Handicrafts and Kashmiri Artisans During the Mughal Period (1586-1707) Thesis Submitted for the award of Ph.D. degree in History By SAMEER AHMAD SOFI Under the Supervision of Dr. Gulfishan Khan Centre of Advanced Study Department of History Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh, UP, India Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 2017 Dedicated to My Parents Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First of all praise is for Almighty Allah, without whose blessings it was impossible to complete the work. The wisdom and intellect granted to me by the Almighty has been the sole factor in the successful completion of this doctoral thesis. The words felt short to express my gratitude to my teacher and Supervisor Dr. Gulfishan Khan, Associate Professor, Department of History, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, whose supervision, inspiration and moral support enabled me to complete this work. She has not only acted as my supervisor and guide giving me her precious time and advice for more generosity than her official duty demanded, but has also encouraged me in many ways throughout my research work. I am completely at a loss to find words to sufficiently express my gratitude to Prof. Mohammad Israrul Haque, Department of Business Administration, Aligarh Muslim University, whose guidance and advises became a source of inspiration and confidence for me to successfully complete the work. I would also like to express my gratitude to Prof. Ali Athar, Chairman, Centre of Advanced Study, Department of History, A.M.U., Aligarh, who has been very kind for providing me all possible assistance at the departmental level for the research work. My Special thanks also goes to other teachers especially, Dr. Sumbul Halim Khan, Prof. M. Afzal Khan and others for their encouragement and necessary help during my Ph.D. I am also thankful to Dr. Abdus Salam Jilani, who taught me basic Persian language and also helped in getting some Persian works, rotographs and other documents translated. It is also my pleasure to pay my gratitude to the faculty members of Department of History, University of Kashmir especially, Late Prof. M. Ishaq Khan, Prof. Parvez Ahmad. I am also highly thankful to my elder brother, senior and my best friend Dr. MaulanaAb. Rashid Azad Lone, Assistant Library, Prof. Department Aligarh of History, Muslim University of UniversityKashmir who has always been my source of inspiration. He encouraged me and provided very fruitful suggestions to carry out the work. I am also thankful to Prof. Jigar i Mohammed, University of Jammu who provided me very useful suggestions to carry forward my work. I owe my sincere thanks to the staff of Seminar Library, Centre of Advanced Study, Department of History, Aligarh Muslim University and the staff of Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University, for providing me all possible facilities and relevant books and the manuscripts for study purpose. I am also grateful to the staff of Allama Iqbal Library, Kashmir University, Srinagar; Departmental Research Library of History Department, University of Kashmir; staff of the Research Library of Kashmir Studies Department, University of Kashmir; Library Staff of Centre for Central Asian Studies, University of Kashmir; staff of Research Library, Department of Sociology, University of Kashmir; Library staff of Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages for providing me all possible material that was required for my thesis. I also pay my gratitude to the Curator, Sri Pratap Museum, Srinagar who provided me access to the Museum. I am also highly thankful to Director, Craft Museum and School of Designs, Srinagar for providing me access to Craft Museum and Library. I am also thankful to Director, Craft Development Institute, Srinagar and also to Director, Indian Institute of Carpet Technology, Srinagar, for providing me the verbal knowledge about the technology of craft manufacture and also providing material which proved very useful for writing the thesis. The acknowledgement will remain incomplete if I downgrade the remarkable role and contribution of my family. Their affection, care, encouragement, inspiration, moral and financial support constantly promoted me to accomplish my research work comfortably. My loving parents Mr. Bashir Ahmad Sofi and Mrs. Shameema Akhter never let me feel that I am far from them. Their love and affection proved very fruitful for me. I am dedicating this work to them. I also owe my special thanks to my sister and my brother Mr. Haamid who being himself a lecturer in History helped me throughout my work. Apart from them, I am also highly thankful to other family Maulanamembers mostly myAzad Uncle Mushtaq Library, Ahmad Sofi Aligarh who being a mastercraftmanMuslim himselfUniversity provided me all the necessary knowledge about the history of craft technology. ii I also owe my sincere thanks to University Grants Commission for providing me the fellowship and to ICHR for providing me the contingency-cum-travel grant. I express my sincere thanks to my classmates and friends whose support, suggestions, cooperation and encouragement always proved fruitful for my study. I can never forget their company within the University campus and outside on dhabas never let me feel that I am at distance from my home. The confederation of my friends include, Showket Mandloo, Mohd. Anas, Aziz ur Rehman, Masi ur Rehman, Fakrul Islam, Khalid Ahmad, Abdul Motleb (Pir Sahab), Rameez Padder, Irfan Serwal, Tawseef Ahmad Mir, Bilal Raja, Khaja Ashraf, Sajad Subhan, Amir Sultan, Sameer Bhat, Zahid Dar, Firdous Ahmad, Zahoor Ahmad, Naseer Ahmad, Basharat, Umer Khanday. I also acknowledge with sincere thanks the company of my seniors at departmental level and their brotherly treatment. I have a long list of seniors but some deserve the special mention like Mumtaz bhai, Showket bhai, Abid bhai, Tariq bhai, Showket wani bhai, Bashir bhai, Gazanfar bhai, Suhail bhai, Manzoor bhai, Nafees bhai, Gaffar bhai, Barkat bhai and Aslam bhai. Last but not least, I am highly thankful to my hostel mates especially my roommates Muneer Malik and Amir Ramzan, who always treated me like a brother and supported me in tough times. Other hostel mates like Shahnawaz bhai, Idrees bhai, Rais bhai, Parray Parvez, Umer John and Aamir Naik also helped me throughout my work. They are indeed my special friends. Aligarh Sameer Ahmad Sofi Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University iii CONTENTS Page No. Acknowledgement i - iii Introduction 1 - 16 I. Geo-Political Features of Kashmir II. Inspiration of Nature on the Handicraft Production III. Sources Chapter One 17 - 37 Central Asian and Persian Influence on the Handicraft Industry of Kashmir Chapter Two 38 - 69 Handicraft Industry: The State Patronage Chapter Three 70 - 93 Acquisition of Raw-Material and the Handicraft Trade I. Acquisition of Raw-Materials II. Trade Routes III. Export Trade of Manufactured Handicrafts IV. Mode of Transport. Chapter Four 94 - 118 Tools and Techniques of Handicraft Manufacture I. Technology of Shawl Manufacture II. Technology of Carpet Manufacture III. Paper Manufacturing Techniques IV. Paper-Machie Technology V. Wood Craft Technology Chapter Five 119 - 135 Industrial Organisations MaulanaI. AzadAdministration Library, of Karkhanas Aligarh Muslim University II. The Emperor and the Karkhanas III. Child and Female Labour in Karkhanas IV. Working Days and Hours V. Wages Chapter Six 136 - 154 Socio-Economic Conditions of Artisans and Craftsmen I. Training to Artisans II. Economic Position of Artisans III. Nature of Employment IV. Loans and Advances V. Political and Religious Disturbances VI. Natural Calamities VII. Food Habits of Kashmiri Artisans VIII. Dress IX. Housing X. Fairs and Festivals XI. Language of Artisans XII. Status of Women Artisans Conclusion 155 - 160 Appendices 161 - 171 Glossary 172 - 178 Bibliography 179 - 197 Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Map 1. Kashmir Political During the Mughal Period Introduction Kashmir is known for its rich socio-cultural history. The historians of 16th and 17th century are enormously in praise of Kashmir, its climate, flora, fauna and most importantly its artistic handicraft items. Though the modern scholars of Kashmir have dealt with all the aspects notable among them are Abdul Majid Mattoo in his Kashmir Under the Mughals, P.N.K Bamzai in his Socio-Economic History of Kashmir, G.M.D Sufi in his Kashir: Being A History of Kashmir From the Earliest Times to Our Own, and also Mushtaq Ahmad Kaw in his Agrarian System of Kashmir. These modern scholars have given a graphic picture of the agrarian structure, Mughal administrative and taxation system in the subah of Kashmir. One important aspect that is nearly missing from all these modern scholars that deal with Mughal period is the handicraft industry of subah of Kashmir. This thesis is an attempt to explore the foreign influences on handicraft industry, factors that led the Mughals to patronize handicraft industry. What where the source of raw materials for the handicraft industry. Tools and techniques applied in the manufacturing process will also be explained. The market for Kashmiri handicrafts or otherwise who were the consumers of handicrafts of Kashmir will be discussed. The roots used by the merchant communities for the import of raw material and export of manufactured handicraft items will also be explained. Organization of karkhanas is also studied here. Additionally, an attempt is also made to look into the socio-economic conditions of artisans of Kashmir who were engaged in the task. This work will focus on some of the important handicraft industries like shawl industry, carpet industry, paper industry, paper-machie, silk industry, wood craft industry and metal craft industry. All these industries existed before Mughal conquest but they reached to perfection during the Mughal period. The Mughal emperors because of their huge demands took keen interest for the development of handicraft industry of Kashmir. Geo-Political Features of Kashmir The history of Mughal rule in the subah of Kashmir dates back to1586 A.D i.e.