BRIEFING NO 8 FEBRUARY 2010 BRIEFINGG NR 2 APRIL 2008

Issues of Increasing Levels of Poverty and Hunger in Africa, with Specifi c Reference to South Africa Mmafale Phogole

The majority of people in African countries, especially in South Africa, live subsistence liveli- hoods below the poverty line. Poverty is a condition characterised by a lack of basic needs such as water, health care, foods, suffi cient access to social and economic services, and few opportunities for formal income generation. This paper assesses the issues impacting on higher levels of poverty and hunger, and suggests an alternative policy framework for improving the wellbeing of the region’s poor. In view of the causes of poverty and its predominance, poverty alleviation addresses constraints at the root of poverty. The premise of the paper is that includ- ing the poor is an important and progressive step in any attempt to sustain growth, develop- ment and socio-economic transformation in Africa, with South Africa as a case study.

Introduction gaps and to share its experience with government about the existing high levels of poverty and hun- The majority of people in African countries live in ger, and to try to bring sustainable solutions to abject poverty and hunger. About 70% of Africa’s the challenges. poor are rural dwellers. There are many inter-re- The collapse of apartheid and the emergence of lated issues that cause hunger and poverty which the new democratic dispensation raised hopes for are related to socio-economic and other factors. A a better life for many South Africans living in pov- large proportion of people have very limited ac- erty. The major challenges facing government are cess to income, resources, education, health care its ineffi ciencies resulting from poor planning, and and nutrition. Poverty and hunger have been a vigorously addressing the high levels of poverty pervasive and growing threat to humanity and and hunger in a sustainable manner. Poverty in the states of the world. Therefore, Africa’s poverty South Africa is high and has affected some people is said to be mass poverty requiring more encom- more than others; the majority of black people in passing operational defi nitions and monitoring in- general and Africans in particular were confi ned to struments with the aim of designing intervention low income jobs and were worst affected by unem- initiatives. The study seeks to identify the current ployment and landlessness as a result of policies

Mmafale Phogole was at the time of writing a Research Intern at the Africa Institute of South Africa

© Africa Institute of South Africa AISA POLICYbrief Number 8 – February 2010 1 that deprived people of their land, kept them out of and development; the reduction of the unemploy- skilled work and confi ned them to urban ghettos ment rate to below the national average requires a and bantustans. However, eradicating poverty and signifi cant reprioritisation of the budget in favour addressing social and economic inequalities left of capital expenditure, coupled with a dynamic by the previous apartheid government have been economic diversifi cation programme to increase the overwhelming tasks for the new government. This economy’s propensity to absorb labour and stimu- paper aims to develop integrated strategies and late growth; and the substantial opportunities for programmes of sound and sustainable manage- stimulating entrepreneurial development and em- ment of the environment, resource mobilisation, ployment creation exist in the process of addressing poverty eradication and alleviation, employment, the social problems arising out of poverty, income and income generation for all poverty stricken inequality and disparities in accessing services.3 areas. Furthermore, there is a need to provide all Communities are taking advantage of the province’s persons with the opportunity to earn a sustain- competitive conditions in mining, agriculture and able livelihood, through special policies and pro- tourism to turn the province’s economy. The basic grammes directed at rural areas, the urban poor principle of the Provincial Growth and Development and vulnerable people, i.e. women, children and Strategy (PGDS) is an integrated and developmen- disabled. In South Africa, many poor households tal approach that brings together strategies and do not have access to service facilities as a result programmes of different spheres of government of living some distance from such facilities. towards achieving sustainable economic growth, To alleviate poverty and hunger, government poverty reduction and unemployment, and contrib- needs to identify strategies, programmes and uting to national and international commitments, projects that respond to the needs and priorities for example, Reconstruction and Development of people and promote social justice and equity. Programme (RDP) objectives, the outcome of the Moreover, it needs to refl ect a strong move towards World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), a more integrated, people-centred and participa- United Nations (UN) Millennium Development tory approach to planning. Goals (MDG), and so on. Poverty is defi ned as enforced lack or depriva- MGD, in particular, seek to reduce extreme pov- tion of material resources of a certain duration erty and hunger by halving the proportion of people and to such an extent that participation in normal living on less than a dollar a day, and halving the activities and possession of amenities and living proportion of people who suffer from hunger.4 conditions which are customary, or at least widely The poverty gap measures the difference be- encouraged or approved of in society, becomes im- tween each poor household’s income and the pov- possible or very limited.1 It is, therefore, a shortfall erty line. Thus, it measures the depth of poverty in basic resources. A poor person is one whose of each poor household. Three household poverty “standard of living falls below a minimum socially lines were used in the analysis: food poverty (the acceptable level.” The defi nition encompasses is- inability to provide minimum dietary require- sues such as basic needs, acceptable social thresh- ments); basic needs poverty (incomes less than the olds, norms and traditions. On the other hand, cost of basic food and shelter); and relative pov- hunger means a feeling of emptiness or weakness erty (less than one half of the average household caused by lack of food. It also implies lack of food income). Thus, different minimum income require- that causes suffering or death. ments were established for urban and rural areas Poverty is often defi ned in terms of the income because of dietary differences for communities. The level below which people are incapable of access- Gini Coeffi cient is a summary statistic of income ing suffi cient food for a healthy working life. The inequality that varies from 0 (in the case of perfect most recent estimates indicate that approximately equality where all households earn equal income) 47% of sub-Saharan Africans live on less than to 1 (in the case where one household earns all the US$1 dollar per day, and more than 50% of them income and other households earn nothing). are from East Africa and Nigeria. On average, poor Africans were estimated to earn US$0.85 (85 cents) per day during the latter part of the 1990s.2 The Socio-economic Context In South Africa, in particular the Limpopo Province, to contribute to national wealth by the Land rights and ownership year 2020 could negatively affect the implications of The land issue is pressing for a number of reasons poverty and demographic dynamics. For example, across southern African countries, where they are the youth require social spending in skills training wrestling with a fundamental question of justice in addition to accelerated investment in growth and fairness: How best to broaden patterns of land

2 AISA POLICYbrief Number 8 – February 2010 © Africa Institute of South Africa use and ownership to include black majorities who for imposing sanctions on his government to pun- were pushed to the margins during the colonial ish him for the land invasions.9 era, without undermining investor confi dence or Moreover, the causes of increased poverty negating the rule of law?5 among female-headed households in Kenya are nu- Throughout the southern African region, the merous, but ownership and access to land appears land question is commonly viewed through the to be a critical factor because several systems of lens of historic injustice. This is especially so personal law apply, such as the Islamic, Hindu, Civil in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Namibia where and Statutory, and African Customary, and there is white settlers, backed by the former colonial pow- constant interplay of customary and civil law.10 ers of Europe, were able to secure great economic In the South African context, if land reform is privileges when they transferred political power to to succeed new approaches are needed to transfer black majority rule. Colonial legal codes attempted more land to a much wider group of people, with to regulate land rights on privately owned or the focus on poorer segments of the population leased land, and often mixed uneasily with tra- and an emphasis on post-transfer support. South ditional practices that allowed indigenous groups Africans will judge the land reform programme by access without ensuring ownership or title.6 several key criteria, including the amount of land The situation in Zimbabwe has intensifi ed redistributed; its benefi ciaries; the speed of redis- the debate across Southern Africa by raising the tribution; and the amount of support received by expectations of the landless and increasing uncer- benefi ciaries.11 tainty among white commercial farmers. For ex- ample, the lack of a more robust response by South Low agricultural production and poverty Africa’s leaders to the land grabs and wider crisis Another major cause of poverty and hunger is of governance in Zimbabwe has diminished pros- low agricultural productivity and output due to pects for foreign investment in Southern Africa as over dependency on rainfall. The perennial fl uc- a whole, and placed the continent’s own blueprint tuations in food availability and almost ‘hunger for relations with donors and investors, the New season’ due to worsening climatic conditions, i.e. Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), erratic rainfall and poor capability in harnessing at risk. Zimbabwe has also demonstrated that Africa’s vast water resources for irrigation-led disputes over land can quickly turn violent, par- agricultural development, are a worry to the peo- ticularly when they are manipulated for short term ple and many development analysts. As Ghana’s political gain at the expense of long term stability. President Kurfour put it, “…it is unacceptable that Botswana’s President, Festus Mogae, complained in the twenty fi rst century there should be a ‘hun- that Zimbabwe was suffering from “a drought of ger season’ seemingly because we are unable to good governance.”7 harvest the water resources of the country for food The ZANU-PF government is set to defy a re- production.” Many African countries, including gional Southern African Development Community Ghana, have adopted strategic policies to tackle (SADC) ruling that white farmers can keep their low agricultural production and poverty.12 farms because government’s land grab discrimi- nated against them and did not pay fair compen- Unemployment and inequality of income sation. On 1 December 2008, The Herald quoted Due to globalisation and post-industrialisation, the Minister of State for National Security, Lands, full employment is becoming more diffi cult, and Land Reform and Resettlement, Didymus Mutasa, chronic unemployment and underemployment have as saying, “they (the tribunal) are day-dreaming increased. South Africa’s unemployment rate is so because we are not going to reverse the land re- high that the Expanded Public Works Programme form exercise.” Mutasa stated further that there (EPWP) is not able to create enough jobs. was nothing special about the farmers and the Furthermore, in South Africa, unemployment levels government would, in fact, take more farms. It is are between fi ve million and eight million.13 High not discrimination against farmers, but correct- inequalities in distribution of incomes has also ing land imbalances, he added.8 The tribunal has translated into increased incidents of poverty.14 ordered that the government of Zimbabwe take all Income poverty is a lack of the requisite income measures to protect the possessions and owner- to acquire a specifi ed amount of food. In many ship of the farmers, and that no actions may be African countries the disparity in income is quite taken by insurgents and others to interfere with or signifi cant, for example, in Lesotho the per capita disturb the peaceful activities of the reaming ap- income of the richest 20% of the population is 22 plicants. But Mugabe has always argued that the times that of the poorest 20%; for South Africa the land issue is racial, and blamed Western countries fi gure is 19 times; and for Kenya it is 18 times.15

© Africa Institute of South Africa AISA POLICYbrief Number 8 – February 2010 3 Levels of income and the nature of income population increase among the poor is higher than inequalities in the country also underpin socio- among the rich.19 economic vulnerability. South Africa has one of the highest levels of inequality in the world, and Lack of adequate basic services incomes differ according to gender and residence, Another factor infl uencing the magnitude of pov- and with respect to province and urban or rural erty in Africa pertains to access to basic social locations.16 services. Although access to these services has been increasing over the years, the budgetary Internal confl ict or civil war constraints of governments have resulted in situa- Civil confl ict and war are the major factors in the tions where there are still too many people without endurance of poverty. This is exacerbated by the access to health care, clean water and sanitation, failure of rule of law, and such failure drives out particularly in rural areas.20 the basic economic incentives that lead to bet- Access to clean drinking water and sanitation ter living conditions.17 For example, Democratic facilities is one of urban Malawi’s most pressing Republic of Congo is in a crisis of prolonged con- problems. Thus, slums throughout the country lack fl ict and deepening humanitarian crisis brought adequate toilet facilities, and outbreaks of cholera about by war and years of political and economic and other waterborne diseases resulting from poor mismanagement which has made this country, sanitation are rife. Furthermore, the availability home to some 50 million people, unstable.17 of clean drinking water in informal settlements is The following issues also have implications on also a major concern.21 how developing countries contend with poverty:18 In Malawi, poor hygiene, lack of sanitation ● Post World War II, during the Cold War, poorer and low quantity and quality of drinking water all country governments often found that, if they contribute to the country’s poor health indicators tried to improve the situation for their people, for mothers and children, and impact negatively they could have been perceived as a threat or, on the livelihood of women and children as they worse still, going communist. They may have take on the added responsibility of caring for the faced external pressure, external meddling in sick. Large numbers of the population are without internal affairs, or even military intervention access to proper water and sanitation services. by powerful nations. Apart from being socially unacceptable, this poses ● The powerful nations would, of course, claim a great impediment on the socio-economic devel- this was necessary for world stability, national opment of the country due to the impact on health, interest, or to save the other country from education and agriculture, among others. For themselves but, in fact, it would often be to do example, up to 25% of schools have no protected with protecting their national interests, such water supply and, on average, 150 pupils use one as a secure and constant supply of cheap re- latrine. Fifty per cent of the health facilities in ru- sources, or maintaining infl uence and power. ral areas do not have a proper water supply and ● Dictators and corrupt rulers have often been sanitation facilities.22 placed or supported in power by the wealthier nations to help fulfi ll those national interests, Food crisis factors in a similar way old rulers of Europe used The World Bank has estimated that an additional Lords and Knights to control the peripheries 100 million more people have been driven into and direct resources to the centres of capitals. hunger because of rising food prices.23 ● This implies that it is diffi cult to break out of poverty, or to reduce dependency from the The impact of biofuels on hunger and poverty USA, International Monetary Fund (IMF)/World The following are ways in which biofuels have dis- Bank. torted food markets: ● Grain has been diverted away from food to fuel; Poverty and high population growth ● Farmers have been encouraged to set land Population growth in relation to the limited and aside for biofuel production; and often fragile resource base is both a cause and ● The rise in biofuels has sparked fi nancial spec- consequence of poverty. Only a few years from ulation in grains, hiking food prices. now, by 2025, Africa’s population could more rise to 1,2 billion. This high population growth The International Food Policy Research Institute rate will offset any reduction in poor people in estimates that 30% of the increase in the price most countries, particularly because the rate of of the major grains is due to biofuels, therefore

4 AISA POLICYbrief Number 8 – February 2010 © Africa Institute of South Africa biofuels may be responsible for some 30-75 mil- fi nancial institutions, and non-governmental lion additional people being driven into hunger.24 organisations.26 Other issues that cause poverty and hunger are NGOs and community-based organisations natural disasters such as drought, fl ood, cyclones, play a vital role in advancing socio-economic river erosion and crop failure.25 rights in South Africa. People receive assistance from these organisations when taking up socio- economic rights campaigns and cases. More in- The Roles of Government, terestingly, they use different strategies such as Non-Government Organisations, public exposure, monitoring, advocacy, education, and the Private Sector in public awareness, social mobilisation, litigation, Combating Poverty and Hunger research and training to promote and advance socio-economic rights. Poverty and hunger are daily challenges for For example, there are a number of organisa- people struggling to meet their basic needs, and tions that provide legal and paralegal assistance many of them are rural people who live in envi- to communities and individuals whose socio-eco- ronmentally sensitive areas with low productivity. nomic rights have been violated or threatened.27 This situation obliged government, civil society, Civil society is a sphere of social interaction the business community and non-government between the household and the state which is organisations to forge pro-poor collaborations. It manifested in the norms of community coopera- is argued that the poverty reduction strategies tive, structures of voluntary association, and net- that have government-led development without works of public communication. Norms are values the active support of civil society, and the civil of trust, reciprocity, tolerance and inclusion, which society movements without the institutional and are critical to cooperation and community problem enabling support of government, have both failed. solving, while structures of association refers to Therefore, active participation by communities the full range of informal and formal organisa- in the planning and implementation of develop- tions through which citizens pursue common ment policies and programmes is an important interests.28 requirement for sustainable human development The business sector is socially responsible and poverty reduction. Development assistance and willing to assist the government in its ef- affi rms that sustainability requires the empower- forts to reduce gross class inequalities, and those ment of people for development that affects their who are socially responsible should be rewarded lives. with imaginative tax relief and other incentives.29 Several factors are converging to produce more Business and informal sector capital must provide favourable enabling conditions for combating the fi nance for sustainable growth. Moreover, a poverty and hunger, such as the increasing ef- function of donors– in partnership with govern- forts of civil society, the rise of democratic insti- ment– is to identify the investments and policy tutions, and increased awareness of the political reforms that will create an attractive investment consequences of overlooking poverty. Economic environment for the private sector, and foster liberation and institutional reform may be reduc- patterns of growth that reduces poverty and in- ing distortions that have historically favoured creases employment, particularly among the poor, the powerful and, for the rural poor, this means consistent with equitable and effi cient factor greater access to land, assuming that government markets.30 policies and market conditions will eliminate sub- Developing new ways of work is often dif- sidies that have favoured large-scale farmers. fi cult, especially where NGOs have aggressively Frequently, civil society organisations, gov- mobilised to change government policies. In some ernments, intergovernmental, private sector, cases, the fi rst step is to overcome the diffi culty non-government organisations (NGOs), interna- where the term non-government was seen to be tional fi nancial institutions, and UN agencies the same as anti-government. Therefore, building are used to pursuing what seem to be parallel trust among civil society, government and inter- paths and objectives in fi ghting poverty. The governmental organisations is the fi rst step.31 1995 Conference on Hunger and Poverty, hosted “December 10, 2006 marked the International by the International Fund for Agricultural Human Rights Day, the international spotlight is Development, brought together a diverse group on poverty. Fighting poverty is a matter of obliga- of stakeholders, including bilateral agencies, tion, not charity.” In observing the day, the African civil society organisations, government offi cials, Union (AU) rededicated itself to upholding the intergovernmental organisations, international standards enshrined in the Universal Declaration

© Africa Institute of South Africa AISA POLICYbrief Number 8 – February 2010 5 of Human Rights, as stipulated in objective (e) of meeting the special needs of Africa, and establish- its Constitutive Act: “to encourage international ing peace and security.35 cooperation, taking due account of the Charter of New partnerships need to build on a founda- the United Nations and the Universal Declaration tion consisting of information sharing, dialogue of Human Rights.” The AU also wishes to reiter- involving affected groups, consensus building, ate its determination to take up the multifaceted and collaborative formulation of policy. challenges that confront the continent and peoples in the light of the social, economic and political changes taking place in the world. Thus, poverty is Conclusion a human rights issue underscored by the fact that all human rights are universal, indivisible, inter- Obstacles facing the poor are lack of access to land related, interdependent and mutually reinforcing, and inequalities. Much cultivated, fertile land is and that all human rights must be treated in a fair held by small numbers of powerful landowners and equitable manner, on the same footing and and elites, therefore new approaches are needed to with the same emphasis. Moreover, there should transfer more land to a much wider group of peo- be no excuse for people to be poor, especially on ple, with a focus on poorer segments of the popu- this continent that is endowed with enormous lation and an emphasis on post-transfer support. resources. Hence, poverty undermines peoples’ Furthermore, unemployment, income inequalities dignity and deprives them of, among others, ac- and other inter-related factors have been seen as cess to justice, health and education. The AU is the major causes and determinants of poverty and committed to achieving the MDGs.32 hunger in this country. Pan-African Parliament, also known as the Efforts to eradicate poverty and hunger must African Parliament, as the legislative body of the be undertaken within the broader framework of AU established a Trust Fund with the aim to pro- the promotion of human rights, in particular eco- mote “good governance, transparency and democ- nomic, social and cultural rights, and the right to racy, peace, security and stability, gender equal- development. Combating hunger goes beyond the ity, and development in the integration of African provision of food and includes structural mea- people within Africa and other nations. It will also sures in many areas, in particular education; basic support the fi ght against HIV/AIDS, hunger, and services, such as water and sanitation; health; poverty on the continent.”33 employment; rural development; and infrastruc- NEPAD is an important economic and devel- ture. The absence of renewed and bold efforts to opment programme adopted by African leaders promote and fi nance the implementation of strate- in 2001 to eradicate poverty and to participate gies to combat poverty and hunger in Africa, and fully in the world economy. It also aims to end South Africa in particular, will be far short of Africa’s underdevelopment and marginalisation achieving the MDGs. from the globalisation process. The long-term Socio-economic rights give people access to aims of NEPAD are to eradicate poverty in Africa certain basic needs necessary for human beings and to place African countries, both individually to lead a dignifi ed life. These rights are also rel- and collectively, on a path of sustainable growth evant for vulnerable and disadvantaged groups in and development; to halt the marginalisation of society. They are important tools for groups who Africa in the globalising process; and to promote are mostly affected by poverty, and who experi- the role of women in all activities.34 Furthermore, ence a number of barriers that block their access UN agencies may also have powers to implement to resources, opportunities and services in the socio-economic rights, such as the United Nations society. Educational and Scientifi c Organisation (UNESCO) and the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO). When carrying their mandate, these institutions Recommendations also adopt documents interpreting socio-economic rights. On 8 September 2000, the UN General 1. It is recommended that an effective strategy for Assembly adopted the United Nations Millennium combating abject poverty and hunger should Declaration, affi rming the principles and purposes begin by focusing on resources, production and of the UN Charter. Through this Declaration, world people, and should cover demographic issues, leaders agreed to set time-bound and measurable enhance health care and education, the rights goals for combating poverty and environmental of women, the role of youth and indigenous/lo- degradation, protecting the vulnerable, promot- cal people, and a democratic participation proc- ing and protecting human rights and democracy, ess in association with improved governance.

6 AISA POLICYbrief Number 8 – February 2010 © Africa Institute of South Africa 2. The promotion of economic growth in the coun- Notes and References try that is sustainable, and direct action in fi ghting poverty by strengthening employment 1. Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review: A Publication and income generating programmes to the of the Organisation for Social Science Research in Eastern and poor people. Furthermore, enabling people to Southern Africa (OSSREA), 1999. No 1, Vol. xv. achieve sustainable livelihoods should provide 2. KR Hope, ‘The poverty dilemma in Africa: towards policies for including the Poor,’ United Nations Economic Commission an integrating factor that allows policies to ad- for Africa (UNECA), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Progress in dress the issues of development, sustainable Development Studies 4,2, 2004, pp 127–141. resource management and poverty eradication, 3. Limpopo Business, ‘A guide to Business and Investment in simultaneously. Limpopo Province’ (accessed from www.limpopobusiness.co.za, 3. The South African government, with the as- 2007). sistance of and in cooperation with appropriate 4. ‘The Soul Beat 43-MDG1: Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger,’ http://www.comminit.com/Africa/soul-beat-43.html international and non-governmental organisa- (accessed 17 November 2008). tions, should establish measures that will di- 5. Crisis Group – http://www.crisisgroup.org/library/documents/ rectly or indirectly empower community organ- africa/southern_southern_africa/land_reform/ch1_the_context_of_ isations and people to enable them to achieve land_reform_in_southern africa (accessed 2 December 2008). sustainable livelihoods, consider developing 6. Ibid. legal frameworks for land management, and 7. Ibid. access land resources and land ownership, in 8. “Mugabe regime to defy SADC ruling on land,” SW Radio particular for women. Africa Zimbabwe news – http://www.swradioafrica.com/ news011208/mugabeSADC011208.htm (accessed 2 December 4. Develop strategies to build public awareness 2008). and create political will to open up more space 9. Ibid. for policy reform and civil society initiatives. 10. ‘Kenya: Poverty Assessment,’ Population and Human Specifi cally, strategies will support information Resources Division, Eastern Africa Department. Africa Region. systems, networks and their focal points, and Document of the World Bank, 1995. specialised news services concerned with pov- 11. ‘Blood and Soil: Land, Politics and Confl ict Prevention in erty, hunger, and environmental degradation. Zimbabwe and South Africa,’ Internal Crisis Group, Africa Report No 85. Printed USA, 2004. 5. Undertake activities aimed at the active pro- 12. N Obiri-Opareh, Strategies of Poverty Reduction in Africa. motion of food security through national ac- The Case of Irrigated Agriculture in Ghana, Vol. 5, No. 2, tion plans developed with the full participation p 58–68, 2008. of civil society, emphasising sustainable pro- 13. South Africa: Poverty Debate. AfricaFocus, 2004, http://www. duction, food at the household level, and the africafocus.org/docs04/big0411.php, (accessed 17 November establishment of food entitlements and, where 2008). appropriate, food self-suffi ciency within the 14. M Spoor (ed.), ‘Globalisation, Poverty and Confl ict. A Critical “Development” Reader,’ Institute of Social Studies, The context of sustainable agriculture. Hague, The Netherlands. Dordrecht/Boston/London, 2004. 6. The establishment of an international guar- 15. KR Hope, ‘The poverty dilemma in Africa: towards policies for antee fund to allow direct lending by interna- including the Poor,’ United Nations Economic Commission tional fi nancial institutions and banks, credit for Africa (UNECA), Addis Ababa, Ethopia. Progress in unions and cooperatives to civil society organ- Development Studies 4,2, pp 127–141, 2004. isations, particularly grassroots organisations 16. MP Olivier, N Smit & ER Kalula, ‘Social Security: A Legal Analysis,’ LexisNexis. Butterworths, 2003. of the rural poor. 7. Poverty reduction requires agricultural devel- 17. M Spoor (ed.), ‘Globalisation, Poverty and Confl ict. A Critical “Development” Reader,’ Institute of Social Studies, The opment because it is critical to economic, social Hague, The Netherlands, Dordrecht/Boston/London, 2004. and rural development, and impacts on expand- 18. A Shah, ‘Poverty Around the World,’ Global Issues. Social, ed food production in reducing food prices. Political, Economic and Environmental Issues That Affect Us 8. Enhancing the technology generation and dif- All’, http://www.globalissues.org.article/4/poverty-around-the- world (accessed 31 October 2008). fusion through the full involvement of poor people, in particular women, in the identifi ca- 19. ‘Taking Action for Poverty Reduction in Sub-Saharan Africa,’ Report of an African Region Task Force, Human Resources tion of the research agenda, the innovation and Poverty Division, Technical Department, Africa Region, process and improving the diffusion of innova- Document of the World Bank, 1996. tive techniques and methodologies. 20. KR Hope, ‘The poverty dilemma in Africa: towards policies for 9. Finally, poverty elimination requires a demo- including the Poor,’ United Nations Economic Commission cratic government committed to sustainable, for Africa (UNECA), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Progress in Development Studies 4,2, pp 127–141, 2004. equitable development, a socially responsible 21. Homeless, International – Water and Sanitation, http://www. business community, and a politically active, homeless-international.org/standard_1.aspx?:28496&id=... educated civil society. (accessed 4 December 2008).

© Africa Institute of South Africa AISA POLICYbrief Number 8 – February 2010 7 22. UNDP Malawi/United Nations Development Programme 29. C Walsh, ‘Poverty in Fiji Islands and the Pacifi c Islands: Malawi – http://www.undp.org.mw/press_release_water_hu- Defi ning an Agenda for Poverty Reduction,’ Proceedings of the man_right_html (accessed 4 December 2008). First Asia and Pacifi c Forum on Poverty, Vol. 1, 1973. 23. A Shah, ‘Global Food Crisis 2008,’ Global Issues. Social, 30. ‘Taking Action for Poverty Reduction in Sub-Saharan Africa,’ Political, Economic and Environmental Issues That Affect Report of an African Region Task Force. Human Resources Us All, http://www.globalissues.org/article/758/global-food- and Poverty Division, Technical Department, Africa Region, crisis-2008 (accessed 31 October 2008). Document of the World Bank, 1996. 24. Ibid. 31. B Moore, ‘Using Assets and Partnerships to Address Rural 25. KA Fattah, ‘Poultry as a Tool in Poverty Eradication and Poverty: Defi ning an Agenda for Poverty Reduction,’ Promotion of Gender Equality, Department of Livestock Proceedings of the First Asia and Pacifi c Forum on Poverty, Service, Farm Gate, 1215 Dhaka, Bangladesh. Vol. 1. 26. Moore, ‘Using Assets and Partnerships to Address Rural 32. Africa Union: Message of H.E. Mrs. Julia Dolly Joiner, Poverty: Defi ning an Agenda for Poverty Reduction,’ proceed- Commissioner for Political Affairs, on the occasion of ings of the First Asia and Pacifi c Forum on Poverty, Vol. 1. International Human Rights Day, 10 December 2006. 27. S Khoza (2nd ed.), Socio-Economic Rights in South Africa, 33. Pan-African Parliament, Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Resource Book, The Socio-Economic Rights Project, – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-African_Parliament Community Law Centre: University of Western Cape: South (accessed 19 November 2008). Africa, 2007. 34. S Khoza (2nd. ed.), Socio-Economic Rights in South Africa, 28. A Ghaus-Pasha (2004), ‘Role of Civil Society Organisations in Resource Book, The Socio-Economic Rights Project, Governance,’ 6th Global Forum on Reinventing Government Community Law Centre: University of Western Cape: South Towards Participatory and Transparent Governance, 24–27 Africa, 2007. May 2005, Seoul, Republic of Korea. 35. Ibid.

8 AISA POLICYbrief Number 8 – February 2010 © Africa Institute of South Africa

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AfricaA Fast Facts AfricaA In Focus CompiledC by GIS and CompiledC by GIS and CartographyC (AISA) CartographyC (AISA) ISBNI 978-0-620-426-25-1 ISBNI 978-0-620-426-24-4 PPrice R 100,00 PPrice R 100,00

Towards Africa- Electoral Process oriented Risk and the Prospects Towards Africa-oriented Risk Electoral Process Analysis Models Analysis Models and the Prospects for for Democracy A contextual and methodological Democracy Consolidation approach A Contextual and Consolidation Methodological Approach Edited by Korwa G. Adar, Edited by Korwa G. Adar, Abdalla Hamdok and Richard O. Iroanya, and Joram Rukambe Francis Nwonwu ISBN 978-0-7983-0210-4 Edited by Korwa G. Adar, Richard O. Iroanya, and Francis Nwonwu ISBN 978-0-7983-0213-5 Edited by Korwa G Adar, Abdallah Hamdok and Joram Rukambe Price R 120,00 PPOO BBoxox 630630 Price R 120,00 PPretoriaretoria 00001001 The Millennium Africa Insight SSouthouth AfricaAfrica Development Goals ISSN 977-025-628-000-6 The Millennium Development Goals Achievements and NNoo 1 EmbassyEmbassy HHouseouse Price R 35,00 Achievements and prospects of meeting the targets in Africa Prospects of Meeting BBaileyailey LaneLane the Targets in Africa 11. EdEEradicatEradicateadicate ext reme poverty andan hunghungerge AArcadiarcadia 2. Achieveevee universal primaryprim edueducationucationn 3.3 PromotePromomote gendeender equality and empoweremmpowerpower women Edited by Francis Nwonwu 4. Reduce child mortality PPretoriaretoria 5. Improvep e maternal health 6. Combat HIV/AIV/ DS,DS malaria ma and other diseasesdise 7. Ensure environmental sustainabilityinab 8. Developelop a glo bal partnersh partn ip for ISBN 978-0-7983-0121-8 development TTel:el: +27+27 (0)12(0)12 304304 99700700 Price R 120,00 FFax:ax: +27+27 (0)12(0)12 332323 81538153 Edited by Francis Nwonwu EE-mail:-mail: [email protected]@ai.org.za, A-Z: Continental Greening the WWebsite:ebsite: wwww.ai.org.zaww.ai.org.za Africa A-Z and country profi les, Great Red Island Continental and Country Profiles Second edition Madagascar in Nature and Culture AISA is a statutory research body Edited by Pieter Esterhysen focusing on contemporary African Edited by Jeffrey C. Kaufman ISBN 798-0-7983-0199-2 affairs in its research, publica- tions, library and documentation. Price R 250,00 ISBN 978-0-7983-0181-7 AISA is dedicated to knowledge Price R 120,00 production, education, training and the promotion of awareness on Africa, for Africans and the international community. This AfricanA Political Elites ScholarlyS Publishing is achieved through independent TheT Search for Democracy in Africa policy analysis, and the collection, anda Good Governance OpportunitiesO & processing and interpretation, and EditedE by Francis Nwonwu Scholarly Publishing impedimentsim dissemination of information. in Africa anda Dirk Kotze EEdited by Solani Ngobeni opportunities & impediments opportunities opportunities & impediments ISBNI 978-0-7983-0184-8 edited by Solani Ngobeni ISBNIS 978-0-7983-0227-2 PPrice R 120,00 PPrice R 120,00

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