2. Activity response totheargumentsput forwardbyChaumette(SourceG). Imagine yourselftobeoneofthewomeninFig.13.Formulate a . . cases determinedbylaw.Women,likemen,obeythisrigorous No womanisanexception;sheaccused,arrested,anddetainedin other distinctionthanthatoftheirtalents. and publicemploymentaccordingtotheirabilitieswithoutany female andmalecitizensareequallyentitledtoallhonours representatives initsformulation;itshouldbethesameforall.All male citizensshouldhaveasayeitherpersonallyorbytheir The lawshouldbetheexpressionofgeneralwill;allfemaleand Woman isbornfreeandremainsequaltomaninrights. but theunionofwomanandman. The sourceofallsovereigntyresidesinthenation,whichisnothing and aboveallresistancetooppression. rights ofwomanandman:Thesear The goalofallpoliticalassociationsisthepreservationnatural . e l ibert y , pr 2021–22 operty , securi ty, Source G Activity Rights ofManandCitizen(SourceC). Gouges (SourceF)withtheDeclarationof Compare themanifestodraftedbyOlympede distributed?’ become men.Havenotdutiesbeenfairly Shameless arethosewomen,whowishto are yourtasks. the sweetdutiesofmotherhood–those Be awoman…thethingsofhousehold, She saidtoWoman: … thatisyourkingdom. Be aman.Hunting,agriculture,politicalduties She saidtoMan: No. babies? men? Hasshegivenusbreaststonurture ‘Has Natureentrusteddomesticdutiesto clubs onthefollowinggrounds: sought tojustifytheclosureofwomen’s In 1793,theJacobinpoliticianChaumette wasfinallyabolishedinFrenchcolonies1848. to enslaveAfrican Plantation ownersunderstoodtheirfreedomasincludingtheright a short-termmeasure:tenyearslater,Napoleonreintroducedslavery. in theFrenchoverseaspossessions.This,however,turnedouttobe was finallytheConventionwhichin1794legislatedtofreeallslaves from businessmenwhoseincomesdependedontheslavetrade.It those inthecolonies.Butitdidnotpassanylaws,fearingopposition the rightsofmanshouldbeextendedtoallFrenchsubjectsincluding in France.TheNationalAssemblyheldlongdebatesaboutwhether Throughout theeighteenthcenturytherewaslittlecriticismofslavery owedtheireconomicprosperitytotheflourishingslavetrade. markets forsugar,coffee,andindigo.PortcitieslikeBordeaux labour madeitpossibletomeetthegrowingdemandinEuropean There theyweresoldtoplantationowners.Theexploitationofslave the three-monthlongvoyageacrossAtlantictoCaribbean. Branded andshackled,theslaveswerepackedtightlyintoshipsfor the Africancoast,wheretheyboughtslavesfromlocalchieftains. French merchantssailedfromtheportsofBordeauxorNantesto and theAmericas.Theslavetradebeganinseventeenthcentury. So thiswasmetbyatriangularslavetradebetweenEurope,Africa and unfamiliarlandsmeantashortageoflabourontheplantations. and coffee.ButthereluctanceofEuropeanstogoworkindistant important suppliersofcommoditiessuchastobacco,indigo, the –,GuadeloupeandSanDomingowere was theabolitionofslaveryinFrenchcolonies.Thecolonies One ofthemostrevolutionarysocialreformsJacobinregime 5 5555 Emancipation –Theactoffreeing any longer south oftheSahara Negroes –Atermusedfortheindigenouspeople ofAfrica New words TheAbolitionofSlavery TheAbolitionofSlavery TheAbolitionofSlavery TheAbolitionofSlavery TheAbolitionofSlavery Negroes .

I t isaderogatorytermnotincommonuse inpursuitoftheireconomicinterests. 2021–22 giving themEuropeanclothestowear. the AfricanandAmericanIndianslavesby unfree’. AFrenchwomanpreparesto‘civilise’ inscription belowreads:‘Thefreedomofthe the slogan:‘Therightsofman’.The of slaves.Thetricolourbannerontopcarries This printof1794describesthe Fig.14 – Activity non-European slaves? attitude doesthepictureexpresstowards ground. Whatdotheysymbolise? (Fig. 14).Describetheobjectslyingon Record yourimpressionsofthisprint The emancipationofslaves. emancipation 21

T h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n India and the Contemporary World length intextswhichonlyahandfulofeducatedpeoplecouldread. such aslibertyorjusticethatpoliticalphilosopherswroteaboutat of people.Thiswasonewaytheycouldgraspandidentifywithideas of print.Plays,songsandfestiveprocessionsattractedlargenumbers side soughttoconvincetheothersofitspositionthroughmedium also meantthatopposingviewsofeventscouldbeexpressed.Each the eventsandchangestakingplaceinFrance.Freedomofpress travelled rapidlyintothecountryside.Theyalldescribedanddiscussed printed picturesfloodedthetownsofFrancefromwherethey expression tobeanaturalright.Newspapers,pamphlets,booksand of theRightsManandCitizenproclaimedfreedomspeech had beena ne the OldRegimeallwrittenmaterialandculturalactivities–books, the Bastilleinsummerof One impor would translatetheidealsoflibertyandequalityintoeverydaypractice. revolutionary governmentstookituponthemselvestopasslawsthat such changesinthelivesofmen,womenandchildren.The or thebookstheyread?Theyearsfollowing1789inFrancesawmany Can politicschangetheclothespeoplewear,languagetheyspeak 22 6 6 6 6 6 This anonymousprintof1790 seekstomaketheideaofjusticetangible. Fig.15 –Thepatrioticfat-reducing press. wspa The RevolutionandEverydayLife The RevolutionandEverydayLife The RevolutionandEverydayLife The RevolutionandEverydayLife The RevolutionandEverydayLife per ppr s, tant la pla o v ys –couldbepub ed b w tha y thecensor t cameintoef 1789w s of lished orperf as thea f theking ect soonafterthestor bolition of . No or med onl w theDec 2021–22 censor y afterthe ming of lar ship a tion . In y Activity assets ofthechurch? equality communicate thefollowingideas:greed, are theimagesthatartisthasusedto Describe thepictureinyourownwords.What , justice,t akeover bythest ate ofthe rest ofEuropeduringthe nineteenthcentury,wherefeudalsystems legacy oftheFrenchRevolution. ThesespreadfromFrancetothe The ideasoflibertyanddemocratic rightswerethemostimportant had left. to otherpartsofEuropehadanimpactonpeoplelong afterNapoleon measures thatcarriedtherevolutionaryideasofliberty and modernlaws in But soontheNa saw Napoleonasaliberatorwhowouldbringfreedom forthepeople. w la Napoleon sawhisroleasamoderniserofEurope.Heintroducedmany d He setouttoconquerneighbouringEuropeancountries,dispossessing In 1804,NapoleonBonapartecrownedhimselfEmperorofFrance. Conclusion What kindsofreactionswouldapaintinglikethisproduceamongviewersintheSalon? Recall whatyouhavelearntaboutMaratinthischapter.Describethescenearoundhim.Accountforhisgreatpopularity. Fig.16 -Marataddressingthepeople.ThisisapaintingbyLouis-LeopoldBoilly. ynasties andcr ws suc eights andmeasur v ading f h asthepr or ce . Hew ea poleonic ar ting kingdomsw otection of es pr as f inall o vided b y def mies cametobevie pri ea va her y thedecimalsystem. ted a te pr e heplacedmember t oper Water ty andaunif loo in1815. w ed e v er Initiall or s of yw Man m systemof hisf her 2021–22 y, y of e asan man amil his y. y by David. Fig.17 –Napoleoncrossing the ,painting 23

T h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n India and the Contemporary World responded totheideascomingfromrevolutionaryFrance. Sultan andRammohanRoyaretwoexamplesofindividualswho bondage intotheirmovementstocreateasovereignnationstate.Tipu were abolished.Colonisedpeoplesreworkedtheideaoffreedomfrom 24 Q Activities 2. 1. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. their articlesonaboardtoproducewallpapertheFrenchRevolution. Robespierre. Workingroupsoftwoorthree.Eachgroupcouldthenputup with importantpersonagessuchasMirabeau,OlympedeGougesor write anewspaperarticle. each dayandweek.Collectinformationpicturesonanyoneevent The FrenchRevolutionsawtheriseofnewspapersdescribingevents about inthischapter Find outmoreaboutanyoneoftherevolutionaryfiguresyouhaveread uestions How wouldyouexplainthe riseofNapoleon? beset withcontradictions? Explain. Would youagreewiththeviewthatmessage ofuniversalrightswas traced totheFrenchRevolution. Draw upalistofdemocraticrightsweenjoytoday whoseoriginscouldbe during thenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies. Describe thelegacyofFrenchRevolutionfor thepeoplesofworld have beendisappointedwiththeoutcomeof revolution? groups wereforcedtorelinquishpower?Which sections ofsocietywould Which groupsofFrenchsocietybenefitedfrom therevolution?Which in France. Describe thecircumstancesleadingtooutbreakofrevolutionaryprotest . W rite ashortbiographyofthisperson. Y ou couldalsoconductanimaginaryinterview 2021–22 Box 2 Susobhan Sarkar temporarily lamedbyanaccident.’ revolutionary tri-colourflagthoughhehadbeen on visitingfrigates(warships)flyingthe On hiswaytoEnglandatCape heard oftheJulyRevolutioninFrance1830. ‘He couldthinkandtalkofnothingelsewhenhe his imagination. Revolution andlater through Europeatthattime.TheFrench was inspiredbynewideasthatwerespreading Raja RammohanRoywasoneofthosewho , Notes ontheBengalRenaissance , theJulyRevolutionexcited ? T

Activities own heinsisted 1946.