Yedidyah Ha-Alexandri and the Crisis of the Modern Jewish Age: Philo of Alexandria As an Exemplary H

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Article Yedidyah Ha-Alexandri and the Crisis of the Modern Jewish Age: Philo of Alexandria as an Exemplary H. asid in Nah. man Krochmal’s Thought

Ze’ev Strauss

Institute for Jewish Philosophy and Religion, Maimonides Centre for Advanced Studies (MCAS), Universität Hamburg, 20146 Hamburg, Germany; [email protected]

Abstract: The present article sets out to answer the question of the extent to which Nah. man Krochmal’s reappraisal of Philo of Alexandria in the light of his Jewish faith reflects a deep spiritual crisis that was engulfing the Maskilic world: the encroaching expansion of modern Hasidism with its transformed understanding of traditional Judaism among Eastern European communities. To this end, a major component of Krochmal’s Jewish historical thought as expressed in his masterful unfin- ished work Guide of the Perplexed of the Modern Age can be revealed. The examination employs two methods in order to uncover the intent behind Krochmal’s fragmentary presentation of Philo: explor- ing his utilization of Dähne’s Geschichtliche Darstellung der jüdisch-alexandrinischen Religionsphilosophie to demonstrate the congruence of Philo’s thought with Tannaitic ethics and drawing on similar depictions of Philo found among his circles and pupils. The study claims that Krochmal’s revival

of Philo as a key Jewish thinker is politically mobilized for an ideological assault on the Hasidim, with whom the Maskilim had ongoing conﬂicts. Reconstructing his portrayal of Philo as a paragon of Second Temple Judaism, the paper argues that Krochmal projects his own spiritual crisis from the Citation: Strauss, Ze’ev. 2021. Yedidyah Ha-Alexandri and the Maskilic settings of nineteenth-century Galicia onto the Jewish reality of ﬁrst-century Alexandria, Crisis of the Modern Jewish Age: thus reproducing a valiant image of Philo as the embodiment of the Maskilic consciousness that was Philo of Alexandria as an Exemplary grappling with the ancient, overly theoretical Hasideans of his days. H. asid in Nah. man Krochmal’s Thought. Religions 12: 377. https:// Keywords: Nah. man Krochmal; Philo of Alexandria; Hasidism; Eastern European Haskalah; rab- doi.org/10.3390/rel12060377 binic literature; Jewish ethics; Solomon J. L. Rapoport; Isaac Baer Levinsohn; Avrom Ber Gotlober; golden mean Academic Editors: Elias Sacks and Andrea Dara Cooper

Received: 3 April 2021 1. Introduction Accepted: 17 May 2021 Published: 22 May 2021 When approaching Philo of Alexandria (c. 15 BCE–c. 50 CE) from the perspective of Jewish history, one is initially almost compelled to accept the silence with which rabbinic 1 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral tradition passes over him. This silence becomes all the more remarkable if one bears with regard to jurisdictional claims in in mind the tremendous impact that Philo’s allegorical exegesis of Scripture exerted on published maps and institutional affil- world history in general and on the formation of Christian theology in particular. The iations. first prominent intellectual who is commonly mentioned in this context is the sixteenth- century Renaissance thinker Azariah de’ Rossi (1511–1578), four consecutive chapters of whose Light of the Eyes wrestles with Philo’s convoluted body of thought from the Jewish viewpoint.2 However, in his final analysis, de’ Rossi remains quite ambivalent towards Philo, primarily taking issue with the fact that he does not mention or acknowledge the Copyright: © 2021 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. rabbinic oral tradition (De’ Rossi 2001, pp. 140–41). The first Jewish author who managed This article is an open access article to transform the rabbi’s apparent silence into a lively discourse through a profound and distributed under the terms and systematic engagement with Philo is none other than the Galician Maskil Nah. man Krochmal conditions of the Creative Commons (alias RaNaK; 1785–1840), one of the founders of modern Jewish historiography. Revealing Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// a wide array of striking commonalities between Philo’s patterns of thought and those found creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ in Tannaitic and Amoraic works, Krochmal suggests that the Jewish Alexandrians were 4.0/). actually partaking in an active dialog and exchange of ideas with the rabbis and that the

Religions 2021, 12, 377. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12060377 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2021, 12, x 2 of 26

Religions 2021, 12, 377 thought and those found in Tannaitic and Amoraic works, Krochmal suggests that2 ofthe 27 Jewish Alexandrians were actually partaking in an active dialog and exchange of ideas with the rabbis and that the boundaries between both factions were in fact much more blurredboundaries than between they appear both factionsat first sight were (Boyar in factin much 2004, more pp. 112–16; blurred H. than Wolfson they appear 1962, atvol. first 1, p.sight 56). ( BoyarinAs the prominent 2004, pp. 112–16;historian H. of Wolfson the Wissenschaft 1962, vol. des 1, p.Judentums 56). As theHeinrich prominent Graetz historian (1817– 1891)of the notes,Wissenschaft with unreserved des Judentums appreciation,Heinrich “K Graetzrochmal (1817–1891) was the first notes, to initiate with unreserved the philo- sophicalappreciation, observation “Krochmal of history, was the specifically first to initiate Jewish the history, philosophical [providing] observation a clear ofoverview history, ofspecifically its convoluted Jewish paths”, history, thus [providing] demonstrating a clear “h overviewow to exploit of itsand convoluted utilize the paths”,rich seam thus of thedemonstrating Talmud for historical “how to exploitinvestigation”, and utilize from the which rich “he seam drew of thethe Talmudmost fruitful for historical findings forinvestigation”, the elucidation from of whichthe inner “he processes drew the of most Jewish fruitful history”. findings3 for the elucidation of the innerThe processes present of analysis Jewish history”.will focus3 on Krochmal’s seminal historiographical approach to Philo’sThe treatises present found analysis in what will focus may onbe considered Krochmal’s the seminal most historiographicalprominent and methodologi- approach to calPhilo’s treatment treatises of foundhis thought in what to be may prod beuced considered during the the most Jewi prominentsh Enlightenment: and methodological Ḥidot Minni Kedemtreatment (“Dark of his Sayings thought of toAncient be produced Times”), during Chapter the 12 Jewish of his Enlightenment: monumental HebrewH. idot Minni opus MorehKedem Nevokhei(“Dark Sayings ha-Zeman of (“Guide Ancient of Times”), the Perplexed Chapter of 12the of Modern his monumental Age”, henceforth Hebrew Guide opus), aMoreh work Nevokhei which he ha-Zeman began writing(“Guide in ofthe the early Perplexed 1830s, but of the never Modern managed Age”, to henceforth complete.4Guide In the), 4 Guidea work, Krochmal which he provides began writing a meticulous in the earlyand comprehensive 1830s, but never metaphysical managed to account complete. of Jew-In ishthe history,Guide, Krochmal drawing provideson the substantial a meticulous achi andevements comprehensive of modern metaphysical scholarship account(Klausner of 1952,Jewish p. history, 195) and drawing on a Hegelian on the substantial conceptual achievements framework.5 This of modern innovative scholarship historiographical (Klausner 5 1952treatment, p. 195) of the and Jewish on a Hegelian religion conceptualwas not confin framework.ed to academicThis innovative objectives; historiographical it was also com- mittedtreatment to and of thedeeply Jewish immersed religion in was its spiritual not confined dimensions. to academic The Guide’s objectives; ultimate it wasaim alsowas tocommitted offer perceptive to and and deeply historically immersed oriented in its spiritualobservations dimensions. about the ThecomplexGuide’s andultimate swiftly changingaim was toJewish offer reality perceptive of the andnineteenth historically century oriented with which observations many young about Jewish the complex Eastern and swiftly changing Jewish reality of the nineteenth century6 with which many young European intellectuals were struggling to come to grips. Our particular examination6 also concernsJewish Eastern this unique European objective intellectuals of the Guide were, insofar struggling as it to sets come out to to grips. answerOur the particularfollowing examination also concerns this unique objective of the Guide, insofar as it sets out to answer question: To what extent does Krochmal’s reconstruction and rediscovery of Philo reflect the following question: To what extent does Krochmal’s reconstruction and rediscovery his own concerns regarding the spiritual crises of his time, and to what extent does it of Philo reflect his own concerns regarding the spiritual crises of his time, and to what merely express his intrinsic historiographical interest in the Second Temple era? The an- extent does it merely express his intrinsic historiographical interest in the Second Temple swer to this question will be fleshed out in three thematic steps. In the first part, I will era? The answer to this question will be fleshed out in three thematic steps. In the first discuss Philo’s overall position in Krochmal’s modern Jewish historiography. I will then part, I will discuss Philo’s overall position in Krochmal’s modern Jewish historiography. turn to Krochmal’s fragmentary chapter on Philo and attempt to provide a reconstruction I will then turn to Krochmal’s fragmentary chapter on Philo and attempt to provide a of his employment of Tannaitic sayings, primarily taking into account his extensive use of reconstruction of his employment of Tannaitic sayings, primarily taking into account his August F. Dähne’s Geschichtliche Darstellung der jü disch-alexandrinischen Religions-Philoso- extensive use of August F. Dähne’s Geschichtliche Darstellung der jüdisch-alexandrinischen phie. This is a source he seems to have drawn on much more heavily than August Nean- Religions-Philosophie. This is a source he seems to have drawn on much more heavily than der’sAugust Genetische Neander’s EntwickelungGenetische Entwickelungder vornehmsten der gnostischen vornehmsten Systeme gnostischen, a fact Systeme that is, nevertheless a fact that is insufficientlynevertheless insufficientlyacknowledged acknowledged by scholarship. by Finally, scholarship. I will Finally,draw attention I will draw to three attention famous to Easternthree famous European Eastern Maskilim European who Maskilim viewed Philo who viewedas an ancient Philo Hasidean as an ancient and Hasidean who were and ei- whother part were of either or influenced part of or influencedby Krochmal’s by Krochmal’s intellectual intellectual circles, thus circles, assisting thus assisting us in recon- us in structingreconstructing substantial substantial parts of parts Krochmal’s of Krochmal’s highly highly fragmentary fragmentary presentation presentation of Philo: of Philo:Solo- monSolomon J. L. J.Rapoport L. Rapoport (1790–1867), (1790–1867), Isaac Isaac Baer BaerLevinsohn Levinsohn (1788–1860), (1788–1860), and Avrom and Avrom Ber Got- Ber loberGotlober (1811–1899). (1811–1899). Through these three steps, it will be shown that Krochmal’s historical perception of Philo was was actually actually much much more more intricate intricate than than has has hitherto hitherto been been presumed. presumed. This This article article will willput forward put forward the claim the claimthat Krochmal’s that Krochmal’s image imageof Philo of was Philo not was that nothe was that merely he was a merelyJewish sagea Jewish who sage criticized who criticizedsome of the some aberrant of the Alexandrian aberrant Alexandrian Jews of his Jews time of (whom his time Krochmal (whom perceivedKrochmal as perceived ancient Hasideans) as ancient Hasideans) from an outsider's from an perspective, outsider’s perspective, but rather that but ratherPhilo him- that “ selfPhilo was himself an exemplary was an exemplary Hasidean Hasidean who—like who—like many manyof his ofcontemporary his contemporary TannaTannaʾim—en-im—

77“ dorsedendorsed Judaism’s Judaism’s golden golden mean mean or or middle middle path path (derekh (derekh ha-em ha-emẓz.aaʿ)) andand also also conceded the pivotal role of the practical modus vivendivivendi alongside the theoreticaltheoretical one. Bearing in mind “ the fact that the HasideansHasideans mentioned in TannaiticTannaitic literatureliterature ((HḤ. asidim ha-Riʾshonimshonim; “the“the pious men of old”) and 1 and 2 Maccabees (Ἀσιδαῖοι) are anything but a distinctly deﬁneddefined faction,88 II will will contend contend that that Krochmal Krochmal attempts attempts to toreconstruct reconstruct this this ancient ancient Jewish Jewish party party by drawingby drawing on onthought thought patterns patterns taken taken from from his his own own mindscape mindscape and and from from the intimateintimate Maskilic settings of Galicia.9 ItIt will will be be argued that the driving force behindbehind Krochmal’sKrochmal’s historiographical enterprise of rehabilitating Philo’s thought must also be understood as part of his ideological Maskilic polemics against modern Hasidism—a spiritual and social

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movement that emerged from eighteenth-century Eastern Europe with a strong emphasis on Kabbalistic principles and their actual realization10—and the deep spiritual crisis in which he found himself when faced with its encroaching expansion.11 Krochmal exploits his historical Hasidean reconstruction of Philo as a moderate, rationalist counter-image to the Hasidim of modern Eastern Europe, which he perceives as radical, bigoted, and irrational. Given this assumption, as will be suggested, one may take Krochmal’s productive engagement with Philo to mean that the Alexandrian embodied and foreshadowed genuine Maskilic values, and as such that he points to the unified ideal of the Haskalah as a faithful continuation of the authentic Tannaitic ideal that incorporates both the objectives of the practically oriented men of deeds and those of the ancient theoretical Hasideans. He appears to transfer the emotionally charged sectarian conflicts that were repeatedly erupting between the Maskilim and the Hasidim in Eastern Europe to the situation of the Jews in first-century Alexandria. In doing so, he constructs a particular historical narrative of the past, of the inner turmoil of the ancient Jewish Alexandrian communities, by drawing upon the present; namely, upon the dire religious conflicts between the Maskilim and the Hasidim in the first three decades of nineteenth-century Galicia. At the same time, it will be shown that in their relentless polemics with modern Hasidim, Krochmal and his Maskilic circles did not exclusively seek to reveal what H. asidut was not, but that they also devoted vigorous efforts to excavating and describing what it truly was, at least as documented in Tannaitic literature. To this end, at the same time, Krochmal endeavored to reclaim the Alexandrian from his long Christian appropriation as Philo Christianus12 and to instead portray him in a more accurate historical light as Philo Judaeus. Part of Krochmal’s rejudaized image of Philo was his understanding of the sects of the Essenes and the Therapeutae (which he regarded as the Alexandrian faction of the Essenes) and Philo’s association with them. Both Philo and the Essenes/Therapeutae were often construed from the Chris- tian perspective as historical phenomena that paved the way for the ensuing emergence of Christianity.13 These Christocentric perceptions of Jewish history were not only present in the works of the Church Fathers, but were also quite widespread in the distinguished nineteenth-century scholarship and philosophy that constituted Krochmal’s main sources.14 Taking August Neander’s (1789–1850) monograph on Gnosticism as its main point of departure, Hegel’s representation of Philo in his Lectures on the History of Philosophy and Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion constitutes a prime example of this inclination: the “giant” (“der Riese”) with his “philosophy of all philosophies”, as Krochmal designates Hegel (Krochmal 2010, p. 432) and his metaphysical system (Klausner 1952, p. 162), considered Philo’s thought, particularly his Logos doctrine, as a nonessential historical precursor to the far more advanced and revolutionary notions of Christianity: the Holy Trinity and the Logos in its incarnation as an individual.15 Using methods of historical criticism, he offered an alternative model to earlier tendentious understandings of Philo. With various references to rabbinic literature, he paints an image of Philo and the Essenes/Therapeutae as Jews, which he then brings into accordance with what he holds to be Judaism’s core principle: the upholding of the golden mean, which emphasizes the indispensability of the practical life alongside the theoretical one. This path, which was delineated by Krochmal’s moderate Maskilic outlook on Jewish religion, was thus projected onto his enlightened portrait of Philo.16 Despite the pivotal role that Philo plays in Krochmal’s Guide, this subject matter has surprisingly attracted hardly any scholarly attention. In total, there has been only a single article exclusively devoted to the topic: Roland Goetschel’s “Philon et le judaïsme hellénistique au miroir de Nachman Krochmal”, which was published in 1986 (Goetschel 1986, pp. 371–83). Goetschel foregrounds Chapter 12 of the Guide and one of its central secondary sources, Neander’s Genetische Entwickelung der vornehmsten gnostischen Systeme (1818), while expanding on diverse elements of Krochmal’s depiction of Philo (Goetschel 1986, pp. 377–83). His assertion is that Krochmal follows Neander rather than Dähne in his approach to Philo.17 In Goetschel’s view (Goetschel 1986, pp. 378–79, 383), Neander’s Religions 2021, 12, 377 4 of 27

representations of Philo (premised on both Somn. 1.102 and Migr. 89–93) are of particular signiﬁcance for Krochmal’s portrayal of him as a spiritual Jewish exegete who quarrels with “the carnal-minded rabbis” (“die ﬂeischlich gesinnten Rabbinen”) for being scriptural literalists on the one hand and with the excessively theoretical theosophists among the Jewish Alexandrians on the other (Neander 1818, pp. 3, 6). A further article by Fischel Lachower, “Niglah ve-Nistar be-Mishnato shel RaNaK” (“The Revealed and Concealed in the Teaching of RaNaK”), which was published in 1951, is also of special interest for our examination. In Lachower’s article—which mainly explores Krochmal’s attitude towards the Kabbalah—Philo secures a crucial place, inasmuch as Krochmal considered his allegorical writings to be ancient sources of kabbalistic precepts. Lachower’s insightful study examines Krochmal’s employment of diverse Tannaitic verses and imageries in order to shed light on his rabbinic understanding of the Philonic worldview (Lachower 1951, pp. 222–23, 230–32). Lachower also emphasizes the clear-cut contrast that Krochmal makes between H. asidut and Ma aseh“ , with the latter’s adherents being theoretically minded and thus neglectful of concrete matters that are intimately attached to the social realm while the former’s adherents are practically minded (Lachower 1951, pp. 220–23). I will suggest that Krochmal’s idealized presentation of Philo—like various Tannaitic maxims adduced in Chapter 12 of the Guide from the Mishnaic tractate Avot—breaks the mold of this dichotomy to a considerable degree. This Tannaitic perception of Philo, as I will contend, is not unmediated, but actually aligns neatly with classic Maskilic conceptions of Judaism’s true teaching advanced in M. Avot and midrashic literature: the golden mean between Derekh Erez. (worldly occupation/labor) and Talmud Torah (the study of the Law). Like Goetschel, Lachower also prioritizes Neander’s impact on Krochmal’s conception of Philo over Dähne’s, since the former provided him with the groundwork for his own account of Philo’s speculative notions (such as the allegorical idea of the Israelite nation as the beholders of God).18 In what follows, I will attempt to counter both Goetschel’s and Lachower’s conjectures concerning Krochmal’s predilection for Neander’s viewpoint and their relegation of Dähne’s two-volume monograph to a secondary position.

2. “And There Is Nothing New”: The Paradigmatic Crisis of Jewish Faith and Yedidyah Ha-Alexandri in “Dark Sayings of Ancient Times” In a letter from 1838 that Krochmal wrote to the editor of Kerem H. emed, Samuel L. Goldenberg (1807–1846), one reads: And in this way, one significant root is notable, which these days is worthy of being considered a basic principle; i.e., the obligation to concretely observe the laws. According to this principle, faith and the spiritual worship of the heart do not suffice, regardless of whether the belief is a plain thought in the initial phase of imagination or a pure and rational one. [Belief] alone is insufficient as long as we have not fulfilled it to its full extent in the light of the outer world both privately and publicly, through the [ritual] acts [corresponding to] the commandments. This is the foundation of our Torah in all places and throughout all times. [ . . . ] During the Second Temple period, it was not only the central Pharisean sages in the land of Israel and Babylon who went to great lengths to uphold the Torah’s tenets and to be vigilant about its precise didactic mediation—as is well known to everybody—but also some among the Jews in Alexandria and in the rest of the Hellenistic cities, who were the first, as mentioned above, to establish an inner religion of wisdom based on the secrets of faith and a wholehearted devotion and intention. See Yedidyah—perhaps the greatest among these [Alexandrian] sages— in whose treatises on the allegories of the Torah we find brilliant admonitions about not discounting the deeds in place of knowing their allegorical [content], but rather adhering to them and following them according to the tradition of the fathers. And his admonitions were not against frivolous and evil men, but against the H. asidim and the men of theory [Anshei ha- Iyyun“ ] whom he regards as being on a higher level than those on the level of the [worshipping] laborers and Religions 2021, 12, x 5 of 26

Religions 2021, 12, 377 5 of 27 the tradition of the fathers. And his admonitions were not against frivolous and evil men, but against the Ḥasidim and the men of theory [Anshei ha-ʿIyyun] whom he regards as being on a higher level than those on the level of the [worshipping]

laborers and men of praxis [Anshei Maʿaseh“ ] alone (in Greek: ἀσκητής, practitioner) (this entire (this entire [subject] andand itsits expressionexpression in in [the [the writings writings of] of] our our ﬁrst first sages, sages, may may their memory their memorybe be a blessing,a blessing, will will be be elucidated elucidated at at length length in in mymy workwork on the shashaʿar“ [viz. H. idot [viz. Ḥidot MinniMinni Kedem Kedem],], which which I Ihave have exclusively exclusively devoted devoted to to this this sage’s sage’s system- systematic doctrine atic doctrineof of God). God). From From this,this, oneone maymay observeobserve thatthat already back then, they wanted to wanted to discountdiscount deeds deeds in in place place of of theory, theory, as as is is the the case case in in our our present present days. days. And this And this [phenomenon][phenomenon] does does not not merely merely apply apply to tothe the few few theoretical theoretical men men who who drew on drew on thethe philosophical philosophical method, method, or orwhat what they they regard regard as assuch, such, but but also also to tothe the few who few who areare attracted attracted to to the the mysteries mysteries of of the traditional wisdom,wisdom, andand there there is is nothing new. 19 nothing new(Krochmal (Krochmal 2010 2010,, p. p. 439; 439; emphasis emphasis in in original; original; my my translation) translation).19 With this revealingWith this passage, revealing Krochmal passage, outlines Krochmal the outlines pivotal objectives the pivotal and objectives features and of features of his “Dark Sayingshis “Dark of Ancient Sayings Times”. of Ancient Four Times”. points Fourwarrant points our warrant attention: our attention: 1. Krochmal1. drawsKrochmal on Philo’s draws thought on Philo’s as a thought source asthrough a source which through he isolates which the he isolatestrue the true core of the Jewishcore of faith the Jewishthat persists faith thatthroug persistshout throughoutall of its historical all of its manifestations: historical manifestations: the the

“ 20 observation observationof the concrete of thecommandments concrete commandments (kiyyum ha-mi (kiyyumẓvvot ba-fo ha-mizʿal). vvot.20 ba-fo al). 2. By adducing2. By Philo adducing as his Philochief asreference his chief po referenceint, Krochmal point, can Krochmal historically can historically contextual- contextualize ize and legitimizeand legitimize his own moderate his own moderateMaskilic critique, Maskilic which critique, he levels which against he levels radical against radical nonobservantnonobservant Maskilim and Maskilim a fortiori and againsta fortiori the emergingagainst the Hasidic emerging movement Hasidic of movement his of his days that wasdays promptly that was gaining promptly steam gaining in the steam Eastern in theEuropean Eastern Jewish European communities Jewish communities of the early nineteenthof the early century, nineteenth which century, he implicitly which accuses he implicitly of being accuses antinomian, of being un- antinomian, unworldly, and socially detached.21 Taking his cue from Philo’s critique of certain worldly, and socially detached.21 Taking his cue from Philo’s critique of certain groups of detached Jewish Alexandrians exhibiting antinomian inclinations (Migr. groups of detached Jewish Alexandrians exhibiting antinomian“ inclinations (Migr. 89–93),22 whom he identifies with the Hasidim ha-Ri shonim (Lachower 1951, p. 222), 89–93),22 whom he identifies with the Ḥasidim ha-Ri. ʾshonim (Lachower 1951, p. 222), Krochmal wishes to show that already in the Second Temple era, the markedly Krochmal wishes to show that already in the Second Temple era, the markedly theo- theoretical Hasideans were being criticized for having strayed from Judaism’s golden retical Hasideans were being criticized for having strayed from Judaism’s golden path. He thus detects in Philo’s writings not only an ancient expression of the path. He thus detects in Philo’s writings not only an ancient expression of the para- paradigmatic crisis of the Jewish faith, which repeats itself in diverse manifestations digmatic crisis of the Jewish faith, which repeats itself in diverse manifestations of of Jewish history, but also and more importantly the decisive orthodox and authentic Jewish history, but also and more importantly the decisive orthodox and authentic answer supplied by Philo himself. answer supplied by Philo himself. 3. Krochmal refers to his own analysis of Philo in Chapter 12 of the Guide as elaborat- 3. Krochmal refers to his own analysis of Philo in Chapter 12 of the Guide as elaborating ing on this contention while also seeking to reveal pervasive links between Philo’s on this contentionwritings while and also rabbinic seeking literature, to reveal mostly pervasive to Tannaitic links between sayings, Philo’s but alsowrit- to Amoraic ings and rabbinicmidrashim literature, on divine mostly creation. to Tannaitic sayings, but also to Amoraic midra- shim on4. divineThis creation. allusion to Philo must also be understood against the background of Krochmal’s 4. This allusionquarrel to Philo with must Samuel also be David unders Luzzatto’stood against (alias the SHaDaL; background 1800–1865) of Krochmal’s repudiation of Mai- “ quarrel withmonides Samuel David and Avraham Luzzatto’s ibn (aliEzra“ as SHaDaL;due to their 1800–1865) strong dependencyrepudiation of on Mai- Greek wisdom. monides andIn Avraham fact, this ibn bone ʿEzra of contentionʾ due to their constitutes strong dependency the main thematic on Greek point wisdom. of departure of In fact, this thebone letter of contention as a whole. constitutes23 On the basisthe main of this thematic very portrayal point of in departureMigr. 89–93, of Krochmal the letter as proclaimsa whole.23 inOn an the earlier basis sectionof this very of the portrayal letter that in suchMigr.antinomian 89–93, Krochmal trends in Jewish proclaims inhistory an earlier cannot section by anyof the means letter servethat such as sufficient antinomian grounds trends for in theJewish complete his- abolition tory cannot ofby the any theoretical means serve investigation as sufficie andnt grounds elucidation for the of the complete pure nature abolition of the of Jewish faith the theoretical(emunah investigationz. erufah). and Implicitly elucidation alluding of the to pure Luzzatto, nature he of proceeds the Jewish with faith the claim that (emunah ẓerufaha person). Implicitly who pursues alluding this to goalLuzzatto, of abolition he proceeds will give with rise the to claim every that single a rampant person who superstitiouspursues this goal belief, of ultimatelyabolition will inducing give rise idolatry to every to suchsingle a rampant degree that su- morals and perstitious belief,faith in ultimately toto will becomeinducing entirely idolatry corrupt to such (Krochmal a degree that2010 morals, p. 435). and faith in toto will becomeThe very entirely title given corru topt this (Krochmal chapter of2010, the Guidep. 435).discloses its affirmative historiograph- The veryical title attitude given towardsto this chapter Jewish of Alexandrian the Guide discloses thought. its affirm The fullative title historiograph- reads as follows: “Dark ical attitudeSayings towards of Jewish Ancient Alexandrian Times [ ... ]th [‘whichought. The we havefull title heard reads and as known, follows: that “Dark our fathers have Sayings of Ancienttold us’ Times (Psalms […] 78:3)]: [‘which On thewe Divinehave heard Philosophy and known, of the that Torah our Which fathers Arose have and Was De- told us’ (Psalmsveloped 78:3)]: among On the the Divine Jewish Philo Inhabitantssophy of the Alexandria Torah Which and the Arose Hellenistic and Was Cities De- throughout veloped amongthe Entirethe Jewish Second Inhabitants Temple Period, of Alexandria and on and Several the Hellenistic of the Systems Cities That throughout Later Emerged from It”.24 Krochmal’s use of Psalm 78:2b–3 (which portrays the transmission of ancient teachings from father to son) to underpin the speculative Religionsphilosophie of Alexandrian Jewry seems to indicate that he wants to convey that its contents conform to traditional

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mystical Jewish wisdom and perhaps even contain authentic kabbalistic teachings regard- “

ing Ma aseh“ Ber eshit and Merkavah.25 By emphasizing the permeation of diverse Philonic ideas relating to the creation account in midrashic literature (Krochmal 2010, pp. 172–74), he appears to indicate how these speculative notions were transmitted and how they may have made their way into kabbalistic traditions.26 With the title’s evocation of Psalm 78:3 (“things we have heard and known, that our fathers have told us”)—as well as the following verse, which is omitted but nonetheless echoed (“We will not withhold them from their children, telling the coming generation”)— and the didactic oral chain of transmission that it outlines, Krochmal insinuates that Chapter 12 also addresses an acute pedagogical crisis that underlies the Jewish tradition (Amir 2018, p. 241, 254). This pedagogical crisis stems from the fact that the paternal chain of instruction that disseminated these ancient teachings of Jewish Alexandrian wisdom has been abruptly broken. It is by means of his “Dark Sayings of Ancient Times” that Krochmal attempts to restore this pedagogical chain of transmission and to uncover the salient parallels of Jewish Alexandrian rationalism to the early rabbinic worldview, which has sunk into oblivion. Taking up this pedagogical challenge specifically in a time of spiritual crisis in which the Maskilic mindset was being submerged and assaulted by the non-rational, superstitious Hasidim, Krochmal understood that it was necessary to (re)produce a historical, pedagogical narrative that places the Maskilic approach at the center of traditional Jewish knowledge. The fact that Krochmal lays out his view of scholarly research into Judaism within the general framework of world history in Chapter 12 of the Guide, which takes Philo as its focal theme, points to its centrality in Krochmal’s overall Jewish historiography: Know that it is a great and magnificent principle that we require and that fits us well, for we will frequently search for and investigate the opinions, morals, and qualities which expressed themselves within our nation throughout different time periods. [And we will investigate] by means of the events that we underwent and the connections and intermingling with others that we experienced, which were more considerable than any other nation and tongue, although only to a limited degree. And [we will investigate] how we were affected and modified by their opinions, morals, and qualities, and how we have affected them, our [Gentile] fellow men, from one generation to the next. [This applies] even to those who were distant from us and who approached us gingerly and received only a few of our ways, such as the Greeks in the period of the late Platonists, Plotinus and Proclus; and, in another manner, Muhammed; and like those who were close to us and then distanced themselves, such as the devotees of the renewed testament; or the sayings of Baruch [de Spinoza] the philosopher and the [philosophical] schools following him. It is an obligation of the sages and great ones among us to examine these [matters] in their essence and their roots. All this is for the sake of attaining distinct impressions thereof through the power of exploration and ultimately for clarifying our knowledge of ourselves and our essence, which is “ the universal soul of Israel [nefesh yisra el ha-kelalit]. (Krochmal 2010, p. 167; my translation)27 It is hardly accidental that Krochmal’s overview of the historiographical research aims of the Wissenschaft des Judentums is specifically presented in a chapter primarily devoted to Philo’s doctrines.28 The fact that Philo was immensely influential within general non-Jewish world history aptly evinces Krochmal’s contention that the immanent spirit of Israel underlies various crucial historical periods and their intellectual movements (Feiner 2001, pp. 120–21). This is made clear by his reference to the Jewish impact on Neoplatonism, through which he implicitly refers to Philo, who was widely acknowledged as its forerunner in nineteenth-century scholarship.29 Against this background, it should be stressed that the revival of Philo’s thought in nineteenth-century Jewish scholarship is inextricably related to the emergence of the historical consciousness within modern Judaism. It might, therefore, come as no surprise Religions 2021, 12, x 7 of 26 Religions 2021, 12, x 7 of 26

(Feiner 2001, pp. 120–21). This is made clear by his reference to the Jewish impact on Ne- (Feiner 2001, pp. 120–21). This is made clear by his reference to the Jewish impact on Ne- oplatonism, through which he implicitly refers to Philo, who was widely acknowledged oplatonism, through which he implicitly refers to Philo, who was widely acknowledged as its forerunner in nineteenth-century scholarship.29 as its forerunner in nineteenth-century scholarship.29 Against this background, it should be stressed that the revival of Philo’s thought in Against this background, it should be stressed that the revival of Philo’s thought in Religions 2021, 12, 377 nineteenth-century Jewish scholarship is inextricably related to the emergence of the7 his- of 27 nineteenth-century Jewish scholarship is inextricably related to the emergence of the historical consciousness within modern Judaism. It might, therefore, come as no surprise that torical consciousness within modern Judaism. It might, therefore, come as no surprise that already in a 1787 issue of the Maskilic journal Ha-Meʾassef, we find a section in reply to a

already in a 1787 issue of the Maskilic journal Ha-Meʾassef“ , we find a section in reply to a question concerning the Second Temple period, which accords Philo a key role within the questionthat already concerning in a 1787 the issue Second of the Temple Maskilic period, journal whichHa-Me accordsassef, we Philo find a akey section role within in reply the to historical understanding of ancient Judaism. The anonymously written section asserts that historicala question understanding concerning the of Second ancient Temple Judaism. period, The anonymously which accords written Philo a section key role asserts within that the “if it were not for the Jews Philo and Josephus, two writers of our nation who recorded “ifhistorical it were understanding not for the Jews of ancientPhilo and Judaism. Joseph Theus, two anonymously writers of writtenour nation section who asserts recorded that the historical occurrences relating to us from the time that prophecy ceased from Israel in “ifthe it historical were not occurrences for the Jews relating Philo and to Josephus,us from the two time writers that ofprophecy our nation ceased who from recorded Israel the in thehistorical days of occurrences Ḥaggai, Zekhariah, relating toand us Mal fromʾakhi, the timewe would that prophecy not have ceasedany remnant from Israel or remem- in the the days of Ḥaggai, Zekhariah, and“ Malʾakhi, we would not have any remnant or remembrance from the entire Second Temple period” (Anonymous 1787, p. 10). Ben-Zion Katz brancedays of fromH. aggai, the Zekhariah,entire Second and Temple Mal akhi, peri weod” would (Anonymous not have any 1787, remnant p. 10). or Ben-Zion remembrance Katz goes so far as to describe this brief section as the first historical article written by a Jewish goesfrom so the far entire as to Second describe Temple this brief period” section (Anonymous as the first 1787 historical, p. 10). article Ben-Zion written Katz by goes a Jewish so far intellectual of the German-speaking realm to be of any academic value (Katz 1956, p. 254). intellectualas to describe of the this German-speaking brief section as the realm firsthistorical to be of any article academic written value by a (Katz Jewish 1956, intellectual p. 254). As early as 1821, in the second issue of Bikurei ha-ʿIttim, one can also find a section devoted Asof theearly German-speaking as 1821, in the second realm issue to be of of Bikurei any academic ha-ʿIttim value, one (canKatz also 1956 find, p. a 254).section As devoted early as to Philo’s biography.30 Even Rapoport, who“ gained recognition among scholars of the Wis- to1821, Philo’s in the biography. second issue30 Even of BikureiRapoport, ha- Ittimwho ,gained one can recognition also find a among section scholars devoted of to the Philo’s Wis- senschaft for30 his biographical studies of great Jewish sages (Feiner 2001, pp. Wissenschaft112–13), in- senschaftbiography. for hisEven biographical Rapoport, studies who gained of great recognition Jewish sages among (Feiner scholars 2001, of thepp. 112–13), in- tendedfor his biographicalto compose a studies thorough of greatbiography Jewish of sages Philo ( Feinerthat would 2001 ,serve pp. 112–13), as an overall intended intro- to tended to compose a thorough biography of Philo that would serve as an overall intro- ductioncompose to a thoroughJosef Flesch’s biography (1781–1839) of Philo Hebr thatew would translations serve as of an the overall entire introduction Philonic oeuvre to Josef.31 duction to Josef Flesch’s (1781–1839) Hebrew translations of the entire Philonic oeuvre.31 WithFlesch’s that (1781–1839) said, it is evident Hebrew that translations the Guide’s of the famous entire editor, Philonic Leopoldoeuvre. 31ZunzWith (1794–1886), that said, it isa With that said, it is evident that the Guide’s famous editor, Leopold Zunz (1794–1886), a celebratedevident that scholar the Guide’s of Jewishfamous history editor, in Leopoldhis own right, Zunz (1794–1886),ranked Philo—alongside a celebrated scholarHillel the of “

celebrated scholar of Jewish history in his own right, ranked Philo—alongside Hillel“ the Elder,Jewish Rabbi history ʿAkiva in hisʾ, and own Josephus—as right, ranked one Philo—alongside of the four most Hillel significant the Elder, Jewish Rabbi thinkersAkiva of, Elder, Rabbi ʿAkivaʾ, and Josephus—as one of the four most significant Jewish thinkers of theand first Josephus—as century of the one Common of the four Era, most which significant was characterized Jewish thinkers by a strong of the influence first century from the first century of the Common Era, which was characterized by a strong influence from Greekof the culture Common (Zunz Era, 1845, which p. was24). In characterized short, with the by aawakening strong influence of historical from consciousness Greek culture Greek culture (Zunz 1845, p. 24). In short, with the awakening of historical consciousness and(Zunz criticism 1845, p. among 24). In the short, Maskilim with the and awakening Wissenschaftler of historical, the view consciousness that Philo’s thought and criticism epit- and criticism among the Maskilim and Wissenschaftler, the view that Philo’s thought epit- omizedamong the Maskilic Maskilim spirit and andWissenschaftler its principles, the began view to that feature Philo’s prominently thought epitomized in their schol- the omized the Maskilic spirit and its principles began to feature prominently in their schol- arlyMaskilic depictions spirit andof Judaism. its principles32 began to feature prominently in their scholarly depictions arly depictions of Judaism.32 of Judaism.32 3. Reconstructing Krochmal’s Rabbinic-Maskilic Image of Philo 3. Reconstructing Reconstructing Krochmal’s Rabbinic-Maskilic Image of Philo Turning to a closer look at Chapter 12 of the Guide, it is worth noting that Dähne and Turning to a closer look at Chapter 12 of the Guide, it is worth noting that Dähne and NeanderTurning were to not a closer its only look sources. at Chapter From 12 the of outset the Guide of ,the it is chapter, worth notingone can, that for Dähne example, and Neander were not its only sources. From the outset of the chapter, one can, for example, discernNeander the were impact not itsexerted only sources.on it by Moses From theMendelssohn’s outset of the Netivot chapter, ha-Shalom one can, (also for example, known discern the impactimpact exertedexerted onon it it by by Moses Moses Mendelssohn’s Mendelssohn’sNetivot Netivot ha-Shalom ha-Shalom(also (also known known as as the“ Biʾur) and, specifically, its introduction, Or li-Netivah. In a preliminary discussion asthe theBi urBiʾ)ur and,) and, specifically, specifically, its introduction,its introduction,Or li-NetivahOr li-Netivah. In. aIn preliminary a preliminary discussion discussion on on the emergence of the Septuagint and the rise of the Greek language within diasporic onthe the emergence emergence of the of Septuagintthe Septuagint and theand rise the of ri these of Greek the Greek language language within within diasporic diasporic Jewish Jewish communities, Krochmal explicitly mentions the preparatory treatment of Rabbi Jewishcommunities, communities, Krochmal Krochmal explicitly explicitly mentions mentions the preparatory the preparatory treatment treatment of Rabbi of Mosheh Rabbi Mosheh ben Menaḥem in his Or li-Netivah alongside those of both Azariah de’ Rossi and Moshehben Mena benhem Mena in hisḥemOr in li-Netivah his Or li-Netivahalongside alongside those of those both Azariahof both Azariah de’ Rossi de’ and Rossi Johann and Johann G. Eichhorn. (1752–1827) (Krochmal 2010, p. 166). A closer observation of the fol- JohannG. Eichhorn G. Eichhorn (1752–1827) (1752–1827) (Krochmal (Krochmal 2010, p. 2010, 166). p. A 166). closer A observationcloser observation of the followingof the following section, which is devoted to Philo’s famous predecessor Aristobulus, exposes lowingsection, section, which is which devoted is todevoted Philo’s to famous Philo’s predecessor famous predecessor Aristobulus, Aristobulus, exposes Krochmal’s exposes Krochmal’s dependency on Mendelssohn’s Or li-Netivah: Krochmal’sdependency dependency on Mendelssohn’s on Mendelssohn’sOr li-Netivah Or: li-Netivah: וכן העיד אריסטובו"לו איש יהודי [...] הוא אריסטובול"ו והיה בימי תלמי הרביעי ביניהם חכם גדול שמו וכן העיד אריסטובו"לו איש יהודי [...] הוא אריסטובול"ו והיה בימי תלמי הרביעי ביניהם חכם גדול שמו וכתב לתלמי המלך הנקרא תלמי פילומיט"רה, חבור ארסטובולוס פלוסוף, וחיבר פירוש גדול על תורת משה, וכתב לתלמי המלך הנקרא תלמי פילומיט"רה, חבור ארסטובולוס פלוסוף, וחיבר פירוש גדול על תורת משה, גדול בלשון יון על תורת משה, כולל מאה פרקים, ונאבד ולא נשאר ממנו כ"א איזה קונטרסים וזכרון גדול בלשון יון על תורת משה, כולל מאה פרקים, ונאבד ולא נשאר ממנו כ"א איזה קונטרסים וזכרון ונאבד באורך הימים, ולא נשאר ממנו כי אם מקומות דברים מועטים בפי ובחבורי חכמים נוצרים הקדמונים. ונאבד באורך הימים, ולא נשאר ממנו כי אם מקומות דברים מועטים בפי ובחבורי חכמים נוצרים הקדמונים. מעט הבאים מתוך דברי מחברים אחרים [...]. And there was in the days of Ptolemy the] מעט הבאים מתוך דברי מחברים אחרים [...]. And there was in the days of Ptolemy the] fourth[And therea great was sage in the among days ofthem, Ptolemy whose the name [This[This waswas alsoalso attestedattested byby AristobulusAristobulus thethe JewJew fourth a great sage among them, whose name [This was also attested by Aristobulus the Jew wasfourth Aristobulus, a great sage [and among he them,was] a whose philosopher. name [[…]. . . . ].This This Aristobulus Aristobulus wrote wrote a alarge large treatise treatise in was Aristobulus, [and he was] a philosopher. […]. This Aristobulus wrote a large treatise in Andwas Aristobulus,he wrote a large [and treatise he was] on a the philosopher. Law of Mo- inGreek, Greek, comprising comprising 100 100 chapters, chapters, on on the the Law Law of And he wrote a large treatise on the Law of Mo- Greek, comprising 100 chapters, on the Law of ses,And which he wrote was a largelost; and treatise nothing on the remains Law of but ofMoses Moses for for King King Ptolemy, Ptolemy, known as PtolemyPtolemy ses, which was lost; and nothing remains but Moses for King Ptolemy, known as Ptolemy someMoses, pages which and was thelost; testimonies and nothing of a few remains sayings Philometor.Philometor. ThisThis waswas lostlost duringduring thethe timetime thatthat some pages and the testimonies of a few sayings Philometor. This was lost during the time that quotedbut some by pagesancient and Christian the testimonies sages in of their a few trea- hadhad elapsed,elapsed, andand only only small small sections sections cited cited in in quoted by ancient Christian sages in their trea- had elapsed, and only small sections cited in tises.]sayings (Krochmal quoted by 2010, ancient p. Christian167; my translation; sages in thethe writingswritings ofof others others remain.] remain.] ( Mendelssohn(Mendelssohn tises.] (Krochmal 2010, p. 167; my translation; the writings of others remain.] (Mendelssohn33 mytheir emphasis) treatises.] (Krochmal 2010, p. 167; my 19901990[ [JubAJubA15.1], 15.1],p. p. 37;37; mymy emphasis)emphasis)33 mytranslation; emphasis) my emphasis) 1990 [JubA 15.1], p. 37; my emphasis)33 “ Krochmal’s reliance upon Or li-Netivah and the Bi ur as a whole within the context of Chapter 12 of the Guide is of relevance to the present examination, for it suggests that Mendelssohn’s explicit and affirmative use of Philo and Jewish Hellenism in his edition of the Pentateuch shaped his own stance on the subject.34 However, Chapter 12 of the Guide suffers from one acute problem, which was pointed out by Leopold Zunz in his edition of it: it is incomplete and extremely fragmentary (Zunz 2010, p. ii).35 The lion’s share of Krochmal’s rabbinic passages, which are cited in a Religions 2021, 12, 377 8 of 27

section entitled “A Compilation of Sayings in the Talmudim and Midrashot for the Sake of Elucidating the System of Yedidyah and the Alexandrians” (Krochmal 2010, p. 168; my translation) in order to reveal their parallels with Philo’s views, are often left unexplored. This presents the readers of this chapter with the serious task of reconstructing Krochmal’s original intent. By Drawing on his own fragmented statements and on his central secondary source, Dähne’s Geschichtliche Darstellung der jüdisch-alexandrinischen Religions-Philosophie, which he appears to use as a sourcebook for countless Philonic passages translated into German and also cited in the Greek original, it can be demonstrated in what follows how one may reproduce some of Krochmal’s basic assertions. Dähne’s two-volume monograph on Jewish Alexandrian philosophy, which was published in 1834, was unparalleled in the German-speaking world of those days thanks to its extensive in-depth treatment of and innovative approach to Philonic thought. It entirely displaced its predecessor, Ernst A. Stahl’s (1772–1795) “Versuch eines systematischen Entwurfs des Lehrbegriffs Philos von Alexandrien” (Stahl 1793, pp. 767–890). To illustrate Stahl’s shortcomings, while at the same time helping us to appreciate the merits of Dähne’s comprehensive presentation of Philo’s body of thought, we will adduce an illuminating observation found in a section titled “Von der Moral des Philon von Alexandrien” from the famous Prussian Enlightenment theologian Johann David Michaelis’s (1717–1791) Moral: “I cannot cite anything meaningful with regard to Philo’s ethics. As valuable as E. H. Stahl’s Versuch eines systematischen Entwurfs des Lehrbegriffs Philos von Alexandrien is in relation to Philo’s dogmatics, it is brief, deficient, and unsatisfactory on the matter of his ethics” (Michaelis 1799, p. 490 n. 217; my translation). This specific deficiency perplexed Michalis, since he had stated that “Philo is full of ethics, also in his allegorical commentaries, and a certain number of his writings are predominantly and mostly dedicated to ethics”.36 Precisely this thematic emphasis is extensively accounted for in Dähne’s book, particularly in the two sections entitled “Die Ethik Philo’s” (pp. 341–424) and “Von der Uebung der alexandrinische-jüdischen ethischen Grundsätze, oder von den Therapeuten und Essenern” (pp. 439–97). Both of these sections foregrounding Philo’s ethics resonated particularly well with Krochmal’s image of Philo as an ancient Jewish sage of the Second Temple period who also assigned pivotal importance to concrete deeds within a given social Umwelt. Dähne’s work helped Krochmal to portray Philo in a universal moral light in accordance with musar literature.37 The moralistic perspective of the musar genre was strongly endorsed by central figures of the early Berlin Haskalah within the framework of their universalistic understanding of Judaism and its pedagogical mediation, such as Moses Mendelssohn, Naphtali Herz Wessely (1725–1805), Isaac Satanow (1732–1804), and David Friedländer (1750–1834).38 As Patrick Koch perceptively observes, the interest in musar literature was echoed in “the Zeitgeist of [ ... ] the Jewish Enlightenment, itself influenced by an increasing interest in formulating a new system of ethics in the Humanities” (Koch 2015, pp. 3–4). Moreover, with respect to his allegorical exegesis, Dähne emphasizes, for example, the fact that Philo and the rabbis had a common hermeneutical approach to Scripture: “In the past a multifold meaning was presupposed, so that there was no longer a natural boundary, and the rabbis, who spoke of a thousandfold meaning of every single verse, in essence rested on the same foundation as Philo did”.39 Both of these focal points are insufficiently accounted for in Neander’s brief introductory chapter on Philo (“Elemente der Gnosis im Philo”, pp. 1–27).40 In fact, Neander sought to read Philo more along the lines of speculative Christian theology and exegesis. He thereby portrays the Alexandrian as a spiritual interpreter of Jewish Scripture who went against the literalist rabbinic tradition of his day. Krochmal, who was aware of these elements, even explicitly criticizes Neander’s Christian portrayal of Philo’s Logos theology.41 Krochmal’s portrayal of Philo as an exemplary antique Jewish sage constitutes the crux of his entire twelfth chapter. He alleges a wide array of rabbinic passages outlining Tannaitic virtues, above all from M. Avot, in order to make this contention plausible.42 For Krochmal, the distinguishing feature of Tannaitic wisdom was its stress on the golden mean (derekh ha-emz. a )“ of authentic Jewish faith, preserving a delicate balance between Religions 2021, 12, 377 9 of 27 “ practical (ma aseh) and theoretical ( iyyun“ ) matters.43 In fact, this outlook appears to have been mediated via well-known Maskilic portrayals of Judaism’s fundamental precept, which deems Derekh Erez. to be a basic prerequisite for Talmud Torah. Wessely’s famous pedagogical treatise Words of Peace and Truth may be taken as the prime example of this stance. In it, he argues that the Jewish tradition purports that the crucial position of Derekh Erez. —which he construes to mean human culture and general secular learning subjects (Torat ha-Adam)— fundamentally supplements and even precedes the sacred Talmud Torah (the study of the Law), which he designates as Torat Hashem.44 To substantiate his secular view of the Jewish religion, he draws support from Vayikra Rabba 9:3, in which it is claimed 45 that Derekh Erez. “preceded the Torah by twenty-six generations”. By focusing on Migr. 89–93—in which Philo criticizes the extremely spiritual and detached Jewish Alexandrians for no longer observing the Mosaic Law in its literal sense while exclusively adhering to its higher allegorical meaning—Krochmal portrays Philo as a central paragon of the original Jewish mindset. At the same time, it seems quite clear that he endeavors to politically exploit his Maskilic portrait of Philo as a genuine ancient H. asid by pitting it against the modern Hasidic movement,46 which in those days was gaining a strong foothold in Eastern European Jewish communities and was involved in numerous clashes with Jewish Aufklärer.47 Thus, he is able to expose the modern Hasidic movement’s considerable deviation from the concrete and indispensable observation of the laws in favor of a mystical Schwärmerei and irrational superstition, revealing it to be Hith. asdut (sanctimoniousness). 48 These critical accounts often convey the false impression that the Hasidic movement of the first half of the nineteenth century was monolithic, entailing no substantial variation whatsoever.49 Krochmal appears to have appropriated his monolithic and tendentious view of Hasidism from prior stereotypical critiques by Mitnaggdim, which “were typically distorted to the point where they barely resembled actual Hasidism”.50 However, due to the fragmentary condition of Chapter 12, it is still quite difficult to discern exactly how Krochmal classified Philo. It seems clear that he regarded him as an adherent of the Essenes/Therapeutae, which he, in turn, identifies with the original “ H. asidim mentioned in Tannaitic literature (H. asidim ha-Ri shonim). At the same time, he portrays him as a Jewish thinker who strongly objected to a negative phenomenon that was common in the Hasidean way of life in Alexandria of the first century CE: the Hasideans’ exaggeratedly spiritual and detached mindset. This might suggest that Krochmal understood Philo to be an exemplary Hasidean who upheld the unblemished ancient rabbinic worldview that maintained the golden mean and who, for this reason, harshly criticized the excessively spiritual Hasideans of his days for neglecting the practical observance of the Mosaic Law and Jewish ceremonies. By singling out a few examples and sorting them out into thematic groups, one can throw further light on Krochmal’s programmatic presentation of Philo and his intellectual Jewish environment. For him, Philo’s depictions of the religious rituals of the Essenes and the Therapeutae in Contempl. and Prob. (§§75–91) are especially significant. Through these Jewish sects, he attempts to illustrate how Philo and these sages align with similar ceremonial patterns documented in rabbinic literature. This becomes quite apparent from the outset, when we encounter his allusion to B. Pesah. im 12b and B. Shabbat 10a regarding the late mealtime (taken in the sixth hour) of the Torah scholars. Krochmal makes two brief and fragmentary remarks on these Talmudic passages: (1) that “our sages taught [this] as well”, and (2) that “Philo spoke about the congregation of the Essenes”.51 In all likelihood, the specific section that Krochmal had in mind is taken from Contempl. 34, where Philo describes the fasting rituals of the Therapeutae who solely “desire the vision of the Existent” (Contempl. 11): “Food and drink none of them would ever deal with before the setting of the sun, since they judge philosophizing to be appropriate for light”.52 In the following paragraph (§35), Philo even mentions the number six in connection with some of the Therapeutae who practice strict fasting, who “only after six days taste necessary food”.53 With a very high degree of certainty, we may assume that Krochmal encountered these Philonic illustrations in Dähne’s monograph, the first volume of which dwells on Religions 2021, 12, x 10 of 26

likelihood, the specific section that Krochmal had in mind is taken from Contempl. 34, where Philo describes the fasting rituals of the Therapeutae who solely “desire the vision of the Existent” (Contempl. 11): “Food and drink none of them would ever deal with before the setting of the sun, since they judge philosophizing to be appropriate for light”.52 In the following paragraph (§35), Philo even mentions the number six in connection with some

Religions 2021, 12, 377 of the Therapeutae who practice strict fasting, who “only after six days taste necessary10 of 27 food”.53 With a very high degree of certainty, we may assume that Krochmal encountered these Philonic illustrations in Dähne’s monograph, the first volume of which dwells on this specific subject by providing a German translation of the entire section from Contempl. (§§34–37)this specific (Dähne subject 1834, vol. by providing 1, pp. 447–48). a German To Krochmal, translation the of images the entire of both section Philo from andContempl the . rabbis(§§34–37) conform ( Dähneto his understanding 1834, vol. 1, pp. of the 447–48). Hasideans’ To Krochmal, original mindset the images as involving of both Philo the- and oreticalthe investigations rabbis conform coupled to his understanding with ascetic rituals. of the54 Hasideans’ original mindset as involving theoreticalFour further investigations rabbinic passages coupled from with M. ascetic Avot rituals.that Krochmal54 employs and themati- cally correspondFour further to his rabbinic attempt passages to portray from the M. Essenes Avot that and Krochmal the Therapeutae employs as and the thematicallyearliest Ḥasidimcorrespond are M. Avot to his 4:21, attempt 5:10, 5:13, to portray and 6:4. the The Essenes sayings and in both the TherapeutaeM. Avot 5:10 (“‘What as the earliest is mineH. isasidim thine and are M.what Avot is 4:21,thine 5:10,is thine 5:13, own’—he and 6:4. Theis a saintly sayings man in both [ḥasid]”) M. Avot and 5:10 5:13 (“‘What (“he is that mineis minded is thine to give and whatand also is thine that isothers thine should own’—he give—he is a saintly is a saintly man [ hman”). asid]”) feature and 5:13 the(“he Hasideanthat is virtue minded of toselfless give andgenerosity also that and others the ideal should of give—hejoint property is a saintly in their man”) agreement feature the withHasidean the Essenes’ virtue communion of selfless of generosity goods (Prob and. 77, the 85–87; ideal Hypoth of joint. 11.4–13). property For in their the sake agreement of clarification,with the Krochmal Essenes’ communion makes a complementary of goods (Prob observation. 77, 85–87; Hypoth about .M. 11.4–13). Avot 5:10, For stating the sake of that clarification,this maxim is Krochmal “in accordance makes with a complementary the pronounced observation strictness of about the [thought] M. Avot 5:10, system stating that necessitatesthat this maxim an absolute is “in accordance abandonment with of the all pronounced possessions” strictness (Krochmal of the2010, [thought] p. 171). His system briefthat remark necessitates following an his absolute citation abandonment of M. Avot 5:13 of all is possessions” even more revealing: (Krochmal he 2010 writes, p. 171).that His this briefTannaitic remark dictum following “perhaps his citation hints at of this M. community”, Avot 5:13 is even entertaining more revealing: the idea he that writes the that referencethis Tannaitic to this Hasidean dictum “perhapsvirtue is an hints allusion at this to community”,the Essenes (Krochmal entertaining 2010, the p. idea171). that the reference to this Hasidean virtue is an allusion to the Essenes (Krochmal 2010, p. 171). Krochmal construes the other three Tannaitic sayings as essentially portraying the Krochmal construes the other three Tannaitic sayings as essentially portraying the ascetic Ḥasid victorious struggle over his lower order of desires and passions.55 For in- ascetic Hasid victorious struggle over his lower order of desires and passions.55 For stance, he understands. M. Avot 5:11 (“hard to provoke and easy to appease—he is a instance, he understands M. Avot 5:11 (“hard to provoke and easy to appease—he is a saintly man [ḥasid]”) as the individual’s victory over all the affections of the soul. A more saintly man [hasid]”) as the individual’s victory over all the affections of the soul. A more clear-cut example .is his reference to M. Avot 6:4, which delineates the ascetic mode of life clear-cut example is his reference to M. Avot 6:4, which delineates the ascetic mode of life of the one who strives to follow the path of the Torah (“Thou shalt eat bread with salt and of the one who strives to follow the path of the Torah (“Thou shalt eat bread with salt and thou shalt drink water by measure […] while thou toilest in the Law”). With reference to thou shalt drink water by measure [ ... ] while thou toilest in the Law”). With reference this rabbinic saying, Krochmal notes that this is a maxim “conforming to the ethics of this to this rabbinic saying, Krochmal notes that this is a maxim “conforming to the ethics of system, demanding that the laborer [adhere to] the obligation to victoriously prevail this system, demanding that the laborer [adhere to] the obligation to victoriously prevail against the sensual matters”.56 Krochmal was most likely thinking in this respect of a very against the sensual matters”.56 Krochmal was most likely thinking in this respect of a similarvery Philonic similar passage Philonic in passage Contempl in. Contempl37, in which. 37, the in whichTherapeutae the Therapeutae are portrayed are portrayedas ascet- as ics whoseascetics entire whose nutritional entire nutritional intake is restricted intake is restrictedto bread and to bread water. and Krochmal water. Krochmal must have must beenhave acquainted been acquainted with this withtestimony this testimony from Dähne’s from Dähne’sGerman Germantranslation translation (Dähne (1834,Dähne p. 1834 , 448).p. He 448). reads He the reads virtue the ethical virtue maxim ethical attributed maxim attributed to Rabbi El toʿazar Rabbi ha-Kappar El azar“ ha-Kappar in M. Avot in M. 4:21 Avot(“Jealousy, 4:21 (“Jealousy, lust, and ambition lust, and put ambition a man put out aof man the outworld”) of the along world”) similar along lines, similar argu- lines, ing thatarguing the Tannaitic that the Tannaiticsage was sagedeeply was familiar deeply with familiar this ascetic with this Hasidean ascetic outlook. Hasidean How- outlook. ever,However, Krochmal Krochmal also wants also to wantspresent to Rabbi present Elʿ Rabbiazar ha-Kappar El azar“ ha-Kappar as conforming as conforming to a bal- to a ancedbalanced mindset mindset that ultimately that ultimately compels compelsthe individu theal individual to take part to in take the part pleasure in the of pleasure useful of worldlyuseful things worldly and that things resists and radical that resists abstinence. radical57 He abstinence. illustrates57 thisHe through illustrates the this baraita throughʾ “ invokedthe baraitain B. Nazirinvoked 19a, inwhere B. Nazir Rabbi 19a, El whereʿazar ha-Kappar Rabbi El azar“ appears ha-Kappar to posit appears the contrary; to posit the that contrary;is, that the that ascetic is, thatwithdrawal the ascetic from withdrawal wine and worldly from wine pleasures and worldly is what pleasures should actu- is what ally beshould considered actually sinful be considered (Krochmal sinful 2010, ( Krochmalp. 171). 2010, p. 171). A closerA closer look look at Dähne’s at Dähne’s work work would would actua actuallylly suggest suggest that that Krochmal Krochmal was was attempting attempting to to bringbring these these Tannaitic Tannaitic maxims maxims into line withwith Philo’sPhilo’s virtue virtue ethics, ethics, which which is is often often expressed ex- pressedthrough through Hellenistic Hellenistic motifs motifs of of athletic athletic competition competition involving involving prizes. prizes. ForFor example, the the IsraeliteIsraelite patriarchs patriarchs and and the the Essenes Essenes are are al alsoso understood understood in in a a similar similar manner manner as as “ath- “athletes letesof of virtue”virtue” (ἀθληταὶ ἀρετῆς).58 InIn Dähne’s Dähne’s subchapter subchapter entitled entitled “Die “Die Ethik Ethik Philo’s”, Philo’s”, one one frequentlyfrequently comes comes across across the athletic the athletic metaphors metaphors of man’s of man’s rational rational soul soulwrestling wrestling with with the the sensualsensual passions passions in order in order to attain to attain the prize the prize of virtue. of virtue. In one In section, one section, we read: we read: A crucial turning point in the human striving for virtue always arose in the moment where the instruction had led to the attainment of the prize, the (im- perturbable) faith, and man, who was beyond the education of his adolescence, had completed his development (τε´λειoς), so to speak. [ ... ] And after these preliminary remarks, it no longer remains unclear as to why it is repeatedly said that [Praem. 27:] he [viz. Isaac] strove for perfection due to his noble nature and that he was awarded the prize of joy, victorious without competition, winning the virtue by dint of his natural powers. (Dähne 1834, pp. 394–95)59 ReligionsReligions 20212021,, 1212,, xx 1111 ofof 2626

Religions 2021, 12, x 11 of 26

AA crucialcrucial turningturning pointpoint inin thethe humanhuman strivingstriving forfor virtuevirtue alwaysalways arosearose inin thethe momentmoment wherewhere thethe instructioninstruction hadhad ledled toto thethe attainmentattainment ofof thethe prize,prize, thethe (imper-(imper- turbable)turbable) faith,faith, A andand crucial man,man, turning whowho waswas point beyondbeyond in the thethe human educationeducation striving ofof hishis for adolescence,adolescence, virtue always hadhad arose in the completedcompletedmoment hishis developmentdevelopment where the ( (instructionτέλειοςτέλειος),), soso hadtoto speak.speak. led to […] […]the attainmentAndAnd afterafter these theseof the prelimi-prelimi- prize, the (imper- turbable) faith, and man, who was beyond the education of his adolescence, had narynary remarks,remarks, itit nono longerlonger remainsremains unclearunclear asas toto whywhy itit isis repeatedlyrepeatedly saidsaid thatthat τέλειος [[PraemPraem.. 27:]27:]completed hehe [viz.[viz. Isaac]Isaac] his development strovestrove forfor perfecperfec ( tiontion), duedue so to toto speak. hishis noblenoble […] naturenature And after andand thatthesethat prelimi- hehe waswas awardedawardednary remarks, thethe prizeprize it noofof joy,joy,longer victorvictor remainsiousious withoutwithout unclear competition,competition,as to why it winningiswinning repeatedly thethe said that Religions 2021, 12, 377 [Praem. 27:] he [viz. Isaac] strove for perfection due to his noble nature and that11 of 27 virtuevirtue byby dintdint ofof hishis naturalnatural powerspowers (Dähne(Dähne 1834,1834, pp.pp. 394–95).394–95).5959 he was awarded the prize of joy, victorious without competition, winning the These depictions seem to have left a lasting mark on Krochmal’s apprehension of These depictionsvirtue by seem dint toof havehis natural left a powerslasting mark(Dähne on 1834, Krochmal’s pp. 394–95). apprehension59 of TannaiticTannaitic moralmoral doctrines.doctrines. HisHis descriptiondescription ofof thethe meaningmeaning ofof thethe MishnaicMishnaic zokhehzokheh bearsbears aa strikingstriking resemblanceresemblanceTheseThese depictionstodepictionsto Dähne’sDähne’s seemexplanationsseemexplanations toto havehave ofof leftleft PhilonicPhilonic aa lastinglast ing ethics:ethics: markmark onon Krochmal’sKrochmal’s apprehensionapprehension ofof TannaiticTannaitic moralmoral doctrines.doctrines. HisHis descriptiondescription ofof thethe meaningmeaning ofof thethe MishnaicMishnaic zokhehzokheh bearsbears aa Dähne’sDähne’s [...][...] ErexplanationsErexplanations warwar eineeine drudru ofofckendë ckendë PhilonicPhilonic Last,Last, ethics: ethics: diedie desdes GeistesGeistes RingenRingen והואוהוא toto עלעל דרךדרך שיטהשיטה זוזו resemblanceresemblance שכלשכל עבודתעבודת striking strikingהעובדהעובד הואהוא nach göttlicher Vollendung und Seligkeit התאבקותהתאבקות ונצוחונצוח נגדנגד החומריהחומרי ועונגועונג הבשרהבשר.. nach göttlicherEr war eineVollendung drückende und Last, dieSeligkeit des Geistes Er war eine druckendë Last, die des Geistes Ringen [...] והוא על דרך systemsystem שיטה זו ethicalethical שכל thisthis עבודתtoto העובד הוא And[And itit isis accordingaccording] niederhieltniederhielt undundRingen ihnihn anan nach dasdas göttlicher SinnlicheSinnliche Vollendung fesseltefesselte und Seligkeit nach göttlicher Vollendung und Seligkeit התאבקות ונצוח -wres-wresנגד isis החומרי laborerlaborer ועונג ofof thethe הבשר. thatthat thethe entireentire workwork [It[It (the(the humanhumanniederhielt body)body) waswas und aa pressingpressing ihn an das burden,burden, Sinnliche whichwhich fesselte tling with and[And victory it is overaccording the sensual to this mat- ethical system niederhielt und ihn an das Sinnliche fesselte tling with and[And victory it is according over the sensual to this ethical mat- systemheldheld downdown that thethe[It spirit’sspirit’s (the human wrestlingwrestling body) forfor was perfectionperfection a pressing andand burden, that the entire work of the laborer is wres- [It (the human body) was a pressing burden, which terter andand carnalcarnalthe entire lust.]lust.] work (Krochmal(Krochmal of the laborer 2010,2010, isp.p. wrestling blissfulnessblissfulness whichandand enchainedenchained held down it theit toto spirit’s thethe wrestlingsensual]sensual] for tling with and victory over the sensual mat- held down the spirit’s60 wrestling for perfection and 171).171). with and victory over the sensual matter(Dähne(Dähne and 1834,1834,perfection vol.vol. 1,1, p.p. 328).328). and60 blissfulness and enchained it to ter and carnal lust.] (Krochmal 2010, p. carnal lust] (Krochmal 2010, p. 171). blissfulnessthe sensual] and (Dähne enchained 1834, vol. it 1,to p. 328).the 60sensual] 171). 60 TheThe otherother majormajor featurefeature ofof Krochmal’sKrochmal’s portportrayalrayal(Dähne ofof thethe 1834, parallelsparallels vol. 1, between betweenp. 328). PhiloPhilo andand The other major feature of Krochmal’s portrayal of the parallels between Philo and the thethe ancientancient HasideansHasideans involvesinvolves theirtheir similarsimilar WeltanschauungWeltanschauung advancingadvancing aa distinctdistinct hierar-hierar- ancient Hasideans involves their similar Weltanschauung advancing a distinct hierarchical chicalchical structure,structure,The whichwhich other placesplaces major thethe feature theotheoreticalretical of Krochmal’s lifelife aboveabove theportthe practicalpracticalrayal of theone,one, parallels withoutwithout discount-discount-between Philo and structure, which places the theoretical life above the practical one, without discounting inging thethe latter.latter.the ancientAsAs ZunzZunz Hasideans alreadyalready indicatedindicated involves (Zunz (Zunztheir similar 2010,2010, p.p. Weltanschauung iv),iv), Krochmal’sKrochmal’s advancing chiefchief differentia-differentia- a distinct hierar- thechical latter. structure, As Zunz which already places indicated the theo (reticalZunz 2010life above, p. iv), the Krochmal’s practical one, chief without differentiation discount-

tiontion isis betweenbetween sagessages devotingdevoting theirtheir liveslives toto goodgood deedsdeeds ((AnsheiAnshei MaMaʿʿasehaseh)) andand “ thethe ḤḤasidimasidim ising between the latter. sages As Zunz devoting already their indicated lives to good(Zunz deeds 2010, p. (Anshei iv), Krochmal’s Ma aseh) and chief the differentia-H. asidim primarilyprimarily focusingfocusing onon speculativespeculative mysticalmystical mattersmatters (Krochmal(Krochmal 2010,2010, p.p. 170).170). TheThe firstfirst levellevel primarilytion is between focusing sages on devoting speculative their mystical lives to good matters deeds (Krochmal (Anshei Ma 2010ʿaseh, p.) and 170). the The Ḥasidim ﬁrst

ʿ “ isis primarilyprimarilylevel designateddesignated is primarily asas thethe designated levellevel ofof thethe as laborerlaborer the level ((madregatmadregat of the laborer ha-ha-ʿovedoved (madregat)) andand thethe ha- sin-fearingsin-fearingoved) and the sin- “ righteousrighteous individualprimarilyindividual focusing ((madregatmadregat on ha-ha- speculativeẓẓadikadik ve-yareve-yare mysticalʾʾ ha-ha-ḥḥetet ʾʾmatters),), whilewhile (Krochmal thethe“ second,second, 2010, superiorsuperior p. 170). levellevel The isis first level fearingis primarily righteous designated individual as the (madregat level of ha-thez. adik laborer ve-yare (madregatha-h. et ),ha- whileʿoved the) and second, the sin-fearing superior thatthat ofof thethelevel ḤḤasidasid is that((madregatmadregat of the ha-ha-Hasidḥḥasidasid ().).madregat TheThe thirdthird ha- andandhasid ultimateultimate). The third levellevel and isis reservedreserved ultimate forfor level thethe is be-be- reserved for righteous individual. (madregat61 ha-ẓadik. ve-yareʾ ha-ḥetʾ), while the second, superior level is holdersholders ofofthe GodGod beholders ((madregatmadregat of ha-ha- Godẓẓofehofeh ().).madregat61 KrochmalKrochmal ha-z laysofehlays). outout61 Krochmalhishis viewpointviewpoint lays byby out drawingdrawing his viewpoint onon bothboth by draw- “ that of the Ḥasid (madregat ha-ḥasid).. The third“ and ultimate level is reserved for the be- thethe sayingssayingsing ofof on ḤḤanina bothaninaʾ theʾ benben sayings DosaDosaʾʾ ofinin H M.M.anina AvotAvotben 3:11—in3:11—in Dosa whichwhichin M. Avothehe hierarchicallyhierarchically 3:11—in which distin-distin- he hierarchi- “ holders of God (madregat ha-ẓ. ofeh).61 Krochmal“ lays out his viewpoint by drawing on both guishesguishes betweenbetweencally distinguishes ḥḥokhmahokhmah andand between yiryirʾʾatat ḥḥetethʾʾ okhmah andand alludesalludesand yir toto thosethoseat het whowhoand adheredadhered alludes to toto those bothboth6262 who—and—and adhered to the sayings of Ḥaninaʾ ben .Dosaʾ in M. Avot .3:11—in which“ he hierarchically distin- thosethose ofof thetheboth prominentprominent62—and those HasideanHasidean of the PinPin prominentḥḥasas benben YaYa Hasideanʾʾirir inin M.M. SotahSotah Pinhas 9:15:9:15: ben Ya ir in M. Sotah 9:15: guishes between ḥokhmah and yirʾat ḥetʾ and alludes. to those who adhered to both62—and And this is the proof that those practical men differentiated themselves from the And thisthose isAnd ofthe the thisproof prominent is that the those proof Hasidean practica that those Pinl menḥas practical differentiatedben Ya menʾir in differentiatedM. themselves Sotah 9:15: from themselves the from possessorspossessorsthe ofof possessors mysteries,mysteries, ofwhowho mysteries, diddid notnot who entirelyentirely did not neglectneglect entirely thethe neglect deedsdeeds therelatingrelating deeds toto relating to And this is the proof that those practical men differentiated themselves from the worldlyworldly mattersmattersworldly andand matters theirtheir obligations andobligations their obligations towardstowards theirtheir towards fellowfellow their men.men. fellow AndAnd men. hereinherein And isis aa herein is a possessors of mysteries, who did not entirely neglect the deeds relating to differencedifferencedifference fromfrom thethe fromdesignationdesignation the designation ““ḤḤasidim”,asidim”, “Hasidim”, whichwhich refersrefers which toto refers thosethose to whowho those possesspossess who possess the worldly matters and their obligations. towards their fellow men. And herein is a thethe mysteriesmysteriesmysteries andand whowho and devote whodevote devote theirtheir theirsoulssouls souls toto visionsvisions to visions ofof andand ofand absorptionabsorption absorption inin thethe inthe Godly difference from the designation “Ḥasidim”, which refers to those who possess GodlyGodly mysteriesmysteriesmysteries byby bymeansmeans means ofof complete ofcomplete complete isolationisolation isolation andand and abstinenceabstinence abstinence fromfrom from thethe the [cus-[cus- [customary] the mysteries and who devote their souls to visions of and absorption in the tomary]tomary] wayswaysways ofof of life.life. life. AndAnd And thethe the HellenisticHellenistic Hellenistic JewsJews Jews usedused used thethe namename ἀσκητόςἀσκητός tototo desig-desig- designate those Godly mysteries by means of complete isolation and abstinence from the [cus- natenate thosethoseof ofof the thethe ﬁrst firstfirst level levellevel andand ἄσκησιςἄσκησις [to[to designate]designate] theirtheir their action,action, action, andand and thisthis this isis is thethe the speciﬁc

tomary] ways of life. And the Hellenistic Jews used the “ name ἀσκητός to desig- specificspecific wordwordword thatthat that waswas was admittedadmitted admitted intointo into latelate late AramaicAramaic Aramaic asas as thethe the termterm term ʿʿesekesekesek [for[for[for thethe the ac-ac- action] and

“ ἄσκησις “ “ tion]tion] andand ʿʿnateOsekOsek those forfor thethe of one onethe possessingpossessingfirstpossessing level and this thisthis virtue virtuevirtue respectively, respectively,[torespectively, designate] and andand their as asas action,Oved ʿʿOvedOvedand andIsh this Ma isaseh the specific word that was admitted into late Aramaic as the term“ ʿesek [for the ac- IshIsh MaMaʿʿasehasehin inin Hebrew. Hebrew.Hebrew. The TheThe last lastlast two twotwo levels levelslevels are areare found foundfound in the inin the famousthe famousfamous baraita baraitabaraitaofʾ Rabbiʾ ofof Pinhas “ . ʿ ʿ RabbiRabbi PinPinbenḥtion]ḥasas ben Yaben andir; YaYa theyOsekʾʾir;ir; they are theyfor “thethe areare one shunning“the“the possessing shunningshunning of sin this ofof lead[ing] sin sinvirtue lead[ing]lead[ing] respectively, to saintliness, toto saintliness,saintliness, and and as saintliness Oved and ʿ ʾ andand saintlinesssaintlinesslead[ing]Ish Ma lead[ing]lead[ing]aseh to (thein Hebrew. toto gift (the(the of) giftgift theThe of)of) Holy last thethe two Spirit” HolyHoly levels Spirit”Spirit” [M. are Sotah [M.[M.found 9:15]. SotahSotah in Here, the 9:15].9:15]. famous too, Here,Here, the baraita contrast of ḥ ʾ too,too, thethe contrastcontrastindicatesRabbi indicatesPinindicates thatas theben thatthat shunningYa thetheir; shunning shunningthey of are sin is“theofof on sinsin shunning the isis onon level thethe of leveloflevel the sin of practicalof lead[ing] thethe practicalpractical men to saintliness, who have menmen whowhonot and havehave yet saintliness notnot withdrawn yetyet withdrawnwithdrawnlead[ing] from worldly to from from(the gift deedsworldlyworldly of) andthe deedsdeeds socialHoly andandSpirit” settings, socialsocial [M. whose settings,settings,Sotah work 9:15]. is Here, to be too, the contrast indicates that the shunning of sin is on the level of the practical whosewhose workworkmindful isis toto ofbebe the mindfulmindful sin [in ofof the thethe world]. sinsin [in[in And thethe the world].world].H. asidut AndAnd is the the completeḤḤasidutasidut isis opposite thethe of the completecomplete oppositemundaneoppositemen who ofof world have thethe mundanemundane andnot theyet deeds worldwithdrawnworld therein; andand thethe from [it deedsdeeds is] worldly seclusion therein;therein; deeds for[it[it is]is] the and seclusionseclusion sake social of beholding settings, Ḥ forfor thethe sakesakethewhose ofof divine. beholdingbeholding work And is thetheto the be divine.divine. next mindful level, AndAnd of which thethe the nextnext sin is the level,level,[in lastthe whichwhich one,world]. is isis the thethe And intellectuallastlast the one,one, asidut isis vision is the of thethe intellectualintellectualthecomplete divine visionvision opposite mysteries ofof thethe divinedivine of and the themystmystmundane secretserieseries andandworld of the thethe Torah,and secretssecrets the which ofdeedsof thethe transcend Torah,Torah,therein; whichwhich [it the is] [ordinary] seclusion transcendtranscend methods forthethe the [ordinary][ordinary] sake used of bymethodsmethodsbeholding the mere usedused the intellect. bybydivine. thethe mere (mere KrochmalAnd intellectintellect the next 2010 (Krochmal(Krochmal level,, pp. 168–69;which 2010,2010, is my the pp.pp. translation) last one, is the intellectual vision of the divine mysteries and the secrets of the Torah, which 168–69;168–69; mymyIn translation).translation). this fragmented passage, Krochmal appears to argue that Tannaitic literature already documentstranscend the phenomenonthe [ordinary] of methods the lopsided used lifestyle by the mere of many intellect Hasideans, (Krochmal who 2010, solely pp. devote themselves168–69; to my divine translation). mysteries while altogether disregarding earthly matters within a given social context (Lachower 1951, p. 223). In the final analysis, however, he does not appear to claim that the Hasidean worldview did not put any emphasis on practical deeds. Krochmal’s construal of the Essenes as the ancient Hasideans is somewhat puzzling, since, in Philo’s view, they were actually those who follow the practical course of life (Contempl. 1). Rather, Krochmal wishes to point to a specific degeneration of the original Hasidean mindset, which was no longer sufficiently accounting for practical matters.63 It is precisely in this fact that the radical thrust of his rabbinic image of Philo lies. He seems to impose his Maskilic reading of Philo as a vehement critic of the Hasideans onto the Tannaitic Religions 2021, 12, x 12 of 26

Religions 2021, 12, x 12 of 26

In this fragmented passage, Krochmal appears to argue that Tannaitic literature al- In this fragmented passage, Krochmal appears to argue that Tannaitic literatureready documentsal- the phenomenon of the lopsided lifestyle of many Hasideans, who ready documents the phenomenon of the lopsided lifestyle of many Hasideans,solely who devote themselves to divine mysteries while altogether disregarding earthly mat- solely devote themselves to divine mysteries while altogether disregarding earthlyters withinmat- a given social context (Lachower 1951, p. 223). In the final analysis, however, ters within a given social context (Lachower 1951, p. 223). In the final analysis, hehowever, does not appear to claim that the Hasidean worldview did not put any emphasis on he does not appear to claim that the Hasidean worldview did not put any emphasispractical on deeds. Krochmal’s construal of the Essenes as the ancient Hasideans is somewhat practical deeds. Krochmal’s construal of the Essenes as the ancient Hasideans is somewhatpuzzling, since, in Philo’s view, they were actually those who follow the practical course puzzling, since, in Philo’s view, they were actually those who follow the practicalof lifecourse (Contempl . 1). Rather, Krochmal wishes to point to a specific degeneration of the of life (Contempl. 1). Rather, Krochmal wishesReligions to point2021 ,to12 ,a 377 specific degenerationoriginal of the Hasidean mindset, which was no longer sufficiently accounting for practical12 of 27 mat- original Hasidean mindset, which was no longer sufficiently accounting for practicalters.63 mat- It is precisely in this fact that the radical thrust of his rabbinic image of Philo lies. ters.63 It is precisely in this fact that the radical thrust of his rabbinic image of PhiloHe seems lies. to impose his Maskilic reading of Philo as a vehement critic of the Hasideans He seems to impose his Maskilic reading of Philo as a vehement critic of the Hasideansonto the Tannaitic worldview outlined in M. Avot. In doing so, he offers a counterintuitive onto the Tannaitic worldview outlined in M. Avot. In doing so, he offers a counterintuitiveworldviewinterpretation outlined of in the M. ancient Avot. In Hasidean doing so, faction—who he offers a counterintuitive on the face of it interpretation actually appear of very interpretation of the ancient Hasidean faction—who on the face of it actuallythe appear ancientmuch very concerned Hasidean faction—whowith practical on rituals the face64—as of itbeing actually primarily appear identified very much with concerned speculative 64 much concerned with practical rituals64—as being primarily identified withwith speculativecontemplations practical rituals and—as withdrawal being primarily from identiﬁedsocial reality. with Krochmal speculative utilizes contemplations Philo as a andMaskilic contemplations and withdrawal from social reality. Krochmal utilizes Philowithdrawal as aparagon Maskilic from of ancient social times, reality. which Krochmal he holds utilizes up as Philo a prime as a Maskilicexample of paragon the Hasidean of ancient outlook paragon of ancient times, which he holds up as a prime example of the Hasideantimes,immersing outlook which he itself holds in up Godly as a primemysteries, example while of being the Hasidean unwilling outlook to compromise, immersing like itself many of in Godly mysteries, while being unwilling to compromise, like many of his Hasidean immersing itself in Godly mysteries, while being unwilling to compromise, likehis many Hasidean of counterparts, the fundamental position of the practical commands and cer- counterparts, the fundamental position of the practical commands and ceremonies. He has his Hasidean counterparts, the fundamental position of the practical commandsemonies. and cer- He has no principal problem with conceding such a prominent role to a Hellen- no principal problem with conceding such a prominent role to a Hellenistic Jewish thinker emonies. He has no principal problem with conceding such a prominent role to istica Hellen- Jewish thinker like Philo, who is nevertheless not even mentioned in rabbinic litera- like Philo, who is nevertheless not even mentioned in rabbinic literature. This seems to istic Jewish thinker like Philo, who is nevertheless not even mentioned in rabbinicture. litera- This seems to stem from the fact that he regards Alexandrian Jewish thought as an stem from the fact that he regards Alexandrian Jewish thought as an important source of ture. This seems to stem from the fact that he regards Alexandrian Jewish thoughtimportant as an source of various teachings that help to shape Tannaitic wisdom.65 He also al- various teachings that help to shape Tannaitic wisdom.65 He also alludes to Y. Hagigah 15b, 65 Ḥ “ ʿ ʾ . ḥ important source of various teachings that help to shape Tannaitic wisdom. Heludes also toal- Y. agigah 15b, where“ the famous pupil of Rabbi Akiva , Rabbi Yo anan Ha- where the famous pupil of Rabbi Akiva , Rabbi Yohanan Ha-Sandlar, is designated as “a ludes to Y. Ḥagigah 15b, where the famous pupil of Rabbi ʿAkivaʾ, Rabbi YoḥananSandlar, Ha- is designated as “a true “ Alexandrian”. (alexandri le-amito huʾ),66 and additionally true Alexandrian” (alexandri le-amito hu ),66 and additionally must surely have been aware 66 “

Sandlar, is designated as “a true Alexandrian” (alexandri le-amito huʾ), and additionallymust surely have been aware of the Zugot, Yehudah“ ben Tabbʾai, and Yehoshuaʿ ben of the Zugot, Yehudah ben Tabb ai, and Yehoshua ben Perahayah, who sought refuge in must surely have been aware of the Zugot, Yehudah ben Tabbʾai, and YehoshuaPeraʿḥ ayah,ben who sought refuge in Alexandria.67 . Alexandria.67 Peraḥayah, who sought refuge in Alexandria.67 Again, making recourse to Dähne’s account of Philonic ethics, it becomes quite man- Again, making recourse to Dähne’s account of Philonic ethics, it becomes quite mani- ifest that this was a model for Krochmal’s hierarchical presentation of the different groups Again, making recourse to Dähne’s account of Philonic ethics, it becomesfest quite that thisman- was a model for Krochmal’s hierarchical presentation of the different groups ifest that this was a model for Krochmal’s hierarchical presentation of the differentwithinwithin thegroups Tannaitic the Tannaitic period. period. Krochmal’s Krochmal’s portrayal portrayal particularly particularly corresponds corresponds to Dähne’s to Dähne’s de- within the Tannaitic period. Krochmal’s portrayal particularly correspondsscription todescription Dähne’s of Philo’s of understandingPhilo’s understanding of the human of the being’s human varying being’s moral varying and moral epistemological and epistemo- description of Philo’s understanding of the human being’s varying moral andlevels epistemo-logical as symbolically levels as symbolically conveyed in conveyed the lives and in the names lives of and the names biblical of patriarchs: the biblical patriarchs: logical levels as symbolically conveyed in the lives and names of the biblical patriarchs: PhiloPhilo views views his characterization his characterization of Cain’s of Cain’s offspring offspring in similar in similar fashion fashion [such [such as in as in Philo views his characterization of Cain’s offspring in similar fashion [such Postas in. Post 125. regarding125 regarding the meaning the meaning of the of name the name “Seth”]: “Seth”]: here, here, too, thetoo, numerous the numerous Post. 125 regarding the meaning of the name “Seth”]: here, too, the numerousnames names which which are mentioned are mentioned between between Seth and Seth Moses and Moses indicate indicate the different the different levels lev- names which are mentioned between Seth and Moses indicate the differentand lev- stagesels and that stages lie in that the lie middle in the between middle the between beginning the ofbeginning the permanent of the virtuepermanent els and stages that lie in the middle between the beginning of the permanentand thevirtue highest and the perfection. highest (perfectionDähne 1834 (Dähne, vol. 1, 1834, p. 364; vol. my 1, p. translation) 364; my translation). virtue and the highest perfection (Dähne 1834, vol. 1, p. 364; my translation). In a fewIn a instances, few instances, Dähne Dähne even outlineseven outlines the ascending the ascending levels oflevels the ascetic of the lifeascetic according life accord- In a few instances, Dähne even outlines the ascending levels of the asceticto Philonic lifeing accord- to moralPhilonic precepts moral (“ preceptsGrade [ ... (“Grade] der Askese […] dernach Askese Philo’s nach Sätzen”), Philo’s68 Sätzen”),which culminate68 which cul- ing to Philonic moral precepts (“Grade […] der Askese nach Philo’s Sätzen”),in68 the whichminate vision cul- in of the God vision as its of ultimate God as its theoretical ultimate objectivetheoretical (Dähne objective 1834 (Dähne, vol. 1,1834, p. 350, vol. 421). 1, p. 350, minate in the vision of God as its ultimate theoretical objective (Dähne 1834,Taking vol.421). 1, hisp. Taking350, cue from his various cue from Philonic various passages—such Philonic passages—such as Leg. 2.89, as 1.55,Leg. 2.89,Contempl 1.55,. Contempl 1, Mos. . 1, 421). Taking his cue from various Philonic passages—such as Leg. 2.89, 1.55,1.48, ContemplMosFug.. 47,1.48,. 1, and FugDecal. 47,. 101—Dähneand Decal. 101—Dähne centers Philo’s centers stance Philo’s regarding stance the regarding practical life the (β practicalιóς Mos. 1.48, Fug. 47, and Decal. 101—Dähne centers Philo’s stance regardingπρακτικ thelife practical (óβίοςς) as πρακτικός a conditio) as sine a conditio qua non sinefor thequa highernon fortheoretical the higher lifetheoretical (βιóς θεωρητικ life (βίοςó θεωρητικόςς): ): life (βίος πρακτικός) as a conditio sine qua non for the higher theoretical life (βίος θεωρητικόςFor asFor long): as long as theas the years years of of adolescence adolescence or or manhood manhood provide provide thethe individual with For as long as the years of adolescence or manhood provide the individual with even even greater greater powers, powers, he he is is equally equally obliged obliged to to lead lead an an active, practical life life (βίος even greater powers, he is equally obliged to lead an active, practical life (βίος πρακτικὸς, ἀρετὴ, πρακτικὴ, ἡ πρᾶξις) insteadinstead ofof aa contemplative contemplative one. one. In In it, it, he πρακτικὸς, ἀρετὴ, πρακτικὴ, ἡ πρᾶξις) instead of a contemplative one. In it,he he should should strive strive for for the the higher higher wisdom wisdom and and virtue virtue which which he himself he himself has achievedhas achieved should strive for the higher wisdom and virtue which he himself has achievedand exertand exert it among it among his his fellow fellow men, men, or or at at least least through through this this deeddeed refuterefute the gen- and exert it among his fellow men, or at least through this deed refute the generallygen-erally plain plain disrepute disrepute of of the the indolent indolent life life and and at at the the same same time time establish establish the the pu- erally plain disrepute of the indolent life and at the same time establish thepurity pu-rity of of his his ascesis. ascesis (Dähne (Dähne 1834 1834,, vol. vol. 1, 1, p. p. 412; 412; my my translation) translation). rity of his ascesis (Dähne 1834, vol. 1, p. 412; my translation). The sectionThe section of Philo’s of Philo’soeuvre oeuvrewithin within the thematic the thematic context context at hand at hand that left that the left deepest the deepest The section of Philo’s oeuvre within the thematic context at hand that leftimpression theimpression deepest on Krochmal on Krochmal is Fug is. 25–36Fug. 25–36 (perhaps (perhaps even even more more so than so Migrthan .Migr 89–93),. 89–93), which which he he impression on Krochmal is Fug. 25–36 (perhaps even more so than Migr. 89–93),translated translatedwhich into he Hebrewinto Hebrew from from Dähne’s Dähne’s German. German.69 In69 this In insightfulthis insightful and lengthyand lengthy portrayal, portrayal, translated into Hebrew from Dähne’s German.69 In this insightful and lengthyDähne portrayal,Dähne wished wished to showcase to showcase Philo’s Philo’s view view of “the of “the relationship relationship of the of practical the practical life to life the to the Dähne wished to showcase Philo’s view of “the relationship of the practicaltheoretical”, life to the which is expressed in a critique leveled against the ascetic Jewish Alexandrians who strictly withdraw from all worldly possessions, including useful ones (Dähne 1834, Fug vol. 1, p. 413). In . 35–36, we read: State business is an object of ridicule to you people. Perhaps you have never discovered how serviceable a thing it is. Begin, then, by getting some exercise and practice in the business of life both private and public; and when by means of the sister virtues, household-management and statesmanship, you have become masters in each domain, enter now, as more than qualified to do so, on your migration to a different and more excellent way of life. For the practical comes before the contemplative life; it is a sort of prelude to a more advanced contest; ReligionsReligionsReligionsReligions 2021 20212021,,, , 12 20211212,,, , x xxx , 12, x 131313 of ofof 26 261326 of 26 Religions 2021, 12, x 13 of 26

theoretical”,theoretical”,theoretical”,theoretical”, which whichwhich which is isis expressed expressedexpressed is expressed in inin a aa critique critiqueincritique a critique leveled leveledleveled leveled against againstagainst against the thethe ascetic ascetic asceticthe ascetic Jewish JewishJewish Jewish Alexandri- Alexandri-Alexandri- Alexandri- theoretical”, which is expressed in a critique leveled against the ascetic Jewish Alexandri- ansansans whowhoanswho who strictlystrictlystrictly strictly withdrawwithdrawwithdraw withdraw fromfromfrom from allallall worldlyworldlyworldly all worldly possessions,possessions,possessions, possessions, includingincludingincluding including usefulusefuluseful useful onesonesones ones (Dähne(Dähne(Dähne (Dähne ans who strictly withdraw from all worldly possessions, including useful ones (Dähne 1834,1834,1834,1834, vol. vol.vol. 1, 1,vol.1, p. p.p. 413). 1,413).413). p. 413). In InIn Fug FugFug In.. . 35–36,Fug 35–36,35–36,. 35–36, we wewe read: read:read: we read: 1834, vol. 1, p. 413). In Fug. 35–36, we read: StateStateStateState businessbusinessbusiness business isisis ananan is objectobjectobject an object ofofof ridiculeridiculeridicule of ridicule tototo youyouyou to people.youpeople.people. people. PerhapsPerhapsPerhaps Perhaps youyouyou haveyouhavehave have nevernevernever never State business is an object of ridicule to you people. Perhaps you have never discovereddiscovereddiscovereddiscovered howhowhow how serviceableserviceableserviceable serviceable aaa thingthingthing a thing ititit is.is.is. it Begin,Begin,Begin, is. Begin, then,then,then, then, bybyby gettinggettinggetting by getting somesomesome some exerciseexerciseexercise exercise discovered how serviceable a thing it is. Begin, then, by getting some exercise andandand practice practiceandpractice practice in inin the thethe in business business businessthe business of ofof life lifelife of both both bothlife both private privateprivate private and andand public; public;andpublic; public; and andand when whenandwhen when by byby means meansmeans by means and practice in the business of life both private and public; and when by means ofofof thethetheof sister sistersisterthe sister virtues,virtues,virtues, virtues, household-managehousehold-managehousehold-manage household-managementmentmentment andandand statesmanship,andstatesmanship,statesmanship, statesmanship, youyouyou haveyouhavehave have be-be-be- be- of the sister virtues, household-management and statesmanship, you have be- Religions 2021, 12, 377 comecomecomecome mastersmastersmasters masters ininin eacheacheach in each domain,domain,domain, domain, enterenterenter enter now,now,now, now, asasas moremoremore as more thanthanthan than qualifiedqualifiedqualified qualified tototo dododo to so,so,so, do onon onso,13 of on 27 come masters in each domain, enter now, as more than qualified to do so, on youryouryour your migrationmigrationmigration migration tototo aaa differenttodifferentdifferent a different andandand moreandmoremore more excellentexcellentexcellent excellent waywayway way ofofof life.life.life. of ForForlife.For thethetheFor practical practicalpracticalthe practical your migration to a different and more excellent way of life. For the practical comescomescomescomes beforebeforebefore before thethethe contemplative contemplativecontemplativethe contemplative life;life;life; ititlife;it isisis aaita sortsortsortis a ofsortofof preludepreludeprelude of prelude tototo aaa moretomoremore a more advancedadvancedadvanced advanced comes before the contemplative life; it is a sort of prelude to a more advanced contest;contest;contest;contest; andandand itanditit isisis wellwellitwell is well tototo havehavehave to have foughtfoughtfought fought ititit outoutout it first.first.first.out first. ByByBy takingtakingtaking By taking thisthisthis coursecoursethiscourse course youyouyou willyouwillwill will contest;and it and is well it is to well have to fought have fought it out ﬁrst.it out By first. taking By thistaking course this youcourse will you avoid will the 7070 avoidavoidavoidavoid the thethe imputation imputation imputationthe imputation of ofof shrinking shrinkingshrinking of shrinking from fromfrom from it itit through throughthrough it through sheer sheersheer sheer laziness lazinesslaziness laziness (PLCL (PLCL(PLCL (PLCL 5:29). 5:29).5:29). 5:29).7070 70 avoidimputation the imputation of shrinking of shrinking from it throughfrom it through sheer laziness sheer laziness (PLCL 5:29).(PLCL70 5:29).70 OneOneOne Onebriefbriefbrief brief complementarycomplementarycomplementary complementary remarkremarkremark remark thatthatthat KrocthatKrocKroc hmalKrochmalhmalhmal parentheticallyparentheticallyparenthetically parenthetically addsaddsadds adds tototo thethethe to begin- begin-begin-the begin- OneOne brief brief complementary complementary remark remark that that Kroc Krochmalhmal parenthetically parenthetically addsadds toto thethe beginning begin- ningningning ning of ofof his hishis of Hebrew HebrewHebrew his Hebrew translation translationtranslation translation of ofof Fug FugFug of.. . 35,Fug 35,35, in in.in 35, which whichwhich in which Philo PhiloPhilo Philo directly directlydirectly directly addresses addressesaddresses addresses his hishis critique critiquecritique his critique to toto to ningof of his his Hebrew Hebrew translation translation of Fugof Fug. 35,. 35, in whichin which Philo Philo directly directly addresses addresses his his critique critique to these to thesethesethesethese particular particularparticular particular types typestypes types of ofof men menmen of men(“To (“To(“To (“To such suchsuch such men, men,men, men, then, then,then, then, let letlet us usus let say” say”say” us say”[ [[λέγωμενλέγωμενλέγωμεν [λέγωμεν οὖν οὖνοὖν τοῖς τοῖς τοῖςοὖν τοιούτοις τοιούτοιςτοιούτοιςτοῖς τοιούτοις]),]),]), ]), theseparticular particular types types of of men men (“To (“To such such men, men, then, then, let letus us say”say” [λέγωμεν οὖν τοῖς τοιούτοις]), is isisis quite quitequiteis quite illuminating. illuminating.illuminating. illuminating. To ToTo Krochmal—alluding Krochmal—alludingKrochmal—alluding To Krochmal—alluding to toto the thethe to idea idea ideathe ideaand andand formulation formulationandformulation formulation of ofof M. M.M. of Avot AvotAvot M. Avot 3:10 3:103:10 3:10 quite illuminating. To Krochmal—alluding to the idea and formulation of M. Avot 3:10 “ is quite illuminating. To Krochmal—alluding to the idea and formulation of M. Avot“ 3:10 (“He(“He(“He(“He whose whosewhose whose fear fearfear of offearof sin sinsin of comes comescomes sin comes before beforebefore before his hishis wisdom” wisdom”wisdom” his wisdom” [ [[ve-kolve-kolve-kol [ve-kol she- she-she-ḥḥḥ she-okhmatookhmatookhmatoḥokhmato kodemet kodemetkodemet kodemet le-yir le-yirle-yir le-yirʾʾʾatatat ḥ ḥḥatatatʾatʾʾʾooo ḥ atʾo (“He(“He whose whose fear fear of sin of sin comes comes before before his hiswisdom” wisdom” [ve-kol [ve-kol she- she-ḥokhmatohokhmato kodemet kodemet le-yir le-yirʾat ḥatathʾoat o ḥ 717171 71 . Ḥ . eineinein ḥ ḥḥokhmatookhmatoeinokhmato ḥokhmato mitkayemet mitkayemetmitkayemet mitkayemet])])])7171—these—these—these]) —these men menmen menare areare “namely, “namely,“namely, are “namely, those thosethose those on onon the thethe on level levellevel the level of ofof the thethe of Ḥ ḤḤ theasidut,asidut,asidut, Ḥasidut, who whowho who einein ḥokhmatoh. okhmato mitkayemet mitkayemet])71—these]) —these men menare “namely, are “namely, those thoseon the on level the of level the Ḥ ofasidut, the H. whoasidut, havehavehavehave separatedseparatedseparated separated themselvesthemselvesthemselves themselves [so[so[so thatthat that[so thisthatthisthis lelethislevel]vel]vel] le takestakesvel]takes takes precedenceprecedenceprecedence precedence overoverover over theirtheirtheir their deeds”deeds”deeds” deeds” [[[hainuhainuhainu [hainu havewho separated have separated themselves themselves [so that this [so thatlevel] this takes level] precedence takes precedence over their over deeds” their [hainu deeds” lemilemi she-hevdilushe-hevdilu le-madregatle-madregat ha-ha-ḥḥḥasidutasidut kodemetkodemet le-male-maʿʿʿassavassav]] (Krochmal(Krochmal 2010,2010, p.p. 178;178; mymy lemilemi lemishe-hevdilushe-hevdilu she-hevdilu le-madregatle-madregat le-madregat ha-ha-ḥ asidutasidutha-ḥasidut kodemetkodemet kodemet le-male-ma le-maʿassavassavʿ“ assav]] (Krochmal(Krochmal] (Krochmal 2010,2010, 2010, p.p. 178;178; p. 178;mymy my lemi[hainu she-hevdilu lemi she-hevdilu le-madregat le-madregat ha-ḥasidut ha- h.kodemetasidut kodemet le-maʿ le-maassav]assav (Krochmal](Krochmal 2010, 2010 p. ,178; p. 178; my my translation).translation).translation).translation). translation).translation). KrochmalKrochmalKrochmal illustrates illustratesillustrates the thethe presence presencepresence of ofof this thisthis Ph PhPhilonicilonicilonic viewpoint viewpointviewpoint in inin Tannaitic TannaiticTannaitic literature literatureliterature by byby KrochmalKrochmal illustrates illustrates the presence the presence of this of Ph Philonicthisilonic Philonic viewpoint viewpoint in Tannaitic in Tannaitic literature literature by by “ Krochmal illustrates the presence of this Philonic viewpointʾ in Tannaitic“ ʾ ʿ literatureʿ by

ʾ ʾ ʿ “ ʿ drawingdrawingdrawingdrawing on onon “the “the“the on “theremarkable remarkableremarkable remarkable parable” parable”parable” parable” ( ((ha-mashalha-mashalha-mashal (ha-mashal ha-mufla ha-muflaha-mufla ha-muflaʾʾ))) of ofof Rabbi ʾRabbiRabbi) of Rabbi ʾ ʾElElElʿʿazarazarazar ʾElʿ azarben benben ʿ ʿbenAzariahAzariahAzariah“ ʿAzariah drawingdrawing on on“the “the remarkable remarkable parable” parable” (ha-mashal (ha-mashal ha-mufla ha-muﬂaʾ) of) Rabbi of Rabbi ʾElʿElazarazar ben ben ʿAzariahAzariah ininin M. M.M.in Avot AvotAvot M. Avot 3:18 3:183:18 (“He 3:18(“He(“He (“He whose whosewhose whose wisdom wisdomwisdom wisdom is isis more moremore is more abundant abundantabundant abundant than thanthan than his hishis works, works,works, his works, to toto what whatwhat to what is isis he hehe is like? like?like? he like? in M.in M.Avot Avot 3:18 3:18 (“He (“He whose whose wisdom wisdom is more is more abundant abundant than his than works, his works, to what to is what he like? is he ToToTo a aa Totree treetree a whose whosetreewhose whose branches branchesbranches branches are areare abundant abundantabundant are abundant but butbut whose whose whosebut whose roots rootsroots roots are areare few; few;few; are few;and andand the theandthe wind wind windthe wind comes comescomes comes and andand and Tolike? a tree Towhose a tree branches whose are branches abundant are but abundant whose roots but whose are few; roots and are the few;wind and comes the and wind uprootsuprootsuprootsuproots it itit and andand it overturns overturnsandoverturns overturns it”) it”)it”) (Krochmal (Krochmal (Krochmalit”) (Krochmal 2010 20102010 ,2010, , p. p.p. 169). 169).169)., p. 169). Krochmal’s Krochmal’sKrochmal’s Krochmal’s explication explicationexplication explication of ofof Ben BenBen of ʿʿBenʿAza-Aza-Aza- ʿAza- uprootscomes it andand uprootsoverturns it andit”) (Krochmal overturns it”)2010 (Krochmal, p. 169). Krochmal’s 2010, p. 169). explication Krochmal’s of Ben explication ʿAza-

riah’sriah’s metaphoricalmetaphorical“ imageimage isis inin broadbroad agreementagreement withwith Philo’sPhilo’s accountaccount ofof thethe complemen-complemen- riah’sriah’sof Benriah’s metaphoricalmetaphoricalAzariah’s metaphorical metaphorical imageimage image isis inin isbroadbroad image in broad agreementagreement is in agreement broad withwith agreement with Philo’sPhilo’s Philo’s account withaccount account Philo’s ofof thethe accountof complemen-complemen- the complemen- of the riah’stary metaphorical and hierarchical image relationship is in broad agreementbetween the with practical Philo’s and account theoretical of the complemen-modes of life: tarytarycomplementarytary taryandandand andhierarchicalhierarchicalhierarchical hierarchical and hierarchical relationshiprelationshiprelationship relationship relationship betweenbetweenbetween between thethethe between practicalpracticalpracticalthe practical the practicalandandand andtheoreticaltheoreticaltheoretical andtheoretical theoretical modesmodesmodes modes of modesofof life:life:life: of life: tary and hierarchical relationship between the practical“ and theoretical modes of life: “And“And“And“And [this [this[this [thisjuxtaposition juxtapositionjuxtaposition juxtaposition of ofof ḥ ḥḥokhmahokhmahokhmah of ḥokhmah and andand yir yirandyirʾʾʾahahah yir also alsoalsoʾah applies appliesalsoapplies applies to] to]to] the thethe to] remarkable remarkableremarkable the remarkable parable parableparable parable that thatthat that “Andof life:[this “Andjuxtaposition [this juxtaposition of ḥokhmah and of h. yirokhmahʾah alsoand appliesyir ah to]also the applies remarkable to] the parable remarkable that [symbolically][symbolically][symbolically][symbolically] likenslikenslikens likens thethethe deeddeeddeedthe deed tototo thethethe to rootrootrootthe rootofofof thethethe of treetreetreethe plantedtreeplantedplanted planted ininin thethethe in earth,earth,earth,the earth, [i.e.,][i.e.,][i.e.,] [i.e.,] ininin thethethe in the [symbolically]parable that [symbolically]likens the deed likens to the the root deed of to the the tree root planted of the tree in plantedthe earth, in the[i.e.,] earth, in the [i.e.,] world’sworld’sinworld’s theworld’s world’s corporeality, corporeality,corporeality, corporeality, corporeality, and andand the theandthe and wisdom wisdom wisdomthe the wisdom wisdom to toto the thethe to tree’s totree’s tree’sthe the tree’s branches, branches, tree’sbranches, branches, branches, which whichwhich which which strive strivestrive strive upwards striveupwardsupwards upwards upwards to toto the thethe to the world’s corporeality, and the wisdom to 72the tree’s branches, which strive upwards to the heavens,heavens,heavens, [i.e.,][i.e.,][i.e.,] thethethe cognitioncognitioncognition ofofof God”.God”.God”.727272 ItItIt appearsappears72appears72 anythinganythinganything butbutbut aaa meremeremere coincidencecoincidencecoincidence thatthatthat heavens,to theheavens, heavens, [i.e.,] [i.e.,] the [i.e.,] cognitionthe the cognition cognition of God”. of of72 God”. God”. It appears ItIt appears appears anything anything anything but abutbut mere a a mere mere coincidence coincidence that that heavens, [i.e.,] the cognition of God”. It appears anything but73 a mere coincidence that KrochmalKrochmalKrochmalKrochmal wouldwouldwould would gravitategravitategravitate gravitate towardstowardstowards towards suchsuchsuch such TannaiticTannaiticTannaitic Tannaitic imagery.imagery.imagery. imagery.737373 InInIn73 all73allall In likelihood,likelihood,likelihood, all likelihood, hehehe hadhadhad he ininhadin in Krochmalthat Krochmal would wouldgravitate gravitate towards towards such Tannaitic such Tannaitic imagery. imagery.73 In all Inlikelihood, all likelihood, he had he in had mindmindinmind mindmind aaa similarsimilarsimilar a similara similar metaphoricalmetaphoricalmetaphorical metaphorical metaphorical imageimageimage image image ofofof of manmanman manof man asasas as aaa a asheavenlyheavenlyheavenly a heavenly plantplant plant plant (( (φυτὸνφυτὸνφυτὸν (φυτὸν οὐράνιον οὐράνιον οὐράνιον οὐράνιον))) from fromfrom) from mind a similar metaphorical image of man74 as a heavenly plant (φυτὸν οὐράνιον) from Philo’sPhilo’sPhilo’sPhilo’s thought—which thought—whichthought—which thought—which rests restsrests rests rests on onon on Tim TimTim onTim.. . Tim90a 90a90a. 90a7474.74 —which90a—which—which74—which74—which he hehe came came hecame he came came across acrossacross across across in inin Dähne’s Dähne’sDähne’s inin Dähne’s section sectionsection section section ded- ded-ded- ded- Philo’s thought—which rests on Tim. 90a74—which he came across in Dähne’s section ded- icatedicateddedicatedicatedicated to toto Philo’s Philo’sPhilo’s toto Philo’sPhilo’s anthropology anthropologyanthropology anthropologyanthropology (“Die (“Die(“Die(“Die (“Die Anthropologie AnthropologieAnthropologie Anthropologie Anthropologie Philo’s”, Philo’s”,Philo’s”, Philo’s”, Philo’s”, pp. pp.pp. pp.288–341):288–341): 288–341):pp. 288–341): 288–341): icated to Philo’s anthropology (“Die Anthropologie Philo’s”, pp. 288–341): WithWithWithWith referencereferencereference reference thereto thereto theretothereto thereto [viz. [viz. [viz.[viz. to [viz.to toto the the thethe to Godly Godl Godl Godlthe Godly creationyy creation creationcreationy creation of of of man’sof man’s man’sman’s of rationalman’s rational rationalrational rational faculty, faculty, faculty,faculty, Detfaculty, .Det DetDet 83–.. . Det. With reference thereto [viz. to the Godly creation of man’s rational faculty, Det. 83–84],83–84],84],83–84], he83–84], designates hehehe designatesdesignatesdesignates he designates the human thethethe hu huhuthemanmanman soul hu man soul [soulsoul... soul […]][…][…] as divine, asas[…]as divine,divine,divine, as andivine, imprint, ananan imprint,imprint,imprint, an imprint, a reﬂection, aaa reflection,reflection,reflection, a reflection, a part, aaa a 83–84], he designates the human soul […] as divine, an imprint, a reflection, a part,part,apart, planting part, aaa plantingplantingplanting a place planting [placeplaceplace... place] […] a[…][…] Godly a[…]aa GodlyGodlyGodly plant,a Godly plant,plant,plant, whose plant, whosewhosewhose roots whose extentrootsrootsroots roots extentextentextent up toextent the upupup divine toto toup thethethe to sphere.divine divinedivinethe divine part, a planting place […] a Godly plant, whose roots extent up to the divine sphere.sphere.[...]sphere.sphere.[n. […][…][…] 342:] [n.[n.[…][n. 342:]Quod342:]342:] [n. 342:] QuodQuod det.Quod pot.Quod det.det.det. insid. pot.pot.pot.det. insid.insid.insid.pot.p. 170insid. p.p.p. [ 170170Det170 p. . [ [[170DetDet 84]Det .. .[ it 84]Det84]84] is . it calledit it84] isisis calledcalleditcalled is [viz. called [viz.[viz.[viz. the [viz. the humanthethe hu-hu- hu-the hu- sphere. […] [n. 342:] Quod det. pot. insid. p. 170 [Det. 84] it is called [viz. the hu- manmansoul]:man mansoul]: soul]:soul]: soul]: τὸ τὸτὸ θεοειδὲς θεοειδὲςθεοειδὲς τὸ θεοειδὲς ἐκεῖνο ἐκεῖνοἐκεῖνο ἐκεῖνο δημιούργημα, δημιούργημα,δημιούργημα, δημιούργημα, ᾧ ᾧᾧ λογιζόμεθα, λογιζόμεθα,λογιζόμεθα, ᾧ λογιζόμεθα, οὗ οὗοὗ τὰς τὰςτὰς οὗ ῥίζας ῥίζαςῥίζας τὰς ῥίζας εἰς εἰςεἰς οὐρανὸν οὐρανὸνοὐρανὸν εἰς οὐρανὸν man soul]: τὸ θεοειδὲς ἐκεῖνο δημιούργημα, ᾧ λογιζόμεθα, οὗ τὰς ῥίζας εἰς οὐρανὸν ἔτεινεἔτεινεἔτεινεἔτεινε.,.,.,., de dede de plant. .,plant.plant. plant.de plant. N. N.N. N. p. p.p. N. p.216 216216 p. 216 [ [ [Plant216PlantPlant [Plant [Plant.. . 17]: 17]:17]:. . φυτὸν 17]:φυτὸνφυτὸν17]: φυτὸν οὐράνιον οὐράνιονοὐράνιον οὐράνιον (Dähne (Dähne(Dähne .((Dähne Dähne1834, 1834,1834, 1834, vol. vol.vol. 1834 1, 1, 1,vol. pp. ,pp.pp. vol. 1, 298– 298–298– pp. 1, 298– ἔτεινε., de plant. N. p. 216 [Plant. 17]: φυτὸν οὐράνιον (Dähne 1834, vol. 1, pp. 298– 300;pp.300;300; 298–300; my 300;mymy translation). translation).translation). my translation). my translation). 300; my translation). AccountingAccountingAccountingAccounting for forfor Dähne’s Dähne’sDähne’s for Dähne’s explanation explanationexplanation explanation here, here,here, here, it itit seems seemsseems it seems that thatthat Krochmal KrochmalthatKrochmal Krochmal utilizes utilizesutilizes utilizes the thethe Philonic PhilonicPhilonic the Philonic Accounting for Dähne’s explanation here, it seems that Krochmal utilizes the Philonic notionnotionnotionnotion ofof of manman man of man as asas a aa φυτὸν φυτὸνasφυτὸν a φυτὸν οὐράνιον οὐράνιονοὐράνιον οὐράνιον,, , whose whosewhosewhose, whose roots rootsrootsroots roots extend extendextendextend extend up upupup to tototo up the thethethe to heavensheavens heavensthe heavens andandand whosewhoseandwhose whose feet feetfeet feet notion of man as a φυτὸν οὐράνιον, whose roots extend up to the heavens and whose feet areareare attached attachedattachedare attached to toto the thethe to earth earthearththe earth (((DetDetDet .. .( Det84–85),84–85), 84–85),. 84–85), forfor forfor his hishisfor allegorical allegoricalallegoricalallegoricalhis allegorical interpretationinterpretation interpretation interpretation ofof of the thethethe of Tannaitic TannaiticTannaiticTannaiticthe Tannaitic are attached to the earth (Det. 84–85), for his allegorical interpretation of the Tannaitic imageimageimageimage ofof of the thethe of tree’s tree’stree’stree’sthe tree’s branches branchesbranchesbranches branches pointing pointingpointingpointing pointing heavenwards heavenwardsheavenwardsheavenwards heavenwards inin in order orderorder in order to tototo imply implyimply to imply a aa yearning yearningyearning a yearning for forfor the the thefor the image of the tree’s branches pointing heavenwards in order to imply a yearning for the visionvisionvisionvision of ofof thethethe of divine.divine. divine.the divine. InIn In DetDetDet In.. . 85,Det85, 85, he.he he 85, continuescontinues continues he continues inin in a aaa similar similarsimilarinsimilar a similar fashion fashionfashionfashion fashion to tototo Krochmal KrochmalKrochmalKrochmal to Krochmal bybyby aligningaligningaligning by aligning vision of the divine. In Det. 85, he continues in a similar fashion to Krochmal by aligning thethethe φυτὸν φυτὸνφυτὸνthe φυτὸν οὐράνιον οὐράνιονοὐράνιον οὐράνιον according accordingaccording according to to to a a a hierarchical hierarchicalhierarchical to a hierarchical scheme scheme scheme scheme of of of a a a worldly worldly worldlyof a worldly and and and a aand a heavenly heavenlyheavenly a heavenly sphere, sphere, sphere, sphere, the φυτὸν οὐράνιον according to a hierarchical scheme of a worldly and a heavenly sphere, insofarinsofarinsofarinsofar as asas he he he as maintains maintains maintains he maintains that that that God God GodthatGod Godraised raised raised raised the the thethe human human human the human mind mind mind “upward[s], “upward[s], “upward[s], thatthat that hishis thathis nourishment nourishment his nourishment insofar as he maintains that God raised the human mind “upward[s], that his nourishment maymaymay maybe be be celestial celestial celestial be celestial and and and imperishable, imperishable, andimperishable, imperishable, not notnot perishab perishableperishab perishabnot perishablelele and andandle earthly” earthly”andearthly” earthly” (PLCL (PLCL(PLCL (PLCL 2:259), 2:259),2:259), 2:259), while whilewhile while fixing ﬁxingfixingfixing fixing may be celestial and imperishable, not perishable and earthly” (PLCL 2:259), while fixing hishishis feet feet feethis toto feetto the thethe to earth earth earththe earth as asas they theythey as theysymbolize symbolizesymbolize symbolize man’s man’sman’s man’s most mostmost most corporeal corporealcorporeal corporeal and andand unconscious unconsciousandunconscious unconscious part.part.part. part. his feet Allto the of theearth examples as they abovesymbolize prompt man’s the most conclusion corporeal that and Krochmal unconscious read Philo’s part. compli- mentary and hierarchical account of the practical and theoretical modes of life through a Tannaitic lens. From this, there emerges a striking image of Philo as an ancient Hasidean, “ “ advancing the golden middle way by reproaching—similarly to Hanina ben Dosa , the . “ exemplary model for the Anshei Ma aseh—an aberrant negative trend among the Hasideans of his day of neglecting concrete deeds and withdrawing from their social environment. Seen from another perspective, it is quite clear that he applies Dähne’s reproduction of Philo’s viewpoint to the segmented Tannaitic sayings in order to unearth their deeper meaning and broader historical context. Given this fact, one cannot ignore the resemblance of the ultimate aim of Krochmal’s Guide to his Maskilic perception of Philo’s Jewish philosophy. Both criticize extreme devian- cies within their Jewish communities for discounting the concrete deeds that are intimately Religions 2021, 12, 377 14 of 27

linked to Jewish laws and ceremonies. This fact is also insinuated in Rawidowicz’s insightful concluding statement regarding Krochmal’s idealized picture of Philo: “RaNaK saw in Philo the highest man of virtue, simultaneously a believer and a maskil, both the harsh criticism of the ‘Rabbis’ (the ‘materialistic among the rabbis’)75 and the man who uncompromisingly observes the commandments”.76 This passage underpins Philo’s rather unique place in the early rabbinic world according to Krochmal’s Jewish historiography: on the one hand, as a member of the Essenian sect—which Krochmal, in turn, construes as “ being the H. asidim ha-Ri shonim—he is a typical contemporary theoretical Hasidean who is profoundly immersed in speculations regarding the divine. On the other, like many of the great Tannaitic sages recorded in M. Avot, he is unwilling to reduce to insigniﬁcance the status of the commandments and the ceremonial elements of the Jewish faith, which are intimately attached to ethical deeds, and, thus, argues for their decisive complementary role within the theoretical modus vivendi. Although this historiographical engagement with Philo seems to reproduce, mutatis mutandis, Krochmal’s own social settings in Galicia—in which the Maskilic mindset was constantly provoked by the irrational Hasidic outlook—one cannot simply equate the ancient Hasideans with modern Hasidim. It is evident that Krochmal believed them to be entirely different things. The ancient Hasideans, in Krochmal’s view, actually mark “ the elite intellectual party of the Tanna im, who were responsible for the development of central kabbalistic teachings. On the other hand, he conceives modern Hasidim as fanatical, inﬂammatory, plebeian, ignorant, sanctimonious, schwärmerisch, and a long way from constituting a leading intellectual party.77 In this respect, the Maskilim, with their scholarly achievements and their theoretical views of Judaism, are much closer to the “ H. asidim ha-Ri shonim than the modern Hasidim are. Drawing on the historical example of the ancient Hasideans, Krochmal merely wishes to point to the destructive potential of the overly theoretical approach to the Jewish tradition. When speaking of modern Hasidism, Krochmal appears to consider that the moderate stance of the ancient Jewish faith has already been completely destroyed.

4. The Hasidean Image of Philo in View of the Maskilic Crisis within Krochmal’s Umfeld If one turns to Krochmal’s Maskilic intellectual circles, one ﬁnds very similar images of Philo as an ancient Hasidean, which also seem to be intended to expose modern Hasidism as deviating from the true essence of the Jewish faith. From the way in which he adduces these examples, it becomes apparent that Krochmal’s belief that Philo’s rabbinic mindset underlined the indispensability of the observation of Jewish law alongside theoretical contemplation was widespread among his circles and pupils. Three prominent Eastern European Maskilim are of particular relevance to us in this context and will facilitate a more coherent understanding of Krochmal’s Philo: Solomon J. L. Rapoport, Isaac Baer Levinsohn, and Avrom Ber Gotlober. Indeed, when thinking of Krochmal’s prominent pupils, Rapoport, with whom he had a long-running intellectual relationship that persisted over three decades and who was considered by some to be “the father of the Jewish Wissenschaft alongside Krochmal” (Graetz 1870, pp. 494–95), is the one name that outshines all the others.78 Rapoport has won much acclaim in Jewish intellectual circles in both Western and Eastern Europe for his pioneering academic work on biographies of celebrated Jewish thinkers of the past (the so-called Toledot).79 If one observes his historical apprehension of Philo more closely, one is immediately confronted with its various commonalities to Krochmal’s. Reading, “ for example, Rapoport’s seminal essay on the paytan El azar“ Kalir published in Bikurei

ha- Ittim“ in 1830, one notices his strikingly similar portrayal of Philo and the Essenes:

I have already established in my book Erekh“ Milim, with strong evidence against “

the author of Me or Einayim“ (chp. 3), that the Essene sect, which is mentioned in the books of Philo the Jew and Josephus, is not the [same as the] Boethusians mentioned in the Shisha Sedarim, since it is not remarked anywhere in Philo’s or Religions 2021, 12, 377 15 of 27

Josephus’s writings that the Essenes deny the Oral Torah in the explicit manner that this is said about the Sadducees. In his work Quod omnis probus liber sit, Philo wrote that all of their customs in each matter, which could exclusively be transmitted by means of Godly enthusiasm, were passed down to them from their forefathers. Similarly, in his work De vita contemplativa, Philo wrote that they have many ancient books discussing numerous sublime subject matters into which they delve and in which they immerse themselves. It is possible that “

those books were testaments of Ma aseh“ Ber eshit and Merkavah [ ... ]. Hence, I thought it obvious that this sect is part of the sect of the Pharisees, differing merely by being people who are ﬁercer in their piety and their more ascetic life. They are [in agreement with] most of the wise H. asidim of antiquity found in the Mishnayot. The vast number of Mishnayot in chapter 6 of [M.] Avot are based on them. Therefore, Philo wrote in the abovementioned work about the [ascetic] grief-ﬁlled lives of these people who eat nothing but a slice of bread with salt and drink [only] a small quantity of water [M. Avot 6:4]. [ ... ] I also thought it to be right that the Essenes be denoted as “the vatikin [who] would conclude

the recitation of Shema with“ sunrise” in Shishah Sedarim (B. Berakhot 9b), and there they were also called the “holy community of Jerusalem”. Various passages in Josephus and Philo reveal the Essenes’ conformity to their prayer [rituals]. (Rapoport 1830, p. 118 n. 20; my translation) This passage by Rapoport—who was pivotal to the dissemination of Philo’s thought in his own right and also regarded himself as Philo’s great defender against de’ Rossi’s denunciations of him80—contains three remarkable parallels to Krochmal’s image of Philo: (1) The writings of Philo and the Essenes/Therapeutae are an ancient source of authentic kabbalistic wisdom. (2) Philo and the Essenes/Therapeutae are not merely an ascetic and mystical offshoot of the Pharisean sect81 and the rabbinic tradition as a whole, but are speciﬁcally associated with the ancient Hasideans mentioned in the Mishnah.82 (3) Both rabbinic passages relating to ascetic and ceremonial aspects of Jewish faith that Rapoport adduces for his thesis (M. Avot 6:4 and B. Berakhot 9b) are also mentioned in Krochmal’s “Dark Sayings of Ancient Times” for the same purpose.83 “

When considering the book Te udah“ be-Yisra el by another renowned Jewish Enlight- ener and critic of modern Hasidism close to Krochmal’s intellectual circles, Isaac Baer Levinsohn—known as “Russia’s Mendelssohn” due to his pivotal role in the propaga- tion of the Maskilic worldview in the Russian-speaking realm84—one can observe that an almost identical image of Philo as an Essenian sage emerges from it.85 Like Krochmal and Rapoport, Levinsohn also construes the Essenes to be the true ancient Hasideans while leveling criticism against Chapter 3 of de’ Rossi’s Imrei Binah, in which the Essenes are portrayed as a heretical sect who deliberately deny oral tradition.86 He draws support for his hypothesis by resorting to Abraham Zacuto’s (1450–1510) historical account of the Jewish nation in Sefer Yuh. asin, in which Zacuto purports that the Essenes are the Hasideans.87 Krochmal’s rabbinic image of Philo is also clearly echoed in Avrom Ber Gotlober’s writings, a key ﬁgure of the Haskalah’s Hebrew literature. In his work Toledot ha-Kabbalah ve-ha-H. asidut, which was published in 1869, he expounds his view of Philo in very clear terms, while in several instances explicitly adopting ideas from Chapter 12 of Krochmal’s Guide. In Chapter 3 of this book, Gotlober dedicated an entire section to the thesis claiming that the Essenes were the original Hasideans and that the latter barely have any point of commonality with modern Hasidim (Gotlober 1869, pp. 30–37). The same is true of the Therapeutae, to whom Gotlober also devotes an entire section. As he argues, the Therapeutae were part of the Pharisean faction and also bore a strong resemblance to the ancient Hasideans as described in Tannaitic literature (Gotlober 1869, pp. 38–42). Within this framework, Gotlober goes on to accord Philo a prominent role in the last section of Chapter 4. Taking his cue from Chapter 12 of Krochmal’s Guide, he assesses Philo’s ancient Religions 2021, 12, 377 16 of 27

Jewish philosophy to be nothing short of the chief source for the kabbalistic system, which is, in turn, to be construed as the authentic system of the ancient Hasideans: Behold that in the above words [Migr. 91] regarding the matter of the deﬁlement of the Sabbath, we ﬁnd statements which do not appear anywhere in the written

tradition and which are taken from the oral tradition [torah she-be- al-peh“ ], which Philo believed in, like a Pharisee. We have identified in his sayings the first principles of the system of H. asidism [shitat ha-h. asidut]; namely, the striving after the concealed and secret, after the hidden and symbolic underlying the literal words of Scripture, like the soul veiled to the body [Migr. 93]. (Gotlober 1869, p. 42; my translation; emphasis in original) The various coinciding elements between Krochmal’s rabbinic image of Philo and those of these three Eastern European Jewish Enlighteners clearly indicate that the Guide’s “Dark Sayings of Ancient Times” was instrumental in bringing about a new and innovative way of historically approaching the early rabbinic tradition as one that was closely inter- twined with Jewish Alexandrian wisdom as primarily manifested in Philo’s historical and exegetical treatises. Furthermore, the alignment of Philo with the ancient Hasideans within an overall anti-Hasidic framework—as evinced by the writings of these three thinkers— points to him being highly relevant to the ongoing struggles between the Maskilim and modern Hasidism. By referring to Philo’s ancient works, Krochmal’s Maskilic counterparts could better historically contextualize their own spiritual crisis. They could depict their progressive stances not only as being merely rational and firmly rooted in the Jewish tradition, but also as battling a deviant phenomenon of the Jewish faith that went as far back as the origins of Jewish philosophy. It is, of course, not easy to establish to what degree Krochmal formed these positions on his own, especially when taking into account his long-running affiliation with Rapoport, who was even more committed to rigorous scholarly investigation than Krochmal himself.88 Yet even if we presuppose that Rapoport assisted Krochmal in the development of certain thought structures in this respect, one still needs to bear in mind that Rapoport himself acknowledges the seminal nature of Krochmal’s approach to Jewish history. For this reason, Rapoport repeatedly encouraged his teacher, as he discloses in his eulogy of him, to continue working on the Guide, which he seems to have had direct access to and intimate firsthand knowledge of (Rapoport 1841, pp. 46–48).

5. Conclusions It might appear prima facie quite baffling as to how one single and highly fragmented Hebrew chapter on Jewish Alexandrian thought from nineteenth-century Galicia established one of the cornerstones of the modern scholarly understanding of Philo from the viewpoint of the Jewish tradition. Precisely this was achieved by one of the most enigmatic figures of modern Judaism, Nah. man Krochmal, with his “Dark Sayings of Ancient Times”. Krochmal’s productive engagement with the subject, which reveals manifold links between Philo and the rabbis, dared to go much further than de’ Rossi’s Light of the Eyes—which ultimately remained quite ambivalent towards Philo and his Hellenized Judaism—and in doing so left an enduring mark on many significant Eastern and Western European Maskilim and Wissenschaftler (Klausner 1952, p. 194). This paper has shown that the unusual historiographical enterprise of reviving Philo’s Jewish thought undertaken by Krochmal and his Eastern European Maskilic counterparts was by no means exhaustive in its scholarly merits and outreach. He also skillfully lever- aged it as a counter-argument against heresy charges leveled against numerous Maskilim by the devotees of the swiftly encroaching Hasidism. Harnessing Philo in order to address the spiritual crisis provoked by the aberrant inclinations of the modern Hasidic mindset with which these thinkers were pronouncedly preoccupied assisted Krochmal in shielding the purified nature of Jewish faith in its complementary dialectical relation to concrete pious deeds. By turning to Philo’s Jewish ethics, he could demonstrate that the Maskilic line of thinking was not only anchored in ancient Jewish traditions in Alexandria, but also in Religions 2021, 12, 377 17 of 27

early rabbinic texts. Krochmal’s references to Philo’s thought allowed him to represent the Jewish tradition as being in keeping with the rational Maskilic viewpoint, ruling out any possibility of including the non-rational contemporary Hasidic movement. The historical depictions of Philo’s writings indicated to Krochmal that the intimate spiritual crisis in which he was deeply immersed was actually part of a considerably wider paradigmatic historical crisis of the Jewish faith, which neglected the practical commandments in favor of highly speculative precepts. It is in Philo’s Jewish thought that he discovers an adequate philosophical articulation of the unblemished Jewish solution to and position regarding this sort of spiritual crisis: the golden mean. Philo’s corpus enabled Krochmal to reanimate and expand on various aspects underlying the Tannaitic worldview, which the Mishnah typically lays out in aphoristic fashion. For example, Philo’s systematic and detailed treatises provided him with the possibility “ of offering a historical presentation of the enigmatic group of the H. asidim Ha-Ri shonim in a much more comprehensive and nuanced manner, accounting for both their positive and problematic features, while at the same time countering the Christian perceptions of the Essenes and the Therapeutae. Through this deepening of their historical Jewish consciousness, which was facilitated by Philo’s body of work, Krochmal and his moderate Maskilic counterparts could assess the increasingly changing and crisis-ridden Jewish reality of their time and the radical elements of its corrosive potential with sober judgment. From this newly adapted critical perspective, Krochmal evaluated modern Hasidim as a “ departure from Judaism’s golden mean;89 a mean not only aptly delineated by the Tanna im, but also by Philo and the Essenes/Therapeutae, whom he, in turn, construed as being part of the ancient Hasideans. Yet Philo, with his comprehensive moralistic thought and its emphasis on the golden mean, was eventually able to overcome the exceedingly speculative worldview of many of his fellow Hasideans, thus providing Krochmal’s synoptic survey with an ancient precursor to the historical emergence of the exemplary Maskilic frame of mind. As Shmuel Feiner aptly notes, Krochmal construed “the Judaeo-Hellenistic centre in Alexandria” as a “symbol of an unparalleled exemplary period (the stage of ‘power and achievement’ of the second cycle)”, which was “linked to the appearance of enlightened men who spread light, reason, and science, and fought against folly” (Feiner 2001, p. 124). This apt observation necessitates a supplementary remark: alongside these Jewish Alexan- drian Enlighteners—with Philo serving as their exemplary representative—Krochmal also identiﬁed their Hasidean counterparts in Alexandria, the antinomian, lopsided Schwärmer who believed themselves to be nothing short of “disembodied souls [ ... ] explor[ing] reality in its naked absoluteness” (PLCL 4:91).90 In his seminal book Imagined Hasidim: The Anti-Hasidic Writings of Joseph Perl, Jonatan Meir offers a penetrating analysis of the critical attitude that Josef Perl (1773–1839)—a Maskil with whom Krochmal had very close relations—expressed towards modern Ha- sidism in his satirical literature. In this work, Meir sheds light on Josef Perl and his Maskilic circles’ imagined, distorted representations of modern Hasidism as a social and spiritual movement of Eastern European Jewry (Meir 2013, p. 239). Indeed, the above analysis of Krochmal’s “anti-Hasidic” Maskilic perception of Philo has also exposed this strong negative thrust. But this would be missing a substantial point, for our examination has demonstrated that this critical attitude towards the modern religious phenomenon of Hasidism as Hith. asdut merely covers one substantial aspect of the subject matter. It does not account for the constructive aspect of their historiographical approaches towards true, ancient Hasideans and Tannaitic literature, which Krochmal and his intellectual circles were attempting to historically reconstruct and better comprehend with the assistance of the voluminous Corpus Philonicum. Focusing on Krochmal’s inclusive attitude towards Jewish Hellenistic literature, this study has further helped to illuminate a common mis- conception that regards Eastern European Jewish Enlighteners as progressive thinkers who were seeking to radically reform the Jewish faith. On the contrary, by harking back to Philonic treatises, Krochmal, with his moderate Maskilic worldview, endeavored to Religions 2021, 12, 377 18 of 27

uncover the true nature of the early rabbinic tradition, to which he was uncompromisingly committed.91

Funding: This research received no external funding. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Acknowledgments: I would like to thank the editors of the Special Issue as well as Tsachi Slater, Michael Engel, Alin Constantin, and Elly Moseson for reading drafts of this paper and providing me with numerous instructive comments on it. I also wish to express my gratitude to Giuseppe Veltri for his valuable words of advice and ongoing support. Conﬂicts of Interest: The author declares no conﬂict of interest.

Notes 1 See (Runia 1993, p. 15 n. 58). 2 For further insightful discussions of de’ Rossi’s reception of Philo, see (Veltri 1995, pp. 372–93; Veltri 2018, pp. 48–51; Weinberg 1988, pp. 163–87; N. Cohen 2008, pp. 34–39; Marcus 1948, pp. 29–71; Rosenberg-Wohl 2014, pp. 109–38; Runia 1993, pp. 32–33; Amir 2018, pp. 237–38). 3 (Graetz 1870, pp. 484–85) (my translation). For a more in-depth examination of the emergence of the historical consciousness in the nineteenth century, see (Schorsch 1983, pp. 414–17, 425–26; Feiner 2001, pp. 71–156; Lehnardt 2007, pp. 363–88; Taubes 1963, pp. 150–64). 4 (Amir 2012, p. 113). The editing of the Guide was undertaken posthumously by none other than Leopold Zunz (1794–1886), and it was first published in 1851. For a thorough and insightful analysis of Zunz’s role as the editor of the Guide, see (Schorsch 1986, pp. 116–17). See Zunz’s depiction of Krochmal in his Die Monatstage des Kalenderjahres, ein Andenken an Hingeschiedene (Zunz 1872, p. 43). 5 For Hegel’s influence on Krochmal, see (Rawidowicz 1928, pp. 535–82; Lehnardt 2012, pp. l–li; Harris 1991, pp. 113–44; Klausner 1952, pp. 205–14). 6 Although Krochmal scarcely completed any written work, he still managed to leave a mark on the Eastern European Haskalah that has in many respects remained unmatched. His tremendous impact came primarily to the fore through his charismatic pedagogical activity within his surrounding intellectual Jewish circles. For Krochmal’s impact on Eastern European Maskilic circles, see (Klausner 1952, pp. 165–70; Rapoport 1841, pp. 41–44). For Rapoport’s relationship with Krochmal, see (Strauss 2019b, pp. 209–11; Klausner 1952, pp. 221, 240, 245–46; Graetz 1870, p. 494). 7 Krochmal devotes two brief chapters of the Guide to the notion of the golden mean, Chapters 2 (Ha-Shevilin) and 4 (Ha-Tokh): see (Krochmal 2010, pp. 10–12, 16–17). For a more thorough analysis of this important theme, see (Amir 2018, pp. 81–86). 8 In the Mishnah, the Hasideans are depicted, for example, as waiting “an hour before they said the Tefillah, that they “ might direct their heart toward God” (M. Berakhot 5:1) or as dancing alongside the Anshei Ma aseh“ (men of good deeds) “with burning torches in their hands, singing songs and praises” (M. Sukkah 5:4). The English translations of the Mishnah in this article are taken from (Danby 1933). For discussions of the ancient Hasideans, whose nature and identity as a group remain obscure, and their links to Second Temple Judaism, see (Jost 1857, pp. 125–26, 174–79, 198–99, 207–9, 272; Kampen 1988; Kampen 1986, pp. 61–81; Simkovich 2018, pp. 165–66; Singer 1974; Daniélou 2014, pp. 28–29; Frankel 1853, pp. 30–40, 61–73; Ben Shalom 2008, pp. 78–81). 9 To avoid confusion, I will consistently use the term Hasideans to denote the ancient Jewish faction mentioned in rabbinic literature, and Hasidism, Hasidim, and Hasidic to denote the modern religious movement. 10 For a more extensive presentation of Hasidism, see (Biale et al. 2018; Wodziński 2018; Elior 2006; Talabardon 2016; Idel 1995). 11 See Krochmal’s letter to Samuel D. Luzzatto, in which he outlines the chief objective of the Guide in terms of an adequate response to the perplexing crises of his times: (Krochmal 2010, p. 425). For further analysis, see (Amir 2003, pp. 266–80, 294–95; Amir 2018, pp. 56–59). 12 For a very detailed and extensive examination of Philo’s reception history among the Church Fathers, see (Runia 1993). 13 For a more detailed examination of Christian perceptions of the Essenes and the Therapeutae, see (Taylor 2012, pp. 141–94; Taylor 2003, pp. 31–33; Philo of Alexandria 2020 [Taylor and Hay], (henceforth PACS), vol. 7, pp. 45–51; Inowlocki 2004, pp. 305–28). For an innovative and learned analysis of Philo’s depiction of the Therapeutae and their symposia and what they disclose about Jewish identity within a cultural Roman framework, see (Niehoff 2010, pp. 95–116). Religions 2021, 12, 377 19 of 27

14 See Taylor’s description of Christian scholarship on the Essenes in the nineteenth century in (Taylor 2012, pp. 3–5). 15 For an analysis of Hegel’s Christocentric portrayal of Philo, see (Strauss 2019a, pp. 187–237; O’Regan 2008, pp. 101–27; Westerkamp 2009, pp. 91–144). 16 For a lucid and insightful depiction of Krochmal as the “middle-of-the-road maskil”, see (Feiner 2001, pp. 115–25). 17 (Goetschel 1986, p. 383). As Goetschel argues, a further indication thereof is that Krochmal also applies Neander’s approach to his account of Gnosticism in Chapter 15 of the Guide. 18 (Lachower 1951, pp. 233–42). For Philo’s reception history among the scholars of the Wissenschaft des Judentums, see (Niehoff 1999, pp. 9–28; Niehoff 2011, pp. 31–32; Sills 1984). Another notable section on Krochmal’s understanding of Philo is found in the superb, recently published monograph of Yehoyada Amir, who also places emphasis on Krochmal’s use of Dähne as a secondary source: (Amir 2018, pp. 254–61). 19 This letter was first published in a special issue of Kerem H. emed that included numerous letters from known Maskilim which Goldenberg had compiled (Krochmal 1839, pp. 269–70). 20 Krochmal’s depiction of Philo’s stance appears to draw upon Chapter 4 of de’ Rossi’s Imrei Binah, which also speaks of Shemirat ha-Torot ba-fo al“ with respect to the very same section of Philo’s Migr. (§§89–93): see (De’ Rossi 1829, p. 56). His more nuanced understanding of Jewish law actually seems to echo the Mendelssohnian concept of the Zeremonialgesetz as “the bond which was to connect action with contemplation, life with theory” (Mendelssohn 1983, p. 99). Lachower also draws attention to this similarity (Lachower 1951, p. 262). For a more comprehensive and in-depth analysis of Krochmal’s approach to Halakha and its “striking degree of commonality” (p. 369) to that of Mendelssohn, see (Sacks 2016, pp. 354, 362–73). 21 For the Hasidic doctrine of bittul ha-yesh (“annihilation of reality”), see (Biale et al. 2018, pp. 5, 164, 777). It is important to note that Krochmal’s critique of modern Hasidism as being antinomian in nature seems to be adopted from the clichéd portrayal of the Mitnaggdim, which was exaggerated for the sake of polemics. See (Biale et al. 2018, pp. 85–91). The Hasidic movement remained committed to Jewish ritual law and their special religious customs remained mostly confined to its limits (Biale et al. 2018, pp. 90, 92, 170, 355–56, 620, 797). For Krochmal’s critique of the Hasidic movement of his days as outlined in the opening chapter of the Guide, see (Krochmal 2010, pp. 7–9). Feiner also touches on Krochmal’s projection of this critical perception onto the Second Temple era: see (Feiner 2001, pp. 123–24). 22 See (Flusser 1968, p. 478). 23 (Krochmal 2010, pp. 432–36, 440–42). For more extensive discussions of Luzzatto’s rejection of Maimonides and Ibn “ Ezra“ in this context, see (Klausner 1952, pp. 74–75, 100–10; Barzilay 1969, pp. 101–5; Balsam-Geld 2017, pp. 278–79; Feiner 2004, p. 151; Feiner 2001, pp. 130–34, 148–49). 24 The English translation of Psalm 78:3 is taken from the NJPS version. For Krochmal’s original Hebrew, see (Krochmal 2010, p. 165; my translation). Cf. Zunz’s summary of the contents of the Guide’s Chapter 12 in his introduction to the work: (Zunz 2010, p. iv). 25 For the widespread view of ancient Kabbalah as having originated in Alexandrian Jewish wisdom traditions, see “ (Kohler 2019, pp. 31–32, 37, 42–43, 163, 233, 249–51). For more in-depth examinations of Ma aseh“ Ber eshit and Ma aseh“ Merkavah in their rabbinic and later kabbalistic meaning, see (Abrams 1998, pp. 329–45; Halperin 1980; Gottstein 2011, pp. 69–133; E. Wolfson 1993, pp. 13–44; Scholem 1965, pp. 1–83; Afterman 2016, pp. 49–59). Chapter 12 of the Guide appears to have exerted an influence on other Maskilic engagements with Philo’s writings: for example, the title of Josef Flesch’s book Katot Minni Kedem, comprising a Hebrew translation of Philo’s Contempl. and Prob. 75–87, is also predicated on Psalm 78:2–3. For a more detailed explanation of this similarity, see (Strauss 2019b, p. 211). 26 For Philo’s reception in Jewish mysticism and Kabbalah, see (E. Wolfson 1996, pp. 99–106; Morlok and Strauss forthcoming). 27 See (Goetschel 1986, pp. 374–75; Klausner 1952, p. 194). 28 Krochmal’s depiction resembles Immanuel Wolf’s (1799–1847) formulation of the chief research objectives of the Wissenschaft des Judentums in his famous article “Ueber den Begriff einer Wissenschaft des Judenthums”(Wolf 1822, pp. 23–24). It is noteworthy that Wolf accords Philo and Hellenistic Jewish literature an important role in the historical development of the Jewish religion: see (Wolf, pp. 7, 8, 11). For further analysis, see (Niehoff 1999, pp. 11–14). Also see (Amir 2018, pp. 242–43, 357). 29 Hegel’s lectures on the history of philosophy might have impacted Krochmal in this respect. Cf. (Strauss 2019a, pp. 177–85; “Philons Wirkungsgeschichte: Vom Neuplatonismus über Kabbala und Gnosis bis hin zur jüdischen und christlichen Philosophie”). 30 (Anonymous 1821a, pp. 22–23). M. Pelli believes that its authorship is to be ascribed to the journal’s editor Salomon Jacob Cohen (1771–1845): see (Pelli 2005, p. 285). Also see (Anonymous 1821b, p. 13). Cf. (Amir 2018, p. 240). Religions 2021, 12, 377 20 of 27

31 For a more detailed explanation of Rapoport’s intention, see (Strauss 2019b, pp. 205–8, 223). 32 Mendelssohn’s commissioned translation of Menasseh ben Israel’s Vindication of the Jews (1782)—translated into Hebrew in 1813 by Samson Bloch Halevi (1784–1845)—seems to have played a significant role in the mediation of the image of Philo as an ancient thinker who personifies Maskilic values and ideas. In this apologetic treatise, Menasseh repeatedly draws on Philo’s Legat. and Spec. in order to reinforce the thesis that Judaism is, in essence, universal and tolerant. For further analysis, see (Strauss forthcoming a). Rapoport and Flesch are also worth mentioning in this respect, as they believed that scholarship on Philo could be used to convey the Maskilic outlook and incite Eastern and Central European Jewish communities to become more pious and balanced. For further discussion of this theme, Religions 2021, 12, x 20 of 26 see (Strauss 2019b, pp. 205–6; Amir 2018, pp. 240–41, 255). The Maskil Mordecai Aaron Günzburg (alias RaMAG; 1795–1846), who in 1836 translated Philo’s Legat. into Hebrew from Johann F. Eckhardt’s German rendition of the text, also exemplifies this trend. As Eli Lederhendler argues, Günzburg viewed Philo “as the ideal maskil: imbued with love for his peopleGünzburg and capable(alias RaMAG; of defending 1795–1846), them who with in reason, 1836 translated worldly knowledge,Philo’s Legat. rhetoricalinto Hebrew skill, from and Johann the personal F. Eckhardt’s German stature that comesrendition with of great the wisdom”text, also exemplifies (Lederhendler this 1989trend., p.As 107). Eli Le Alsoderhendler see (Amir argues, 2018 Günzburg, p. 241). Forview aed more Philo detailed “as the ideal maskil: examination ofimbued Günzburg’s with love reception for his ofpeople Philo, and see capable (Strauss of forthcomingdefending them b). with reason, worldly knowledge, rhetorical skill, and the 33 The English translationpersonal stature that I that have comes drawn with on great and slightlywisdom” modified (Lederhendler is taken 1989, from p. 107). (Mendelssohn For a more 2018detailed, pp. examination 284–85). It of Günzburg’s is important toreception note that of Mendelssohn, Philo, see (Strauss in turn, forthcoming based his b). passage on de’ Rossi’s Light of the Eyes (De’ Rossi 1829, p. 82). 33 The English translation that I have drawn on and slightly modified is taken from (Mendelssohn 2018, pp. 284–85). It is important 34 Mendelssohn did not only draw on Philo’s testimony in relation to the emergence of the Greek translation of the to note that Mendelssohn, in turn, based his passage on de’ Rossi’s Light of“ the Eyes (de’ Rossi 1829, p. 82). Hebrew Bible (Mos. 2.26–40), but also in two further significant instances in his Bi ur: (1) Mendelssohn utilizes Mos. 34 Mendelssohn did not only draw on Philo’s testimony in relation to the emergence of the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible 1.84–88 for his elucidation of the meaning of the colored wool described by the term argaman (Exodus 25:4), and (2) he (Mos. 2.26–40), but also in two further significant instances“ in his Biʾur: (1) Mendelssohn utilizes Mos. 1.84–88 for his elucidation refers to Philo’sof the reading meaning of theof the poem colore Songd wool of thedescribed Well (byShirat the ha-Beterm argamaner; Numbers (Exodus 21:18) 25:4), in andMos (2). 1.256–257.he refers to Philo’s For a more reading of the poem extensive analysisSong of thisthe Well theme, (Shirat see ha-Be Straussʾer; Numbersforthcoming 21:18) a .in For Mos Mendelssohn’s. 1.256–257. For decisivea more extensive impact analys on Krochmal,is of this theme, see see Strauss (Harris 1991, pp.forthcoming 100–101 n.a. For 54; RapoportMendelssohn’s 1841 ,decisi p. 44;ve Klausner impact on 1952 Krochmal,, p. 154; see Graetz (Harris 1870 1991,, p. pp. 483). 100–101 n. 54; Rapoport 1841, p. 44; 35 Also see (SchorschKlausner 1986 1952,, p. 288).p. 154; Graetz 1870, p. 483). 36 (Michaelis35 1799Also, p. see 495; (Schorsch my translation). 1986, p. 288). For an extensive and very learned presentation of Philonic ethics, see (Lévy 2009, pp.36 146–71). (Michaelis 1799, p. 495; my translation). For an extensive and very learned presentation of Philonic ethics, see (Lévy 2009, pp. 37 For the importance146–71). of musar for Krochmal, see, for example, (Krochmal 2010, p. 441). On the general role of religious 37 ethics in Krochmal’s For the thought,importance see of themusar penetrating for Krochmal, examination see, for example, in (Sacks (Krochmal 2016, pp. 2010, 352–53, p. 441). 362–73). On the general role of religious ethics in 38 For further scholarlyKrochmal’s discussions thought, onsee thisthe penetrating theme see, examination for example, in ( Morlok(Sacks 2016, 2020 pp., pp. 352–53, 300–33; 362–73). Lohmann 2019, pp. 58–73, 38 For further scholarly discussions on this theme see, for example, (Morlok 2020, pp. 300–33; Lohmann 2019, pp. 58–73, 244, 248– 244, 248–50; Bor 2001, pp. 48–63). 39 50; Bor 2001, pp. 48–63). (Dähne 183439 ,(Dähne vol. 1, p.1834, 76; vol. my 1, translation). p. 76; my translation). In the second In the volume,second volu Dähneme, Dähne also adducesalso adduces similar similar interpretations interpretations of of Philo and the Philo and therabbis rabbis (Dähne (Dähne 1834, 1834 vol., vol. 2, pp. 2, 14–15), pp. 14–15), which which Krochmal Krochmal puts to use puts in the to useGuide in: (Krochmal the Guide:( 2010,Krochmal p. 176). 2010This use, p. is also alluded 176). This useto is by also Andreas alluded Lehnardt to by Andreas in the German Lehnardt edition: in the see German(Lehnardt edition: 2012, p. see419 (n.Lehnardt 1). 2012, p. 419 n. 1). 40 The main40 thesisThe of main Neander’s thesis of workNeander’s is that work Philo’s is that dualistic Philo’s dualistic systematic systematic thought—which thought—which posits posits an unfathomable,an unfathomable, hidden, and hidden, and transcendenttranscendent GodGod (τὸ ὄν/ ὁ ὤν), on on the the one one hand, hand, and and His His revelatory revelatory aspect, aspect, the Logos, the Logos, on the on other—was the other—was adapted by all of the adapted by allemerging of the emerging doctrines doctrinesof Gnosticism of Gnosticism (Neander 1818, (Neander p. 8–11). 1818 Cf. (Brakke, p. 8–11). 2010, On pp. Krochmal’s 59–62). Gnosticism understanding is customarily of understood Gnosticism, seeas thea religious comprehensive syncretistic presentation school of thou ofght (Amir of the 2018 second, pp. and 258–60, third centuries 262–88). of Cf. the ( BrakkeCommon 2010 Era, of pp. the 59–62). Greco-Roman realm, Gnosticism iswhich customarily incorporates understood a wide asarray a religious of religious syncretistic and philosophical school of pr thoughtecepts into of theoverarching, second and dualistic third systems centuries of belief. For the of the Commonscholarly Era of category the Greco-Roman of ‘Gnosticism’ realm, and whichits problematic incorporates featur aes, wide see (Brakke array of 2010, religious pp. 1–28). and For philosophical a broad description of the precepts into overarching,Gnostic tradition, dualistic see (Berge systemsr andof Wilson belief. 1984, For pp. the 519–50). scholarly category of ‘Gnosticism’ and its problematic 41 See (Krochmal 2010, p. 184). Lachower also concedes this point: see (Lachower 1951, p. 235). Cf. (Strauss 2019a, pp. 205–6). features, see (Brakke 2010, pp. 1–28). For a broad description of the Gnostic tradition, see (Berger and Wilson 1984, 42 He draws on M. Avot 2:6, 2:8–9, 2:11, 2:19, 3:2, 3:9–10, 3:13, 3:17, 3:21, 4:11; 4:21, 4:28, 5:13–14, 6:4. For a detailed analysis of M. pp. 519–50). Avot and Philo’s description of the Jewish sects, see (Niehoff 2017, pp. 469–71). Cf. (Philo of Alexandria 2020, PACS 7:153, 274, 41 See (Krochmal347). 2010 For, p. Krochmal’s 184). Lachower understanding also concedes of rabbinic this tradition, point: see, see fo (Lachowerr example, Chapter1951, p. 5, 235).“The Rabbinic Cf. (Strauss Tradition”, 2019a ,in (Harris 1991, pp. 205–6). pp. 206–57). Cf. also (Lehnardt 2002, pp. 105–26). 42 He draws43 on M.Cf. Safrai, Avot 2:6,who 2:8–9, in contrast 2:11, to 2:19, Krochmal 3:2, 3:9–10, understands 3:13, 3:17, the Hasideans 3:21, 4:11; as 4:21, men 4:28,prioritizing 5:13–14, praxis 6:4. ov Forer atheoretical detailed studies: (Safrai analysis of M.1985, Avot pp. and 133–54). Philo’s description of the Jewish sects, see (Niehoff 2017, pp. 469–71). Cf. (Philo of Alexandria 2020, PACS44 7:153,(Wessely 274, 1782, 347). third For Krochmal’spage; the text understanding is unpaginated). of For rabbinic further analysis, tradition, see see, (Pelli for 1978, example, pp. 43–55; Chapter Pelli 1974, 5, “The pp. 222–38). Rabbinic45 Tradition”, Vayikra in Rabba, (Harris Ẓav, 1991 par. ,9, pp. to Leviticus 206–57). 7:11 Cf. also(ed. Margoliot, (Lehnardt 2:179). 2002, pp. 105–26). 43 Cf. Safrai,46 whoThis in contrast is reminiscent to Krochmal of Perl’s understandsprogrammatic the portrayal Hasideans of the as Vilna men Ga prioritizingʾon. For an insightful praxis over discussion theoretical of this studies: topic, see (Meir 2013, (Safrai 1985, pp.pp. 133–54). 201–3). 47 44 (Wessely 1782 For, third more page; on this the topic, text see is (Harris unpaginated). 1991, pp. 6–12, For 17–18; further Mahler analysis, 1985, pp. see 27, (Pelli 32–37, 1978 41,, 50–52, pp. 43–55; 58–59, 66,Pelli 80–81, 1974 122;, Feiner 2001, pp. 117–19; Lehnardt 2012, pp. xvii–xxi; Liss 2020, pp. 244–46; Gruschka and Aptroot 2010, pp. 94–95; Meir 2013). pp. 222–38). 48 The designation of Hitḥasdut can be traced back to the Mitnaggdic critique of Hasidism (Biale et al. 2018, pp. 7, 86). Accounting, 45 Vayikra Rabba, zav, par. 9, to Leviticus 7:11 (ed. Margoliot, 2:179). for. example, for such Hasidic factions such as Habad with“ “its singular intellectuality”, (Biale et al. 2018, p. 125) refutes, to a 46 This is reminiscentlarge ofextent, Perl’s Krochmal’s programmatic negative portrayal perception ofthe of Hasidism Vilna Ga ason. being For utterly an insightful irrational. discussion For further of thisanalysis topic, of seeHabad’s emphasis (Meir 2013, pp.on 201–3). intellectual endeavors, see (Biale et al. 2018, p. 131; Meir 2013, pp. 227–28; Meir 2017, p. 305; Elior 1993, pp. 159–72). For an insightful presentation of the image of Habad Hasidism among Maskilim, see (Meir 2017, pp. 297–315). Krochmal’s entirely negative apprehension of modern Hasidism as a fanatical sect is a recurring theme of his correspondence: see (Krochmal 2010, pp. 413, 416–18, 425, 430–31, 432). For further discussions relating to this specific Maskilic critique of Hasidism, see (Harris 1991, p. 17; Meir 2013, pp. 126–27, 178, 185, 189, 193, 196, 216, 221, 225–26; Krochmalnik 2003, pp. 210–11; Schulte 2002, pp. 138–58; Freudenthal 2019, pp. 432–36). 49 See (Biale et al. 2018, p. 160 [“Since early Hasidism, as well as its later manifestations, was never a monolithic movement, its leaders did not adhere to a single set of ideas or practices”]). For an extensive description of the broad variation of nineteenth- century Hasidism, see (Biale et al. 2018, pp. 291–400). For further in-depth discussions of this monolithic perception of modern Hasidism that was common in the Eastern European Haskalah, see, for example (Meir 2013, p. 80). For recent literature on modern Hasidism and its conflicts with the maskilim, see (Meir 2016, pp. 60–94; Wodziński 2005; Biale et al. 2018, esp. pp. 387, 478–501, 531, 547–48, 808; Werses 1990, pp. 91–109; Werses 1999, pp. 65–88; Feiner 1999, pp. 95–128). 50 (Biale et al. 2018, p. 98). For the influence of the Mitnaggdic critique of the Hasidim on Maskilim, see (Biale et al. 2018, pp. 94, 478, 481, 483; Mahler 1985, pp. 42–43).

Religions 2021, 12, 377 21 of 27

47 For more on this topic, see (Harris 1991, pp. 6–12, 17–18; Mahler 1985, pp. 27, 32–37, 41, 50–52, 58–59, 66, 80–81, 122; Feiner 2001, pp. 117–19; Lehnardt 2012, pp. xvii–xxi; Liss 2020, pp. 244–46; Gruschka and Aptroot 2010, pp. 94–95; Meir 2013). 48 The designation of Hith. asdut can be traced back to the Mitnaggdic critique of Hasidism (Biale et al. 2018, pp. 7, 86). Accounting, for example, for such Hasidic factions such as Habad with “its singular intellectuality”, (Biale et al. 2018, p. 125) refutes, to a large extent, Krochmal’s negative perception of Hasidism as being utterly irrational. For further analysis of Habad’s emphasis on intellectual endeavors, see (Biale et al. 2018, p. 131; Meir 2013, pp. 227–28; Meir 2017, p. 305; Elior 1993, pp. 159–72). For an insightful presentation of the image of Habad Hasidism among Maskilim, see (Meir 2017, pp. 297–315). Krochmal’s entirely negative apprehension of modern Hasidism as a fanatical sect is a recurring theme of his correspondence: see (Krochmal 2010, pp. 413, 416–18, 425, 430–31, 432). For further discussions relating to this specific Maskilic critique of Hasidism, see (Harris 1991, p. 17; Meir 2013, pp. 126–27, 178, 185, 189, 193, 196, 216, 221, 225–26; Krochmalnik 2003, pp. 210–11; Schulte 2002, pp. 138–58; Freudenthal 2019, pp. 432–36). 49 See (Biale et al. 2018, p. 160 [“Since early Hasidism, as well as its later manifestations, was never a monolithic movement, its leaders did not adhere to a single set of ideas or practices”]). For an extensive description of the broad variation of nineteenth-century Hasidism, see (Biale et al. 2018, pp. 291–400). For further in-depth discussions of this monolithic perception of modern Hasidism that was common in the Eastern European Haskalah, see, for example (Meir 2013, p. 80). For recent literature on modern Hasidism and its conflicts with the maskilim, see (Meir 2016, pp. 60–94; Wodziński 2005; Biale et al. 2018, esp. pp. 387, 478–501, 531, 547–48, 808; Werses 1990, pp. 91–109; Werses 1999, pp. 65–88; Feiner 1999, pp. 95–128). 50 (Biale et al. 2018, p. 98). For the influence of the Mitnaggdic critique of the Hasidim on Maskilim, see (Biale et al. 2018, pp. 94, 478, 481, 483; Mahler 1985, pp. 42–43). Religions 2021, 12, x “ 21 of 26 51 On this point, I am using the second part of the variant of Wolf’s edition, which adds h. avurot ha-iss i (Krochmal 2010, p. 168). 52 PACS 7:80. Cf. ((Philo of Alexandria 1929–1962, (henceforth PLCL), vol. 9, p. 133)). 51 53 PACS 7:80. Cf. PLCL 9:133 (“only after six days [ ... ] bring themselves On this to tastepoint, suchI am using sustenance the second as is part absolutely of the variant of Wolf’s edition, which adds ḥavurot ha-issʾi (Krochmal 2010, p. 168). 52 necessary”). PACS 7:80. Cf. (Philo of Alexandria 1929–1962, (henceforth PLCL), vol. 9, p. 133). 53 54 This is also emphasized by Dähne(1834, vol. 1, p. 447). See (Amir 2018PACS, p. 251). 7:80. Cf. PLCL 9:133 (“only after six days […] bring themselves to taste such sustenance as is absolutely necessary”). 54 This is also emphasized by Dähne (1834, vol. 1, p. 447). 55 Krochmal supposes that the mishnaic term zokheh for victory (nizahon) originates from the Aramaic and that it is 55. . Krochmal supposes that the mishnaic term zokheh for victory (niẓaḥon) originates from the Aramaic and that it is also employed also employed metaphorically to mean “according to this ethical systemmetaphorically that any to laborer’s mean “according work is to a wrestlingthis ethical system that any laborer’s work is a wrestling battle and victory over the battle and victory over the sensual matter and carnal lust” (Krochmalsensual 2010 ,matter p. 171; and my carnal translation). lust” (Krochmal Consulting 2010, p. 171; my translation). Consulting W. Gesenius’s Hebräisches und chaldäisches W. Gesenius’s Hebräisches und chaldäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte TestamentHandwörterbuch(Gesenius über 1834 das, pp. Alte 542–43), Testament we (Gesenius find the 1834, pp. 542–43), we find the second metaphorical definition of the biblical second metaphorical definition of the biblical adjective zakh to be “pureadjective in the moralzakh to be sense” “pure ( reinin the [ ... moral] im sense” moralischen (rein […] im moralischen Sinne). For his supposed use of Gesenius’s dictionary, see Sinne). For his supposed use of Gesenius’s dictionary, see (Lehnardt 2012(Lehnardt, p. xlvii). 2012, In p. fact, xlvii). in MishnaicIn fact, in Mishnaic Hebrew, Hebrew, the the term usually means the judicial right over property, see (Steinberg to to deserve divine reward through him”. In tractate Avot, there are two sayings לזכות בו“ :(term usually means the judicial right over property, see (Steinberg 19601960,, p. 205). p. 205). Cf. Cf. (Jastrow (Jastrow 1903 1903,, p. p. 398):398 deserve divine reward through him”. In tractate Avot, there are two sayingsthat employ that this employ term thismetaphorically: term metaphorically: see M. Avot 5:18 and 6:1. see M. Avot 5:18 and 6:1. 56 (Krochmal 2010, p. 171; my translation). Cf. S. Maimon’s depiction of the ancient Hasideans in (Maimon 1988, p. 102). 57 56 (Krochmal 2010, p. 171; my translation). Cf. S. Maimon’s depiction of(Krochmal the ancient 2010, Hasideans p. 171). It is in interesting (Maimon to 1988 note, that p. Salomon Maimon’s positive evaluation of contemporary Hasidim partially 102). rests on their deviation from the ancient Hasideans in this respect, inasmuch as they partake in worldly pleasure: “They asserted that true piety was in no way a matter of abusing the flesh, for doing so also weakened the soul’s power and destroyed the 57 (Krochmal 2010, p. 171). It is interesting to note that Salomon Maimon’s positive evaluation of contemporary spiritual calm and good cheer needed for attaining the knowledge and love of God. On the contrary, the argued, one should Hasidim partially rests on their deviation from the ancient Hasideans in this respect, inasmuch as they partake satisfy all bodily needs and embrace all sensual pleasures, insofar as they are necessary for our emotional development” in worldly pleasure: “They asserted that true piety was in no way a matter(Maimon of 2018, abusing p. 86). the For flesh, further for explanation, doing so also see (Biale et al. 2018, pp. 174–81). weakened the soul’s power and destroyed the spiritual calm and58 goodSee, cheer for instance, needed Prob for. attaining88; Virt. 193; the Congr knowledge. 164. For further analysis of Philo’s athletic metaphors, see (Svebakken 2012, pp. 99– and love of God. On the contrary, the argued, one should satisfy all bodily102; Philo needs of andAlexandria embrace 2013, all [henceforth sensual pleasures, PACS], vol. 4, pp. 158, 198, 204–6, 236, 247, 334; Pfitzner 1967, pp. 38–48; Arnold 2014, insofar as they are necessary for our emotional development” (Maimonpp. 44,2018 50;, Sterling p. 86). For1994, further pp. 689, explanation, 692–96). For an see innovative interpretation of M. Avot in connection with this specific depiction (Biale et al. 2018, pp. 174–81). of the Essenes echoing Roman Stoic terminology, see (Niehoff 2017, pp. 469–71). 58 See, for instance, Prob. 88; Virt. 193; Congr. 164. For further analysis59 of Philo’sFor the athletic soul’s battle metaphors, with the see passions (Svebakken as a common 2012, theme of Kabbalah and Hasidism and its Graeco-Arabic sources, see (Idel pp. 99–102; , [henceforth PACS vol. 4, pp. 158, 198, 204–6, 236, 247, 334]B97-religions-1190691;2009, pp. 62–96). Pfitzner 1967, pp. 38–48; Arnold 2014, pp. 44, 50; Sterling 1994, pp. 689, 692–96). For an innovative60 Also see interpretation (Dähne 1834, ofvol. M. 1, Avot360). in connection 61 with this specific depiction of the Essenes echoing Roman Stoic terminology, (Krochmal see 2010, (Niehoff p. 168–70). 2017, pp.For 469–71).this Tannaitic hierarchical conception of virtues and its pervasive use within early modern musar literature, see Koch’s insightful depiction in (Koch 2015, p. 53). 59 For the soul’s battle with the passions as a common theme of Kabbalah and Hasidism and its Graeco-Arabic sources, 62 “R. Hanina b. Dosa said: He whose fear of sin comes before his wisdom, his wisdom endures; but he whose wisdom comes see (Idel 2009, pp. 62–96). before his fear of sin, his wisdom does not endure. He used to say: He whose works exceed his wisdom, his wisdom endures; 60 Also see (Dähne 1834, vol. 1, 360). but he whose wisdom exceeds his works, his wisdom does not endure”. 63 See, for example (Krochmal 2010, p. 172): “she-lo naḥshov she-‘efshar […] she-yiheyeh ha-ḥasid baʿal ha-madaʿ meikel be- maʿasim”. 64 As Safrai justifiably notes, the Ḥasidim in rabbinic literature seem to be identified with the men of deeds (ʾAnshei Maʿaseh) (Safrai 1985, pp. 144–54). 65 This attitude is also evinced in Krochmal’s reference to the rabbinic designations for God, which in his view are “taken from the Hellenistic Alexandrians”: see (Krochmal 2010, p. 171). 66 Krochmal also refers to a saying ascribed to him in M. Avot 3:11 (“Any assembling together that is for the sake of Heaven shall in the end be established, but any that is not for the sake of Heaven shall not in the end be established”), while pointing out that he might be alluding to the Essenes: (Krochmal 2010, p. 168). Cf. ʿErekh Milin, where Rapoport attempts to point out exactly the same fact by resorting to Yoḥanan Ha-Sandlar see (Rapoport 1852, p. 102): “And still we may learn from this that there was also a famous Tannaʾ from Alexandria, although he left it to study in the Yeshivot of the land of Israel” (my translation). 67 See (Belkin 1989, p. 6 n. 2). 68 (Dähne 1834, vol. 1, p. 399; emphasis in original). Cf. (Dähne 1834, vol. 1, p. 417). 69 (Krochmal 2010, pp. 177–78). For the German translation of Fug. 25–36, see (Dähne 1834, vol. 1, pp. 413–16). Krochmal also translates Migr. 89–92 into Hebrew see (Krochmal 2010, p. 178), again using Dähne’s German rendition see (Dähne 1834, vol. 1, pp. 66–67). For a discussion of this passage in connection with rabbinic literature, see (Urbach 1969, pp. 255, 263–64; Belkin 1940, pp. 11–13; S. Cohen 2007, pp. 129–30; Naiweld 2015, pp. 421–22). 70 For further analysis of the relationship between the contemplative and practical modes of life in Philo, see (Calabi 2008, pp. 155–84). 71 Krochmal explains this saying in the following manner: “haynu she-raʾui le-hakdim be-madregat ha-ʿoved be-maʿaseh (ἀσκητής), ve-ʾaḥar lavo’ le-madregat ha-ḥasid ha-mesalek ʿaẓmo mi-maʿasi” (Krochmal 2010, p. 169). 72 (Krochmal 2010, p. 169; my translation). Interestingly enough, the famous historian Y. Baer also made a very similar and in- depth comparison: see (Baer 1953, pp. 95, 97, esp. 103–5). 73 He also adduces and interprets an analogous metaphorical image of a tree symbolizing the righteous individuals (ẓadikim) from a baraitaʾ in B. Kiddushin 40b attributed to Elʿazar bar Ẓadok along similar lines: see (Krochmal 2010, pp. 169–70). 74 For further analysis of this dependency, see (Runia 1986, pp. 324–29). 75 This is an obvious allusion to Neander’s treatment of Philo: see (Neander 1818, p. 3). 76 (Rawidowicz 1971, p. 263). Cf. (Lehnardt 2012, pp. xlix–l). 77 S. Maimon also alludes to the contrasting features between the ancient and modern Ḥasidim: see (Maimon 1988, pp. 102–3).

Religions 2021, 12, x 21 of 26

51 On this point, I am using the second part of the variant of Wolf’s edition, which adds ḥavurot ha-issʾi (Krochmal 2010, p. 168). 52 PACS 7:80. Cf. (Philo of Alexandria 1929–1962, (henceforth PLCL), vol. 9, p. 133). 53 PACS 7:80. Cf. PLCL 9:133 (“only after six days […] bring themselves to taste such sustenance as is absolutely necessary”). 54 This is also emphasized by Dähne (1834, vol. 1, p. 447). 55 Krochmal supposes that the mishnaic term zokheh for victory (niẓaḥon) originates from the Aramaic and that it is also employed metaphorically to mean “according to this ethical system that any laborer’s work is a wrestling battle and victory over the sensual matter and carnal lust” (Krochmal 2010, p. 171; my translation). Consulting W. Gesenius’s Hebräisches und chaldäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte Testament (Gesenius 1834, pp. 542–43), we find the second metaphorical definition of the biblical adjective zakh to be “pure in the moral sense” (rein […] im moralischen Sinne). For his supposed use of Gesenius’s dictionary, see (Lehnardt 2012, p. xlvii). In fact, in Mishnaic Hebrew, the term usually means the judicial right over property, see (Steinberg to deserve divine reward through him”. In tractate Avot, there are two sayings לזכות בו“ :(p. 205). Cf. (Jastrow 1903, p. 398 ,1960 that employ this term metaphorically: see M. Avot 5:18 and 6:1. 56 (Krochmal 2010, p. 171; my translation). Cf. S. Maimon’s depiction of the ancient Hasideans in (Maimon 1988, p. 102). 57 (Krochmal 2010, p. 171). It is interesting to note that Salomon Maimon’s positive evaluation of contemporary Hasidim partially rests on their deviation from the ancient Hasideans in this respect, inasmuch as they partake in worldly pleasure: “They asserted that true piety was in no way a matter of abusing the flesh, for doing so also weakened the soul’s power and destroyed the spiritual calm and good cheer needed for attaining the knowledge and love of God. On the contrary, the argued, one should satisfy all bodily needs and embrace all sensual pleasures, insofar as they are necessary for our emotional development” (Maimon 2018, p. 86). For further explanation, see (Biale et al. 2018, pp. 174–81). Religions 202158 , 12See,, 377 for instance, Prob. 88; Virt. 193; Congr. 164. For further analysis of Philo’s athletic metaphors, see (Svebakken22 of2012, 27 pp. 99– 102; Philo of Alexandria 2013, [henceforth PACS], vol. 4, pp. 158, 198, 204–6, 236, 247, 334; Pfitzner 1967, pp. 38–48; Arnold 2014, pp. 44, 50; Sterling 1994, pp. 689, 692–96). For an innovative interpretation of M. Avot in connection with this specific depiction of the Essenes echoing Roman Stoic terminology, see (Niehoff 2017, pp. 469–71). 61 (Krochmal59 For 2010 the ,soul’s pp. 168–70). battle with For the this passions Tannaitic as a hierarchicalcommon theme conception of Kabbalah of virtuesand Hasidism and its and pervasive its Graeco-Arabic use within sources, early see (Idel modern musar2009, pp.literature, 62–96). see Koch’s insightful depiction in (Koch 2015, p. 53). 62 “R. Hanina60 Also b. see Dosa (Dähne said: 1834, He whosevol. 1, 360). fear of sin comes before his wisdom, his wisdom endures; but he whose wisdom comes61 before(Krochmal his fear 2010, of sin,p. 168–70). his wisdom For this does Tannaitic not endure. hierarchical He used conception to say: Heof virtues whose and works its pervasive exceed his use wisdom, within early his modern wisdom endures;musar literature, but he see whose Koch’s wisdom insightful exceeds depiction his in works, (Koch his 2015, wisdom p. 53). does not endure”.

62 “ “ 63 See, for example“R. Hanina (Krochmal b. Dosa said: 2010 He, p. whose 172): fear “she-lo of sin na comesh. shov before she-‘efshar his wisdom, [ ... ]his she-yiheyeh wisdom endures; ha-h. asid but bahe alwhose ha-mada wisdom comes meikel be-mabeforeasim”. “ his fear of sin, his wisdom does not endure. He used to say: He whose works exceed his wisdom, his wisdom endures; “ 64 As Safraibut justiﬁably he whose notes, wisdom the exceedsHasidim his works, in rabbinic his wisdom literature does seemnot endure”. to be identiﬁed with the men of deeds ( Anshei 63 .

“ See, for example (Krochmal 2010, p. 172): “she-lo naḥshov she-‘efshar […] she-yiheyeh ha-ḥasid baʿal ha-madaʿ meikel be- Ma aseh)(Safrai 1985, pp. 144–54). maʿasim”. 65 This attitude is also evinced in Krochmal’s reference to the rabbinic designations for God, which in his view are 64 As Safrai justifiably notes, the Ḥasidim in rabbinic literature seem to be identified with the men of deeds (ʾAnshei Maʿaseh) (Safrai “taken from1985, the pp. Hellenistic 144–54). Alexandrians”: see (Krochmal 2010, p. 171). 66 Krochmal65 This also attitude refers is to also a saying evinced ascribed in Krochmal’s to him reference in M. Avot to the 3:11 rabbinic (“Any designations assembling for together God, whic thath in is forhis view the sake are “taken of from Heaven shallthe Hellenistic in the end Alexandrians”: be established, see but (Krochmal any that 2010, is not p.for 171). the sake of Heaven shall not in the end be established”), while66 pointingKrochmal out also that refers he might to a saying be alluding ascribed to to the him Essenes: in M. Avot (Krochmal 3:11 (“Any 2010 assembling, p. 168). Cf.togetherErekh“ that Milin is ,for where the sake Rapoport of Heaven shall attemptsin to the point end outbe established, exactly the but same any factthat is by not resorting for the sake to Yo of hHeavenanan Ha-Sandlar shall not in the see end (Rapoport be established”), 1852, p. while 102): pointing “And out that .“ still we mayhe might learn be from alluding this thatto the there Essenes: was (Krochmal also a famous 2010, p. Tanna 168). Cf.from ʿErekh Alexandria, Milin, where although Rapoport he attempts left it to to study point in out the exactly the Yeshivotsame of the fact land by ofresorting Israel” to (my Yoḥ translation).anan Ha-Sandlar See see (Amir (Rapoport 2018, 1852, p. 251). p. 102): “And still we may learn from this that there was also 67 See (Belkina famous 1989, p.Tanna 6 n.ʾ 2).from Alexandria, although he left it to study in the Yeshivot of the land of Israel” (my translation). 67 68 (Dähne 1834See (Belkin, vol. 1, 1989, p. 399; p. 6 emphasis n. 2). in original). Cf. (Dähne 1834, vol. 1, p. 417). 68 (Dähne 1834, vol. 1, p. 399; emphasis in original). Cf. (Dähne 1834, vol. 1, p. 417). 69 (Krochmal 2010, pp. 177–78). For the German translation of Fug. 25–36, see (Dähne 1834, vol. 1, pp. 413–16). Krochmal 69 (Krochmal 2010, pp. 177–78). For the German translation of Fug. 25–36, see (Dähne 1834, vol. 1, pp. 413–16). Krochmal also also translates Migr. 89–92 into Hebrew see (Krochmal 2010, p. 178), again using Dähne’s German rendition see translates Migr. 89–92 into Hebrew see (Krochmal 2010, p. 178), again using Dähne’s German rendition see (Dähne 1834, vol. 1, (Dähne 1834, vol. 1, pp. 66–67). For a discussion of this passage in connection with rabbinic literature, see (Urbach pp. 66–67). For a discussion of this passage in connection with rabbinic literature, see (Urbach 1969, pp. 255, 263–64; Belkin 1940, 1969, pp.pp. 255, 11–13; 263–64; S. Cohen Belkin 2007, 1940 pp., pp. 129–30; 11–13; Naiweld S. Cohen 2015, 2007 pp., 421–22). pp. 129–30; Naiweld 2015, pp. 421–22). 70 For70 further For analysisfurther analysis of the relationshipof the relationship between between the contemplative the contemplative and and practical practical modes modes of of life life in in Philo, Philo, seesee ((CalabiCalabi 2008, pp. 2008, pp. 155–84).

155–84). “ 71 Krochmal71 Krochmal explains explains this saying this saying in the in following the following manner: manner: “haynu “haynu she-ra she-rauiʾ le-hakdimui le-hakdim be-madregat be-madregat ha- ha-ovedʿ“ oved be-be-maʿaseh “ “ ma aseh (ἀσκητής), ve- ve-ʾaahḥ.arar lavo’ lavo’ le-madregat le-madregat ha- ha-hḥasid. asid ha-mesalek ha-mesalek ʿaẓmoaz mi-ma“ .mo mi-maʿasi” (Krochmalasi”“ (Krochmal 2010, p. 2010169). , p. 169). 72 (Krochmal72 (Krochmal 2010, p. 2010, 169; myp. 169; translation). my translation). Interestingly Interestingly enough, enough, the famousthe famous historian historian Y. BaerY. Baer also also made made a verya very similar similar and in- and in-depthdepth comparison: comparison: see see (Baer (Baer 1953, 1953 pp., pp. 95, 95, 97, 97,esp. esp. 103–5). 103–5). 73 He also73 adducesHe also adduces and interprets and interpre ants analogous an analogous metaphorical metaphorical image image of of aa treetree symbolizing the the righteous righteous individuals individuals (ẓadikim) from “

a baraitaʾ in B. Kiddushin 40b attributed to Elʿazar bar Ẓadok“ along similar lines: see (Krochmal 2010, pp. 169–70). (z. adikim) from a baraita in B. Kiddushin 40b attributed to El azar bar z.adok along similar lines: see (Krochmal 2010, 74 For further analysis of this dependency, see (Runia 1986, pp. 324–29). pp. 169–70). 75 This is an obvious allusion to Neander’s treatment of Philo: see (Neander 1818, p. 3). 74 For further analysis of this dependency, see (Runia 1986, pp. 324–29). 76 (Rawidowicz 1971, p. 263). Cf. (Lehnardt 2012, pp. xlix–l). 75 This77 is anS. obvious Maimon allusionalso alludes to Neander’sto the contrastin treatmentg features of Philo:between see the (Neander ancient and 1818 modern, p. 3). Ḥasidim: see (Maimon 1988, pp. 102–3). 76 (Rawidowicz 1971, p. 263). Cf. (Lehnardt 2012, pp. xlix–l). 77 S. Maimon also alludes to the contrasting features between the ancient and modern H. asidim: see (Maimon 1988, pp. 102–3).

78 For further analysis of Rapoport, see (Barzilay 1969; Klausner 1952, pp. 215–81). For a succinct description of Rapoport’s biography, see also (Brämer 2007). 79 See (Barzilay 1969, pp. 36, 50; Feiner 2001, p. 112; Klausner 1952, pp. 236–37). 80 For a more detailed examination of Rapoport’s reception of Philo, see (Strauss 2019b, pp. 201–26). Also see (Ruderman 2020, pp. 172–73). 81 It is interesting to note that a similar stance is also advanced in (H. Wolfson 1962, vol. 1, pp. 56–59, 188–89). 82 As Taylor observes, Graetz also regarded the Essenes to be the same as the H. asidim: see (Taylor 2003, pp. 5–6). 83 (Krochmal 2010, pp. 171, 174). Cf. (Philo of Alexandria 2020, PACS 7:347). 84 (Meir 2019, pp. 237–57; Haußig 2003, p. 214; Ruderman 2020, pp. 144–45). 85 For a depiction of Levinsohn’s relationship to Krochmal, see (Klausner 1952, p. 167). 86 (Levinsohn 1828, p. 55). A very similar and more detailed depiction with explicit reference to Krochmal is found in Gotlober’s Toledot ha-Kabbalah ve-ha-H. asidut (Gotlober 1869, pp. 30–38, 40, 42). For Levinsohn’s historical study of the Kabbalah and its links to his anti-Hasidic polemics, see (Meir 2019, pp. 140–57). 87 (Zacuto 1717, p. 104). See (Taylor 2003, pp. 5–6, 27, 90–91, 187–88; Baer 1953, pp. 98, 103; Jacobs 1957, pp. 146–48; Philo of Alexandria 2015, p. 379 n. 127). 88 See, for example (Graetz 1870, pp. 495–96). 89 Hasidism does in fact put emphasis on the balance between theory and practice: (Biale et al. 2018, pp. 160, 183). Religions 2021, 12, 377 23 of 27

90 See Krochmal’s Hebrew translation and reference to this section: (Krochmal 2010, pp. 178, 435). For further analysis, see (Daniélou 2014, pp. 85–87). 91 See (Harris 1991, pp. 273 n. 77, 309, 317–18; Feiner 2001, p. 129; Klausner 1952, p. 158).

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