Metaphorical Framings in Market Discourse Ignacio Luri, University of Arizona, USA Hope Schau, University of Arizona, USA Bikram P Ghosh, University of Arizona, USA

ASSOCIATION FOR CONSUMER RESEARCH

Labovitz School of Business & Economics, University of Minnesota Duluth, 11 E. Superior Street, Suite 210, Duluth, MN 55802

Few products have the economic importance of debt. With the solutions to student debt as cornerstones of presidential campaigns, firms and influencers are in dialectic battle over defining the future of the industry. Employing textual analysis on a large news database, we study how metaphors frame issues in public discourse.

[to cite]: Ignacio Luri, Hope Schau, and Bikram P Ghosh (2020) ,"Metaphorical Framings in Market Discourse", in NA - Advances in Consumer Research Volume 48, eds. Jennifer Argo, Tina M. Lowrey, and Hope Jensen Schau, Duluth, MN : Association for Consumer Research, Pages: 1069-1068.

[url]: http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/2662632/volumes/v48/NA-48

[copyright notice]: This work is copyrighted by The Association for Consumer Research. For permission to copy or use this work in whole or in part, please contact the Copyright Clearance Center at http://www.copyright.com/. Say It Like You Mean It: Revealing Market Narratives through Text Analysis Chair: Ignacio Luri, DePaul University, USA

Paper #1: Analyzing Brand Backstories: Combining Textual they borrow from a range of theories including narratology, concep- and Multi-sensory Data tual metaphor theory, rituals and identity projects, or diffusion the- Cristel Russell, Pepperdine University, USA ory. This session will facilitate scholarly discussion of the complex interplay between markets and discourses. A big theme in it guiding Paper #2: Rituals in Rap: Remaking the Road to Riches the session and discussion with the audience will be the performative Tonya Bradford, University of California Irvine, USA aspect of discourses or, in other words, how industries, firms, con- Courtney Jemison, University of California Irvine, USA sumers “fake it till they make it”, slowly creating a reality (a back- Paper #3: Metaphorical Framings in Market Discourse story, public consensus, wealth, a practice) by telling it. Jointly, we Ignacio Luri, DePaul University, USA anticipate sparking conversation around questions such as: 1) how Hope Schau, University of Arizona, USA does a historical view of a specific market discourse (i.e. longitudi- Bikram Ghosh, University of Arizona, USA nal, etymological, heritage or origin stories) inform understanding Paper #4: Written in the Sand: Tracing Practice Diffusion of current discourses? 2) how can industries, firms and consumers Across Time and Space utilize these frameworks to strategically tell their stories? We ex- Melissa Archpru Akaka, University of Denver, USA pect lively audience participation and involvement based around the Hope Schau, University of Arizona, USA timeliness and relevance of the contexts and methods, as well as the eclectic theoretical perspectives. SESSION OVERVIEW In this session, we present four empirical papers that, in addition Analyzing Brand Backstories: Combining Textual and to sharing text analysis as a methodological tool, explore the power Multi-sensory Data of narratives. The contexts studied range from market perceptions of debt to brand backstories, and from the diffusion of surfing to rap EXTENDED ABSTRACT lyrics. Each of these four papers utilizes a longitudinal dataset to Brand managers strategically construct brand backstories from study evolving market stories, as told by firms, news media, rap art- a curated set of facts, signs, symbols, with accompanying evidentiary ists or surfers. The researchers in this session share the conviction support that, when knitted together, provide the firm’s official narra- that discourses in the market represent and construct reality. To study tive of the brand’s origins, including novel insights and revelations them, we engage in diverse forms of text analysis, widely consid- regarding the early days of the brand. Our research question is: How ered a next frontier in marketing research (Berger et al. 2020), that can analysis of multi-sensory archival data reveal how practitioners include theme-coding, content analysis, and automated text analysis. design the backstory, curating brand materials to offer the ‘real’, ‘au- Beyond a shared focus on textual data and analysis, these projects thentic’ story and the ultimate ‘truth’ about the brand? use a variety of data sources and theoretical lenses to contribute to This multi-year, multi-country project focuses on the growing our understanding of how narratives represent and drive the market. practice of the brand backstory, whereby firms grant consumers ac- The presentations will dive deep into the everyday conversations of cess to facts about the brand origins, ‘private’ backstage information. each topic to uncover the subtext behind everyday language and how Often brand backstories unfold in the home of the brand (its head- it reflects deeper realities in the market. quarters or factory) or an authoritative institution, such as a museum. The first presentation examines how brand managers strategi- These sites (headquarters, factory, museum) frame the backstory, im- cally construct brand backstories from a curated set of facts, signs, buing it with an aura of authenticity that bolsters the firm’s authorial symbols, that provide the firm’s official narrative of the brand’s ori- voice. gins. The authors reveal how practitioners design the backstory, cu- We draw on graphic narrative theory, a narratology theory rating brand materials to offer the ‘real’, ‘authentic’ story and the grounded in the study of graphic novels and comics (bandes dessi- ultimate ‘truth’ about the brand. The next presentation focuses on the nées) and which allows a fuller understanding of storytelling via important topic of wealth disparities and the non-linear narratives of words and images. In particular, Thierry Groensteen’s work on the poverty and wealth. Rap music has had a fascination with these nar- System of Comics provides a novel lens through which we can inte- ratives, and their lyrics negotiate and link both ends. Though spend- grate visual, verbal, spatial, and chronological expressions in narra- ing rituals are prominent in hip-hop lyrics, the authors explore how tive analysis. We share the insights gained from our ongoing analysis hip-hop lyrics also may encourage engagement in wealth creation of four brand backstories. Our experience unearthed the challenges rituals. The third presentation explores the timely topic of personal of incorporating visual and other sensory data in primarily text-cen- debt, attempting to uncover how the media constructs the percep- tered consumer research and signals the need for narrative theories tion of debt and what it does for/to people in society. Employing a and rhetorical tools to supplement automated text analyses. variety of automated textual analysis on a large news database, the Our data consist of brand materials across four brand backsto- authors study in particular the role of metaphors framing issues in ries (an entertainment brand, two fast moving consumer good brands public discourse. The final presentation explores the dispersion of an and a nonprofit organization) that varied in the type of spatial brand indigenous practice, surfing, revealing that practice diffusion occurs backstory on offer (museum exhibit, factory tour and corporate head- through practice codification, transposition, and adaptation. quarter exhibit), in the duration (one time event and ongoing) and We structure the session as a series of four empirical presenta- location of the backstory (offsite museum and brand headquarters) tions tied to the theme of market narratives and linked by a method- as well as in the number and type of creators involved in the design ological focus on text. Each presentation will be 12 minutes leaving of the backstory (multiple creators all not members of the brand- 20-25 minutes for discussion and debate. While all the presentations owning firm vs. a sole creator employed by the brand-owning firm). have implications for market creation, public policy, and branding, Practitioners approached for this project shared not only their views

Advances in Consumer Research 1069 Volume 48, ©2020 1070 / Say It Like You Mean It: Revealing Market Narratives through Text Analysis and insights on their involvement with the brand backstory but also overcoming such differences. Art serves a functional purpose within access to historical documents and curatorial practices such as back- the African American community (French 2017; Karenga [1972] story creation manifestos or documentation describing the project 1997). Rap, a musical art form embedded in hip-hop culture, was scope of the brand backstories. once a marginal influence and has emerged as a prominent global Our data consist of in-depth qualitative with practitioners re- socialization force (French 2017; Lena 2006; Motley and Henderson sponsible for crafting and promoting brand backstories for the en- 2008). Motley and Henderson (2008; p. 243) note “Hip-hop culture tertainment brand Outrageous Fortune (OF), the sole creator for the influences styles of behavior…” factory tour of Herr’s Snacks, four practitioners for the headquarters Prior research identifies hip-hop influences on brand consump- of Girl Scouts USA, five for the Calissons du Roy Rene, a specialty tion (Burkhalter and Thornton 2014; Ferguson and Burkhalter 2015; almond delicacy. Interviews were conducted at the backstory site to North and Hargreaves 2007). While spending is integral to consump- enable the researchers to gain firsthand observations and an applied tion, so is saving (Bradford 2015). Studies of hip-hop lyrics suggest experience as a simulated consumer of the multisensorial backstory listeners are socialized to rituals in support of spending (Leung and environments discussed in the interviews. First-hand observations Kier 2010). Though spending rituals are prominent in hip-hop lyrics, were recorded as data through handwritten notes and supplemented we explore how hip-hop lyrics also may encourage engagement in the interviews carried out. The researchers visited each site on mul- wealth creation rituals. tiple occasions for lengthy periods of time. Follow up interviews Hip-hop lyrics often include implicit endorsements of specif- were conducted with three OF backstory practitioners in a group ic forms of consumption (Motley and Henderson 2008; Rehn and interview, one GSUSA backstory practitioner, and two members of Sköld 2005). Consider Petey Pablo’s song featuring Seagram’s gin the Tourism Office in charge of industrial tourism and the Calissons (Burkhalter and Thornton 2014) or Run-DMC and the “My Adidas” tours. Interviews centered on the processes involved in the creation campaign (Ferguson and Burkhalter 2015). Hip-hop music emerged and maintenance of the brand curation, the motivations of the pro- from urban and ethnic enclaves providing an outlet of expression for ducers for the genesis of the brand backstory, the type of informa- those in marginalized communities, and is now found globally across tion included, the narrative structure and spatial organization of the other marginalized communities (French 2017; Motley and Hender- exhibit, the goals and aims of the backstory during and after creation, son 2008). Hip-hop lyrics focus on current issues, where one such and general opinions on consumer reactions to the backstory. issue is the need for wealth creation (vs. spending). The primary em- We supplemented interview data with analysis of the curation phasis in hip-hop lyrics are on those spending rituals related to brand materials: all the OF materials from the Arts Department were pro- acquisition. However, there is evidence that hip-hop lyrics also may vided digitally as well as the Official ‘behind the Scenes’ DVD, the encourage performance of wealth creation rituals. tour guide manuals and instructions for the guided visits at Herr’s, The study explored lyrics of one of the wealthiest hip-hop art- GSUSA, and the Calissons (in as many iterations as were avail- ists, Shawn Carter—“Jay-Z”, who amassed wealth through a di- able), as well as archival documents, when available, outlining the versified portfolio music, real estate, sports management (Akhatar processes for selecting and organization curation materials into the 2018). Jay-Z shares his rags-to-riches story outlining his transition backstory space . We also relied on the hundreds of photos and vid- from poverty to drug-dealing “in the crucible of Brooklyn’s Marcy eos of the exhibits provided by the organizations as well as our own. projects.” (Simmons 2005). Data were collected from studio albums Our analysis of interview transcript data and the curated materi- released between 1996 and 2017 (212 songs). Lyrics were analyzed als were analyzed hermeneutically, noting the relationships between individually, within its album, and across albums. The data were codes and then nomothetically across interviews and data sources coded using codes associated with wealth accumulation from the (Glaser & Strauss 1967; Mick & Buhl 1992; Thompson, Locander & literature and the lyrics. Three themes emerged from that analysis Pollio 1989). A refinement of ideas and themes was achieved by way related to wealth creation rituals. of the constant comparative method whereby data were compared to Prior research on savings explores how individuals employ other sections that contained similar incidents and themes, as well as earmarks and social comparison in support of wealth creation and contrasted with other sections of data with differing themes (Gould- identity projects (Bradford 2009, 2015). Missing is an explanation ing 2002). of how wealth creation rituals may be introduced through music. We highlight the challenges of analyzing multi-sensory data. This research finds such rituals may be introduced through three key The brand backstories in our sample were multi-lingual, multi-cul- mechanisms: social comparison, nostalgia, and aspiration. Studies of tural and multi-industry. The data collection and analysis followed social comparison finds people seek salient others as points of ref- the procedure and protocols of multiple traditions: textual media erence (Festinger 1954). Research on wealth creation finds African data, textual interview data, visual brand collateral (brand adver- Americans employ social comparisons with whites (Bradford 2009). tising and promotional material), and experiential data (factories, The lyrics serve as a metaphorical device that provides a wealth cre- headquarters and museums). Complicating matters, the practitioner ation ritual model, and an alternative social referent for listeners who curated materials represent different punctuated moments with tem- are not likely to achieve acclaim. poral notions of brand attributes and market perceptions. Our data Ritual performance provides a link between the past and the fu- represent a process theoretic approach (Giesler and Thompson 2016) ture. Where nostalgia is employed by marketers to sustain brand vi- centering on the brand backstories, consisting of the process of brand tality (Brown, Kozinets, and Sherry 2003), these lyrics employ nos- becoming, or the ways in which brands enter the market and minds talgia to elevate notions of simplicity found in poverty as noble and of market constituents. worthy of retention amidst the complexity of wealth. Where prior research on voluntary simplicity focuses on reductions in consump- Rituals in Rap: Remaking the Road to Riches tion (Craig-Lees and Hill 2002), we find that the notion of simplicity is not segregated from material possession. Rather, an orientation EXTENDED ABSTRACT toward simplicity is emphasized with respect to consumption to sup- Wealth disparities have long garnered attention in lyrics of rap port performances of wealth creation rituals. Thus, nostalgia is em- music, and continues to do so with more recent lyrics focusing on Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1071 ployed to facilitate balance between drives for material possessions being. To this end, we build on the established literature on discur- and security. sive frames (Barsalou 1992, Shoemaker and Reese 1996, Gamson et Continuity of rituals also inspires a future focus which may in- al.1992; Humphreys and Latour 2013) and we strengthen the known clude aspirations. Aspiration in consumption may be found in no- association in academic research between metaphors and frames, or tions of a future self (Bonsu and Belk 2003). We find these lyrics metaphorical frames (Boeynaems et al. 2017, Lee & Schwarz 2014, inspire aspiration not only related to identity but also through an Lakoff 1993, Lakoff and Johnson 2008). By spelling out an issue in adoption of wealth creation rituals. Early research purports a rela- relation to one particular schema and not another, frames become tionship between social class and savings patterns (Martineau 1958), shared understandings not only on what to think about the topic but yet our findings expand Bradford (2009) that illustrates that the im- on how to think about it. In contrast to the immense potential to pact of social class may be mitigated by adoption of rituals. harnessing metaphors, the alternative, unquestioningly echoing the This study contributes to the literature on how behaviors are in- metaphors used by others can backfire or result in the implicit en- fluenced through hip-hop lyrics (Motley and Henderson 2008). More dorsement of ideologies embedded in the language. specifically, we identify how wealth creation rituals within hip-hop Acknowledging its established role influencing and reflecting lyrics challenge notions of spending rituals, and also may inspire public discourse (Deephouse 1996, Humphreys 2010, Humphreys wealth creation rituals for all individuals. Wealth creation rituals and Latour 2013, Warren and Sorescu 2017), we turn to mass news proposed in these lyrics include a broader set of ritual participants, media for an investigation of the metaphors and frames in the topic and encourage performance continuity through social comparison, of debt. We conduct a large-scale text analysis on a comprehensive nostalgia and aspiration. database of ten years of news media articles. Employing textual methods at the forefront of market research innovation (Berger et al. Metaphorical Framings in Market Discourse 2020), we approach the research question: how do metaphors frame market-oriented discourse to guide action? Although we build on lit- EXTENDED ABSTRACT erature investigating discourse in market activism (Humphreys 2010; We communicate using borrowed tools. When businesses, aca- Karababa and Ger 2010; Kurzer and Cooper 2007; Sandlin and Cal- demics, or consumers quote, reference, meme, we are deliberately lahan 2009; Woodly 2015), we align more closely with a rarer and recontextualizing past words to make them do our biding. But all more recent body of research (Giesler and Veresiu 2014; Humphreys words are borrowed. As Bakhtin (1981) puts it, “language has been and Thompson 2014) concerned with the already established insti- taken over, shot through with intentions”, each word acquiring the tutional discourses against which activists sometimes compete. Our taste of a collective, a generation, an ideology. In this intertextual data is analyzed through a three-fold approach of interpretive deep game, market actors can unquestioningly replicate the linguistic reading, computer-assisted discourse analysis, and a deep learning conventions of communications on a topic, or they can strategi- Natural Language Processing (NLP) model of debt conversation. cally design their “borrowings” to fit their agenda. These latter, dis- Consistent with research on framing, we find metaphors to be of course-driving market actors shape public opinion by framing reality central importance not only defining a problem, but also suggesting through a specific lens. a solution. Far from being neutral, metaphors form frames regarding Metaphors are one such lens that influences perception of a topic the topic in terms of valence, responsibility assignment, and action. and drive behavior. Beyond being stylistic devices to attract attention These metaphors tend to cluster around topics, ideologies and lan- and spice conversation, metaphors work as frames, affecting how we guage that support their definition of the frame. We argue that meta- see the world or our definition of an issue. In this article, we explore phors associated with social issues form entrenched framings that how metaphors structure discourses in the context of debt. No other shape perceptions of the topic and our lived experience. While these product of the market economy carries the emotional and moral bag- framings reflect and perpetuate ideologies, we foreground an effect gage of debt. According to market narratives (Peñaloza and Barnhart that can be insidious rather than overt: an endorsement that is often- 2011), debt empowers as much as it constrains borrowers. With in- times tacit rather than explicit. Strategic marketing action requires novations in conversational AI such as Bank of America’s virtual carefully choosing the metaphorical frames that advance the firms assistant Erica (Legters 2019), the Consumer Financial Protection goals. Conversely, acts of resistance against the dominant discourses Bureau increasingly shifting the discourse to one of responsibility can be forced to articulate their criticisms through the same frames put on ordinary citizens (Hayashi 2019), and presidential candidates that work against them, or consciously break the mirage of figurative making debt cancellation a cornerstone of their campaigns, few dia- language that traps them. lectical battles are more current than the framing of consumer-firm responsibility regarding debt. Written in the Sand: Tracing Practice Diffusion Across Whether debt is framed as a tool, a burden, or a prison, the Time and Space power of the words describing it is compounded in the age of social media sharing and content aggregators. Largely repackaging facts EXTENDED ABSTRACT from elsewhere, news outlets engage in a constant parroting of each Prior consumer research underscores the importance of prac- other, much like social media users retweeting, reposting and shar- tices in shaping market-mediated experiences and social structures. ing. The language used to speak of an issue, with its frame and ideol- Little is known, however, about how practices diffuse across various ogy, is echoed by numerous sources and cements in public opinion. social and cultural contexts over time and the consequences of diffu- Persuasive influencers like savvy politicians and firms design their sion on consumption. scripts carefully to guide perception, opinion and action. This research involved 10 years of data collection, 2009-2018, We develop a framework to judge the aptness of metaphors to and multiple rounds of analysis, in which we iterated between data frame marketing-relevant issues such as personal debt to lead public and theories to interpret our findings. We include a variety of market- opinion in a given direction. The implications of this work extend related actors’ narratives that capture different practices and perspec- from the design of persuasive marketing communications to the pro- tives; the sample of interviewees was purposive. We interviewed motion of public policy or nudging behavior towards consumer well- a number of surfing historians and historical figures (e.g., contest 1072 / Say It Like You Mean It: Revealing Market Narratives through Text Analysis organizers, surfboard shapers, and entrepreneurs) in the evolution practices with a broader classification of value co-creation practices of surfing to verify our archival data and to better understand and and their relationship to practice diffusion. This provides a frame- capture specific first-person accounts of particular events.- Differ work for studying value co-creation and practice diffusion among ences in occupation and gender provided a variety of viewpoints and micro- and higher (meso- or macro-) levels of social phenomena perspectives of surfing as well as the history of surfing. We used a (Akaka et al., 2013). variety of archival sources, including newspapers, magazines, pho- This exploration of the dispersion of an indigenous practice, tos, websites, movies, and Observations include participation in the surfing, reveals that practice diffusion occurs through practice codi- practice of surfing, engaging in surfing related events or activities, fication, transposition, and adaptation. Our data reveal that practice spending time in surf-related retail environments, writing for a surf- diffusion is not the wholesale adoption of a practice. We show that ing magazine, and volunteering at a surfing competition. In addition, practice diffusion is influenced by the origins of a practice and the two of the authors spent considerable amounts of time as members of social and cultural contexts in which its diffusion occurs. Practice ad- local surfing communities and cultures prior to the initiation of this aptation is a process that integrates varying perspectives of a practice study.music, which served as surrogate data when first-person ac- into the broader nexus of understandings, doings and sayings associ- counts were unavailable Karababa and Ger (2011). With each source ated with that particular practice. We find that the as a practice dif- of data, we examined each artifact as an individual representation of fuses across contexts it has the potential to lead to social change and surfing and then considered its meaning within the wider scope of the emergence new social structures (subcultures of consumption). the surfing subculture. This approach enabled us to oscillate across micro- to meso- to macro-levels of social phenomena (Karababa and REFERENCES Ger 2011) within the surfing ecosystem (Akaka et al., 2013; Chan- Akaka, Melissa Archpru, Stephen L. Vargo, and Robert F. Lusch dler and Vargo 2011). 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Paper #1: Is Fast Feminine? The Effect of Speed of Observed up/down). They suggest that static experiences lead to assimilative Hand-Motor Actions on Consumer Judgment and Behaviors behavior and dynamic experiences lead to complementary behavior Sumit Malik, IE Business School, Spain when they involve aversive situations. Eda Sayin, IE Business School – IE University, Spain Next, Hampton and Hildebrand demonstrate that certain movement delivered by devices, such as mobile vibrations, is consistently Paper #2: Assimilative Versus Complementary Effects of perceived as rewarding and can influence shopping decisions. They Embodied Verticality: Neural and Behavioral Evidence also provide evidence that conditioning drives this vibration-reward Massimiliano Ostinelli, Winthrop University, USA association. David Luna, University of Central Florida, USA Finally, Hadi, Valenzuela, Sridhar and Du develop a novel Torsten Ringberg, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark framework to predict consumer responses to synchronic integration Seidi Suurmets, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark of haptic effects into audiovisual mobile content, particularly move- Paper #3: Good Buzz, Bad Buzz: Using Vibrotactile Feedback to ment. They demonstrate that, while haptic augmentation may indeed Shape Consumer Choice improve consumer responses to advertising, the positive effect is William Hampton, University of St. Gallen, Switzerland moderated by dimensions of brand personality. Christian Hildebrand, University of St. Gallen, Switzerland This session should be of interest to a broad audience of re- Paper #4: Consumer Responses to Haptic Sensing of Movement searchers with substantive interests in the consequences of con- in Mobile Advertising sumer associations with object-directed actions and the experience Rhonda Hadi, University of Oxford, UK of movement within human-technology communication, as well as a Ana Valenzuela, Baruch College, CUNY & ESADE – theoretical interest in embodied cognition, associative processes, and Universitat Ramon Llul, USA information processing. The consequential nature of the dependent Karthik Sridhar, Baruch College, CUNY, USA variables provides insights for practitioners. O. H. Groth, Baruch College, CUNY, USA Is Fast Feminine? The Effect of Speed of Observed Hand SESSION OVERVIEW Movement on Consumer Judgment and Behaviors Personal experiences using hand movements and gestures have been shown to influence attitudes by activating heuristics, visual flu- EXTENDED ABSTRACT ency, and emotional attachment (Labroo & Nielsen, 2010; Hadi & Hand movements, gestures, and actions have been shown to in- Valenzuela, 2014; Streicher & Estes, 2016). This is particularly true fluence consumer attitudes and behavior (Labroo & Nielsen, 2010; since, unlike visual or auditory cues, tactile exchanges require direct Hadi & Valenzuela, 2014; Streicher & Estes, 2016). Extending this contact with a stimulus (Peck, 2010). Touch is considered the most literature, we investigate how speed of observed hand interaction “proximal” sense (Montagu & Matson, 1979) and has an idiosyn- with an advertised product affects consumer judgments. cratic capacity to evoke a sense of psychological closeness (Trope We argue that consumers cognitively relate speedy or fast (than & Liberman, 2010). A sense of movement can also be delivered gentle or slow) movements with masculinity (than femininity). They through a device itself. In fact, computer science research suggests may develop the associations about what it is feminine (vs. mascu- that “mediated touch” is possible, where haptic feedback from de- line) through social learning and repeated exposure to stimuli in their vices symbolizes the experience of the movement delivered by other environment (Becker, Kenrick, Neuberg, Blackwell, & Smith, 2007). (Gallace & Spence, 2010; Haans et al., 2006). For example, in advertisements, consumers oftentimes observe a fe- This session combines four papers that shed light on dimen- male protagonist performing a gentle hand interaction with a product sions, which drive how movement actions on objects, received from (e.g., applying L’Oréal face cream, spreading Nutella on a pancake objects or embodied on the trajectory of objects may have down- etc.) and male character doing a rather speedier hand movement stream consequences for advertising effectiveness, product prefer- (e.g., twisting the handle of Harley Davidson bike, spraying the AXE ences, and choice. body deodorizer etc.) We propose that recurrent exposure to such The first paper investigates how speed of observed hand-motor sensorimotor experiences in advertisements, dance-forms, films, etc. actions affect consumer judgments – driven by schematic associa- can lead the consumers to develop distinct associations of slow (vs. tions between speed of hand-motor actions and femininity-mascu- fast) hand movements with a more feminine (vs. masculine) behav- linity. Specifically, Malik and Sayin propose that observing slow (vs. ior (H#1). These associations may even be taken as an input to form fast) hand-motor actions evokes feminine (vs. masculine) schematic product judgments. We hypothesize that slow (vs. fast) hand move- associations, which leads to perceiving that the product itself is more ment with a product will alter the attribute perception of the product feminine and transfers onto higher product evaluations among fe- – such that the touched product will be perceived more feminine (vs. male (vs. male) consumers. masculine; H#2). Finally, drawing upon the social identity theory, The second paper by Ostinelli, Luna, Ringberg and Suurmets we expect that observing a slow (vs. fast) hand movement with a reconciles disparate findings in the semantic association connected product will evince a higher product evaluation among female (vs. with vertical movements by introducing the conceptual distinction male) consumers (H#3). This is because individuals are motivated to between static embodied experiences (i.e., being up/down in a sta- process information and make product choices that match their social tionary fashion) and dynamic embodied experiences (i.e., moving identity (Berger & Heath, 2007).

In Study 1A, MTurk workers (N = 158) completed the com- Study 3 had a 2(speed: slow vs. fast) x 2(participants’ gender: puter-based Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, & male vs. female) between-subjects design. Postgraduate students Schwartz, 1998). The findings revealed a positive and significant as- (N=89) watched the stimuli video depicting a lateral hand-move- sociation for fast (vs. slow) movement with masculinity relative to ment, which varied on speed (slow: 2.5 cm./sec. vs. fast: 5 cm./sec) femininity [D-score=.67, t(157)=20.40, p<.01, 95% CI =(.60, .73), over a duvet cover (i.e., target product; fig.3). Participants, then, Cohen’s d=1.62]. The association of speed held across the partici- shared their purchase intention. An ANCOVA on purchase intention pant genders. revealed no significant main effect of speed (F(1,82)=.41, p =.52) In Study 1B, MTurk participants (N= 259) were assigned to and participant’s gender (F(1,82)=.08, p=.77) but a significant inter- either slow or fast speed between-subject conditions. Each partici- action effect (F(1,82)=3.75, p=.05; H#3). The effect-size improved pant watched three randomly-presented videos depicting common- upon excluding the covariates (F(1,85)= 5.09, p=.03). ly-encountered hand movements (i.e., ironing, vacuuming, and To summarize, across four studies, we demonstrate that observ- spray-cleaning) that varied on speed of action. They, then, shared ing hand movements, varying on speed, can affect the consumer re- their attribute associations for the action-doer i.e., feminine (gentle, sponses. We demonstrate that consumers evince higher evaluations nurturing, and caring) and masculine (forceful, aggressive, and dom- for not only products but also hand movement speed that matches inant; Hoffman & Borders, 2001), perceived speed, video character- their distinct social identity – such that female (vs. male) consumers istics (manipulation checks), age, and gender (control variables). A evoke higher evaluations for a product depicted with slow (vs. fast) repeated-measures ANCOVA with speed as between-subjects factor hand movement. These findings have direct implications for product and the three contexts as within-subjects factor on the feminine-at- management, advertising, and online marketing. tributes index (average of feminine attributes) showed a significant effect of speed (Mslow=4.91 vs. Mfast=4.35, p<.01; ηp2=.06) suggest- Assimilative Versus Complementary Effects of Embodied ing that slow speed evinced a feminine schematic association. Like- Verticality: Neural and Behavioral Evidence wise, the analysis on masculine-attributes index found that fast speed triggered a masculine schema (Mslow=3.30 vs. Mfast=4.06, p<.01; EXTENDED ABSTRACT ηp2=.07). These effects retained significance without the covariates The embodied cognition literature presents, at times, contradic- (p<.01) as well. tory effects of verticality. Most of the literature draws on the semantic Study 2 demonstrates the use of distinct associations from slow association between power, general valence, and verticality to show (vs. fast) speed as an input to form attribute perceptions of a prod- assimilative effects, where “up” is generally associated with greater uct (i.e., shaving foam; H#2). In a pre-test of 5 shaving foam cans power and with positivity, and “down” is associated with less power (fig.1), MTurk participants (N=103) identified “Ultra-Sensitive” la- and with negativity (Esteky, Wineman, & Wooten, 2018; Guido, Pi- chierri, Nataraajan, & Pino, 2016; Sundar & Noseworthy, 2014). belled foam as significantly lower on perceived masculinity (MUltra- At the same time, other research has shown complementary ef- Sensitive=4.66) compared to “Bold” labelled foam (MBold=5.87, p<.01). In main Study 2, MTurk participants (N=254) were assigned fects of verticality. Complementary responses occur when sensory- to either slow or fast between-subject conditions. The stimuli video motor experiences lead to effects that are inconsistent with, and even showed a male applying shaving foam (fig.2). Participants were opposite of, the underlying conceptual metaphor of “up is good.” asked to choose the foam product they believed that the protagonist These effects result from goal-oriented behaviors aimed at reducing is applying (“Ultra-Sensitive” or “Bold”). They, then, rated the indi- the gap between a current and a desired state (Zhang and Risen 2014). vidual on the schematic attribute associations, video characteristics, For example, Ostinelli, Luna and Ringberg (2014), show that mov- manipulation checks, and control variables as study 1. ing down leads individuals to experience lower self-worth, which We conducted a logistic regression to test whether slow (vs. motivates individuals to obtain better results in cognitive tasks. fast) hand movement led the featured product to be perceived as low/ We reconcile those seemingly disparate findings in the domain “Ultra-Sensitive” (vs. high/ “Bold”) on masculinity. The main effect of verticality by introducing the conceptual distinction between stat- of speed was significant (χ2(6)=3.71, p=.05; H#2) with no significant ic embodied experiences (i.e., being up/down in a stationary fash- covariates (p>.35). Specifically, participants chose less of the high ion) versus dynamic embodied experiences (i.e., moving up/down). We suggest that static experiences lead to assimilative behavior and masculine product (“Bold”) upon observing a slow (Pslow=48.81%) dynamic experiences lead to complementary behavior when they in- vs. fast (Pfast=60.62%) hand movement (χ2(1)=3.56, p=.06). We then ran a MANCOVA on schematic associations [DVs: femininity and volve aversive situations (e.g., moving down). masculinity index]. The analysis showed that slow (vs. fast) speed Study 1 activated a significant feminine schema (Mslow=4.53, Mfast=3.79; Study 1 is an EEG study that measures the brain states that result p<.01) but did not alter the masculine associations (Mslow=3.59, from the manipulation of static versus dynamic verticality. Previous Mfast=3.54; p=.79) for the protagonist. Gender and video characteristics had a significant effect (p<.01) but did not interact with speed to research suggests that the simulation of movement can activate the influence the associations. Subsequently, we ran a mediation analy- brain areas responsible for processing goals to prepare individuals to sis that showed that slow (vs. fast) observed hand movement elicits a cope with changes in the environment (Barsalou 2009; Borghi 2012; higher feminine (vs. masculine) schematic association, which medi- Gallese 2009; Hamilton 2013; Hickok and Hauser 2010; Pezzulo and ates the effect on choice of shaving foam product. Castelfranchi 2009; Semin and Cacioppo 2009; Sartori, Bucchioni, In Study 3, we investigate whether female (vs. male) consum- and Castiello 2013). From that basis, we predict that the simula- ers use speed of observed hand movement to form their purchase tion of downward movement activates the brain areas responsible intention. We expect female (vs. male) consumers to evince higher for compensatory goals aimed at reacting to unpleasant changes in evaluations upon observing a slow (vs. fast) hand interaction with a self-worth. This leads to complementary effects such as a preference product. This is because consumers are influenced by gender-iden- for products with positive associations (Sivanathan and Pettit 2010). tity maintenance motives and choose products that match their own We found that, compared to static scenarios, theta synchroni- social identity. zation in dynamic scenarios was higher in the parietal lobe. Syn- 1076 / Moving on! The Effect of Movement On, From and Embodiedin Products on Consumer Judgments cronization of theta power in the parietal lobe has previously been through the use of EEG and behavioral evidence. The implications of described as reflective of redirecting attention to goal-relevant se- our findings extend beyond the domain of verticality, as our frame- mantic information (Atienza, Crespo-Garcia, & Cantero, 2011). This work can help explain potential discrepancies in other embodied finding suggests that dynamic scenarios activate goal-directed be- cognition areas such as the experiences of weight and/or approach havior, which may drive the desire to compensate for an aversive behavior. state in the moving-down scenario. In addition, alpha synchronization was higher for dynamic imagery in the frontal, central and Good Buzz, Bad Buzz: Using Vibrotactile Feedback to parietal regions. This implies that dynamic scenarios do trigger an Shape Consumer Choice increased internally focused attention. Synchronization of alpha oscillations in parietal regions may also reflect increased process- EXTENDED ABSTRACT ing of motor, semantic and perceptual aspects of an imagined scene Although smartphones have been vibration-capable for over a (Bartsch et al., 2015). decade, mobile vibration features have been relatively unutilized by firms. Within the last two years, however, large e-commerce plat- Study 2 forms such as Amazon have quietly begun to pair mobile vibration Study 2 shows that down conditions activate more negative as- with certain consumer behaviors such as shopping cart adds. An- sociations than the up conditions, both in dynamic and static simula- ecdotally, people tend to report that a vibration from their mobile tions. The results show a main effect of direction such that respon- evokes an approach response, hinting at its potential as rewarding dents in the up condition had a higher self-worth than respondents stimulus, yet scholarly research examining the subjective percep- in the down condition (Mup = 3.23, SDup = 1.79; Mdown = 2.66, SDdown tions of mobile vibration is lacking. The current research integrates = 1.45, F(1,234) = 8.60, p < .01), controlling for task enjoyment. and builds upon existing haptic and reward perception research to Similarly, we analyzed the top three words that came to respondents’ examine three fundamental research questions relating to mobile vi- minds while imagining the vertical scenario. The results again show brations: (1) how they are subjectively perceived, (2) whether they a main effect of direction such that the up condition led to typing influence consumer choice, and (3) by what mechanism they exert more positive words than the down condition (Mup = .14, SDup = influence, focusing on the role of classical conditioning.

1.88; Mdown = -.36, SDdown = 1.70, F(1,234) = 4.54, p = .03). Almost every modern consumer now carries a vibrating mobile device that they interact with for up to 10 hours per day (Rob- Study 3 erts, Yaya, & Manolis, 2014). This massive uptick in mobile usage Study 3 investigates whether dynamic verticality leads to com- has been accompanied by increasing reports of mobile dependency plementary effects and static verticality leads to assimilative effects. (Salehan & Negahban, 2013), heightened impulsivity (Wilmer, The study was a 2 (direction: up vs. down) x 2 (movement: dynamic Hampton, Olino, Olson, & Chein, 2019), as well as experiences of vs. static) between-subjects design. A significant interaction emerged “phantom vibrations,” i.e. imaginary vibrations (Drouin, Kaiser, & (F(1, 212) = 13.94 , p < .001). In the dynamic condition, participants Miller, 2012). Academic research of mobile vibration has focused who imagined moving downward were willing to pay a greater price primarily on its use as an alerting or communicative stimuli (Sahami, premium for the high-status product relative to the low-status prod- Holleis, Schmidt, & Häkkilä, 2008; Saket, Prasojo, Huang, & Zhao, uct than those who imagine moving upward (Mmoving down = 18.68%, 2013), though one recent marketing study does suggest that mobile

SDmoving down = 34.42%; Mmoving up = 4.23%, SDmoving up = 28.79%, t(212 vibrations can boost the persuasiveness of certain text messages ) = -2.19, p = .03). This is consistent with a complementary effect of (Hadi & Valenzuela, 2019). Nonetheless, it remains unclear how vertical position. In the static condition, however participants in the consumers perceive, and are affected by, mobile vibrations in con- “being down condition” reported a lower price premium for the high sumptive contexts such as online shopping. We therefore conducted status iPad relative to the low status Klu tablet (Mbeing down = 4.82%, an initial pretest to establish a base understanding of consumer per-

SDbeing down = 31.04%; Mbeing up = 24.73%, SDbeing up = 39.71%; t(212) = ception of different mobile vibrations and to guide our selection of 3.10, p < .01). This pattern of results is consistent with assimilative vibrational stimuli. effects of vertical position (Zhang and Risen 2014). In the pretest, online participants (n=150) reported their subjective perceptions mobile vibrations (ranging from 25ms to 3200ms; Study 4 random presentation) along a variety of dimensions (reward, pleas- Study 4 provides support for a motivational goal priming ex- antness, arousal, etc.). The findings of this pretest demonstrate planation of complementary effects, including the mediating role of that reward perception varies by vibration duration F(3,147)=6.52, goal activation, through a moderation-of-process approach (Spencer, p<.001, with reward perception peaking at 400ms. Zanna, and Fong 2005). We introduced a goal satiation condition, Our pretest finding that 400ms mobile vibrations are reward- in which respondents had to write about their own success, and a ing, together with robust evidence that reward influences choice (Pa- control condition in which responents had to write about a trip to pies, Barsalou, & Press, 2015), led to our main Study 1 hypothesis: the grocery store. We found that in the dynamic down condition, consumers will prefer an action that produces a rewarding vibration, writing about one’s success led to lower willingness to pay for status compared to one that does not. Using a within-subjects design, we products than writing about a trip to the grocery store (Mgoal satiation = presented participants (n=150) with two visually-identical boxes

21.11%, SD goal satiation = 20.54% vs. Mno goal satiation = 36.9%, SDno goal satia- (analogous to online shopping carts). Participants were instructed to tion = 27.6% vs; t(202) = -2.09, p = .04). add items to either box as many times as they liked during a fixed Our work provides two main theoretical contributions: First, timeframe. As predicted, we find that participants added more items we introduce a goal systems framework to the study of verticality, re- to the vibration-producing box (MVibrationClicks=14.69; MNon- solving discrepancies in the existing research. Second, we introduce vibrationClicks=10.71; F(2,148)=4.08, p<.05). Interestingly, the and explain the difference between static and dynamic simulations extent to which participants found vibrations rewarding was sig- in embodied cognition. Methodologically, we add to the incipient nificantly correlated with the positive-valence of their daily mobile body of work that integrates neural and behavioral empirical studies notifications (r=.29, 95%-CI=[.11,.41], p<.01, suggesting that con- Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1077 ditioning may underlie mobile vibration reward perception (further to utilize haptic feedback technology, which takes advantage of the examined in Study 3). sense of touch by applying vibrations to the user in synch with dis- In Study 2, we extend our findings with a lab-controlled study played movement and content (Brewster et al., 2007). In the market- (n=138, Swiss sample) examining the effect of rewarding vibro- place, some brands have begun to distribute such “haptified” experi- tactile stimuli on consumer choice in a highly-ecological online encd (e.g., mobile ads for Stoli vodka, users feel their phone vibrate shopping setting. Participants in this study used identical tablets when a woman shakes a cocktail; Johnson, 2015). to complete a custom-built online grocery shopping task. In the Importantly, unlike visual or auditory cues, tactile exchanges control condition, as in a typical online shopping interface, add- require direct contact with a stimulus (Peck, 2010). Touch is consid- ing an item updated the shopping cart, but produced no other feed- ered the most “proximal” sense (Montagu & Matson, 1979) and has back. In the vibration condition however, clicking the add-to-cart an idiosyncratic capacity to evoke a sense of psychological close- button triggered a rewarding vibration. We find that consumers in ness (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Computer science research suggests the vibration condition had significantly higher basket totals com- that “mediated social touch” is possible, where haptic feedback from pared to the control group (MVibrationBasketTotal=72.78CHF ; devices symbolizes the touch of another person (Gallace & Spence, MControlBasketTotal=57.84CHF; F(1,138)=10.01, p<.001, and that 2010; Haans et al., 2006). this effect is moderated by impulsivity. This result establishes that Drawing from this interdisciplinary literature, we propose that mobile vibrations can be rewarding and influence consumer choice, haptic sensations experienced in a mobile phone advertisement can but does not address the underlying mechanism. be perceived as a form of touch from the sender (i.e., the brand). Fur- In Study 3 we test the hypothesis that perception of mobile vi- ther, because haptic sensations are so uniquely associated with im- brations as rewards stems from classical conditioning (Gormezano mediate proximity and contact, haptic feedback in advertising may & Moore, 1966). To test this hypothesis, we adapted a classic as- have the ability to make these consumer-brand exchanges feel more sociative learning, Multi-armed Bandit (MAB) task (Gittins, Glaze- engaging and personal, ultimately augmenting mobile advertising brook, & Weber, 2011). In our incentive-compatible, two condition effectiveness. However, any positive effect of haptics will likely de- MAB task, we presented online participants (n=215, U.S. sample) pend on the brand’s characteristics since the source of haptic sensa- with four visually-identical slot machines, and tasked them with tions plays an important role in their interpretation (Martin, 2012). finding the most rewarding slot machine (each with unknown win IPG Media Labs recruited 1,136 Android mobile phone users in probability) to maximize their points across 4 blocks of 30 trials (120 the U.S. from an online panel (MedianAge = 25-34 years; 51.67% total; probability assignment randomized between blocks). Partici- female). Participants took a mobile survey, ostensibly about video pants were randomly assigned to either a (1) vibration-win condition content of their choosing. Before viewing the selected video con- in which wins were visually-salient and carried an approximately tent, all participants were served one of four pre-roll advertisements, neutral mobile vibration (100ms), while losses were less visually- which were either haptically augmented or not. Several other fac- salient and carried no vibration or (2) a vibration-loss condition, in tors were manipulated, including: density of the haptics (high ver- which the opposite was true: losses were salient and carried the vi- sus low), the presence/absence of a “bumper” notifying participants bration. In this way we conditioned participants to associate a pre- they were experiencing haptics, whether or not the “bumper” was viously-neutral vibration with either a positive stimulus (a win) or branded, and the ability to skip the ad or not. We accessed this data- an aversive stimulus (a loss). Participants then completed a MAB set and analyzed it to test whether the effect of haptic augmentation task questionnaire, followed by the shopping task (Study 2, but with was universal or contingent on the brand being advertised. To do so, 100ms vibration for item-adds) and final questionnaire battery. we employed a logit specification to investigate customer’s purchase Study 3’s findings support that consumers in the vibration-win intentions (Top Box and Second Box of purchase intentions were as- condition had significantly higher basket totals compared to the con- signed a value of 1, as we did not have access to the continuous vari- trol group (MVibrationWinBasketTotal=$158.13; MVibrationLoss- able) as a function of haptic augmentation at the category level while BasketTotal=$126.37; F(1,213)=9.62, p<.01) and, in line with our controlling for gender (due to the nature of the categories) and ad- theorizing, the effect of vibration condition on shopping basket total vertisement evaluation (see details in Exhibit 1). We were also able was mediated by how rewarding participants found the MAB task. to control for other properties of advertisements: (i) the density of The current study demonstrates that mobile vibration is parsed haptic effects (ii) whether the ad was skippable, and if so, whether it as a reward that can systematically influence consumer choice. Our was watched to its completion and, (iii) whether there was a branded findings show that even when the touch modality is kept constant, bumper/notification at the beginning of the advertisement. Overall, mobile vibrations evoke shifts in consumer preference toward stim- we found that while the overall impact of haptics on purchase inten- uli that are paired with a vibration. We further provide evidence a tion was positive and significant, a closer look revealed the effect classic conditioning mechanism likely underlies vibration reward only manifested for certain brands. The model also confirms (as sug- perception and its influence on consumer decision making. Together, gested by IPG itself) that high haptic density and the possibility to our findings have important implications for the effective design of skip the advertisement has a negative impact on purchase intentions, haptic human-machine interfaces in marketing and the role of vibro- but that adding a notification of haptics generates a positive effect tactile stimuli as a novel form of reward. instead. Notably, brands can differ not only in how familiar they are to Consumer Responses to Haptic Sensing of Movement in consumers (Kent & Allen, 1994) but also in personality dimensions Mobile Advertising (Aaker 1997; differences in perceived brand warmth are particularly robust; Kervyn et al., 2012). We expect that haptic feedback deliv- EXTENDED ABSTRACT ered from warm brands will exert a positive effect on downstream While consumers’ prolific smartphone usage provides a fruitful consumer responses, whereas the same feedback delivered from advertising avenue, small screen and limited ad visibility present a unfamiliar or cold brands will not. We conducted a series of experi- challenge to marketers (Bart et al., 2014). One way to circumvent ments to explore these predictions. All haptic effects were profes- this shortcomings and exploit the handheld nature of smartphones is sionally integrated by a developer of haptic feedback technology. 1078 / Moving on! The Effect of Movement On, From and Embodiedin Products on Consumer Judgments

Study 2 held brand familiarity constant, varied product category Bart, Yakov, Andrew T. Stephen and Miklos Sarvary (2014). as a within-subjects variable, and manipulated brand warmth and “Which products are best suited to mobile advertising? A haptics between-subjects. Study 3 (N=174) was a 2(Haptics: absent field study of mobile display advertising effects on consumer versus present) x 2(Brand Warmth: low versus high) x 2(Product attitudes and intentions,” Journal of Marketing Research, Category: Insurance versus Retail) mixed-model design. Within a 51(3), 270-285. video reel, participants viewed two advertisements: one for a retailer Berger, J., & Heath, C. (2007). “Where consumers diverge from and one for an insurance provider. In the high brand warmth condi- others: Identity signaling and product domains”. Journal of tion, participants viewed advertisements for Target and Geico, and Consumer Research, 34(2), 121-134. in the low brand warmth condition, participants viewed advertise- Borghi, Anna M. (2012), “Language Comprehension: Action, ments for Walmart and Allstate (all brands were selected based on Affordances and Goals,” inLanguage and Action in Cognitive pretest results). Afterwards, participants indicated their brand atti- Neuroscience, ed. Y. Corello and A. Bartolo, 125-43. tudes and those in the haptics-present conditions described how the Brewster, Stephen, Faraz Chohan, and Lorna Brown (2007). haptic effects felt to them. A repeated-measures ANOVA revealed “Tactile Feedback for Mobile Interactions,” in Proceedings no significant main effect of haptics on brand attitude, butasig- of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing nificant interactive effect of haptics and brand warmth onbrand Systems, ed. Mary B. Rosson and David Gilmore, New York, attitude (F(1,170)=5.91, p<.02). Planned contrasts revealed that as NY: ACM, 159-62. expected, haptics had a positive effect on attitudes towards high- Brough, A. R., Wilkie, J. E., Ma, J., Isaac, M. S., & Gal, D. (2016). warmth brands (F(1,170)=3.83, p<.06) but not towards low-warmth “Is eco-friendly unmanly? The green-feminine stereotype and brands. Notably, this pattern did not differ across product categories its effect on sustainable consumption.”Journal of Consumer (F(1,170)=.06, p>.80). In the haptics-present condition, independent Research, 43(4), 567-582. coders coded participants’ description of how the haptics felt. We Dohi, I., Yamada, F., & Asada, H. 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Paper #1: We Can Look Like Our Brands: Facial Appearance Finally, contributing to expanding research on online reviews Anne-Laure Sellier, HEC Paris, France and electronic word-of-mouth, Yoon and Khamitov share an unex- Claire Linares, HEC Paris, France pected finding regarding highly self-brand connected consumers. Al- though one might expect such consumers to generate positive word- Paper #2: From Sweetheart to Scapegoat: Brand Selfie-taking of-mouth, they show that highly self-brand connected consumers Shapes Consumer Behavior feel psychologically threatened when the brand is used by others. In Reto Hofstetter, University of Lucerne, Switzerland turn, psychological threat leads participants who do not want to share Gabriela Funk, University of Lucerne, Switzerland the brand to engage in negative word-of-mouth. Leslie John, Harvard Business School, USA Overall, these papers demonstrate how self-brand connection Paper #3: When and Why Metaphors Affect Consumer–Brand can unfold in rapid and fundamental ways, and particularly resonates Relationships in this age of technology. We believe this session can create a rich Alberto Lopez, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico discussion, hopefully renewing interest for research on this topic. Martin Reimann, University of Arizona, USA This session is likely to attract researchers working on a broad array Raquel Castaño, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico of topics, brands, identity, the self, but also technology, face percep- Paper #4: Hands off My Brand: Strong Self-Brand Connection tion, embodied cognition, metaphors or word-of-mouth. and Psychological Threat Nari Yoon, Indiana University, USA We Can Look Like Our Brands: The Manifestation of Mansur Khamitov, Nanyang Technological University, Adopted Brands in Facial Appearance Singapore EXTENDED ABSTRACT SESSION OVERVIEW Considerable branding research suggests that brands can evoke Consumers live in a digitalized environment in which they ex- general brand user human age and/or body type stereotypes (e.g., a perience brands both on- and offline. Extensive research has stud- brand user is a grandfather, Belk, Bahn, and Mayer 1982; Absolut ied self-brand connection offline, the extent to which brands overlap Vodka is a hip 25-year old, Aaker 1997) and that possessions ac- with the self, arguing that brands can be part of the self (Belk 1988) tively contribute to our identities (e.g., Belk 1988; Berger and Heath and showing that brands help consumers enact their social identities 2007; Escalas and Bettman 2003). We ask the reverse question: can (Escalas and Bettman 2003). Further research is needed, however, consumers’ faces evoke the brands they are loyal to? If the bulk of to investigate how self-brand connection can form, how it can affect research on facial appearance has focused on how it influences so- consumers in powerful ways, and what prospects it can open in an cial perceptions (e.g., Ballew and Todorov 2007), recent research increasingly technological world. shows that social perceptions can shape facial appearance. In par- This session explores different facets of self-brand connection. ticular, Zwebner, Sellier, Rosenfeld, Goldenberg, and Mayo (2017) How can self-brand connection be reflected in our self and in our demonstrated that given names produce a face-name matching effect, actions? How can perceptions of self-brand connection arise? How the finding that both a social perceiver and a computer - canaccu is self-brand connection further shaped in our technological environ- rately match a person’s given name to their face, above chance level. ment? The four papers provide insight into these questions and more. Zwebner et al. (2017) pinpoint the existence of shared face-name In particular, they should foster a discussion about the interplay be- stereotypes (e.g., Gordon and Tanaka 2011; Tanaka 2001) to explain tween self-brand connection and different forms of technology, such the effect. They suggest that we live up to these stereotypes to meet as facial recognition, selfies, apps and electronic word-of-mouth. the social expectations of how someone with our given name should First, at a time when facial recognition technologies are ever look. more precise and pervasive, Sellier and Linares investigate if brands The present research examines whether brands that consumers that consumers are loyal to can manifest in their faces. They find are loyal to can similarly manifest physically in our faces. In three support for a face-brand matching effect, whereby a social perceiver studies, we find support for a face-brand matching effect, whereby can accurately match a person’s perfume brand to their face, above a social perceiver can accurately match a person’s perfume brand to chance level. This means that we can look like our brands. their face, above chance level. We propose that brands that consum- Next, Hofstetter, Funk, and John show how a benign act such ers actively link to their identities may similarly manifest in their as taking a selfie with a brand can trigger self-brand connection and faces. Unlike given names, brands are social tags that individuals in turn impact brand preference. Eight studies provide evidence that choose to embrace. Considerable research suggests that consumer consumers’ brand preference is increased after taking a selfie with it, identity (both actual and ideal) markedly influences the connection even if the brand is of lower utility than the alternative. Consumers’ to brands (e.g., Escalas and Bettman 2003; Levy 1959; Malär et al. self-inferences account for this effect. 2011; McCracken 1986) and that brands actively help consumers In a field study, and using a new app transmitting relationship build their self-identities (e.g., McCracken 1989; Escalas and Bet- metaphors and tracking real-time behavior, Lopez, Reimann, and tman 2019). It is the resulting interdependence between consumers Castaño explore the role of self-brand connection in the influence of and their brands that leads to the development of a proper relation- relationship metaphors (e.g., complete a puzzle and breaking some- ship (e.g., Fournier 1998). It may be, then, that after enough time in thing) on brand relationships. They show that in the presence (ab- a brand relationship, consumers begin to look like a stereotype of the sence) of a brand transgression, a negative (positive) metaphor will brand user, if only to signal to others around them that they “carry” decrease (increase) the strength of a consumer’s brand relationship. the social identities enacted by the brand.

Advances in Consumer Research 1080 Volume 48, ©2020 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1081 The repeated finding of a face-brand matching effect means that From Sweetheart to Scapegoat: Brand Selfie-taking some evocation of the perfume brand we have been loyal to for a Shapes Consumer Behavior long time may get tattooed in our faces. This means that a social tag may show up in our face more rapidly than was known to date. EXTENDED ABSTRACT A second possibility is that people choose brands because they look Increasingly, consumers are taking self-photos and marketers, like the brand user stereotype ex ante and self-select into brands that eager to capitalize on this trend, routinely encourage consumers they can more easily live up to. to take “brand-selfies”—self-photos with a brand logo or product This research focuses on the case of perfume brands, as per- from that brand in tow. Despite the pervasiveness of selfie-taking, fume users symbolically identify with their fragrances (Aaker 1997; and marketers’ attempts to promote brand selfie-taking in particular, Belk 1988), particularly in France, where our data was collected little is known about the effect of this behavior on the selfie-takers (Statista 2017). In each study, female participants saw the headshots themselves. of 10 to 30 targets that they did not know prior to the study. For each We suggest that consumers’ compliance with such requests headshot, participants chose, out of two perfume brands, the one they sparks a self-inferential process that leads the consumer to feel con- thought was the target’s actual perfume: one brand was the target’s nected to the brand (e.g., “If I took the brand selfie, I must feel con- true perfume, the other was a filler. We consistently found evidence nected to this brand”). We base this on self-perception theory which of a face-brand matching effect: Across all headshots in each study, holds that people have a tendency to infer who they are by looking to participants picked the targets’ true perfumes above chance level their behavior (Bem 1967; Chaiken and Baldwin 1981; Fazio, Zan- (here, 50%). We extensively calibrated the stimuli to minimize con- na, and Cooper 1977). The theory has already been useful in explain- founds such as brand familiarity, the perfume brands’ release dates, ing many consumer behavioral and social phenomena (e.g., Grewal ethnicity, socioeconomic factors, target age and any difference be- et al. 2019; Summers, Smith, and Reczek 2016; Xu, Shen, and Wyer tween the target and filler brands that we used. 2012). Building on prior findings, we propose that taking a self-pho- In study 1, we photographed the faces of 10 Caucasian women to together with a brand can trigger self-inferences that increase self- who had been loyally wearing a well-known perfume for at least brand connection. Prior work in consumer behavior indicates that, four and up to 15 years. In this study, the photographs were framed in turn, feeling connected or attached to a brand can foster positive to include the face, the shoulders and the beginning of the chest. behaviors toward the given brand, for example increased purchase We paired their true perfumes with fillers that were perceived as intention (Whan Park et al. 2010). However, based on attribution equivalently well-known. All the perfumes were from the high-end theory (Festinger 1957; Heider 1958) we further suggest that when perfume market and were overall in an equivalent price range. Re- a consumer encounters a less-than-stellar image of herself in a brand sults from a t test and a logistic mixed-effect regression that accounts selfie, instead of revising her impression of her own attractiveness for the random selection of faces showed that participants found the (downward)—a threatening undertaking because it could be dam- targets’ true perfumes significantly more than random chance (50%). aging for the ego—she may instead use the brand as a scapegoat, In study 2, we further controlled for differences related to the projecting her personal dissatisfaction onto the brand. two perfume options and for age. Headshots were also more tightly Eight studies support this account. In a dataset of 283,140 user framed on the oval of the face. We developed two sets of 10 head- reviews from Yelp, study 1 documented a positive association be- shots, such that each headshot in set A had a counterpart in set B for tween a reviewer’s propensity to take a brand selfie and the star rat- whom the true perfume was the filler option of set A. With this de- ing he gives the restaurant. sign, an intrinsic preference or any other difference between the true Studies 2a to 2c establish causality. Study 2a tests brand selfie perfume and the filler that might have caused an accurate face-brand taking vs taking no photo whatsoever on purchase intention and matching in set A is controlled for by having set B. In particular, studies 2b and 2c test whether it is specifically brand selfie-taking, pooling the accuracy rates of the two corresponding faces in sets and not simply taking a selfie (without the brand), that affects brand A and B effectively controls for any bias linked to the perfume op- choice. In all three studies we find a positive and significant effect of tions themselves. Headshots were also paired to minimize the age brand selfie-taking over the control on brand preference. difference. Across the two sets of headshots, participants guessed Study 3 tests the specificity of the effect and rules out the pos- the true perfumes above chance, controlling for socioeconomic, age sibility that the effect is driven by the higher exposure to the brand and preference factors, as well as familiarity and release dates of the in the brand selfie-condition. Therefore, in study 3, we added an ad- perfumes. ditional control condition, in which participants were instructed to Study 3 provided an identical and conceptual replication of simply take a photo of the brand (without the self). Participants were study 2 on a total of 30 headshots. Participants first saw the 20 assigned to one of three photo-taking tasks: selfie with the brand headshots of study 2 in two different orders. They then saw 10 ex- (brand selfie), a selfie without the brand (selfie) or a photo of the tra headshots. Across the two orders, the face-brand matching effect brand in front of a neutral background (brand photo). We still find, held once again. that purchase intention is higher for the brand selfie-takers relative to In summary, our studies repeatedly support the existence of a the mere selfie-takers and to the mere brand photo-takers. And that face-brand matching effect, whereby social perceivers can accurately the effect is fully mediated by self-brand connection (indirect effect match a person’s actual perfume brand to a headshot of their face, = .35, SE = .13, 95% CI [.10, .62]). above chance level. Critically for marketing, a contribution of this Study 4 was preregistered and designed in order to provide pro- research is to show that our faces alone can evoke a brand user ste- cess evidence via serial mediation. Participants were instructed to reotype. On a practical level, facial recognition systems may be able take either a brand selfie or a selfie, and to then report their intention to push certain brands as a result of an estimated good match with to purchase that brand. Critically however, in addition to assessing targeted consumers’ faces in the not so distant future. self-brand connection as we did in studies 2a, 2c and 3, we also assessed participants’ propensity to look to their selfie-taking behavior to make self-inferences. In line with our conceptual framework we find that self-inferences and self-brand connection serially mediated 1082 / Self-Brand Connection in the Age of Technology the relationship between brand selfie-taking and purchase intention of “putting something together”) and negative metaphors associ- (indirect effect = .402, BootSE = .111, 95% CI = [.197, .634]). ated with ending a romantic relationship (i.e., the behavioral act of In study 5, instead of measuring self-inferences as in study 4, “breaking something”). We hypothesize that relationship metaphors’ we sought to manipulate them, by varying participants’ facial ex- effect on consumer–brand relationships is contingent on the (non-) pressions in their selfies. Specifically, participants were instructed to occurrence of a brand transgression, in that positive (negative) rela- either have a negative expression on their face (e.g., frown), a posi- tionship metaphors affect the relationship only in the absence (pres- tive expression (e.g., smile), or, in a control condition, were given ence) of a transgression. Furthermore, we hypothesize that the inclu- no instruction on how to appear. This manipulation was crossed with sion of a brand in the self mediates the relationship. our standard manipulation of selfie type (brand selfie vs. selfie). We predicted and found an interaction such that the facial expression Study 1 manipulation affects purchase intention only among those in the We relied on archival data by scraping 1,000 reviews from the brand selfie condition, and not among those assigned to simply take best-selling products on Amazon.com. Of these reviews, 418 were a selfie (without the brand). Particularly, self-brand connection me- classified as containing metaphorical speech, in which consumers diates the effect of brand selfies on purchase intention for those in frequently utilized positive metaphors such as “[this brand] and I the positive expression condition (conditioned indirect effect = .550, make a better couple than me and my boyfriend” and “I could marry BootSE = .131, 95%CI = [.296, .801]) and for those in the control [this brand],” as well as negative metaphors such “I am breaking up condition (conditioned indirect effect = .191, BootSE = .075, 95% CI with [this brand].” Our data show that consumers actively and ex- = [.045, .336]) but not for those in the negative expression condition tensively use metaphors when referring to their brand-relationships. (conditioned indirect effect = -.168, BootSE = .111, 95% CI = [-.385, .053]; index of moderated mediation = .359 BootSE = .096, 95% CI Study 2 = [.170, .549]). Study 2 employed a 3 (metaphor: positive, negative, absent) × Finally, study 6 tests whether satisfaction with the selfie mod- 2 (brand transgression: present, absent) experimental design, with erates its effect on self-brand connection. Participants again took a metaphor and brand transgression as between-subjects independent brand selfie or a selfie, and in addition to assessing self-brand con- variables and brand relationship strength as dependent variable. A nection and purchase intention we also assessed participants’ satis- new brand called snapholio, a virtual portfolio app, was developed. faction with the selfie. We find that the effect of brand selfies on After giving informed consent, 196 participants were randomly as- self-brand connection is moderated by the level of selfie satisfaction, signed to one of the six conditions. Participants in the brand trans- i.e., the positive effect of brand selfie-taking on brand preference is gression present conditions had to endure brand-transgressive events attenuated by dissatisfaction with one’s selfie (index of moderated involving severe failures of the app. Participants in the negative mediation = .16, BootSE =.075, 95% CI = [.011, .305]). metaphor condition were shown images of broken things and asked By testing how a new form of user-generated content affects to write about times when they had broken something. Participants self-brand connection formation we contribute to the literature on in the positive condition were asked to complete a series of simple brand relationship formation and to the literature on consumer pho- puzzle tasks. Participants in the control condition were shown a neu- to-taking experiences, and branded user-generated content. tral image and asked to write about their day (Larson and Billetera With respect to practice, our investigation offers guidance to 2013; Marin, Reimann, and Castaño 2014). To measure brand re- marketers on when and why encouraging consumers to take brand lationship strength, we employed an established scale (Aaker et al. selfies may augment or detract from attempts to foster a consumer- 2004), which was measured five times (T1-T5). Inclusion of brand brand connection. Our findings imply that marketers may be overin self was measured employing an established brand inclusion Venn concerned with the appearance of the brand in the photo, and under- diagram (Reimann et al. 2012). Data were submitted to a two-way concerned with helping the consumer to feel satisfied with her own repeated-measures ANOVA. Results revealed a significant interac- appearance. tion effect between metaphor and brand transgression on brand relationship strength, F(2, 185) = 7.27, p < .01, ηp2 = .073. Direct When and Why Metaphors Affect Consumer–Brand effects of metaphor, F(2, 185) = 20.70, p < .001, ηp2 = .18, and brand Relationships transgression, F(1, 185) = 572.98, p < .001, ηp2 = .76 were also significant. At T1, all conditions were the same (baseline). At T2-T4, EXTENDED ABSTRACT it was systematically found that the effect of relationship metaphors In the interaction between brands and consumers, metaphors on consumer–brand relationships is contingent on the (non-)occur- with relationship-related meanings often appear (e.g., in slogans, rence of a brand transgression, in that positive (negative) relation- brand names, logos). Moreover, metaphors seem to be increasing- ship metaphors affect the relationship only in the absence (presence) ly used by consumers themselves (Reimann, Nuñez, and Castaño of a transgression (all p’s of contrasts < .05). To test whether our 2017). hypothesized effects were short-lived or long-lasting, we collected However, despite their common usage, it is unclear how exactly additional measures (T5) four days after having the app was no relationship-related metaphors affect consumer–brand relationships. longer required, revealing that metaphors have a lasting effect on Indeed, the extant literatures in psychology, linguistics, and con- consumers’ brand relationships. Furthermore, in the presence of a sumer research are inconclusive regarding whether metaphors affect brand transgression, only 13% of participants in the negative meta- consumer–brand relationships. Classic views insist that metaphors phor condition chose to share the brand (vs. 41%) p < .05. In the represent the one universal way in which both language (Hawkes absence of a brand transgression, 42% of participants in the positive 1972; MacCormac 1985) and marketing (Bremer and Moonkyu metaphor condition shared the brand (vs. 31%), p < .05. We also as- 1997; Fournier 1998) work. However, recent investigations imply sessed whether or not participants had kept the app on their phones. that the effectiveness of metaphors is uncertain (Landau, Meier, In the presence of a brand transgression, only 9% of participants in and Keefer 2010). We focus on positive metaphors associated with the negative metaphor condition kept it (vs. 31%) p < .05. In the starting/maintaining a romantic relationship (i.e., the behavioral act absence of a brand transgression, 73% of participants in the positive Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1083 metaphor condition kept it (vs. 47%) p < .05. Following mediation- was framed very special to them personally because they have been testing guidelines by Hayes and Preacher (2014), we constructed using it for a long time since they received it from their grandparents, three regression models that support our hypothesis that the inclu- and because it fits their personal values very well. In control condi- sion of brand in self mediates the relationship. tion, the scenario did not reference SBC but mentioned they like the brand very much. We measured participants’ psychological threat Study 3 when Rondo is used by others. As predicted, participants who have The goal of Study 3 was to test the effect of metaphors when a high SBC (vs. control) felt their bond with the brand is threatened consumers actively write (vs. are merely exposed to) metaphorical (Msbc=2.71 vs. Mcontrol=2.15, p=.042) and their sense of identity was reviews. We employed the same measures as in Study 2. We present- endangered (Msbc=2.79 vs. Mcontrol=2.06, p=.008). Importantly, there ed participants with a positive or negative hypothetical brand inter- was no effect of uniqueness seeking (p=.18), ruling out the alterna- action (Park and John 2018). Participants in the negative (positive) tive explanation that people feel threatened because usage by others metaphor condition were instructed to write a metaphorical review may take away their uniqueness. of the brand using words like break, breaking, and broken (match, Experiment 2 extended experiment 1 to real brands and exam- matching, and together). Data were submitted to an analysis of vari- ined whether consumers’ perceived psychological threat translates ance. Results revealed an interaction effect between metaphor and into negative behavioral intentions. Students (N=358) wrote either brand transgression on brand relationship strength, F(1, 178) = 2.36, about a brand which they like so much that they do not want to share 2 p < .09, ηp = .026. The direct effects of both metaphor, F(1, 178) = with others (not share) or a brand they like so much (control). In 2 6.59, p < .01, ηp = .071, and brand transgression, F(1, 178) = 34.68, addition to perceived psychological threat items (4 items, α=.903), 2 p < .001, ηp = .17, were significant. The results suggest that the ef- we measured consumers’ intention to say something negative about fect of metaphors on consumer–brand relationships holds regardless the brand just to make sure others do not try it. Participants in the of the mode of exposure. not share condition exhibited greater psychological threat (M=2.25) compared to the control condition respondents (M=1.56; p<.001). General discussion Additionally, participants showed greater intention to spread nega- In summary, across different methods (i.e., lab, longitudinal tive WOM when they recalled the brand they did not want to share field experiment, archival study) and different dependent variables (Mnot share=1.82 vs. Mcontrol=1.48, p=.008). Mediation results revealed (i.e., psychometric measures, actual behaviors, written accounts participants experienced greater psychological threat from sharing from online reviews), the present research not only demonstrates the brand which they like so much that they do not want to share ver- that relationship metaphors depend on the (non-)occurrence of brand sus the brand they simply like, which in turn led to greater negative transgression in order to influence consumer–brand relationships but WOM intentions (B=.36; 95% CI: .22, .52). also provides insight into the mechanism underlying this effect. Our Experiment 3 extended our findings beyond physical posses- empirical investigations illustrate that the inclusion of the brand in sions and examined feelings of happiness associated with sharing. the consumers’ self represents a key explanation for the role of meta- Online participants (N=204) read a scenario about a café named phors in consumer–brand relationships. Janko’s that they either perceive high connection with or they enjoy visiting. Strong SBC consumers were marginally less likely to feel Hands off My Brand: Strong Self-Brand Connection and happy if others visit their café (M=5.88) compared to participants in Psychological Threat the “enjoy visiting the café” condition (M=6.22; p=.055). Interest-

ingly, participants felt less happy if their acquaintances (Msbc=5.66 EXTENDED ABSTRACT vs. M =5.99, p=.074) or random strangers (M =4.95 vs. M The dominant paradigm in the consumer-brand relationships re- control sbc control=5.49, p=.020) started going to Janko’s, but it did not bother them search stream suggests that when consumers love the brand, they will if their family (p=.83) or friends (p=.74) started going there. This do everything in their power to influence others to consider or buy suggests interpersonal proximity plays a potential role. the brand and happily spread positive word-of-mouth (WOM) about We contribute to the literature on consumer-brand relation- it (Batra et al. 2012; Fournier 1998; Park et al. 2010). The current ships (Fournier 1998; Escalas 2004; Khamitov et al. 2019). While work proposes that this may not always be the case. Specifically, we the predominant paradigm within this research stream suggests that pose that when some consumers exhibit elevated self-brand connec- consumers who have a strong brand relationship would go to great tion (SBC), they would instead be more likely to willingly engage lengths to support their favored brands and thus should be encour- in negative WOM and feel unhappy about others trying the brand. aged to become public brand advocates, our findings imply that high We theorize that this “brand for me and not for you” effect should be SBC individuals are likely reluctant to spread positive WOM to the driven by perceived psychological threat generated by the prospect extent that the prospect of other consumers laying hands on their of other consumers using the ‘coveted’ brand. That is, building on brand comes across as threatening. While the extant literature tends the self-expansion theoretical account (Aron et al. 1992; Reimann to view high SBC levels as an invaluable asset (Escalas 2004; Esca- and Aron 2009), we anticipate that when highly self-brand connected las and Bettman 2003, 2005), the present research underscores an in- consumers engage in self-expansion of their self-concept, once they stance where typical benefits of high SBC are unlikely to accrue and deeply incorporate the brand into the sense of self, the prospect of instead may reverse. Last but not the least, our work adds a nuance other consumers trying the brand should result in a sense of psycho- to the brand community research stream (McAlexander et al. 2002; logical threat. This should in turn make such consumers more willing Muniz and O’Guinn 2001) by providing a conceptual and empirical to engage in negative WOM, make them feel less happy, and prefer account of what can be construed as the opposite notion of brand to selfishly keep the brand for themselves. community where instead of a shared brand-enabled bond consum- Experiment 1 assessed consumers’ reactions to others using the ers appear to harbor a rather selfish and egoistic SBC they want to brand which they got primed to perceive high connection with. On- keep for themselves. line participants (N=206) were asked to imagine that they have been Prior WOM research established that when consumers feel fa- using Rondo, a diary notebook brand. In high SBC condition, Rondo vorably toward a product or a service, a number of them exhibit a 1084 / Self-Brand Connection in the Age of Technology tendency to leave positive reviews, encourage their friends and ac- McCracken, Grant (1986), “Culture and Consumption: A quaintances to give it a try, and put in a good word (Berger 2014; Theoretical Account of the Structure and Movement of the Lovett et al. 2013; Moore and Lafreniere 2020). Mapping our results Cultural Meaning of Consumer Goods,” Journal of Consumer on this literature, the findings nuance some of the WOM work by Research, 13(June), 71–84. providing a type of boundary condition wherein instead of engag- ——— (1989), “Who Is the Celebrity Endorser? Cultural ing in increased WOM, consumers with strongly favorable product Foundations of the Endorsement Process,” Journal of and service opinions are actually engaging in more negative WOM. Consumer Research, 16(3), 310–21. 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Paper #1: Political Neutrality Aversion: When and Why ‘Staying threat to culture/values), product status, and actor-product fit mediate Out of It’ Backfires this effect. Ike Silver, University of Pennsylvania, USA Finally, Paper 4 (Catapano and Tormala) explores how compa- Alex Shaw, University of Chicago, USA nies should frame their stances in order to maximize impact. They find that consumers believe that expressing attitudes in terms of sup- Paper #2: Chasing Political Review Storms port, rather than opposition, is more expressive of their values, and Johannes Boegershausen, University of Amsterdam, The will lead to more liking from others. Thus, when brands talk about Netherlands the policies they support, rather than policies they oppose, consum- Jared Watson, New York University, USA ers are more likely to propagate these messages through sharing. Paper #3: The Changing Face of America: When Majority Together, these papers provide multiple perspectives and en- Group Consumers Prefer vs . Are Threatened By Ethnic Diversity hance our understanding of when, why, and how, companies should in Advertising weigh in on political issues in order to maximize benefits to their Steven Shepherd, Oklahoma State University, USA brand. Whereas limited research to date has explored the emerging Tanya L. Chartrand, Duke University, USA trend of companies weighing in on political issues, the work pre- Gavan J. Fitzsimons, Duke University, USA sented in this session begins to address this gap, enhancing our un- Aaron C. Kay, Duke University, USA derstanding of consumers in a changing world. Paper #4: Support or Oppose? The Effects of Political Attitude Framing on Sharing Behavior Political Neutrality Aversion: When and Why ‘Staying Rhia Catapano, University of Toronto, Canada Out of It’ Backfires Zakary Tormala, Stanford University, USA EXTENDED ABSTRACT SESSION OVERVIEW Business leaders, celebrities, and politicians wield significant More and more, firms are taking public stances on political and influence over many facets of life, from the laws that pass tothe social issues. In the past few years, Nike created an ad campaign products and ideas that spread. However, public figures derive much centered around Colin Kaepernick, Dick’s Sporting Goods and Delta of their power from public opinion and consumer support. How do publicly severed ties with the NRA, and dozens of CEOs from major consumers decide whom to trust, buy from, or vote for? companies made public statements opposing the 2017 immigration One important consideration is a public figure’s commitment ban. Although firms have always been involved in politics, ithas to social causes. Indeed, consumers increasingly care where public traditionally been behind the scenes (Lawton McGuire, and Rajwani figures and the organizations they represent stand on hot-button is- 2013), rather than in public. Moreover, there is little precedent for sues like abortion, climate change, and immigration, and they will firms taking stances on political and social issues that are notdi- boycott, condemn, and punish actors who take positions they deem rectly relevant to the firm’s value proposition. For this reason, little unacceptable (Haidt 2012; Skikta 2010). Perhaps as a result, public is known about how taking a stance impacts consumer behavior. Do figures frequently choose to remain neutral when asked to weigh in firms benefit from taking public political stances? What happens on such issues, citing the merits of each side or expressing a prefer- when firms do choose to take a stance? And, when they do choose ence not to get involved at all (Shaw et al. 2017). to take a stance, how can they maximize the impact on consumers? This paper explores how consumers react to political neutrality. Our session sheds light on these questions. Paper 1 (Silver and We propose that despite its intuitive appeal, remaining neutral often Alex Shaw) explores why it may be beneficial for firms to take politi- resembles a ‘false signal’ (Jordan and Bloom 2017), which can un- cal stances, even at the risk of alienating some consumers. They find dermine trust and erode support. that despite its intuitive appeal, remaining neutral can harm trust, When public figures express political neutrality, consumers fre- even relative to outright opposition. This effect occurs because con- quently have information about their intended audience (e.g., view- sumers interpret neutrality as concealed opposition and therefore as ers of a particular media outlet, constituents from a particular politi- a dishonest impression management tactic. cal party). We hypothesize that this audience information can shift The next two papers explore what happens when companies do how neutrality is interpreted in predictable ways. Specifically, we take a stance. Paper 2 (Boegershausen and Watson) focuses on what predict that remaining neutral in front of a more liberal audience will happens to reviews after a brand takes a political stance. They find signal underlying conservative convictions and vice versa. that the resulting political review storms include reviews from sup- Moreover, to the extent that expressing neutrality over a di- porters and opposers, leading to a set of reviews that provide very lit- visive issue seems like a form of strategic non-disclosure (John, tle information diagnostic of product quality. The authors investigate Barasz, and Norton 2016), neutral public figures may seem insincere, the downstream consequences for the brand involved, exploring the dishonest, and untrustworthy. Indeed, remaining neutral (and signal- differential effects on liberals and conservatives. Paper 3 (Shepherd, ing concealed opposition) may harm trust even relative to opposing Chartrand, Fitzsimons, and Kay) focuses on the impact of political a consumers’ viewpoint directly, a phenomenon we term political ideology on how consumers respond to advertising that implicitly neutrality aversion. represents a political stance. Specifically, they find that conserva- Study 1 (n=301) sought to demonstrate that audience informa- tive (liberal) ideology is associated with more negative (positive) tion predictably shapes how expressions of neutrality are interpreted. attitudes and behavioral intentions when ads feature ethnic diver- Participants read one of three stimulus-sampled vignettes which each sity/non-White actors. Symbolic threat (seeing the ethnic group as a described a public figure expressing neutrality in a public forum. Be- tween-subjects, we manipulated whether the actor was speaking to

Advances in Consumer Research 1086 Volume 48, ©2020 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1087 a predominantly liberal or a predominantly conservative audience. with the majority of their peers on a divisive political issue. When Participants were then asked to make attributions about the neutral asked which approach would effectively win trust and support from actor’s personal beliefs on scales from -3 (holds strongly liberal be- peers, the majority chose ‘remain neutral’ (66.8%), more than ‘side- liefs) to +3 (holds strongly conservative beliefs). As predicted, we against’ (24.2%) and ‘side-with’ combined (9.0%; p<.001). found a main effect of audience (F(1,295)=111.14,p <.001), such that Together, these studies illuminate the surprising costs of remain- participants believed an identical expression of neutrality to be con- ing neutral, and they reveal an attribution process which incentivizes cealing conservative beliefs when addressing a liberal audience, and side-taking and may ultimately instigate polarization. Furthermore, liberal beliefs when addressing a conservative audience. This effect actors who do choose to remain neutral on important social issues held separately in each vignette-condition (ps<.001). may be inadvertently mismanaging their reputations. Studies 2a-b (n=187, n=300) replicated the belief inference effects from Study 1 with real press video clips of public figures Chasing Political Review Storms (A member of the Backstreet Boys, the owner of the Kansas City Chiefs) expressing neutrality in live answers to reporters’ questions EXTENDED ABSTRACT about divisive political issues (support for President Trump, NFL Today, brands who take a political stance may receive reviews players kneeling during the national anthem). We again manipulated from supporters and opposers, resulting in a political review storm the actor’s audience by describing the reporter in each clip as being that provides the consumer very little information diagnostic of from either a conservative or a liberal news outlet. Once again, par- product quality. For example, a bakery in Colorado refused to bake a ticipants saw neutrality as signaling conservative beliefs when ad- wedding cake for a same-sex couple resulting in a flood of 1-star re- dressing a liberal audience and vice versa (2a: t(185)=1.91, p=.058; views from liberals and 5-star reviews from conservatives (Gajanan 2b: t(298)=6.15, p<.001). Moreover, participants who agreed with 2018). Utilizing the accessibility-diagnosticity framework (Feldman the speaker’s audience (and thus inferred that the neutral actor tacitly and Lynch 1988) and moral foundations theory (Graham, Haidt, opposed their viewpoint) reported that they would find him more and Nosek 2009), we propose that liberals and conservatives will trustworthy if he had explicitly opposed their viewpoint instead of differentially respond to political review storms. While reviews are remaining neutral (3-item trust scale, αs>.75: -3: Much less trust- generally helpful in forming product quality inferences, like other worthy to +3: Much more trustworthy; 2a: t(96)=2.67, p=.009; 2b: attributes (Rao and Monroe 1989), we propose that product qual- t(146)=1.92, p=.057; vs. scale midpoint). ity is not the only attribute that matters amidst a political review Study 3 (pre-registered, n=541) sought to demonstrate that neu- storm. Our theorizing suggests that liberals will attempt to utilize trality harms trust, but only when it resembles strategic concealment, both product quality information and a brand’s political ideology to and not when it signals sincere middle-ground beliefs. Participants form their decisions, whereas conservatives will rely on the brand’s read a scenario in which a prominent businesswoman is asked to political ideology. To reconcile their need for ingroup loyalty, the weigh in on immigration policy at a press conference. In all condi- review voice (i.e., is it written by a liberal or conservative) will lead tions, we described the businesswoman’s audience as holding the conservatives to discount the credibility of reviews written by liber- same views on the issue as the participant. This time, we manipu- als. On the other hand, liberals will recognize the bias in both review lated whether the businesswoman remains neutral (public neutral- voices as they sift through the reviews for diagnostic quality infor- ity condition) or sides against her audience (and the participant) mation. Across three studies, we begin by demonstrating the effect outright (opposition condition). We also included a third condition of political review storms on perceived review credibility, then ulti- in which the businesswoman remains neutral in public at the press mately the consequence of this on brand intentions. conference, but later expresses a neutral viewpoint in private to her Study 1 (N = 327) employed a 2(review voice: liberal, con- spouse (private neutrality condition). As predicted, public neutrality servative) x 2(political ideology: liberal, conservative), between- signaled concealed opposition, but private neutrality did not (F(2, subjects design. Participants were randomly assigned to the reviews 522)=114.44, p<.001). In turn, public neutrality was seen as less factor and we measured their ideology with the item “with which trustworthy than both outright opposition (t(347)=12.09, p<.001) political party do you most closely identify?”. Participants were and private neutrality (t(347)=10.61, p<.001). asked to view the information for a bakery on Yelp. The business Study 4 (pre-registered, n=600) aimed to examine neutrality’s was framed as being conservative and this was revealed through the effects on trust in an incentive-compatible economic game. Partici- voice manipulation. Review voice was manipulated with reviews pants first indicated their views about gun control in a forcedbi- that mentioned claims like “can’t believe they support a conserva- nary choice and shared these beliefs with a partner. We manipulated tive agenda [1-star]” (liberal voice) or “proud to have a local busi- whether the partner (a confederate) then signaled back agreement, ness fight back against corruptive liberal ideologies [5-star]” (con- opposition, or neutrality (a preference not to take sides). Finally, servative voice). When it came to the perceived review credibility, participants rated attitudinal trust (3-item scale, α>.9) and played a 2x2 ANOVA yielded a significant interaction (F(1,323) = 28.709; an incentivized prisoner’s dilemma game. Participants judged neu- p < .001), qualified by main effects of the review voice (F(1,323) trality to be substantially less trustworthy than outright opposition = 11.518; p = .001) and political ideology (F(1,323) = 5.968; p = (t(396)=6.98, p<.001). Additionally, although participants were sig- .015). For a conservative voice (e.g., 5-star reviews), conservatives nificantly more likely to cooperate when their partner signaled ideo- found the reviews to be much more credible than liberals (Mconserva- 2 logical agreement (90% cooperation), they were no more likely to tives = 5.22, Mliberals = 4.11; F(1,323) = 32.306; p < .001; partial η cooperate with a neutral partner (70%) than with one who opposed = .162). Whereas for a liberal voice (e.g., 1-star reviews), liberals them outright (73%; Neutrality vs. Opposition: p>.5). found the reviews to be more credible than conservatives (Mconservatives 2 Finally, Study 5 (n=190) investigated whether participants = 3.97, Mliberals = 4.39; F(1,323) = 4.016; p = .046; partial η = .025). would intuit neutrality’s costs when asked to weigh in on a politi- Importantly, we see a much smaller effect for liberal voices relative cal issue themselves. They largely did not. Participants in a business to conservative voices, suggesting that ideology impacts perceptions school’s behavioral lab were told to imagine that they were running of credibility differentially. for a leadership position in an organization and that they disagreed 1088 / Consumers and Politics: When Companies Take a Stance

In study 2 (N = 621), we sought to generalize our findings same time, companies feel pressure to take a stance on social issues and determine downstream consequences of these political review (Global Strategy Group 2012). storms. Study 1 positioned the brand as “promoting Conservative Drawing from work on ideology (Jost, Glaser, Kruglanski, ideologies” or “opposing Liberal ideologies”. However, we real- and Sulloway 2003; Jost, Nosek, and Gosling 2008) and intergroup ize that these two positions are not equal (Catapano and Tormala, attitudes (Stephan and Stephan 2000), we posit that conservative working paper). To avoid this potential confound, study 2’s voice ideology will be associated with more negative attitudes toward di- manipulation disclosed that the business refused to seat a member versity in advertising, whereas liberals will actually prefer ads with of the Republican [Democratic] congress. Thus, the political review (vs. without) ethnic diversity/non-White actors. We also test relevant voice was always negative (i.e., 1-star). We also included a control moderators of this effect and offer process evidence, including the condition where none of the reviews had a political voice. Political role of symbolic threat (i.e., seeing immigrants as a threat to one’s ideology was assessed as in the prior study. We replicated the previ- culture), product status, and the product’s cultural origins. We argue ous patterns on review credibility as we again found a significant that our results are not explained by felt targetedness (Aaker, Brum- interaction between voice and political ideology (F(2,616) = 6.60; p baugh, and Grier 2000; Grier and Brumbaugh 1999), or similarity to < .01), which qualified the main effect of voice (F(2,616) = 60.45; the target (Aaker et al. 2000). p < .001). The main effect of political ideology was not significant In Study 1 (n = 170, White, US undergraduates), participants (F(1,616) = 2.47; p > .11). For conservative reviews, conservatives were asked to rate their attitudes toward a series of ads that either perceived the review significantly more credible (Mconservatives = 4.65) featured White or Non-White (Sikh or Muslim) actors. Participants than liberals (Mliberals = 3.97; t(207) = 3.75; p < .001). In contrast, completed a measure of symbolic threat (e.g., extent to which immi- there were no significant difference between liberals and conserva- grants undermine or enhance core American values, American iden- tives for liberal reviews (Mconservatives = 4.23, Mliberals = 4.33; t(206) = tity, etc.). After a delay, participants also completed a measure of

.50; p > .62) or non-politicized control reviews (Mconservatives = 5.44, support for the current sociopolitical status quo (system confidence;

Mliberals = 5.54; t(203) = .68; p > .49). Kay and Jost 2003) as a measure of conservative ideology (Jost et Lastly, study 3 employed a 2x2x2 design where we first mea- al., 2003). The two-way interaction was significant; those higher in sured political ideology (conservative or liberal), then manipulated system confidence rated the non-White ads more negatively than the overall quality (2- or 4-star average rating) and (review voice: con- White ads, and the opposite was found for those low in system conservative, liberal). We matched participants with a business that fidence. Higher system confidence scores were also associated with aligned with their ideology, then randomly assigned them to a review lower non-White ad evaluations. System confidence also predicted voice condition that supported their position (5-star) or opposed their symbolic threat, and symbolic threat mediated the effect of system position (1-star). A 2x2x2 ANOVA on brand intentions yielded a sig- confidence on ad attitudes for the ads with non-White actors, but nificant 3-way interaction (F(1,495) = 4.436;p = .036). Due to space not when the ads had White actors (moderated mediation effect was constraints, we will not fully detail the patterns here, but we will significant). summarize them by saying that when the rating was consistent with Study 2 replicated the interactive effect of ad content and ideol- the reviews (e.g., 2-star business with 1-star reviews), liberals indi- ogy on ad attitudes, but with ads for businesses and services ostensi- cated directionally higher intentions than conservatives. However, bly available around campus. Ads either featured all White actors or when there was inconsistency (e.g., 2-star business with 5-star re- a diverse range of ethnicities (including White). Ideology was mea- views), conservatives indicated greater intentions than liberals, sug- sured using the social dominance orientation (SDO) scale (Ho et al. gesting that they will support a business with a Conservative agenda, 2015), which is a conservative ideology (Ho et al., 2015; Jost et al. regardless of brand quality. 2003) where hierarchical differences and inequality between groups Taken together, these studies demonstrate that liberals and con- is seen as desirable. Those high (low) in SDO rated the diversity servatives are both influenced by their political identity; however, ads more negatively (positively) than the no-diversity ads. They also liberals will also use quality as diagnostic information when deter- reported less likelihood of visiting the business. mining whether to engage with a brand. Conservatives, on the other To further test the role of symbolic threat in the relationship hand, appear more concerned with ingroup loyalty than quality con- between ideology and attitudes toward diversity in ads, Study 3 (n = cerns, whereas Liberals place less concern on ingroup loyalty. More 395, White US residents) manipulated the description of an ostensi- research is needed to determine if this stems from some relationship bly real ethnic group (Camarians), such that their culture and values to perceived review credibility or reviewer intentions or if it arises were described as either similar or dissimilar to American culture from a tribe mentality given the perceptions of the political climate and values (adapted from Maio et al. 1994, Stephan et al. 2005). Par- currently. This work is currently limited with its focus on the U.S. ticipants viewed and rated three ads said to feature Camarians. The population, but we hope to expand the investigation to include other interaction between the symbolic threat manipulation and ideology countries to disentangle these potential pathways. (system confidence: low vs. high) was significant. Those high (vs. low) in system confidence reported more negative attitudes toward The Changing Face of America: When Majority Group the ads when symbolic threat was high, but this effect was eliminat- Consumers Prefer vs . Are Threatened By Ethnic ed and ad attitude ratings were significantly higher when symbolic Diversity in Advertising threat was low. Conservative ideology is also associated with valuing vertical EXTENDED ABSTRACT differentiation and status (Kim, Park, and Dubois 2018; Ordabayeva By reflecting the diverse composition of American society, ad- and Fernandes 2018). Given this, and given the relationship between vertising has the potential to say something about society and cul- conservative ideology and attitudes toward immigration and vari- ture (Pollay 1986). However, diversity in ads may take on political ous ethnic groups (Esses, Jackson, and Armstrong 1998; Ho et al. meanings given the recently stoked culture wars regarding ethnic- 2015; Jost et al. 2003), we posited that conservatives would see the ity, immigration, and the call to “make America great again”. At the product in the non-White ad condition as lower status, which would then predict negative ad attitudes. Study 4 supported this. Partici- Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1089 pants (n = 243, White American residents) saw an ad for sweet tea statement (Strongly Oppose (0) and Strongly Support (100)), and that featured a White family or Sikh family. Participants rated ad their intentions to share their attitudes on a 3-item index (e.g., “How attitudes, indicated their WTP ($0-$5), and rated the status of the likely would you be to share your views on this topic with friends or product. Finally, they completed the SDO scale. The ad content X family who disagree with you on this issue?”). This index was used ideology interaction was significant. Those higher in SDO responded across studies. Across topics, participants were more likely to share more negatively to the non-White ad (vs. White ad), whereas those their views when they considered statements they supported rather low in SDO showed the reverse effect. Similar effects were observed than statements they opposed, t(2172.02) = 17.00, p < .001. This on WTP and perceived status. Moderated mediation analysis found effect was consistent across statements, and we found no interaction that those higher in SDO saw the product as lower in status in the between attitude framing and attitude valence (p = .96). non-White (vs. White) ad condition, which predicted more negative Study 2 aimed to provide causal evidence for the attitude- ad attitudes and decreased WTP. framing effect in a more controlled setting. Participants in the lab Finally, we reasoned that if conservative ideology is associated were assigned to either a support-framing or oppose-framing condi- with seeing various ethnic groups as a symbolic threat and main- tion. We began by asking participants to select which statement best taining boundaries between groups, then it follows that those higher characterized their attitude towards gun control: “More gun control in conservative ideology will particularly dislike ethnic diversity would be (helpful/harmful).” In the support-framing condition, par- in ads for products that are associated with American culture com- ticipants were asked about the statement they supported (the one pared to those that are not. Study 6 (n = 362 White American resi- they selected), whereas in the oppose-framing condition, participants dents) tested this. Participants saw the same ad with a Sikh family were asked about the statement they opposed (the one they did not from Study 4, except the ad was either for Southern Breeze sweet select). Thus, in both conditions, participants were asked about an tea (American brand and product), or Southern Breeze bael fruit tea attitude position that was consistent with their own view. For ex- (American brand, Indian product). Actor-product fit (Pounders and ample, a participant who indicated that more gun control would be Mabry-Flynn 2016) was also measured (e.g., “choosing this fam- beneficial would be randomly assigned to answer questions about ily for this product is appropriate”). High SDO was associated with either their support for the beneficial statement or their opposition to seeing less actor-product fit particularly for the domestic product the harmful statement. Then, participants were then asked how likely (vs. foreign product), and also liking the ad for the domestic product they were to share their attitudes on the statement with another par- less (moderated mediation effect was significant). Thus, despite the ticipant currently completing the study. Participants reported greater foreign-origin product being unfamiliar to participants and not be- sharing intentions in the support-framing than in the oppose-framing ing targeted by the ad, the high SDO participants liked the ad for condition, t(206) = 2.13, p = .033. the foreign-origin product more. Although counterintuitive, this is Study 3 aimed to provide evidence for the proposed value ex- consistent with conservative ideology as a hierarchy- and status quo- pression and impression management mechanisms. We manipulated maintaining ideology. attitude-framing as described in Study 2. After indicating their likeli- Even though the US has long been a diverse society, ethnic di- hood of sharing, participants were asked to imagine that they had versity in ads is not ideologically neutral. We provide evidence for decided to share their view, and reported their prediction for the mes- the role of ideology in shaping attitudes toward culturally diverse sage recipient’s impression of them (2 items; e.g., “How positively ads. Moreover, we find evidence for theoretically-relevant modera- do you think the message recipient would view you as a person”) tors and mediators that also have marketing implications. and how value expressive sharing this position would be (2 items, e.g., “How representative of your values is your attitude [in favor Support or Oppose? The Effects of Attitude Framing on of/against] this statement?”). Participants reported greater sharing Sharing Behavior intentions when the issue was framed in terms that they supported relative to terms that they opposed, t(823) = 4.68, p < .001). In addi- EXTENDED ABSTRACT tion, support framing led to greater value expressiveness, Z = 9.40, p What factors affect whether consumers share their views with < .001, which in turn predicted greater sharing intentions, Z = 4.69, p others? We identify a novel determinant of whether consumers < .001; indirect effect= .12, Z = 4.28, p < .001. Support framing also share—attitude framing, defined as whether consumers think of their led to higher positive impression ratings, Z = 2.53, p = .01, which own attitude in terms of what they support or what they oppose. At- predicted greater sharing intentions, Z = 7.64, p < .001; indirect ef- titude framing is distinct from attitude valence, as the same attitude fect = .05, Z = 2.35, p = .02. can be framed in terms of support (e.g., I support that this policy is In Study 4, we replicated this effect, finding that the effect holds bad) or opposition (e.g., I oppose that this policy is good). regardless of whether the target of sharing agrees or disagrees on a Six preregistered experiments provide evidence for an attitude- given topic. In Study 5, we replicated this effect with another topic, framing effect, whereby consumers are more likely to share, or and showed that the effect is attenuated when individuals do not want express, attitudes framed in terms of positions they support rather to be liked. than positions they oppose. This effect occurs due to two interaction How can companies leverage this knowledge? More and more, goals: value expression and impression management. In our final companies are weighing in on social issues through their advertising study, we show how brands can leverage this psychological tendency campaigns and social media, and consumers are deciding whether to to encourage sharing on social media. share and propagate these messages. The current research suggests Study 1 examined the basic relationship between attitude fram- that if companies want consumers to share their messages on social ing and sharing across a variety of attitudes. We asked participants media, it may be more beneficial to talk about what a company sup- their attitudes toward seven statements regarding companies and ports, rather than what they oppose – even when a tweet relays the company policies (e.g., “Facebook has had a negative effect on same underlying message. To test this proposition, in Study 6 we America), varying the valence of the statements in order to ensure asked participants their attitudes towards immigration (“Immigration that “support” was not consistently associated positive attitudes. policies should be implemented that decrease/increase the number For each statement, participants reported their attitudes towards the of people coming into the US”), and used their answers to assign 1090 / Consumers and Politics: When Companies Take a Stance participants to support- or oppose- framed messages, as in previous Jordan, Jillian J., Sommers, Roseanna, Bloom, Paul, and Dave G. studies. Then participants saw a Tweet from Uber consistent with Rand (2017), “Why do we hate hypocrites? Evidence for a their own attitude, framed in terms of either what they supported theory of false signaling,” Psychological Science, 28, 356-368. (e.g., “We support policies that increase immigration”) or what they Jost, John T., Jack Glaser, Arie W. Kruglanski, and Frank J. opposed (e.g., “We oppose policies that decrease immigration.”), Sulloway (2003), “Political Conservatism as Motivated Social modelled from corporate tweets after the 2017 immigration ban. Cognition,” Psychological Bulletin, 129(3), 339-375. We then asked participants how likely they would be to retweet, Jost, John T., Brian A. Nosek, and Samuel D. Gosling (2008), and asked them to give us their email address to contact them about “Ideology: Its Resurgence in Social, Personality, and Political retweeting tweets like this one. Support framing led to greater shar- Psychology,” Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3 (2), ing intentions than oppose framing, t(975) = 2.89, p = .004. Partici- 126–136. pants who viewed support-framed attitudes were also more likely to Kay, Aaron C. and John T. Jost (2003), “Complementary Justice: agree to be contacted (27.5%) than participants who viewed oppose- Effects of ‘Poor but Happy’ and ‘Poor but Honest’ Stereotypes framed attitudes (17.5%), x2(2) = 13.92, p < .001. Thus, the cur- on System Justification and Implicit Activation of the Justice rent research suggests that support-framing allows companies to best Motive,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(5), maximize their return on their investment for these sorts of decisions 823–37. and tweets. Kim, Jeehye Christine, Brian Park, and David Dubois (2018), “How Consumers’ Political Ideology and Status-Maintenance REFERENCES Goals Interact to Shape Their Desire for Luxury Goods,” Aaker, Jennifer L., Anne M. Brumbaugh, and Sonya A. Grier Journal of Marketing, 82(6). 132-149. (2000), “Nontarget Markets and Viewer Distinctiveness: The Lawton, Thomas, Steven McGuire, and Tazeeb Rajwani. 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Paper #1: How Order Affects People’s Choices in Sequences of The last two papers examine what factors affect consumers’ ac- Independent Predictions curacy when making predictions of uncertain events. The third paper Jackie Silverman, University of Delaware, USA investigates what conditions lead people to follow advice for predict- Uri Barnea, Bocconi University, Italy ing future events. Seven incentive-compatible studies show that people are (significantly or directionally) more likely to follow advice Paper #2: Consumers are (Relatively) Risk Seeking in the that includes a confidence interval around the specific best guess. Domain of Error Thus, assuming that advisors give good advice, including confidence Berkeley J. Dietvorst, University of Chicago, USA intervals when giving advice can improve the accuracy of consum- Lin Fei, University of Chicago, USA ers’ predictions. Finally, the fourth paper focuses on the accuracy Paper #3: Should Advisors Provide Confidence Intervals of more personal, financial predictions, such as consumers’ expec- Around Their Estimates? tations of their future expenses and income. Nine studies featuring Celia Gaertig, University of Chicago, USA unique field data (e.g., budget forecasts made with a personal finance Joseph P. Simmons, University of Pennsylvania, USA app, longitudinal spending reports from credit union members), find Paper #4: A Prototype Theory of Consumer Financial that people rely on their “most common” past experience when mak- Misprediction ing predictions, leading them to under-predict the magnitude of their Ray Charles “Chuck” Howard, University of British Columbia, upcoming expenses, but over-predict the magnitude of their earnings. Canada Taken together, these papers shed light on how consumers make David Hardisty, University of British Columbia, Canada predictions, and when such predictions may be suboptimal. Given Dale Griffin, University of British Columbia, Canada the pervasiveness of uncertainty about the future, understanding con- Marcel Lukas, Heriot-Watt University, Scotland sumer predictions and their accuracy is critical for consumers and Abigail Sussman, University of Chicago, USA marketers alike.

SESSION OVERVIEW How Order Affects People’s Choices in Sequences of Consumers often make choices with a high degree of uncer- Independent Predictions tainty regarding the outcomes. For example, the decision to purchase an unfamiliar product could ultimately increase or decrease utility, EXTENDED ABSTRACT and consumers typically do not know beforehand what that outcome How does the order in which consumers make predictions might be. Similarly, consumers spend trillions of dollars each year on about independent events (e.g., gambles) affect those predictions? stocks, bonds, gambles, and other bets, which suggests that predict- We find in five studies (four pre-registered) that consumers more of- ing what might occur in the future is a common – and potentially ten choose that an unlikely outcome will occur later (vs. earlier) in lucrative – aspect of consumers’ lives. a sequence of predictions; that is, consumers more often choose the When it comes to understanding consumers’ predictions in “underdog” over the “favorite” for their second, third, and/or fourth these various contexts, two key questions stand out: what predictions prediction (versus first). do they actually make, and how accurate is that choice? The four We propose that when consumers predict the outcomes of mul- papers in this session explore how different aspects of the prediction tiple events, they make their first prediction without necessarily environment play an important role in consumers’ actual choices re- considering the other events for which they will make predictions, garding future events and the accuracy of such predictions. and thus rationally tend to predict that the more likely outcome will The first two papers examine what factors affect consum- occur. However, because people often falsely perceive independent ers’ predictions, and specifically, their willingness to choose more events as related to each other (i.e., the belief in the law of small “risky” options. The first paper explores when people are more likely numbers: Tversky and Kahneman 1971), they believe that the un- to choose the “risky” (i.e., less likely) outcome relative to the “safe” likely outcome is bound to happen at some point. This belief dispro- (i.e., more likely) outcome across a sequence of predictions; for portionately affects predictions later in the sequence, making con- example, when predicting outcomes in a sports tournament, when sumers more likely to predict that the unlikely outcome will occur might consumers pick the “underdog” to win over the “favorite?” later (versus earlier). Five studies show that people more often predict that unlikely out- By demonstrating that the (arbitrary) order in which consum- comes will occur later (versus earlier) in the series of predictions of ers make predictions affects their choices, this research contributes independent events because they believe that the unlikely outcome to work on the representativeness heuristic (Kahneman and Tversky must occur at some point even within a small sample. The second 1972), and specifically its effects on sequential bets (gambler’s falla- paper investigates how the potential to make forecasting errors, like cy: Croson and Sundali 2005) and predictions of multiple outcomes choosing the wrong team to win by X points, affects willingness to made simultaneously (probability matching: Gal and Baron 1996). select riskier gambles. Four studies show that because people have We are the first to show that the representativeness heuristic applies a diminishing sensitivity to this type of error, they are more likely to multiple sequential predictions for which the outcomes are un- to choose the riskier gamble or outcome when the gamble involves known (as opposed to a prediction following a known sequence of prediction error in addition to monetary consequences. outcomes, such as predicting “heads” after seeing several coin flip outcomes). Additionally, our findings contribute to the broad literature on variety seeking. The fact that consumers in our studies vary Advances in Consumer Research 1091 Volume 48, ©2020 1092 / When You Need a Crystal Ball: Factors that Affect the Riskiness and Accuracy of Consumer Predictions their predictions over time suggests that people seek variety even in From placing bets to predicting the weather for a multi-day contexts in which satiation, preference uncertainty, and social pres- vacation, consumers often have to make predictions about multiple sure (e.g., Kahn 1995) are unlikely to play a role. future events. Thus, our finding – that the order in which consumers In Study 1 (N = 402), we show the predicted effect “within make predictions has a systematic effect on their choices – is impor- subject:” consumers are more likely to choose the underdog later in tant for marketers and consumers alike. a sequence of predictions (compared to their first prediction). Par- ticipants predicted the outcomes of three randomly ordered hypo- Consumers are (Relatively) Risk Seeking in the Domain thetical basketball games in which one team slightly outranked the of Error other (e.g., Team A ranked 12th vs. Team B ranked 15th). A repeated measures logit model revealed that more participants predicted that EXTENDED ABSTRACT the underdog would win in the second (38%) and third games (40%) In most theories of choice under risk, preferences are elicited they made predictions about (vs. the first: 31%;p s < .003). over prospects (outcomes and associated probabilities; see Starmer, Study 2 (N = 601) replicated this effect in a different paradigm 2000). When testing these theories, most researchers have used pure- with real incentive-compatible choices (making predictions about ly monetary gambles (e.g. 50% chance of $1,000 vs 100% chance upcoming Rugby World Cup games). Participants predicted the out- of $450; Kahneman & Tversky, 1979). People’s choices over these comes of one close game (Wales, 5th vs. Australia, 6th) and two other prospects are supposed to inform us about their choices in the real games with clear favorites (e.g., Ireland, 1st vs. Russia, 20th). We ran- world. However, real world prospects usually have outcomes that are domized the order such that participants predicted the outcome of not purely monetary. Namely, they also produce an error – the dif- the close game either first or last. We also manipulated whether par- ference between a prediction and the realized outcome. For example, ticipants were incentivized to make correct predictions or not: half betting that a die will land on “6” when it actually lands on “4” proof the participants knew they would receive a bonus if they made a duces an error of two. Sports betters’ realize an error when betting correct prediction, and the other half did not receive any bonuses. A on a spread, manufacturers realize an error when deciding how much logit model revealed a main effect of order condition, such that more of a good to produce, and investors realize an error when selecting participants chose Australia (i.e., the underdog) when they predicted assets based on projections. If this context affects people’s appetite that game’s outcome last (59%) versus first (39%; p < .001). Sepa- for risk, then people’s preferences in the abstract scenarios used in rate chi-square analyses showed that the effect held both with and past research may not accurately represent consumer’s preferences without incentives (ps < .01; ANOVA interaction p > .40). An ad- in the real world. ditional study using four real NCAA “March Madness” tournament In this project, we find that consumers make fundamentally dif- basketball games replicated this order effect (Study 3, N = 199: first ferent choices when gambles produce an error in addition to a mon- = 31% vs. last = 49%, p = .010). etary outcome. Recent work has found evidence that people have In Study 4 (N = 178), we examined the effect of choice order diminishing sensitivity to forecasting error, which makes them risk in a more generalizable, non-sports context: predictions about what seeking over forecasting error (Dietvorst, & Bharti, 2019). Follow- color ball (red or black) would be drawn from an urn. As in Studies ing this work, we predict that people will be significantly more risk 2 and 3, participants predicted the outcome of a draw from a focal seeking when their choice in a gamble will produce an error in addi- “close” urn (with 27 red balls and 23 black balls) either before or tion to a monetary gain or loss. after predicting the outcomes of two draws from urns with a large In Study 1, 755 participants chose between safe and risky op- majority of red balls (e.g., 43 out of 50). Again, more participants tions and we manipulated whether their choice produced an error. chose the unlikely option (black) when they made the focal predic- Participants in the “Gain” chose between a 50% chance of $0.30 tion last (43%) versus first (6%;p < .001). We also found evidence of and $0.12 for sure. They learned that the computer would flip a coin the psychological process driving this effect: we asked participants to determine the outcome, but they did not learn how this process how much they were thinking about their other predictions when would work. Thus, their choice did not produce an error because it making their prediction for the focal urn. Participants in the last con- was not clear what outcome they were betting on when they chose dition reported considering their other predictions more (M = 5.21) the risky option. Participants in the “Heads” chose between a gain of than in the first condition (M = 3.10; p < .001), which mediated the $0.30 if the coin landed on heads (50% chance), and $0.12 for sure. effect of order on prediction (Indirect effect = -0.05, SE = 0.03, 95% Participants in the “Choice” condition faced the same gamble, but CI = [-0.13, -0.01]). could choose whether heads or tails resulted in the $0.30 gain. Thus, Study 5 (N = 2000) tested our theory through moderation. We the risky option in the Choice and Heads conditions produced an hypothesized that if participants’ belief that the unlikely outcome error because participants knew what outcome they were betting on. must occur at some point in the sequence drives the effect, then it We found that participants in the Gain condition were significantly should be attenuated when participants learn that the events are in more likely to pick the safe option (44%) than participants in the fact independent. As in Study 4, participants predicted what color Heads (31%, X2(1, n=504)=9.34, p=.002) and Choice (25%, X2(1, ball would be drawn from three different urns, with the same focal n=504)=20.43, p<.001) conditions. We replicate this effect in Study urn appearing either first or last. We also manipulated if, in the in- 2, with a different coin flip gamble. structions phase, participants completed a short tutorial on how sepa- In Study 3, 401 participants bet on a gamble that would be re- rate sequential events (e.g., coin tosses) are statistically independent solved with a die roll. Participants in the Gain condition chose be- or not. The order effect replicated for participants who did not do the tween three options without learning how the outcomes would be tutorial (last = 8% vs. first = 36%; p < .001) and was still present but determined. The two riskier options each offered a 40% chance of smaller among participants who did the tutorial (last = 8% vs. first = $0.30, a 20% chance of $0.10, and a 40% chance of $0; the safer 25%; p < .001, interaction p = .048). Importantly, among participants option offered a 20% chance of $0.30 and an 80% chance of $0.10. who made the focal prediction last, participants who completed the Participants in the Error condition learned how these gambles cor- tutorial were less likely to choose the black ball (p = .001). responded to the outcome of the die roll: 1) the die was 5-sided and displayed the numbers “1, 1, 2, 3, 3”, 2) they could bet on “1”, “2”, Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1093 or “3”, and 3) they would earn $0.30 for a perfect prediction, $0.10 how advisees react to uncertain advice in the form of confidence for a prediction off by 1, and $0 for a prediction off by 2. Thus, the intervals. two riskier options corresponded to betting on “1” and “3”, while the In the current project, we set out to test whether people are safer option corresponded betting on “2”. We displayed the odds of more or less likely to follow advice that is accompanied by a con- each monetary outcome the same way to both groups to ensure that fidence interval. For example, the website Kayak.com may recom- they had the same information about the monetary gamble. We found mend to buy a flight ticket now because “prices will rise in the next that participants were significantly more likely to pick the safer op- two weeks” (certain advice) or because “there is a 90% chance that tion in Gain condition (56%) than the Error condition (39%, X2(1, prices will rise between $20 and $30 in the next two weeks” (uncer- n=401)=11.89, p=.001). tain confidence-interval advice). We tested participants’ reactions to In Study 4, we explore this phenomenon in a completely dif- these different types of advice in the domain of sports predictions, ferent context. Participants saw two different forecasting options as this allowed us to incentivize participants for accurate predictions (Option E and Option S) make 20 trial forecasts in a prediction and to give them high-quality advice. task, and then chose between those options for a final incentivized Across seven studies (N = 9,471), we found that participants are forecast. Participants earned $0.50 for a prefect forecast, and this directionally more likely to follow advice that is accompanied by a bonus decreased by $0.10 for each unit of error in the forecast. Un- confidence interval. The effect was significant in four of the seven like the previous studies, participants only learned about the odds studies, and non-significant in the other three studies. Our results and outcomes associated with their options through experience. We suggest that advisors may be more persuasive if they provide confi- configured the predictions so that Option E was always off by 1, and dence intervals around their estimates. Option S was equally likely to be perfect or off by 2. Thus, Option In Study 1 (N = 399), we asked participants to predict the out- E was a safe option that always produced $0.40, and Option S was comes of upcoming NBA basketball games. We presented partici- a risky option that produced $0.50 and $0.30 with equal probability. pants with 9 different games, and, for each game, we asked them to We manipulated the instructions and feedback that participants got predict how many points one of the teams would score in the game between conditions. Participants in the Gain condition never learned (e.g., “How many points will the Philadelphia 76ers score in this about the prediction component of the task – they only saw the gains game?”). Participants first made a prediction for each of the games. that the two options generated in each of the 20 trials. Participants in Then, we asked them to choose whether they would want to sub- the Error condition only learned about the prediction task; they saw mit their own prediction or a prediction made by an algorithm as the predictions, the gains, and the correct answers in each trial. We their official, incentivized prediction. Before making their choice, found that participants were significantly more likely to pick the safe participants saw how the algorithm had performed in the past. For option (Option E) in the Gain condition (53%) than the Error condi- each game, participants were then shown the algorithm’s prediction tion (40%, X2(1, n=401)=6.59, p=.010). alongside their own prediction, and were asked to choose which they These results suggest that consumers are more likely to make would like to submit as their official, incentivized prediction. risky choices when their choices produce an error in addition to a We manipulated the certainty of the algorithm’s advice by ma- monetary gain or loss. These results can help to explain how the nipulating whether or not the advice was accompanied by a con- same consumer can simultaneously buy insurance (a choice without fidence interval. In the certain advice condition, participants only a clear prediction component) and gamble on sports (choices with a saw the algorithm’s best guess (e.g., “The statistical model’s best clear prediction component) – two actions that suggest very different guess is that the Philadelphia 76ers will score 111 points.”). In the risk preferences. Further, they suggest that marketers can manipulate uncertain advice condition, the best guess was accompanied by a people’s tolerance for risk by highlighting or hiding the prediction confidence interval (e.g., “According to the statistical model, there component of a risky choice. For example, consumers may value is a 90% chance that the Philadelphia 76ers will score between 84 uncertain promotions (see Mazar, Shampanier, & Ariely, 2017) more and 118 points. Its best guess is that the Philadelphia 76ers will score when those promotions generate an error in addition to a monetary 111 points.”). We found that participants were more likely to follow outcome. the algorithm’s advice when it was accompanied by a confidence interval than when it was not accompanied by a confidence interval. Should Advisors Provide Confidence Intervals Around Specifically, in Study 1, 25% of participants followed the algorithm’s Their Estimates? advice when it was accompanied by a confidence interval, but only 18.7% of participants followed the advice in the certain advice con- EXTENDED ABSTRACT dition, b = .063, SE = .026, p = .015. Many of a consumer’s everyday decisions require them to make In six additional studies, we replicated this procedure using dif- accurate predictions about inherently uncertain events. For example, ferent incentives and different sports prediction tasks. In all of our consumers may need to forecast how likely it is that the price of a studies, participants were directionally more likely to follow the al- product will fall, that a new model for a product will be released, or gorithm’s advice when it was accompanied by a confidence interval that their investment will be profitable. To navigate such uncertain- than when it was not accompanied by a confidence interval. This ties, consumers often ask for and rely on advice. Despite the potential effect was significant in three of the additional six studies (p = .032, perils of following overly precise advice, advice is often given with p = .004, and p = .007), and non-significant in the remaining three too much certainty (Moore and Healy 2008; Moore, Tenney, and Ha- studies (p = .112, p = .314, and p = .439). ran 2016; Radzevick and Moore 2011; Soll and Klayman 2004). Taken together, our results suggest that presenting a confidence Recent research suggests that consumers actually do not inher- interval alongside advice may be appealing to customers. Our results ently dislike uncertain advice, as they do not judge advisors more have important practical implications and are relevant to any compa- negatively when these advisors include uncertainty into their advice ny or individual who seeks to effectively communicate their advice. (Gaertig and Simmons 2018). However, we do not yet know (1) whether people are more likely to follow uncertain advice, and (2) 1094 / When You Need a Crystal Ball: Factors that Affect the Riskiness and Accuracy of Consumer Predictions A Prototype Theory of Consumer Financial that the effect of distribution condition on predictions is mediated by Misprediction what participants perceive to be their “average” spending (indirect effect = 3.41, SE = 1.32, 95% CI = [1.05, 6.37]). EXTENDED ABSTRACT In Studies 4–5 we test H2 in the context of expenses. In Study Consumers frequently make financial predictions (Peetz et al. 4 we partnered with Canada’s largest credit union to run a five week 2016, Zhang and Sussman 2018), and the accuracy of these predic- longitudinal field study with 187 of its members. In weeks one tions can be consequential for their financial well-being. For exam- through four participants were asked to predict their spending at the ple, under-predicting future expenses is associated with high-interest beginning of the week then report their actual spending at the end of payday loan use (Pew 2012) and revolving credit card debt (Yang the week. In the fifth week of the study participants were randomly et al. 2007). Similarly, over-predicting future income may lead con- assigned to predict their expenses in a control condition or an inter- sumers to over-spend because expected income growth typically vention condition that prompted them to consider three reasons why leads to increased spending (e.g., Berman et al. 2016; Carroll et al. their spending for the next week would be different from a typical 1994). However, relatively little is known about the prevalence and week before they made their prediction. During the first four weeks magnitude of expense and income prediction biases, why these bi- of the study participants under-predicted their weekly spending be- ases occur, and how these biases can be neutralized. tween 11% and 19% (p’s < .01). During the fifth week of the study In the present research we develop a prototype theory of con- participants in the control condition once again under-predicted their sumer financial misprediction that helps explain: 1) why consum- weekly spending (mean bias = 18%, p < .01). However, supporters display an expense prediction bias in which they under-predict ing H2, under-prediction was virtually eliminated in the interven- their future spending, 2) why consumers who face variable income tion condition (mean bias = -1.3%, p = .85). Study 5 (n = 1,048, display an income prediction bias in which they over-predict their nationally representative sample of US consumers) extends Study future income, and 3) how consumers’ expense and income predic- 4 by demonstrating that the intervention makes it easier to think of tion accuracy can be improved. The logic of the prototype theory atypical expenses when predicting, and that the number of atypical is that financial predictions are based on prototype attributes that expenses that come to mind mediates the effect of the intervention come to mind easily when predictions are being constructed. These on predictions (indirect effect = .05, SE = .02 95% CI = [.02, .09]). attributes represent a consumer’s average spending or income, where In Studies 6–9 we test H1 and H2 in the context of income pre- “average” refers to the mode of the relevant distribution rather than dictions. Our primary expectations were that consumers who work the mean. This leads consumers to under-predict expenses because in the gig economy tend to over-predict their future earnings because expenses are positively skewed with mode < mean, and over-predict gig income is often negatively skewed with mode > mean (Hall and income when it is negatively skewed with mode > mean. One impor- Krueger 2018), and that our “atypical” intervention would therefore tant implication of this framework is that predictions will be more make income predictions more accurate by making them lower. To accurate when the relevant distribution is approximately normal briefly summarize the results of these studies: 1) Uber drivers (n = (with mode = mean) than when it is skewed (H1). A second key im- 57) and Mturkers (n = 200) over-predict their weekly gig income by plication is that when outcomes are naturally skewed prediction ac- as much as 61% (p’s < .001), 2) Income predictions are more accu- curacy can be improved by prompting consumers to consider reasons rate when income is normally distributed than when it is negatively why their expenses (income) might be different than usual because skewed, and 3) Prompting people to consider reasons why their gig most values in a positively (negatively) skewed distribution that are income for the next week might be different than usual reduces over- different from the mode are also higher (lower) than the mode (H2). prediction. In Studies 1–3 we test H1 in the context of expenses. 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People Reject Algorithms in with mode < mean (Mode = $180, Mean = $200, SD = 38.14, Skew Uncertain Decision Domains Because They Have Diminishing = 3.13) or a normal distribution with mode = mean (Mode = $200, Sensitivity to Forecasting Error. Available at SSRN 3424158. Mean = $200, SD = 28.14, Skew = 0.00). Supporting H1, and consis- Gaertig, Celia and Joseph Simmons (2018). “Do People Inherently tent with the descriptive results of Study 1, predictions in the normal Dislike Uncertain Advice?” Psychological Science, 29(4), distribution condition were remarkably close to the $200 mean of 504-520. the underlying distribution (M = $200.32, p = .83), but predictions in Gal, Ido, and Jonathan Baron (1996), “Understanding Repeated the positive skew condition were significantly lower than $200 (M = Simple Choices,” Thinking and Reasoning, 2, 81–98. $195.14, p < .02). Study 3 directly replicates Study 2 and also shows Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1095

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Paper #1: Unable to Rebound: The Downside of Being a do-gooders themselves may act in a way that harms their side of Nonprofit That Errs a political cause (e.g., gun control). Counterintuitively, when faced Shalena Srna, University of Michigan, USA with the choice between taking money from their side of a cause or Yonat Zwebner, Interdisciplinary Center (IDC), Israel allocating money to the opposing side, people take money from their own side. In fact, the more one cares about their cause, the more Paper #2: Doing Good for (Maybe) Nothing: How Reward likely they are to harm their side rather than help the opposition, Uncertainty Shapes Consumer Responses to Prosocial Behavior undermining their ability to do good for their cause. Ike Silver, University of Pennsylvania, USA Taken together these four projects highlight the importance of Jackie Silverman, University of Delaware, USA understanding the negative responses to actors who aim to do good. Paper #3: Damned Either Way: Hypocrisy Judgments When Counterintuitively, this session identifies that beneficence can back- Goals and Commitments Conflict fire and reveals the potential negative consequences of doing good. Jonathan Z. Berman, London Business School, UK In line with the conference theme, the impact and widespread appli- Graham Overton, Bocconi University, Italy cability of these papers’ findings could attract researchers, practitio- Daniel A. Effron, London Business School, UK ners, and policy-makers. Paper #4: The Cost of Opposition: Preferring to Punish our Own Rather than Help our Opponent Unable to Rebound: The Downside of Being a Nonprofit Rachel Gershon, University of California, San Diego, USA That Errs Ariel Fridman, University of California, San Diego, USA EXTENDED ABSTRACT SESSION OVERVIEW Organizations often err. Understanding peoples’ responses to Doing good is generally beneficial in terms of reputation and organizational mistakes and apologies is of utmost managerial im- status (Flynn 2003; Flynn et al. 2006; Hardy and Van Vugt 2006). portance (Koehn 2013; Pace et al. 2010). Previous work examining Further, people not only have greater goodwill towards prosocial these responses has focused on for-profits and not nonprofits (e.g., agents, but also evaluate these agents more positively in unrelated Gregoire and Fisher 2008; Joireman et al. 2013; Reimann et al. domains (i.e., a moral halo effect; Chernev and Blair 2015). How- 2018). Yet, how do consumers respond to a nonprofit that errs and ever, when might consumers respond negatively to do-gooders? In apologizes? this session, we focus on instances when beneficence backfires. Spe- Nonprofits are generally perceived more positively than for- cifically, four papers identify cases in which people respond nega- profits (Aaker et al. 2010). Indeed, Bhattacharjee, Dana, and Baron tively towards those who do good (in terms of willingness-to-spend, (2017) document that people hold anti-profit beliefs such that non- consumer decisions, judgments, and monetary allocations). This profits are judged as doing less harm and more societal good than for- novel experimental work highlights the importance of understanding profits. Further, prosocial actors receive reputational benefits such responses to do-gooders and contributes to the literature on altruism, as high status (Flynn 2003; Hardy and Van Vugt 2006), and a be- prosociality, CSR, and social and political causes. nevolent halo effect (Chernev and Blair 2015; Sen and Bhattacharya The first two papers show how beneficence backfires when pro- 2001). Given these findings, one would expect that people would be social actors behave in a manner that is seemingly inconsistent with more forgiving towards a nonprofit than a for-profit that transgresses. their mission. Despite generally positive perceptions of nonprofits Counter to this, we find that consumers are more resentful of an or- relative to for-profits, Paper 1 shows that people are actually more ganization that transgresses when it is a nonprofit than when it is a resentful and less forgiving of a nonprofit than a for-profit that com- for-profit. Further, consumers feel more exploited by a nonprofit that mits the same wrongdoing. These findings are particularly important errs than when a for-profit errs. Therefore, even after apologizing, as evident by the dramatic decrease in Red Cross donations follow- nonprofits still have a harder time rebounding than for-profits. ing news that it mismanaged Haitian relief money. Consistent with Study 1 (N=501, MTurk) was a 2(between: nonprofit vs. for- past work, Paper 2 finds that actors who do good in exchange for cer- profit) x 3(within: wrongdoing) design. Participants evaluated 3 dif- tain rewards suffer negative consequences because they are judged ferent organizations that had done wrong (released pollutants, pub- as less purely motivated. However, interestingly, this paper finds that lished inaccurate information on its website, had misleading ads). this effect is attenuated when rewards for doing good are uncertain; The organizations were described identically except they were either for example, consumers prefer to buy products from and write more nonprofits or for-profits. Across all 3 wrongdoings, participants who positive reviews of companies whose prosocial initiatives face un- evaluated nonprofits were less likely to continue donating/spending certain profit outlooks (i.e., they may earn no profit at all) versus and perceived the organization more negatively than those who eval- certain profits of equivalent expected value. uated for-profits (ps<.01). Thus, nonprofits that transgress are penal- The last two papers examine how identity plays a role in nega- ized more than for-profits for the same transgression. tive responses to those who do good in the context of social and Study 2 (N=200, Mturk) builds on Study 1 by examining re- political causes, an area particularly relevant in today’s ideologically sponses towards an organization that has not only erred (misleading charged world. Paper 3 examines situations in which do-gooders are ads) but also apologized. We find that people are less forgiving of a faced with a tradeoff between acting inconsistently with their past nonprofit than a for-profit. Specifically, participants were still more behavior versus acting inconsistently with their underlying values, likely to avoid donating/spending at a nonprofit (M=5.33) than at a and finds that in these situations actors are condemned to be judged for-profit (M=4.48) after the organization apologized for their mis- as hypocrites regardless of what is chosen. Paper 4 demonstrates that take (p<.001).

Study 3 (N=167, lab) ensures that differences in baseline will- vilified after it mismanaged and misrepresented the use of donation ingness to donate/spend cannot explain the effect. After reading a de- money intended to support the victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake. scription about the organization (nonprofit or for-profit), participants Following news of the scandal, the Red Cross had the lowest amount were equally likely to give to/spend at the organizations (M=5.50 of donations in over 15 years (The Washington Post 2015). Thus, vs. 5.23, p = .18). However, after they learned about the wrongdoing paradoxically, those who do good have trouble rebounding after they and apology, participants were less willing to give to/spend at the transgress. nonprofit than the for-profit (M=3.25 vs. 4.42, p<.001; interaction: p<.001). Doing Good for (Maybe) Nothing: How Reward Next, we examined why consumers have more negative re- Uncertainty Shapes Consumer Responses to Prosocial sponses towards nonprofits who erred and apologized compared to Behavior for-profits who did the same. Consistent with Expectation-Discon- firmation Theory (Oliver 1977), we reason that consumers feel ex- EXTENDED ABSTRACT ploited by a nonprofit that errs because they expect the organization Scholars have long studied decision-making under reward un- to do good in exchange for their money, while this expectation does certainty (i.e., when there is an ex ante chance of no reward at all; not exist for for-profits. In Study 4 (N=404, lab), after reading about Kahneman and Tversky 1979). Here, we examine how people evalu- an organization that donates (vs. sells) warm clothing and had apolo- ate the decisions of others in response to reward uncertainty. Specifi- gized for doing wrong (misleading ads), participants again indicated cally, we hypothesize that actions taken when rewards are uncertain they were less likely to continue donating/spending at the nonprofit seem more purely (i.e., intrinsically) motivated, whereas actions tak- (M=3.57) compared to the for-profit (M=4.90; p<.001). Further- en when rewards are certain seem more tainted by extrinsic benefits, more, participants also felt more exploited by the erring organiza- holding reward value constant. tion when it was a nonprofit (M=4.60) than when it was a for-profit We investigate this effect in the domain of prosocial behavior, (M=3.85; p<.001). Importantly, this reduced forgiveness towards the where inferences about motive purity powerfully guide judgment nonprofit (vs. the for-profit) was mediated by how exploited partici- and evaluation (Critcher and Dunning 2011). Although prosocial be- pants’ felt (B=-.62; 95% CI [-.85, -.39]). Lastly, participants were havior can lead to substantial reputational benefits for the actor, good asked whether they would prefer to transact with a different organi- deeds can backfire if they appear tainted by extrinsic benefit (Small zation, as opposed to the erring organization, that has lower quality and Cryder 2016). In extreme cases, doing good and turning a profit of clothing but has never erred. Consistent with our main finding, can provoke stronger backlash than doing no good at all (Newman 56.9% of participants in the nonprofit condition preferred to switch and Cain 2014). to the organization that had never erred, while only 7.4% indicated We theorize that when selfish rewards for doing good are un- they would switch in the for-profit condition p( <.001). certain ex ante, observers infer that prosocial actors would have Finally, we rule out an alternative account. Specifically, if the been willing to do good for nothing. For example, an individual who unfavorable responses towards nonprofits that err are because people volunteers in exchange for a raffle ticket with a large (but unlikely) feel personally exploited by the organization, then we should not payout seems like she would have volunteered for free (even if she observe these unfavorable responses towards nonprofits when advis- wins); a volunteer receiving a smaller sure reward enjoys no such ining someone else on whether or not to continue transacting with the ference. Analogously, a brand that launches a sustainability initiative organization. Accordingly, in Study 5 (N=603, Mturk) we employed despite an uncertain profit outlook seems more praiseworthy than a 2(organization type: nonprofit vs. for-profit) x 2(self vs. other) be- one that launches an identical initiative with a certain profit outlook. tween-subjects design. Similar to the previous studies, the organiza- Studies 1a-b (n=128, n=199) test our prediction in the con- tions were described identically except they were either nonprofits or text of product choices and customer reviews. In Study 1a, partici- for-profits. Participants were asked whether they would (vs. advise pants read about two chocolate brands which recently switched to their friend to) continue donating to/shopping at an organization. fair-trade cacao beans. For one brand, the fair-trade program was We found a main effect for organization type (nonprofit: M=4.05 vs. sure to boost profits by $100,000 (certain reward). For the other, for-profit: M=4.74, p<.001), and no significant interaction (p=.304). the program had a 25% chance of boosting profits by $400,000 (un- Replicating the effect observed in the previous studies, participants certain reward; equivalent in expectation). Participants subsequently who were asked about their own money, were less willing to keep evaluated the brand facing uncertain profits as more purely - moti donating at a nonprofit (M=4.20) than they were to keep spending vated (p<.001, d=.87), and 64% preferred to take home a chocolate at a for-profit (M=5.03) after the organization apologized for their from that brand (Z=3.18, p<.01). In Study 1b, participants read a mistake (p<.001). Furthermore, this effect was also observed in press release about a new corporate philanthropy project from a ma- the other condition in which participants advised their friend (non- jor wireless provider. We manipulated, this time between-subjects, profit: M=3.91 vs. for-profit: M=4.46; p=.003). Unexpectedly, we industry reports about the project’s likely impact on the brand’s bot- also observed a main effect for self vs. other (self: M=4.61 vs. other: tom line (certain reward: 100% chance of $100,000 profit, uncertain M=4.18, p=.001) suggesting people in general are less willing to ad- reward: 10% chance of $1,000,000 profit). Participants again rated vise others to transact with an organization after it errs. Together, the brand facing uncertain rewards as more purely motivated (p<.01, these results suggest that feeling exploited towards the nonprofit is d=.43), and this time they also wrote more positive customer reviews not because of a deeper personal connection with an organization. (p=.001, d=.48). In sum, previous research has mostly focused on corporate rep- Studies 2a-b (n=150, n=301) replicate this effect of reward un- utations and consumers’ reactions to for-profits who err; however, certainty on motive inference across different profit magnitudes and less is known about how people respond to nonprofits that err. Our prosocial acts. These studies also find effects of reward uncertainty findings suggest that, instead of giving nonprofits that transgressed on downstream inferences about moral character, likeability, and slack the opposite is true: after erring, consumers are more resentful predictions about future good behavior (ds>.20). and less forgiving of nonprofits than for-profits. This has important Study 3 (n=248) asks whether these effects can be explained by social and financial implications. For instance, the Red Cross was an alternative mechanism: differences in perceived value between 1098 / When Beneficence Backfires: Negative Consequences of Doing Good certain and uncertain rewards. We first asked participants to imag- socially risky. For instance, individuals often denigrate the character ine receiving a raffle ticket with a 10% chance of winning a $250 of do-gooders if those prosocial others are seen as implicitly im- gift card and to indicate how much sure compensation they would pugning the character of the self (Minson and Monin 2012). More require to trade in the ticket. Two weeks later, we invited the same generally, people tend to be suspicious that prosocial actors harbor participants back for our main study. Returning participants read self-interested motives (Berman, et al. 2015; Critcher and Dunning about a donor who gives blood either in exchange for the same raffle 2009; Miller 2001). Such suspicions can grow into perceptions that ticket (uncertain reward) or a gift card in the value the participant the actor is a hypocrite – someone who benefits from appearing vir- had previously indicated (certain reward). Although the rewards re- tuous without paying the price of actually being virtuous (e.g., Mo- ceived were matched on participants’ perceived value, the donor in nin and Merritt 2012). the uncertain reward condition was still seen as more purely moti- Hypocrisy often involves inconsistency but not all inconsistent vated (p<.001, d=.56) and likely to donate blood again in the future behavior is labeled hypocrisy. To perceive hypocrisy, an audience (p<.001, d=.64). must interpret inconsistency as signaling that a person appears or Study 4 (n=605) tests whether the impact of reward uncertainty feels more virtuous than they deserve (Effron et al. 2018). However, on motive inference is robust to ex post reward outcomes. Partici- the conditions under which inconsistency invites this interpretation pants were asked to evaluate a manufacturing company that launched are poorly understood. a new recycled product with either a certain profit forecast (100% We investigate how people perceive two types of inconsistency chance of $100,000) or an uncertain profit forecast (10% chance of that a prosocial consumer could display: commitment-based incon- $1 million). This time, participants also learned about profit out- sistency, whereby the consumer’s present actions are inconsistent comes, yielding a three-condition design (certain reward, realized with past commitments made; and goal-based inconsistency, where- uncertain reward, and unrealized uncertain reward). The brand was by the consumer’s actions fail to maximize the stated ethical goal judged to be more purely motivated in both uncertain reward con- they are trying to achieve. ditions relative to the certain reward condition (ps<.001, ds>.70). Consumers sometimes must choose between acting inconsis- Here, even if a prosocial initiative turned a 10x profit ex post, it was tently with their past commitments or their stated goals. Consider still seen as more purely motivated. someone who adopts vegetarianism to benefit the environment. Now Studies 5a-b (n=369, n=1,419) explore boundary conditions imagine an invasive fish species is destroying local habitats, and en- based on reward probability. Study 5a finds that the effect is specific vironmentalists recommend sell the fish commercially for consump- to situations in which uncertain profits include a chance of earning tion in order to limit the damage. Suppose the consumer is offered nothing, and not present in broader cases of risk over multiple pos- the invasive fish for dinner. She must choose between acting incon- sible outcomes (i.e., a chance of either a smaller or larger profit). sistently with her commitment to avoid meat versus acting inconsis- Study 5b tests the effect over seven profit probabilities, finding that tently with her goals to help the environment. motives begin to appear substantially less tainted when the chance of Across four studies, we find evidence for a “Damned Either no reward reaches 50%. Way” effect such that consumers are labeled hypocrites for display- Study 6 (n=1,007) finds that the effect is attenuated if we make ing either commitment- or goal-based inconsistency (Studies 1-4). salient that the actor needs the large possible reward in the uncer- Study 1 presents an initial demonstration of the effect and Study 2 as- tain condition. Participants read about a student who volunteers in sess its robustness. Study 3 shows that this effect occurs when evalu- exchange for a raffle ticket with a 5% chance at $400 (uncertain re- ating consumers who provide a reason for their commitment, but not ward) or a sure payment of $20 (certain reward). As we found previ- for those who believe that a given behavior represents a categorical ously, participants judged the volunteer as having less tainted mo- imperative (Kant, 1781/1908). Finally, Study 4 finds that motivated tives in the uncertain reward condition (p<.001, d=.40). However, reasoning determines which form of inconsistency that evaluators this result actually reversed when we told participants that the stu- evoke when making hypocrisy judgments. dent was $400 short on his rent (p<.01, d=.27; interaction p<.001). Study 1’s participants (N = 301) read a scenario involving a Presumably, this additional information attenuated the inference that consumer, Jeff, who became a vegetarian for environmental reasons. the student would have been willing to volunteer if no reward were In the Control condition, the scenario simply ended. In the other two offered. conditions, participants read that Jeff learns that environmentalists Finally, Study 7 (n=449) asks whether revealing a prosocial recommend the public eat a specific invasive fish species in order initiative’s uncertain profit outlook can earn more credit than not to protect local habitats. Shortly thereafter, Jeff finds himself at a mentioning profits at all. Here, participants rated a bank’s decision restaurant that has this fish species on the menu. In the Commitment- to invest in urban revitalization as more purely motivated when it based inconsistency condition, Jeff orders the fish, thereby acting in faced an uncertain profit forecast relative to both a certain profit fore- a manner inconsistent with his past commitment to vegetarianism. cast (p<.001, d=.57) and no mention of profits whatsoever (p<.01, In contrast, in the Goal-based inconsistency condition, Jeff orders d=.38). the vegetarian option, thereby failing to maximally help the environ- Our findings challenge conventional wisdom that extrinsic ben- ment. Consistent with a “Damned Either Way” effect, we find that, efits always lead to cynical motive inferences and deepen our under- relative to the control condition (M = 1.96), participants judged Jeff standing of how observers evaluate actions taken when rewards are to be more of a hypocrite regardless if he ordered the fish (M = 2.79, uncertain. p < .001) or the vegetarian option (M = 2.76, p < .001). In Study 2 (pre-registered: https://aspredicted.org/blind. Damned Either Way: Hypocrisy Judgments When Goals php?x=m6ab5q, N = 311), we replicate these findings in a within- and Commitments Conflict subjects design and utilizing three different scenarios to test the effect. In all three scenarios, we find a significant effect that behav- EXTENDED ABSTRACT ioral-based inconsistency leads to judgments hypocrisy relative to While those who behave ethically are often rewarded with repu- control (ps < .001), while in two of the three scenarios we find a tational benefits (e.g., Flynn et. al. 2006), behaving ethically can be Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1099 significant effect of goal-based inconsistency leading to attributions group norms – those who chose to harm their own group rather than of hypocrisy relative to control (ps < .001). concede resources to the opposition believed others in their group In Study 3 (pre-registered: http://aspredicted.org/blind. would do the same. Changing individuals’ beliefs about the norm php?x=3uf789, N = 600), we ask whether the Damned Either Way changed their behavior. effect depends on the stated goal. In particular, we compared reason- In our primary study (preregistered: http://aspredicted.org/ based goals (e.g., eating fish to reduce environmental harm) versus blind.php?x=sx6vb7, N = 800, MTurk), participants were asked to categorical imperatives (e.g., refusing to eat fish because it is inher- modify donation amounts for three important and polarizing causes: ently wrong to do so). Consistent with our pre-registered hypoth- abortion access, gun control, and political parties. We first measured esis, we replicate the DEW effect in the reason-based goal condition: the degree to which participants identified with each side of the three relative to the control (M = 1.86), the actor was again judged to be issues. Participants in the counter-attitudinal condition were asked to a more of a hypocrite regardless if he ate the meat (M = 3.24, p < choose between subtracting $1 from a donation to an organization .001) or the vegetarian (M = 2.52, p < .001) option. However, we do on their side of the cause or adding $1 to a donation to an organi- not find a DEW effect when the actor’s behavior is driven by a cat- zation on the opposing side. Given these two unfavorable options, egorical imperative. In this case, relative to the control (M = 2.20), most participants (71%) chose to subtract $1 from the organization he was only considered a hypocrite when he chose to eat meat (M = on their side. This choice to hurt one’s own organization, rather than 4.16, p < .001), but not when he ate the vegetarian option (M = 1.99, help an opposing organization, conflicts with a harm minimizing p = .30). strategy, as individuals rate organizations on their side as more ef- In Study 4 (pre-registered: http://aspredicted.org/blind. fective with funds (p < .001). The implication is that the participants’ php?x=cp87p5, N = 806) we test the Damned Either Way effect in own cause suffers greater overall harm when their organization is a new context, and further show that both commitment- and goal- deprived of funding than when the opposing organization is given based hypocrisy judgments are shaped by motivated reasoning. Par- that same funding. ticipants first reported attitudes towards illegal immigrants. They Participants in the pro-attitudinal condition were given opposite then evaluated a scenario in which a man who commits to oppos- choices: to add $1 to a donation to an organization on their side of ing immigration for economic reasons learns that immigrants in fact the cause or to subtract $1 from a donation to the opposing side. The benefit the economy. A canvasser accepting donations in support of majority of participants (75%) chose to help their own side, indi- immigrant rights then approaches him. The individual either donates cating that choices do not stem from a preference to simply hinder (commitment-based inconsistency) or does not donate (goal-based the opposition above all else. The results from both conditions also inconsistency). A control condition was also included to assess base- hold at various levels of aggregation, including for each of the three line ratings of hypocrisy. We additionally reversed the scenario such causes individually, as well as for both sides of each cause. We find that the individual who supports immigrant rights for economic rea- that the choice to help (vs. harm) is moderated by the strength of par- sons learns that immigrants are harmful to the economy. A canvasser ticipants’ attitudes toward the cause – those with stronger attitudes accepting donations in support of deporting illegal immigrants then are more likely to choose to harm their side (vs. help the other) in the approaches him. counter-attitudinal condition, and help their side (vs. harm the other) Results show a Damned Either Way effect across both versions in the pro-attitudinal condition. of the scenario (ps < .03). We further find that judgments of hypoc- An additional study (N = 403, MTurk) elicited the amount of risy were moderated by participants’ own attitudes about immigra- money participants would prefer to be subtracted from a donation to tion. Specifically, participants were more likely to judge the actor their side of a cause, in order to feel indifferent towards a $1 increase as a hypocrite if his final actions contradicted their personal beliefs in a donation to the opposing side. After removing large outliers, we regardless of the nature of the inconsistency they judged (ps < .06). conservatively estimated the average amount to be $2.33 (compared In sum, we find evidence that both commitment-based and goal- to $1: p < .001), suggesting a preference to harm one’s side to a based inconsistency leads ethical actors to be judged as hypocrites. greater magnitude than helping the opposition. To investigate the role of group norms in counter-attitudinal The Cost of Opposition: Preferring to Punish our Own choices, we ran a study (N = 653, MTurk) manipulating the norms Rather than Help our Opponent towards helping the opposition. In the control condition, participants were informed that the experimenter would be making a donation to EXTENDED ABSTRACT a pro-life and a pro-choice organization, and that they would have to Imagine that you are pro-choice and are given two options: add choose how to alter the amount. In the norm-add condition, partici- $5 to a donation going to a pro-life organization or subtract $5 from pants were also told that in a previous study, 70% of MTurkers on a donation going to a pro-choice organization. Would you choose their side of the cause chose to add to the opposing group rather than to help the opposing group or harm your own? In three studies (and subtract from their own. In the norm-subtract condition, participants two supplementary studies), we find that when given two options were instead told that 70% of previous participants on their side of – to help the opposition through greater funding or hurt one’s own the cause had chosen to subtract from their own group rather then side through diminished funding – research participants consis- add to the opposing group. The proportion of participants choosing tently choose to harm their own cause. This replicates across polar- to add $1 was less than 50% in the control group (39.2%, p =.002), ized contexts: abortion access, gun control, and political affiliation. and was not significantly different from the proportion in the norm- Moreover, we find that individuals prefer to harm their own interests subtract group (36.7%, p = .68), suggesting that subtracting is the despite the fact that they generally believe their own cause is more norm. However, there was a significant increase in the proportion effective with funds. of participants choosing to add $1 in the norm-add group, relative We propose that that the preference to harm one’s own group to both the control and norm-subtract conditions (57.7%, ps < .001), rather than help an opposing group stems from the belief that help- suggesting that behavior in this context is guided by perceptions of ing the opposition is a stronger violation of group norms. We find group norms. evidence that individuals act in accordance with their beliefs about 1100 / When Beneficence Backfires: Negative Consequences of Doing Good

When making decisions in polarized contexts, individuals do Hardy, Charlie L., and Mark Van Vugt (2006), “Nice guys finish not always make choices to minimize harm. Our findings add to a first: The competitive altruism hypothesis,” Personality and literature on the power of social influence and how psychological Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(10), 1402-1413. barriers can impede the advancement of a cause. In contexts in which Holly, Peter (2015), “The Red Cross Had $500 Million in Haitian accommodating two groups’ desires is crucial for progress, how do Relief Money, but It Built Just 6 Houses,” The Washington we compromise when both sides would rather harm their own cause Post, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/ than make concessions in which the opposition benefits? Given our wp/2015/06/04/the-red-cross-had-500-million-in-haitian- highly polarized political system, determining how to shift these relief-money-and-it-built-just-6-houses/. norms is critical. Otherwise, paradoxically, the individuals who care Joireman, Jeff, Yany Gregoire, Berna Devezer, and Thomas the most may be most likely to forestall the other group’s progress at M. Tripp (2013), “When Do Customers Offer Firms a the expense of their own cause. ‘Second Chance’ Following a Double Deviation? The Impact of Inferred Firm Motives on Customer Revenge and REFERENCES Reconciliation,” Journal of Retailing, 89(3), 315– 37. Aaker, Jennifer, Kathleen D. Vohs, and Cassie Mogilner (2010), Kahneman, Daniel and Amos Tversky (1979), “Prospect Theory: “Nonprofits Are Seen as Warm and For-Profits as Competent: An Analysis of Decision under Risk,” Econometrica, 47(2), Firm Stereotypes Matter,” Journal of Consumer Research, 263-292. 37(2), 224-237.‏ Kant, Imannuel. (1908). Critique of pure reason. 1781. 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Paper #1: When Limits Backfire: The Ironic Effect of Setting that has been budgeted for a specific purpose than money that has not Limits on Entertainment Consumption been budgeted because the loss is psychologically realized when the Shalena Srna, University of Michigan, USA money is initially mentally allocated. Finally, Paper 4 explores the Jackie Silverman, University of Delaware, USA effects of having the choice to pre-commit to a savings program. Spe- Jordan Etkin, Duke University, USA cifically, a field experiment finds that allowing employees to choose between immediate or delayed enrollment (vs. immediate enrollment Paper #2: Spending Gained Time only) did not affect enrollment rates but led employees to delay en- Selin Malkoc, Ohio State University, USA rollment, thus saving less overall. Gabriela Tonietto, Rutgers University, USA Together, these four papers highlight the importance of under- Paper #3: Loss Booking: Mental Accounting Facilitates standing how consumers manage their time and money, document- Consumer Spending ing ironic psychological processes and unintended negative conse- Chang-Yuan Lee, Boston University, USA quences of multiple popular resource management tools. In line with Carey Morewedge, Boston University, USA the conference theme, the differing experimental approaches and Paper #4: Save More Later? The Roles of Present Bias and research questions addressed within this session would provide a Perceived Urgency “rendez-vous” for researchers, policy-makers, and practitioners who Joseph Reiff, University of California, Los Angeles, USA are interested in a wide variety of topics, including time manage- John Beshears, Harvard University, USA ment, mental accounting, savings, goals, and how new technologies Hengchen Dai, University of California, Los Angeles, USA impact wellbeing and decision-making. Katherine Milkman, University of Pennsylvania, USA, USA Shlomo Benartzi, University of California, Los Angeles, USA When Limits Backfire: The Ironic Effect of Setting Limits on Entertainment Consumption SESSION OVERVIEW Consumers have limited time and money that they can spend EXTENDED ABSTRACT in an infinite number of ways. Deciding how to best spend one’s re- New technologies have made it easier than ever before to con- sources involves tradeoffs between short-term desires and long-term sume entertaining content. On average, people spend nearly 2.5 investments. To help people make better choices, individuals and hours per day on social media alone—over half of which occurs dur- firms frequently impose constraints on how consumers spend their ing the workday. To help people better manage their time, many tech- time and money (Cheema and Soman 2006; Gollwitzer and Sheeran nological devices (e.g., iPhones; Nintendo Switch) and popular apps 2006; Shefrin and Thaler 1988; Thaler and Bernartzi 2004). For ex- (e.g., Facebook, Instagram, YouTube) have introduced time-tracking ample, people often self-impose deadlines to reduce procrastination tools, providing consumers with the option to set costless, non-bind- or create budgets to encourage fiscal responsibility (e.g., Ariely and ing time limit reminders on entertaining activities. These reminders Wertenbroch 1999; Cheema and Soman 2006). This session seeks alert consumers to having spent a pre-determined amount of time to better identify and understand the unanticipated consequences of on an activity or platform each day (e.g., 45 minutes on Instagram). constraining such behaviors. Four papers answer questions about Presumably, people set time limits on entertaining, but unpro- how different types of constraints (i.e., time limits, schedules, bud- ductive, activities in order to encourage themselves to spend less gets, and pre-commitment devices) can have unanticipated and even time on those activities (and more time on productive work). Con- negative outcomes for how consumers spend their time and money. trary to this intended effect, we propose that such limits can backfire, The first two papers investigate how consumers seek and man- increasing, rather than decreasing, time spent on the activities they age time spent on “leisure,” exploring how constraining time spent are meant to constrain. We argue that this counterintuitive effect oc- through setting limits and scheduling can have surprising conse- curs because, much like when consumers set goals (e.g., Heath, Lar- quences. Paper 1 examines how a common time management tool— rick and Wu 1999; Wallace and Etkin 2018), setting limits changes setting an alert after a pre-determined amount of time spent (akin salient reference points. Without a time limit, consumers use their to the option on most smartphones)—affects how much time people starting point (i.e., spending no time on the activity) as the reference spend on the activity. Results show that setting such non-binding time point by which to judge their (dis)satisfaction with the time spent. limits on entertaining activities, like social media or games, counter- Once a time limit has been set, however, the focal reference shifts to intuitively increases the time spent on them. Paper 2 finds that, even this limit amount (e.g., 45 minutes), making any time spent under the though consumers desire more leisure time, when they actually gain limit amount feel more acceptable (i.e., less like a loss or a waste of time that could be spent on leisure activities, they show more inter- time) and overall discouraging restraint. Five pre-registered studies est in work. This is because gaining time (versus having free time) examining both external and self-set time limits on different enter- prompts individuals to question how to best allocate their time, lead- taining activities (browsing social media, playing an online game) ing them to consider – and address – their “to-do” list more. support these predictions. The next two papers examine counterintuitive effects of con- In Study 1a (N = 208), participants imagined that they were reg- straining another important resource – money – by exploring how ular users of a social media app and that they had spent 52 minutes budgeting money and pre-committing to future savings can backfire, on the app yesterday. Participants were randomized to either imagine increasing spending and reducing savings. Paper 3 finds that mental that they had set a limit on their phones, such that they would see a budgeting, which is intended to inhibit spending, actually encourages reminder of their time spent at 60 minutes, or not. We then asked par- it. Results show that consumers are more inclined to spend money ticipants to rate on -10-to-10 scales their satisfaction with how they

Advances in Consumer Research 1101 Volume 48, ©2020 1102 / Unanticipated Consequences of Constraining Behavior had spent their time yesterday (4 items: how happy they felt about their unpaid work, buying services like childcare and housekeeping the time they spent on the app, how much they felt they had lost/ (Whillans et al. 2017). These trends imply an increase in leisure con- gained time, how well they used their time, and how much they felt sumption. However, hours dedicated to socializing have decreased they had wasted their time [reverse-coded]). A one-way MANOVA over the last decade (ATUS 2017), potentially because when feel- found a main effect of condition across these four items (F(4, 203) ing busy, leisure activities are often jettisoned (Southerton 2003). = 6.27, p < .001). An independent t-test revealed that participants We study this paradox by examining how people consume gained who set a limit reported felt significantly better about how they spent time (due to a cancelation or plan change) and propose that despite their time (M = 0.01) than participants who did not set a limit (M = a desire for more leisure, consumers may choose to work when they -1.60; t(206) = 3.46, p < .001). Study 1b (N = 807) replicates this actually gain time. effect; participants felt better about the time they spent onsmart- Consumers desire free time, which often means time free from phone games (either 18 or 52 minutes) when they imagined having obligations or generally “leisure” (Unger and Kernan 1983). Howev- set a daily limit of 60 minutes (M = 2.97) versus when they did not er, we argue that despite being objectively free of obligations, gained imagine setting a limit (M = 0.91; t(805) = 7.06, p < .001). Together, time is not automatically classified as “free.” Instead, it is assigned to Studies 1a and 1b suggest that people do indeed shift their reference an “available” time account, which spurs consumers to question how point regarding how much time they should spend on entertainment to allocate that time. In doing so, consumers turn to their running in response to setting a limit. list of tasks requiring their time (i.e., to-do list), which are usually Our remaining studies directly test the effects of setting a limit work-oriented. As an outcome, the more salient work-like tasks take (versus not) on real consumption behavior (i.e., actual time spent on precedence and otherwise desired leisure activities are abandoned. an entertaining activity). In Study 2, participants (N = 199) were giv- Study 1 demonstrates this paradox of desiring leisure, but en a total of 5 minutes to spend on an entertaining activity (a bubble choosing work during gained time. We compared chosen tasks dur- shooter game) and a paid work task (transcribing text strings). They ing a gained time with those for an unspecified future date. Unlike could spend as much time as they wanted on the game before switch- the present or near future, the (unspecified) future is often decontex- ing to the work task. Half of participants read that, to help them man- tualized from our daily demands (Zauberman and Lynch 2005). As age their time, a reminder would appear after spending three min- such, we expected participants to treat an unspecified future time as utes on the game. Importantly, after seeing the reminder, they could free (and meant for leisure), while treating a particular gained hour continue to engage in the game for as long as they liked. The other as simply unaccounted (prompting a need to account for it). half of participants did not read about or receive such a limit. As pre- 175 undergraduates imagined either gaining a few hours in the dicted, an independent t-test on log-transformed time spent revealed next couple of weeks or later in the same day and indicated how they that participants in the limit condition spent more time on the game would spend this time (1=definitely leisure; 9=definitely work). We (M = 117.21 seconds) than those in the control (M = 94.77; t(197) = also measured participants’ perceived time famine and their desire 2.59, p = .010). for more work and leisure in their life. Unsurprisingly, participants Study 3 (N = 192) replicated Study 2 with a different entertain- reported experiencing time famine (M=4.79; p<.01 compared to the ing activity (scrolling through Pinterest), again finding that setting a scale midpoint) and wished they had more leisure (M=5.06) than limit increased the time spent compared to the control (Mlimit = 24.48 work (M=3.83, p<.01). Further, reported time famine was positively seconds vs. Mcontrol = 15.88; t(190) = 2.63, p = .009). correlated with desire for more leisure (r = .28, p < .01), but uncor- Study 4 (N = 201) tested if self-set limits would have a similar related with desire for more work (r = -.03, p = .63). Thus, it appears effect on behavior. It used the same design as Study 3, but allowed that participants crave more time to increase leisure consumption. participants to choose their own limit. In particular, participants were However, we found that when participants considered gaining a told that, to help them manage their time during the study, they could particular period of time, they preferred work-like tasks (M=7.27) set a non-binding time limit, which would appear as a reminder dur- compared to those who considered gaining an unspecified future ing the Pinterest activity. The limit could be set in 15-second incre- time (M=5.27, p<.01). Importantly, participants’ desire for more lei- ments for up to the full 5 minutes (i.e., the equivalent of not setting a sure did not predict their intended behavior in either condition (both limit; Mself-set limit = 83.96 seconds, SD = 92.65, Median = 60). As pre- p’s>.90). dicted, participants in the limit condition spent significantly longer In Study 2 we directly compared having 1.5 hours of free browsing Pinterest (M = 23.52 seconds) than those in the control (M time to gaining 1.5 hours. 153 MTurkers reported how they would = 14.84; t(199) = 2.03, p = .044). Importantly, this effect casts doubt consume this time (1=fun and enjoyable task; 9=work-related on a potential alternative explanation based on externally imposed task). As expected, we found that participants were more likely to limits signaling how long people should spend on the task. choose work-like tasks during gained time (M=3.17) than free time In sum, despite intending to reduce the time spent, setting limits (M=2.44, p<.05). can ironically increase time spent on unproductive entertaining ac- In Study 3, we examined whether differences in construal level tivities (over paid work). This occurs because limits change consum- (Trope and Liberman 2010) account for our results by manipulat- ers’ salient reference point when evaluating their use of time. Our ing temporal distance. 342 undergraduates imagined having/gaining findings contribute to emerging research on the unintended conse- 1.5 hours either that evening or the same evening in one week and quences of tracking behavior (Etkin 2016; Soman and Cheema 2004) indicated their task preference (1=catch up with friend/family/neigh- and how new technologies impact wellbeing and decision-making bor; 9=catch up on errands/housework/chores). We predicted that a (e.g. Melumad and Pham 2020). particular period of time gained in distant future is similar to time gained sooner as they both define a specific time period and require Spending Gained Time its accounting. As expected, participants who gained time preferred a work-like task (M = 5.46) compared to those who had time free EXTENDED ABSTRACT (M=4.71, p<.01). Importantly, there was no main effect nor interac- Working hours have steadily declined over the last century tion of temporal distance (both p’s>.2). (Huberman and Minns 2007), and consumers increasingly outsource Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1103

The remaining studies test our proposed framework: gaining We posit loss booking an important case in which expectations time prompts individuals to account for this time, leading them to serve as the reference point by which consumers evaluate outcomes reference their to-dos, and to choose work. First, in Study 4, we add- (Kőszegi 2006). This suggests that the psychological loss associated ed a third condition in which participants were told that a unit of free with the expense occurs when the mental budget is created for antici- time was “unaccounted.” In line with the idea that free time is often pated expenses rather than at the time when the goods are purchased. equated with leisure, but that prompting consumers to think of how Consequently, the psychological impact of the loss associated with to account for time increases propensity to choose work, participants the purchase of goods within the mental budget is mitigated or di- in both the gained time (M=3.68) and unaccounted time conditions minished. Specifically, loss booking theory predicts that losses are (M=3.89) were more likely to choose work than the free time condi- psychologically realized when consumers budget for certain expens- tion (M=2.82, ps<.05). es (H1). Due to the prior realization of losses, consumers experience Importantly, if gaining time indeed increases prioritization of less pain of paying for expenses associated with existing mental bud- work, then the effect should be exaggerated for consumers who have gets (H2). Finally, the reduced pain of paying incurred when pur- a tendency to work first and save leisure for later. Testing this, in chasing goods associated with an existing mental budget facilitates

Study 5, 202 participants imagined having or gaining 3 hours and in- spending within that budget (H3). dicated their activity preference (1=fun and enjoyable task; 9=work- We report five experiments providing evidentiary support for related task) and their desire to prioritize work (e.g., I’d rather get our hypotheses. Experiment 1 illustrates the effect of mental bud- some work tasks out of the way). As before, participants who gained geting on actual holiday spending. Experiments 2-5 used vignette time were more likely to prefer a work-like task (M=2.83) than those designs. Experiment 2 provides evidence for “loss booking” (H1). who had time (M=2.17, p < .05). Importantly, this was moderated by Experiment 3 supports the hypothesis that due to the loss realiza- participants’ desire to prioritize work, where participants who pri- tion, the subsequent consumption of that money elicits less pain of oritize work to a greater extent (-.27 standard deviations from the paying than would the expenditure of unbudgeted money or money mean or higher) showed greater preference to work during gained budgeted towards other accounts (H2). Experiment 4 shows that this (vs. free) time. hypothesis holds when the budgeting process is implicit. Finally, Finally, in Study 6, we tested the proposed role of to-do lists. Experiment 5 shows that this reduced pain of paying facilitates the In addition to indicating how they would spend gained versus free purchase of expenses associated with the mental budget, even when time (1=definitely leisure/fun; 7= definitely work/productive), par- the purchase exceeds the budget limit (H3). ticipants (N=374) also provided their running to-do list for the day. Experiment 1 (N=328) was conducted in two phases on separate Analyses revealed a main effect of gained time, whereby participants days. In phase 1, we manipulated the presence of a mental budget by were more likely to choose work during gained (M=6.98) compared assigning half of participants to explicitly make a holiday shopping to free time (M=6.31, p=.004). There was also a significant interac- budget for the upcoming Black Friday weekend. Six days later (i.e., tion with the number of to-dos. Those with more tasks on their to- in phase 2), participants reported how much money they actually do list (-.40 standard deviations from the mean or higher) showed spent. We found that participants in the budget condition spent sig- greater propensity to choose work during gained (vs. free) time. nificantly more money than did controls, who were not asked how In sum, despite their desire for more leisure, consumers may much they planned to spend. Experiment 2 (N=244) manipulated paradoxically prefer to work when they gain time. This is because whether participants made a clothing budget before they went shop- while gaining time creates free time, gained time is categorically dif- ping, and whether they purchased a t-shirt. We measured the extent ferent from free time. to which participants perceived themselves to have lost or gained money during the shopping trip. We found that the purchase of a shirt Loss Booking: Mental Budgeting Facilitates Consumer without a budget was evaluated as a loss (i.e., loss framing), whereas Spending the purchase of a shirt that did not exceed the budget was evaluated as a gain. In addition, whereas participants without a budget per- EXTENDED ABSTRACT ceived themselves to have neither gained nor lost money, those with Budgeting is a common money management practice. Approxi- a budget perceived themselves to have gained money if they did not mately 41% of Americans prepared a written or computerized budget make a purchase every month (U.S. Bank Possibility Index, 2016). It has a mental Experiment 3 (N=300) manipulated whether or not participants analog, mental budgeting, whereby mental labels associated with made a clothing budget (vs. food budget or no budget) before they money change how it is spent (Heath and Soll 1996; Thaler 1985). purchased a pair of jeans. We measured the extent to which partici- People create spending plans, for example, by earmarking funds into pants perceived the purchase of jeans as a monetary loss, and the various mental accounts (e.g., groceries, clothing). Once money is pain of paying associated with their purchase. We found that par- budgeted into mental accounts, it is no longer perfectly fungible, or ticipants were less likely to perceive purchasing the jeans as a loss substitutable, with other money. in the clothing budget condition than in the control and food budget Mental budgeting is often characterized as a self-control de- conditions. Moreover, the difference between the control and food vice that inhibits consumer spending (Heath and Soll 1996; Thaler budget conditions was not significant. A similar pattern of results 1985). In this research, however, we propose a loss booking theory was observed for the pain of paying. A mediation analysis revealed to reinterpret mental budgeting––that creating budgets for expenses the mediating impact of loss framing on pain of paying. facilitates rather than inhibits consumer spending. The intuition be- Experiment 4 (N=100) manipulated whether participants with- hind the concept of loss booking is that consumers psychologically drew cash at ATM (i.e., implicit budgeting) in advance of expendi- realize or “book” the loss of the money when it is budgeted into a tures (controls imagined that they had the same amount of cash in mental account. This implies that many fungibility violations occur their wallet). In addition to the two measures used in Experiment 3, because losses are realized for the expenses when the mental budget we measured the extent to which participants expected to spend the is “booked,” and would be realized again if that money were spent cash that they had. We found that participants in the withdrawal con- outside the budget. dition (a) exhibited a higher expected propensity to spend, (b) were 1104 / Unanticipated Consequences of Constraining Behavior less likely to perceive the expenditure as a loss, and (c) experienced creased the number of programs they would enroll in (95% CI of in- less pain of paying than participants assigned to the control condi- direct effect=[.02,.07]) but led people to infer that the employer less tion. We found the serial mediating impact of expected propensity to urgently recommended these programs, which reduced the number spend and loss framing on pain of paying. of enrolled programs (95% CI=[-.09,-.04]). These competing forces Experiment 5 (N=309) manipulated whether participants bud- could explain a null effect on program enrollment (p=0.40). Further- geted money to buy sunglasses ($90) in advance of their purchase, more, lower perceived urgency reduced the number of programs that and whether their price was under or over that budget (i.e., $69 vs. people chose to enroll in immediately (95% CI=[-.07,-.02]). $110). We teased apart the budgeting and reference price accounts in To reconcile our findings with the Save More Tomorrow explaining spending by including a reference price condition. More- (SMarT) intervention, we compared our choice sets with SMarT in over, we measured purchase likelihood. We found that in both price a preregistered study (N = 1,499 MTurkers). Participants imagined conditions, participants in the budget condition (a) were less likely receiving a mailing about their company’s retirement savings plan. to perceive the purchase of sunglasses as a loss, (b) experienced less They were randomly assigned to one of three conditions. In the im- pain of paying associated with its purchase, and (c) more likely to mediate commitment condition, participants only had the option to buy the sunglasses than participants in the control and reference enroll immediately. In the simultaneous pre-commitment condition price conditions. A mediation analysis revealed the serial mediating (mimicking the simultaneous pre-commitment condition in our field impact of loss framing and pain of paying on purchase likelihood experiment), they had the option to either enroll immediately or across prices. enroll in four months. In the sequential pre-commitment condition (mirroring the classic design of SMarT), they were first given the Save More Later? The Roles of Present Bias and option to enroll immediately, and then if they declined, they were of- Perceived Urgency fered the option to enroll in four months. Consistent with our theory, participants in the immediate commitment condition viewed their EXTENDED ABSTRACT company as conveying a stronger recommendation to save (M=5.10, Previous research has shown that choice architects can increase SD=1.42) than participants in the simultaneous pre-commitment con- farsighted behavior by offering the option to pre-commit (e.g., Milk- dition (M=4.77, SD=1.58), p<0.001). Moreover, participants in the man, Rogers, and Bazerman 2009)we analyze the film rental and sequential pre-commitment condition inferred a marginally stronger return patterns of a sample of online DVD rental customers over a recommendation to save than participants in the immediate com- period of four months. We predict and find that should DVDs (e.g., mitment condition (Msequential=5.27; Mimmediate commitment =5.10; p=0.06), documentaries. People are more likely to save for retirement, for in- which may offer a potential explanation for why SMarT is able to stance, when offered the option to start saving in the future, rather capitalize on the power of pre-commitment without backfiring. than today (Thaler and Benartzi 2004). We reexamine this idea and We tested our full theory in an incentive compatible experi- show when and why the strategy can backfire. ment (N = 2,399). Following a filler task, participants were offered In a field experiment, 5,196 employees at four US universities an optional, unpaid ten-minute financial well-being assessment. Par- were sent a mailing that encouraged them to join a savings plan. ticipants were randomly assigned to either be offered (1) the option Employees were randomly assigned to receive either: (1) the im- to take the assessment now (the immediate commitment condition), mediate commitment mailing, which offered employees an opportu- (2) the option to take the assessment either now or in 1 week (the nity to immediately enroll in a savings plan or (2) the simultaneous simultaneous pre-commitment condition), or (3) the option to take pre-commitment mailing, which gave employees the choice to either the assessment now followed by the option to take it in 1 week if immediately enroll or pre-commit to enroll months later. Contrary they declined (the sequential pre-commitment condition). Consistent to prior work, offering pre-commitment reduced the likelihood of with our theory, participants that were offered sequential pre-com- immediate enrollment by 21.4% (p=0.015) with no effect on whether mitment were more likely to enroll (57%) compared to participants or not people enroll at any time (p=0.25), causing people to save 6% offered simultaneous pre-commitment (48%) or immediate commit- less on average over the eight-month study period (p=.007). ment (32%). Participants offeredsimultaneous pre-commitment were We theorize that offering a pre-commitment option along with marginally less likely to enroll immediately (28%) than participants an immediate enrollment option (1) reduces the anticipated costs of offeredimmediate commitment (32%; p = .07). This may happen be- doing the farsighted behavior (consistent with prior research on pres- cause, while both sequential pre-commitment and simultaneous pre- ent bias) but simultaneously (2) leads people to infer that the choice commitment made the farsighted behavior (taking a financial-well- architect less urgently recommends the behavior. These opposing being assessment) seem less costly (Msequential=4.2 & Msimultaneous=4.2 forces together can explain why pre-commitment can yield a null VS. Mimmediate commitment =4.5), sequential pre-commitment increased the effect on people’s willingness to engage in the farsighted behavior. perception that the action is urgently recommended and simultane- Meanwhile, lack of perceived urgency may lead people to choose to ous pre-commitment decreased this perceived urgency (Msequential=4.2 delay the behavior; thus, offering pre-commitment may cause people VS. Mimmediate commitment =3.9 VS. Msimultaneous=3.6). Our mediation analy- to opt to do it later instead of now. ses confirmed that while anticipated costs always positively medi- We tested this theory in a preregistered study where 1,161 ated the relationship between receiving a pre-commitment option MTurkers imagined that they just joined a company and had to and likelihood of enrolling in the assessment, perceived urgency choose whether to enroll in any of three employer-sponsored benefits negatively mediated this relationship when pre-commitment was of- programs. Participants were randomly assigned to either the immedi- fered simultaneously and positively mediated when it was offered ate commitment condition where they chose which programs they sequentially. would enroll in immediately or the simultaneous pre-commitment In sum, we develop and test a new theory about how different condition where they had the option to enroll in each program either forms of pre-commitment nudges impact whether and when people immediately or in six months. Consistent with our theory, the re- engage in farsighted behavior. While prior research suggests that pre- sults suggest that adding a pre-commitment option (vs. only offering commitment nudges can increase farsighted behavior by reducing immediate enrollment) made enrolling feel less painful, which in- the anticipated costs of doing farsighted behavior, we document an Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1105 overlooked mechanism; people draw inferences about the urgency Melumad, Shiri, and Michel Tuan Pham (2020), “The Smartphone with which the choice architect recommends the behavior based on as a Pacifying Technology,” Journal of Consumer Research, the sequence with which pre-commitment options are offered. More https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucaa005. generally, the current research contributes to a growing literature Milkman, Katherine L., Todd Rogers, and Max H. 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Shining A Light on Female Power: Women’s Experiences of Transcending Aging Chairs:Pilar Rojas Gaviria, Marketing Lecturer, University of Birmingham, UK Céline Del Bucchia, Associate Professor, Marketing, Audencia Business School, France

Paper #1: Reclaiming the Crone: Reimagining Old Age and to this special session by showing how the emerging themes associ- Feminine Power ated with the Crone invite us to reimagine old age and female power. Lorna Stevens, University of Bath, UK The second paper focuses on women’s narratives reflecting their Pauline Maclaran, University of Royal Holloway, UK experience of going through the menopause in the UK. Their work Olga Kravets, University of Royal Holloway, UK offers a theoretical reflection on how women can transcend their ‘unproductive’ body. Paper #2: ‘The Foreigner within us’: Catharsis amid Horror The third paper explores how the aid of material and technology and Confusion in Menopause can enhance value co-creation for elderly women with family mem- Pilar Rojas Gaviria, University of Birmingham, UK bers/friends and service providers. It illustrates how women stimu- Céline Del Bucchia, Audencia Business School, France late and leverage their interdependence in the context of the Elderly Camilla Quental, Audencia Business School, France Consumption Ensemble. Paper #3: Opportunities and Challenges for Aging Women in The fourth paper explores intergenerational transmission though CoCreating Value in the Elderly Consumption Ensemble the theoretical lens of wisdom. Their paper raises issues about how Lisa Peñaloza, Kedge Business School, Bordeaux, France grandmothers transcend aging thanks to the sharing of wisdom, and Carol Kelleher, University College, Cork, Ireland how this process helps them to build and maintain their relational Michelle Barnhart, Oregon State University, USA identity. Paper #4: Wisdom Examined via a Qualitative Investigation This special session aims to stimulate discussion and further of the Bathing Rituals of Aging Moroccan Women and their consumer research to shine light on the power of female aging. To- Granddaughters gether, the four papers raise two key questions: first, how can women Delphine Godefroit-Winkel, Toulouse Business School, enhance our power to transcend age by better understanding and uti- Casablanca Campus, Morocco lizing aspects of consumer culture, the market, and family dynam- Marie Schill, Université de Reims, Champagne Ardenne, ics? And second, how and what can women’s empowerment in aging France contribute to a more enlightened society? By gaining more insights Margaret K. Hogg, Lancaster University, UK into and leverage over the creative aspects of female aging, consumer researchers, policymakers and marketers are able to enhance SESSION OVERVIEW women’s well-being, negotiate brand positioning, develop communication campaigns, and thus advance the discourse of female aging in “It is a mistake to regard age as a downhill grade slide towards order to provide more positive and fairer representations. dissolution. The reverse is true. As one grows older, one climbs upwards with surprising strides.” - George Sand Reclaiming the Crone: Reimagining Old Age and Feminine Power While a large amount of research on aging consumers has focused on the paradigm of the privation that accompanies aging (Mo- EXTENDED ABSTRACT chis 2012), this special session focuses on how women transcend the stereotypes of aging and nurture their capacity to create and co-create “The rhythmic phases of the moon waxing and waning, light and alternative social imaginaries with respect to their feminine aging darkness, the crescent, sickle-shaped new moon, the full moon, process. The special session draws from the consumer research lit- and the waning, darkening moon – the maiden in the crescent, the erature, which investigates old age and new beginnings (Schau, Gilly mother in the full moon and, in the darkening moon, the wise old & Wolfinbarger, 2009) as well as gender issues (Steinfield, Coleman, woman whose light was within her. The Divine Trinity of the Mother Tuncay Zayer, Ourahmoune and Hein 2019). Goddess, as old as time itself, endlessly renewing itself – darkness, The four papers examine how women transcend aging and turn light, darkness - all aspects of the Mother Goddess to be embraced, it into a creative force. The papers complement each other in exam- expressing the unity of sky, earth, sea, and the rhythmic patterns of ining various facets of feminine aging, focusing on popular culture, nature and all living things.” (Baring and Cashford 1993: 63) the decline of the body, collective experiences in the context of intergenerational transmission, and the Elderly Consumption Ensemble Associated with the final stage in the cycle of life, The Crone (Barnhart and Peñaloza 2013) in a span of women’s life stages from was the third aspect of the Triple Goddess in ancient culture. Being middle life to old age. the wise old woman, the seer, the midwife, and the healer, she sym- Our aim in this session is to extend discussions on women, ag- bolised wisdom, knowledge and the underworld. In Irish mythology ing and consumption to counterbalance the traditional view of aging she was the Dark Morrigan, presiding over death in the battlefield, as a state of privation and decline, a moment of lost capacities (Szmi- taking back the bodies of the fallen ones into her eternal, primordial gin and Carrigan 2001). This belief has been to the disadvantage of embrace (Stevens and Maclaran 2007). In time the sacred associa- women in comparison to men who are more likely to benefit from tions of the Triple Goddess (Maiden, Mother, Crone) came to be de- positive associations attached to their aging process such as maturity sacralised and diabolized by male-centred religions. (Walker 1985). and charisma (Steinfield et al. 2019). They supplanted matri-centred societies and replaced the worship of The first paper focuses on cultural representations of the Crone nature and the Mother Goddess with the worship of culture and a as an empowering figure in popular culture. Their work contributes Male God and Son. The ‘crone’ came, in the Middle Ages, to be de-sacralised as an ugly, withered old woman, loathed and feared in

Advances in Consumer Research 1106 Volume 48, ©2020 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1107 equal measure. She was witchlike, evil, cruel, cantankerous; a hag, lifetime of experience. ‘I feel like a snake, shedding its own skin,’ an old bag, an old bat (Collins Thesaurus); she was an object ‘usually I told a friend recently. On the surface I may look more or less the of contempt’ (Webster Dictionary). same. Inside, nothing is as it was.” (female writer’s testimonial, The contempt expressed for the post-menopausal woman, of- The Guardian, 2008_01_05) ten depicted as physically repulsive, argumentative and difficult, has echoed down through the centuries, and nowhere is this contempt One of the major assumptions of popular culture is that “a more visible than in Western popular culture, where women’s youth, woman is her body”, or more specifically, her body’s reproductive beauty and fecundity is worshipped (acknowledging the Maiden and capacity. “‘In the hyper visible landscape of popular culture, the the Mother), but older women (the Crone) are viewed with horror, body is recognized as the object of women’s labor: it is her asset, her fear and revulsion. product, her brand and her gateway to freedom and empowerment in This negative perception of the Crone, reflected historically in a neoliberal market economy.’ (Winch 2015, 233).” The centrality the Patriarchal suppression of Goddess Culture and in contemporary of woman’s role as a mothering agent has resulted in less attention society by negative attitudes towards aging women, has always been given to the development of women in midlife when reproductive challenged by feminists (Rountree 1997; Ronn and Daugaard 2005). capacities diminish and women start to become invisible in cultural This is aided by the flourishing of contemporary counter-cultural representations (Segal 2014). Moreover, when attention focuses on movements such as Neopaganism and Wicca (Griffin, 1995). The women’s middle life, the concern is often exclusively biological crone is now reinstated, re-imagined and reinvigorated in our ‘col- (Ballard, Elston, Gabe 2009, Gerguen 1990, p476), perpetuating the lective consciousness’ (Walker, 1985), as women grow increasingly assumption that women are their body. tired of the negative associations that go with being beyond the The hyper visibility of the reproductive body emphasizes the menopause (Bay 2004; Pearsall 2018) and seek to reframe how we fact that the menopause is seen as a decline. Corus and Saatcioglu think about the Crone and the aging woman. (2012) refer to the literature on the menopause as a loss, guided by The crone, often a vilified and marginalised figure, is thus a medical discourse: “Although menopause is a natural hormonal positive archetype and force in contemporary women’s culture, her transformation, it is sometimes treated as a ‘process of breakdown, fire fanned by the internet. She is celebrated as a source of wisdom, failure and decline’” (Martin 2001, p43, cited in Corus and Saatciog- knowledge, freedom and feminine power, as evidenced by the pro- lu 2012). In this mainstream medical discourse, the menopause is de- liferation of books, websites, forums, workshops, retreats, artworks, scribed as a problem of hormone deficiency, a pathological state that magazines and e-zines, performances, music, workbooks, and films, needs to be treated. “Terms such as ‘deterioration’, ‘wearing out’, all of which reclaim the Crone for our times. Drawing on these popu- ‘failing’, ‘no longer up to it’ and ‘getting slower’ are traditionally lar culture sources, we reveal key themes associated with the crone used to describe the age-related physiological changes within the that assist women in reclaiming her as an empowering figure, name- body” (Ballard et al. 2009, 279). Alternative stances, like the natural ly: freedom to choose; a disruptive cackle; and the censoring look. perspective, view the menopause as a natural physiological transfor- Then, using Butler’s theory of gender performativity (Butler 1990; mation that brings with it new roles and freedoms in women’s lives 1993), we discuss how these themes denote a range of resignify- (Corus and Saatcioglu 2012). ing practices that challenge existing ideals of femininity and disrupt We tend to focus on women’s biological aging and pay less at- norms that value a youthful - as opposed to aged - female body. tention to the cultural dimension of aging. This is what Susan Sontag (1972) called ‘The double Standard of aging’ (14): women are mar- ‘The Foreigner within us’: Catharsis amid Horror and ginalized and diminished when youthful looks depart (Segal 2014), Confusion in Menopause and are subject to growing gender inequality in aging (Steinfield, Coleman, Tuncay Zayer, Ourahmoune, and Hein 2019). However, EXTENDED ABSTRACT feminist writers have highlighted some powerful aspects of female aging (Segal 2014, Pearsall 2018, Beauvoir 1970), referring to the “The worst symptom is never mentioned: there is a post- real self versus the aging self. More recently, consumer researchers menopausal elephant in the bedroom and its name is Dry Vagina have called for further investigation into new understandings of the (…) A person can apply only so much lubrication. Even then, context of aging (Schau, Gilly, and Wolfinbarger 2009, Barnhart and penetration is excruciating. (…) Finally, I developed a vaginal Peñaloza 2013, Corus and Saatcioglu 2012). Our paper contributes infection (…) So what are all those other post-menopausal, to this call for alternative perceptions of aging by examining the con- sexually active women doing (referring to celebrities)? Have they text of women’s experiences of the menopause. miraculously escaped?” (reader’s testimonial, The Guardian, In this study, we seek alternative discourses about the meno- 2019_01_04). pause experience. How do women live and make sense of their transformation in relation to the menopause? How can these women, at the intersectionality between age and gender, re-empower “When biology no longer defines a body by its potential to themselves? We collected 1000 articles referring to the menopause reproduce, a woman will find further equality in her relationships.” and published in the Guardian newspaper between 2005 and 2020. (journalist’s testimonial, The Guardian, 2019_05_19) Among them, 150 articles included personal testimonials about the menopause experience written by regular readers and opinion lead- “Insomnia gone, full of energy, no more night sweats, only very ers (female journalists, artists, managers). occasional flushes and a new confidence and stronger sense of We conducted our analysis based on these 150 testimonials. self.” (reader’s testimonial, The Guardian 2019_08_25) They reveal three main themes: 1. Confusion and taboo, 2. Meno- pause horrors as experienced by the writers, 3. Catharsis. The study expands on the philosophical ideas of Julia Kristeva (1991) about “I catch glimpses of the enthusiastic child I once was, and being strangers to ourselves to further explore the menopause as a intimations of an older woman’s wisdom, hard-won through a lived experience. Kristeva suggests searching deep inside ourselves 1108 / Shining A Light on Female Power: Women’s Experiences of Transcending Aging for our more profound fears about those we call ‘the foreigners’. In tion ensemble (ECE hereafter, Barnhart et al. 2014; Barnhart and a similar way, old age is often approached with the same kind of Peñaloza 2013)—how might it enhance these social and market ties? fear that is felt with regard to foreigners. By welcoming the other This research builds on previous work on the ECE by develop- within us, in other words, aging and the menopause, by facing the ing theoretical and practical insights pertaining to the cocreation of confusion and sometimes the horror it arouses in women and society value (Karababa and Kjeldgaard 2014; Kelleher et al. 2019; Stor- at large, we may be able to get a better understanding of the strange- backa et al. 2016) by examining the experiences and concerns of ness of aging and its cathartic benefits. Our study goes beyond the elderly women. Elderly women’s value cocreation in consumption dichotomy between medicalization and a more ‘natural’ approach to in the ECE is of particular importance for their quality of life and for dealing with the menopause by representing women’s experiences the societies they inhabit. Notably, of the 49 million persons in the with the menopause as an embodied encounter with the strangeness U.S. over the age of 65, 55% are women (Roberts et al. 2018), with of an ‘unproductive’ body. an average life expectancy of 81 years compared to 76 years for the One interesting finding of the study has to do with the distri- 45% who are men (Population Reference Bureau 2019). In addition bution of voices among the different opinion pieces. Testimonials to living longer on average, and having played particular roles in from regular readers frequently refer to confusion and horror with families and households for those who have/did not have children, regard to the menopause, while its cathartic and empowering nature aging women have distinct life situations and experiences that shape is defended to a greater degree by the testimonials of female opinion and impact their consumption (Drolet et al. 2010). According to a leaders rather than by regular readers. recent census report on the elderly in the U.S. (Roberts et al. 2019), This paper contributes to the discussion of female aging in mid- elderly women have lower levels of education (approximately 1 in dle life. It extends prior research that opposed the mainstream medi- 5 women over the age of 65 have at least a bachelor’s degree as cal discourse on menopause with the feminist discourse (Corus and compared to 1 in 3 men of the same age), income (their respective Saatcioglu 2012) by showing the capacity of women to transcend median incomes are $41,200 versus $56,850 for men), and poverty their unproductive and declining body and reveal themselves beyond (11% of women live below the poverty level as compared to 7% of their body. In this process, becoming “strangers to themselves” helps men in this same age cohort), and exhibit higher rates of employment women to distance themselves from the patriarchal assumptions that (14% of women continue to work as compared to 22% of men). associate them uniquely with their bodies. In this context, the paper The context of this study is the U.S., in drawing from empiri- raises the question of how the empowerment testimonials of women cally grounded analysis of interviews exploring the daily life of ag- opinion leaders can support or clash with regular women in their ing American women in relation to family members/friends and paid journeys to discover the other within themselves. care providers in 10 ECEs, participant experience in researchers’ families, and representations of elderly women in popular culture. What’s Love Got to Do with It that Technology can’t Our findings detail the circumstances and patterns of relationships Handle? Opportunities and Challenges for Aging in the ECE, as aging women cocreate value with and against family Women in CoCreating Value in the Elderly Consumption members/friends and service providers, with the aid of material and Ensemble technology. To explain the figure: in the circle at the top left, the figure illustrates an existing division of consumption ‘labor’ activities EXTENDED ABSTRACT among the elderly person, E, family member/friend(s), F, and paid provider(s), P. While all persons within the ECE utilize technology, They need me. I mean, if they are capable to be alone, they will not we focus on its use by the elderly person in this study, as designated need me. –Maria, paid caregiver, age 55 by MT at the top, center of the diagram. Circumstances that alter this division of consumption labor activities include changes in the health, physical abilities, and living arrangements of the elderly per- There really is…a need for a book, the Dr. Spock parenting book for son, their proclivities, and relations with others, as well as changes in doing this, cause there’s just so much…You’ve been living your own the participation of other members of the ECE. In turn, these changes life and now you’re 55 years old, suddenly somebody has to inherit ripple through the ECE in altering patterns of collaboration (E and F Mom… –Kevin, age 60 begin to jointly pay bills, for example), alliances (E and P exclude F from an activity, for example), conflict (between E and F, or F and P, If my iPad were a woman, I’d marry her! Doris, age 76 for example), deferral (E defers to F to enhance their relation, F defers to the expertise of P, for example), and dis/engagement (E fires Persons 65 years of age and over represent approximately 18% P or F exits the ECE, as examples). of the population in Europe, as compared to 9% in the U.S. (Popula- Discussion elaborates how the women empower themselves by tion Reference Bureau 2019). In the U.S. persons over the age of leveraging technology in cocreating value with other agents in the 65 exhibit somewhat similar rates of home ownership (78%) and ECE, by enhancing their capabilities to monitor health and living internet access (76%), although patterns of living alone, with family arrangements, handle finances, procure provisions, maintain social members, and with nonfamily members tend to vary with the loss relationships with ECE and others, and remain active in their com- of sight, hearing, mobility, cognitive ability, and self-care that many munities by keeping abreast of/participating in local events/interest persons experience as they advance in age (Roberts, Ogunwole, groups. Implications concern women’s autonomy and vulnerabilities Blakeslee and Rabe 2018). The opening quotes illustrate the im- in enhancing such value cocreation through the use of technology portance of family, service providers, and technology, and previous in dynamic, ongoing, and emergent experience and interaction with research strongly and repeatedly shows that greater social contacts family members, friends, and service providers in the ECE and be- bring about higher and longer quality of life (Pettigrew and Moschis yond, and in favorably comparing their life situations and experienc- 2012; House, Landis, and Umbertson 1988). And yet, what is the es with those of others, both real life and mediated. The presentation impact of technology on value cocreation in the elderly consump- closes with promising avenues for further research. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1109 Wisdom Examined via a Qualitative Investigation of the Data was analyzed following recommendations for qualitative Bathing Rituals of Aging Moroccan Women and their data analysis (Moisander and Valtonen 2006). The authors analyzed Granddaughters the data first separately and then together (Sherry 2007). Iteration was used to form, revise, and develop understandings of the entire EXTENDED ABSTRACT data set. The data analysis focused on informants’ reflexive thoughts This study investigates how aging women (Barnhart and Pe- about bathing experiences and their relationships with their relatives. ñaloza 2013) exhibit consumer wisdom (Luchs and Mick 2018; After considering several theoretical frameworks, we were able to Luchs, Mick and Haws under review) in their families. It specifically identify how wisdom emerged in narratives. examines how wisdom is revealed during the public bathing practic- Our findings first uncover how grandmothers use their wisdom es and rituals of older Moroccan women with their granddaughters. in the building of their relational identities with their granddaugh- Wisdom in consumer behavior research refers to “the pursuit of ters. Specifically, it shows how grandmothers’ wisdom is manifested wellbeing for oneself and for others through mindful management - through sharing their views on lifestyle responsibility, purpose, of consumption-related choices and behaviors as realized through flexibility, perspective, prudent reasoning and transcendence (Luchs, the integrated application of intentionality, contemplation, emotional Mick and Haws under review) - as they build their relational identi- mastery, openness, and transcendence” (Luchs and Mick 2018, 371). ties with their granddaughters in the context of bathing practices. The five facets of consumer wisdom refer to specific dimensions and Second, this study unveils how grandmothers’ wisdom is in- traits – cognitive, affective, and behavioral characteristics and ten- formed by their granddaughters’ consumption practices. In particu- dencies. Recently, Luchs, Mick and Haws (under review) extended lar, grandmothers integrate contextual cues related to their bathing their framework and depict six dimensions to consumer wisdom in practices with their granddaughters to redefine their own sense of the specific context of purchase decisions: lifestyle responsibility, wisdom. This result complements existing work, which has essen- purpose, flexibility, perspective, prudent reasoning, and transcen- tially focused on how one’s personal consumption is used to develop dence. Lifestyle responsibility corresponds to how people resist wisdom (Luchs, Mick and Haws under review). temptation to achieve their lifestyle goals. Purpose relates to priori- Finally, this study highlights how granddaughters - younger tizing experiences that help build relations with others. Flexibility women - build their own sense of wisdom when they interact with is about sharing things with others. Perspective refers to the efforts their grandmothers, and how they learn from their grandmoth- made to grasp multiple perspectives. Prudent reasoning is about be- ers’ consumption experiences. This finding contributes to existing ing cautious before making a decision. Transcendence refers to ethi- knowledge on wisdom, which has mainly conceived wisdom build- cal, communal, and environmental values. ing as an individual process, which occurs in late adulthood (Hall How consumer wisdom manifests and is understood heavily 2010). depends on contextual settings (Hall 2010). In the marketing and Our study contributes to existing literature about consumer consumer behavior fields, research on wisdom has essentially fo- wisdom and relational identity in old age as related to bathing and cused on business managers (Mick, Bateman and Lutz 2009), shop- beauty rituals in consumption. It extends prior research on wisdom, pers (Mick, Spiller and Baglioni 2012), gatekeepers in local organi- and takes account of interpersonal relations (Luchs and Mick 2018) zations (Luchs and Mick 2018), or innovative members of e-tribes and contextual cues (Hall 2010). Grandmothers’ wisdom refers to the (Kozinets, Hemetsberger and Schau 2008). However, little is known collective pursuit of balanced relational identities and family mem- about how wisdom manifests in family settings and intergenerational bers’ wellbeing through shared consumption experiences. Grand- exchanges, and particularly the intersection between consumer wis- mothers’ wisdom is co-created in intergenerational exchanges. dom and aging women in intergenerational exchanges. Grandmothers embrace various individual, relational and col- REFERENCES lective identities (Epp and Price 2008), which are embedded in inter- Ballard, Elston, Gabe (2009), “Private and Public Ageing in the UK generational exchanges. Intergenerational exchanges were examined The Transition through the Menopause,” Current Sociology between adult children and their parents (Karanika and Hogg 2016) Vol. 57 No. 2 Monograph 1 and between grandmothers and their young grandchildren (Gode- Baring, Anne and Cashford, Jules (1993), The Myth of the Goddess: froit-Winkel, Schill and Hogg 2019). However, little is known about Evolution of an Image, London: Penguin. how grandmothers’ wisdom plays out in intergenerational exchanges Barnhart, M., Huff, A.D. & Cotte, J. (2014). 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Szmigin, Isabelle and Marylin Carrigan, M. (2001), “Learning to Winch, Alison (2015), “Brand Intimacy, Female Friendship and love the older consumer”, Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 1: Digital Surveillance Networks,” New Formations, 84-85: 22-34. doi:10.1002/cb.51 228-45. Walker, Barbara G. (1985), The Crone: Woman of Age, Wisdom and Power, HarperCollins Publishers, New York. The Body and Equipment: Understanding Consumption Through Relationships Between Body and Equipment Chairs: Annetta Grant, Bucknell University, USA Robin Canniford, University of Melbourne, Australia

Paper #1: Why Do Consumers Put Their Bodies at Risk? A ity. This study examines the embodiment of material culture to show Reflexive Modernist Analysis of CrossFit’s Marketplace Culture how consumers assemble masculinity through an array of socio- Craig Thompson, University of Madison-Wisconsin, USA material practices. Findings show how the dualistic categories of Anil Isisag, Emlyon Business School, France mind/body and subject/object dissolve in the intricacies of embodied socio-material relations. Paper #2: The Socio- and Material-Temporal Routines of The fourth paper considers skill and knowledge as equipment Mothering: Why and How Physical Activity Often Fails to Fit through which consumers effect body practices that have restorative Fiona Spotswood, University of Bristol, UK benefits. In an ethnographic study of hobby fly fishing, we contrib- Paper #3: Assembling Embodiment: Body, Techniques and ute an extended theory of flow to show how consumers bodies, the Things environment, and fishing equipment create restorative experiences. Stephen Murphy, University of Essex, UK We use various contexts, theoretical, and methodological ap- Paper #4: Extending Flow: How Place, Materials, and Body proaches to body-equipment relationships to reveal new perspectives Create Restorative Consumption in Nature on the role of the body in consumer experience, consumer respon- Annetta Grant, Bucknell University, USA sibilization, and gendered understandings of practices. This session Avi Shankar, University of Bath, UK embraces the suggested conference themes of technology (equip- Robin Canniford, University of Melbourne, Australia ment) and obesity. The session is especially relevant for researchers interested in embodiment, temporality, and practice and assemblage SESSION OVERVIEW theories. The body is the primary conduit to consumers’ sense and understanding of the world (Canniford et al 2019; Joy and Sherry 2003). Why Do Consumers Put Their Bodies at Risk? A The body is a site at which consumers enact self-identity (Roux and Reflexive Modernist Analysis of CrossFit’s Marketplace Belk 2019; Patterson and Schroeder 2010), reflexivity (Husemann Culture and Eckhardt 2019; Thompson and Üstüner 2015), as well as pleasure and pain (Goulding et al. 2009; Scott, Cayla, Cova 2017). In all EXTENDED ABSTRACT cases, however, the consumer’s body is surrounded and augmented Consumer researchers and sports sociologists have taken an in- with forms of physical and discursive equipment. By equipment, terest in understanding why consumers choose to literally put their we mean sets of devices used to achieve practical ends (Rabinow bodies on the line, subjecting themselves to extreme physical stress 2009). Equipment can span multiple scales, from the apparatus of the and pain, and to risk injury (and even death) in the service of auto- individual body (Zanette and Scaraboto 2019), through meso-level telic leisure activities (Atkinson 2011; Celsi, Rose, and Leigh 1993; assemblages of body and consumption goods (Murphy et al 2018), Dawson 2017; Scott, Cayla, and Cova 2017; Saville 2008; Schneider, to technologies that link consumers into large-scale dispositifs (Lup- Butryn, Furst, and Masucci 2007). These studies have been framed ton 2015). In this special session, we extend current understandings by two distinct interpretive frameworks, which we refer to as the of embodiment with new perspectives on the relationships between existential and neoliberal models, each highlighting a different set of consumers’ bodies and equipment. We explore material and non- explanatory socio-cultural conditions. material concepts of equipment to ask: What does the relationship The existential model builds on the work of David Le Breton between body and equipment reveal about consumption? And more (2000) and argues that such risk-taking activities provide individu- particularly how does considering different facets of equipment en- als opportunities for spiritual quests and authenticating experiences lighten an understanding of embodiment? that they find lacking in the rationalized flow of modern life and its The first paper considers how consumers mobilize and shape bureaucratic work orders (Celsi et al. 1993; Scott et al. 2017; also see their bodies in preparation for contingencies and imminent threats Arnould and Price 2000; Caillois 2001). In comparison, the neolib- through the equipment common to the global phenomenon of Cross- eral model maintains that physically challenging activities are part Fit. Based on a two-year ethnography, this study analyses CrossFit’s and parcel of a new disciplinary regime of neoliberal governmental- marketplace culture as a meso-level inflection of reflexive modern- ity (Foucault 2008) whereby individuals regard social life as a sphere ization. The study’s findings offer an alternative to extant existential of cutthroat competition in which only the fittest (and most self-dis- and neoliberal explanations of consumer’s embodied risk-taking. ciplined) can attain success (Cederström and Spicer 2015; Datta and The second paper considers the equipment of time, and time as Chakraborty 2017). equipment. Through an analysis of diary data and depth interviews Previous examinations of CrossFit’s marketplace culture— with mothers from deprived urban areas, this study illuminates the which affords a communally shared experience of physical- chal entangled practices and temporalities of mothering. The resulting lenge, risk taking, and calculated endurance of pain—have rather configurations shape the (im)possibilities of physical activity and expectedly followed an existential (Dawson 2017; Herz 2014; Pe- mothering. A body equipped with time is better off, but the equip- kkanen, Närvänen and Tuominen 2017) or neoliberal lens (Heywood ment of time is both gendered and classed, raising considerations for 2016; James and Gill 2017; Nash 2017). While the narratives of the rising levels of obesity. CrossFit enthusiasts we interviewed exhibit motifs that are compat- In the third paper, the materials necessary for hobby motorcycle ible with both existential and neoliberal interpretive frames, we pro- repair constitute the equipment for expressing embodied masculin- pose that there is more to the story than an enactment of neoliberal

Advances in Consumer Research 1112 Volume 48, ©2020 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1113 responsibilization (Giesler and Veresiu 2014) or a quest to authen- accounts, it manifests an always contingent endeavor for being pre- ticate the self through transcendent experiences (Arnould and Price pared to effectively respond to challenges and contingencies amidst 1993, 2000). the radical uncertainty induced by systemic risks. Another important macro influence on these risk-taking consumption practices is the reflexive modernist orientation that has The Socio- and Material-temporal Routines of arisen from the structural imposition of global systemic risks (Beck Mothering: 1999, 2006; Beck, Giddens, and Lash 1994). According to this Why and How Physical Activity Often Fails to Fit framework, systemic, human-generated risks are the unintended and unanticipated consequences of the modernist project and its abiding EXTENDED ABSTRACT goals of creating wealth and prosperity. Modern economies produce The transition to parenthood is a critical transformative experi- risks just as they produce economic gains, and these risks are dif- ence and an inflection point for obesity (Saxbe et al., 2019). Be- ficult to manage and distribute through probability assessment—as coming a parent often leads to reduced physical activity (PA) levels, exemplified by climate change, large-scale industrial accidents, ter- but this effects mothers more than fathers, both in volume and type rorist attacks, and outbreaks of infectious diseases. As a cultural re- (Rhodes et al., 2014). Studies report that whereas some mothers ad- sponse to these conditions, the reflexive modernist ethos comprises just physical activity participation strategies to fit around children of a reflexive awareness of systemic risks, a socially pervasive state (McGannon et al., 2018), many attempt unsatisfactorily to integrate of doubt about the ability of experts to accurately predict and con- PA into family time (Hamilton and White, 2010). Lower socioeco- trol such risks, a profound uncertainty about which authorities to nomic-economic status mothers are the least likely to be active trust, and a paradoxical quest for being prepared for a wide range (Bellow-Riecken et al., 2008). Supporting mothers from deprived of imaginable contingencies in hopes that such preparations might areas to become and maintain healthy levels of physical activity is prove useful to a certain degree in a time of crisis. When CrossFit therefore an important challenge for social marketers. practices are analyzed in relation to this reflexive modernist frame, Qualitative health research tends to explain mothers’ low PA we identify a set of socio-cultural motivations that are ideologically levels as the product of social and cultural discourses which mothers and experientially distinct from those highlighted by the existential draw on. ‘Mother’ is understood as women’s ‘true calling’, with an and neoliberal models. emphasis on intensive presence and prioritising caring above all else Founded in 2000 by former gymnast Greg Glassman, Cross- (Molander and Hartmann, 2018). PA is therefore constantly subor- Fit hinges on the idea that constantly varied, high intensity, whole dinated through daily computations made in the shadow of socially body workouts could induce a state of all-round functional fitness prescribed expectations. Relatedly, mothers’ low PA levels is ex- unattainable through conventional gyms. With this principle in mind, plained by illuminating the limited leisure time afforded to mothers Glassman developed high-intensity workout routines that integrated as they assume fuller caring roles than male partners (Hamilton and movements from gymnastics, calisthenics, and Olympic weightlift- White, 2010), which compresses and fragments time for themselves. ing, all involving multiple repetitions in rapid-fire succession. Glass- Mothers’ ‘free time’ is noted to be highly dependent on the support man’s unorthodox approach to building functional fitness through of others (Wearing, 1990). Time is conceptualised as a resource that maniacal physical exertion attracted an expanding clientele of for- mothers have little of. mer athletes seeking to recreate bygone experiences of competitive Existing studies tend to overemphasise the capacity and respon- intensity and, importantly, first responders and military personnel sibility of individuals to realise change through resistance to soci- who face a broad spectrum of physical challenges in the conduct of etal expectations (McGannon and Schinke, 2012). Through a novel their occupations (Crockett and Butryn 2018). In press interviews, practice theory lens, this study shifts focus to the mundane experi- Glassman matter-of-factly discussed latent risks that CrossFitters ences of mothering, examining everyday temporalities and mundane knowingly take in order to garner the benefits of its hyperintense yet expertly operated materialities. The connecting theme of ‘time’ training regimen: ““It can kill you,” he said. “I’ve always been com- emerges as vital for understanding the ‘demands’ of the system of pletely honest about that”” (Quoted in Cooperman 2005). practices that dominates the organisation of mothers’ everyday lives Based on a two-year long ethnography of CrossFit’s market- and often competes out physical activity. place culture—consisting of participant observation, semi-structured We undertook and analysed 15 depth interviews with mothers interviews, and examinations of media discourses and branded con- in Bristol. Mothers in lower socio-economic positions were selected tent—, we analyze CrossFit as a meso-level articulation of reflexive because they have less control over how their paid and non-paid time modernization. We demonstrate that CrossFitters’ understanding of (Southerton, 2006). Half the mothers kept a diary for a week prior embodied risk taking is shaped by the normative goal of preparing to the interviews. Interviews explored everyday household routines, oneself for unexpected contingencies and imminent threats. In doing use of material things and explored experiences and reflections of so, we bridge the analytical gap between studies addressing consum- PA. Mothers ranged between 20 and 50 years and the sample in- ers’ proactive risk taking and those focusing on the feelings of anxi- cluded single, adoptive, married and cohabiting mothers and those ety and uncertainty induced by the structural imposition of systemic whose children had special needs. Five participated in regular PA. risks. We highlight that such risk-taking challenges can themselves Transcripts were analysed using thematic analysis and three key be market-mediated responses to the conditions of reflexive modern- themes were identified. ization, whereby consumers proactively take calculated bodily risks Mothering can be understood as a multiple integrative practice out of a desire to expand their capacities to effectively respond to inseparable from a larger household system of practices involving the unpredictable manifestations of systemic risks. Finally, we show multiple practitioners: children and fathers but also schools, work- that the notion of personal responsibility—which has predominantly places and childcare providers. Mothering is highly competitive, been studied as a defining feature of neoliberal governmentality by even predatory. As one respondent explained, “We don’t really do consumer researchers (Giesler and Veresiu 2014)— serves different anything [now we have kids]…” PA for all our respondents took a ideological ends in a reflexive modernist frame. Rather than taking low priority, and the synchronisation of physical activity alongside a neoliberal, entrepreneurial orientation as represented in previous 1114 / The Body and Equipment: Understanding Consumption Through Relationships Between Body and Equipment mothering practices was found to be highly unsatisfactory and “not sion (Goulding et al., 2009; Scott et al., 2017) and emotive bodily really proper exercise”, or impossible. expressions (Hewer and Hamilton, 2010). Recent studies broaden Three intersecting themes add theoretical power to our under- the scope of multi-sensory enquiry, by establishing a basis for con- standing of the predatory nature of mothering and how this impli- sumer research that attends to the olfactory (Canniford et al., 2018) cates PA participation. Firstly, mothering practices have a dominant and sonic (Patterson and Larsen, 2018). Notwithstanding these sig- temporal rhythm through their entanglement with external interlock- nificant contributions, a deep understanding of embodiment cannot ing space-time configurations. For example travel timetables, dis- be reached through recourse to the senses alone. Embodiment also tances from work and childcare/school opening hours all shaped the foregrounds body techniques, habituation, and the social, physical rhythm of mothering. These space-time configurations demand skil- and mindful cultivation of skilful dispositions (Mauss, 1973; Cross- ful use of materials such as managing the weekly wash, which often ley 2007; Murphy et al., 2019). Recent CCT studies illuminate the happened in a prescribed 90 minute slot; or calculating how long a skilful nature of a host of consumption activities that range from bus journey would take and if there was time for an errand or visit freeskiing and paintballing (Woerman and Rokka, 2015), Cosplay between school hours. (Seregina and Weijo, 2017), craft beer connoisseurship (Maciel and Secondly, cutting across the external space-timescapes are the Wallendorf, 2017) and high-speed motorcycling (Murphy and Pat- temporal rhythms of everyday caring. These were dominated for our terson, 2019). Although consumption objects are clearly central to participants by the need for careful synchronisation of multiple ac- the performance of these skilful activities, these studies do not fore- tivities and by temporal ‘hot spots’. Mothers were required to orches- grounded materiality conceptually, and as a consequence we know trate practices so they occurred in the right order, with the skilled use little about how things feature in the development of skills and the of particular equipment (like toothbrushes or cooking equipment), at embodied dispositions that pertain to them. To this end, the present the right time of day and with understood degrees of periodicity. Hot study extends Dant’s (2004) assemblage theory to examine the intri- spots occur because many of these practices colonise (Shove, 2012) cacies of socio-material relations between motorcycle repairers and particular points of the day such as children’s bedtime, and are also their motorcycles. intersected by external, institutional spatial-temporal rhythms. PA Re-theorizing Assemblage: An Embodied Perspective needs to compete to recruit mothers. As Jane explains, her walk was Tim Dant’s extensive work on materiality (1999; 2004a; 2004b) delayed because “he poo-ed all over the carpet and that takes half an brings the issue of embodiment and its role in the formation of human hour out of your day before you can go anywhere”. Mothering prac- non-human assemblages into critical light. Dant (2004) argues that tices must often be accomplished in a particular order. the embodied experience of being-in-the-world only makes sense Thirdly, infusing the household system of practice were collec- because we have a history of sensory experience. We know how it tive expectations towards ‘time spent’ that shape PA participation. In feels to be in the world, and we intuitively know how to interact in line with others (Silva 2002), we found an accepted lack of ‘time to the world because of this experience. This embodied way of being- yourself’ for mothers and a low prioritisation of PA for mothers but in-the-world is not something that we are born with, it perpetually not fathers. The way practices compete and intersect raises questions develops over time through interaction. This process crystallises as about value and authenticity. Carrie exemplifies her frustration at the bodily memory and because of this being-in-the-world becomes in- elevated ‘value’ of her partner’s PA in comparison with her own, telligible (Merleau-Ponty, 1962). Throughout our lives we engage explaining that “he just takes off and goes cycling”. Later, she admits further in the material world, embodying new skills and techniques, how difficult the household level expectations about her own PA are thereby bringing the material world more and more into our every- to change: “it’s hard-wired as to how our daily structure works… we day lives (Dant 1999, 2004). By drawing attention to the intricate are just stuck in a daily routine I guess”. nature of socio-material relations, assemblage theory invites us to Only when there was compatibility between the external space- consider how things become active not only in shaping perceptual time configurations, everyday temporal rhythms of mothering prac- capacities but also the development of skilful embodied techniques. tices and the temporal expectations that infuse the household system By examining the case of the repairer/motorcycle assemblage, this of practices did our respondents participate in regular PA. As such, research aims to develop a theoretical understanding of how skilful our findings suggest that responsibilising mothers to participate in embodied relations with things are formed and also how these rela- PA through ‘sporty’ identity creation or resistance is unlikely to suc- tions become constitutive of embodiment. ceed and is ethically problematic. Rather, social change relating to mothers’ PA should acknowledge socio-cultural, material and above A Brief Summary of Findings all temporal characteristics of the practices which both demand and The repairer’s ability to relate to the material world of the mo- shape the everyday organisation of mothering. Insodoing, our analy- torcycle is acquired and strengthened in skill (Borgmann, 1987). sis contributes to the burgeoning critical social marketing agenda As a central socio-material dynamic of assemblage formation, skill (Gordon, 2011; 2018) which draws on social practice theory to il- development closes the distance between the repairer and the mo- luminate the socio-cultural shaping of everyday life (Gordon, 2018) torcycle. Sharpened skills bring people and things together to the ex- as a basis for conceptualising intervention. tent that they can assemble as one. This dynamic was exemplified in instances where the participants describe using tools with such ease Assembling Embodiment: Body, Techniques and Things and dexterity that they become like an extension of hand (Mellström, 2002). Being always takes place in the world, and because of this EXTENDED ABSTRACT our capacities for skill development and habituation are inextricably By positioning embodiment to the forefront of enquiry, a na- relational (Dant 2004; Merleau-Ponty, 1962). scent corpus of CCT research illuminates the sensuous and affec- Crawford (2010) describes motorcycle repair as a stochastic tive nature of transformative consumption experiences. Extending art, which necessitates a disposition that is open and attentive to the analysis beyond the focus on discourse and meaning which preoc- machine. To embody this disposition, perception must be trained in cupied the ‘interpretive turn’, these studies animate the lived experi- relations with the motorcycle. This study illuminates how novices ence of embodiment as it surfaces through intense sensory immer- are taught to perceive the motorcycle’s obscurities by developing Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1115 an aural appreciation of its rhythms. By mindfully listening to the riences in nature, using limited leisure time and financial resources, sounds of engines, the capacity for acoustically informed diagnosis are restored and rejuvenated, able to return ‘healed’ and better able gradually accumulates. Similarly, through immersion in these activi- to deal with life in a time-stricken and ever-connected world (Can- ties, the body becomes attuned to diagnosing problems by identify- niford and Shankar 2013; Husemann and Eckhardt 2019). While we ing resonant sounds, smells and feels (Mellström, 2003). This path- may know why consumers seek out these experiences, and that they way to skill development is illustrative of the recursivity of these are restored and rejuvenated by them, how such experiences are re- socio-material relations. The motorcycle demands a finely attuned storative and rejuvenating remains less well understood. attentiveness that is receptive to its signals. But the repairer/motor- To answer this question, we use Csikszentmihalyi’s (1975) cycle assemblage, also illuminates a recursivity to socio-material concept of flow as a guiding theory. Flow, characterized as a state relations which complicates any notion of agentic subjects continu- of total absorption, diverts people’s attention from the mundane to ously acting upon inanimate objects. focus on the task at hand (Csikszentmihalyi 1975). As a guiding By tuning into the socio-material dynamics of assemblage for- framework, it sensitizes our work to the experience of temporarily mation, we see that repairers are oftentimes drawn out of themselves losing a sense of place and time. We also draw upon actor-network and into an intimate relation with the motorcycle, whereby they are theory (Law 1992) to examine how these experiences come together forced to question what it needs. In these instances, ‘technology is no as an assemblage of place, materials (equipment), and body (mind longer a means by which our mastery of the world is extended’ but and skills). We engaged in an ethnographic study of fly fishing. Fly rather it becomes ‘an affront to our usual self-absorption’ (Crawford, fishing offers a unique perspective of consumers who have a deep 2010: 16). Skilled repairers must be able to see beyond the embodied engagement with the activity—which includes the study of entomol- techniques of their craft, to see how skills can be grounded in rela- ogy, river conditions, equipment, the skills necessary to cast, and tions with the material demands of the situation. It is only with this adapt to varying weather conditions. We collected data based on the outward orientation towards fixing things that the repairer can truly ethnographic immersion of two authors of this project, participant understand their nature. It is through these socio-material relations observation, and phenomenological interviews with 21 fly fishers. In that the repairer incorporates the daily movements and actions of order to more closely capture the in-situ experience, we also engaged repair culture. in video recording participants who then reflected upon their experi- When we segment the world into imaginary categories and hi- ences further in interviews. erarchies in order to get things done, we in-effect produce dualisms Our findings show that the restorative and rejuvenative nature (Canniford and Shankar, 2015). When we resist dualisms, by alter- of these experiences relies on a deep engagement with the context, ing the ontological assumptions that guide our research, we open sometimes spanning over a lifetime or decades. We show the pro- new up new pathways to see how previously overlooked elements cess of restorative consumption occurs through an extended model constitute phenomena. Rather than slipping into the naturalised on- of flow that includes: (1) preparing for flow, (2) flowing, (3) remem- tological stance which separates mind/body and subject/object, this bering flow. First, preparing for flow involves a ritualized material, paper illuminates the socio-material processes through which mind/ embodied, and cognitive practice. Second, flowing is the phenom- body and subject/object assemble to co-constitute embodiment. In enological experience in which consumers enter a non-reflexive state the routine, habitual practices of motorcycle repair sensory percep- where embodied practice prevails. Finally, Csikszentmihalyi (1990, tions and gestural dexterity become mindfully honed to interact with 229) argues that flow happens in the “here and now”; however, we the motorcycle and its world. By illuminating the bodies aptitude find that remembering flow is a highly ritualized and integral part for knowledgeability and the material objects capacities to impose of the flow experience. The act of remembering what flow feels like demands upon the would-be-subject, these socio-material relations comes to shape consumers’ understanding of flow and future experi- blur the boundary that typically separates mind from body and sub- ences of flow. ject from object. We see cogently that the motorcycle repairer could Our research contributes an understanding of the process by not come into being without this embodied emplacement in the ma- which consumption environments and practices create rejuvena- terial world. tive experiences. First, we show that rejuvenative experiences are fleeting, and difficult to achieve and maintain. Beyond Csikszent- Extending Flow: How Place, Materials, and Body Create mihalyi’s (1975) descriptive need for an intersection between skill Restorative Consumption in Nature and challenge, our work captures the phenomenological experience of the entire process of flow. Second, consumer researchers broadly EXTENDED ABSTRACT refer to flow as akin to a broad range of experiences—transportation Consumer research documents a broad range of consumer ex- experiences (Phillips and McQuarrie 2010; Wang and Calder 2006), periences that offer restorative benefits. From extraordinary experi- edgework (Canniford and Shankar 2013), immersion (Phillips and ences in nature (Arnould and Price 1993; Canniford and Shankar McQuarrie 2010), transcendental (Schouten, McAlexander, and 2013; Celsi, Rose, and Leigh 1993), to painful (Scott, Cayla, and Koegin 2007). We bring clarity to distinguish flow from other flow- Cova 2017), or conflict-laden experiences (Tumbat and Belk 2011), like experiences that, after Turner (1969), we call flowoid. Third, drug-induced nights out (Goulding et al. 2009), pilgrimages for the self-awareness is usually considered a virtue. Literature extols the deeply devoted (Higgins and Hamilton 2019; Husemann and Eck- benefits of the reflexive consumer agentically navigating social class hardt 2019), or through natural products (Thompson 2004), such (Thompson, Henry, Bardhi 2018), however, in our study, consum- experiences are understood to ameliorate the demands of today’s ers are involved in a deep engagement to reflexively engage in non- society, the burdens of reflexivity, and the resulting “saturated self” reflexivity. In juxtaposition with extraordinary experiences literature (Husemann and Eckhardt 2019; Scott, Cayla, and Cova 2017, 24). that shows that consumers need an escape to achieve the restorative We draw into question what many of these consumption experi- benefits of flow, we suggest that it is through a deep immersion that ences share in common: they take place in nature. A common trope consumers reap these benefits. Lastly, we draw to attention the im- in consumer research is that nature is imbued with healing qualities portance of the availability of a place to flow. Sustaining natural en- (Canniford and Shankar 2013). Consumers who seek out such expe- 1116 / The Body and Equipment: Understanding Consumption Through Relationships Between Body and Equipment vironments that facilitate such flow experiences, and making them Dant, T. (1999) ‘Material culture in the social world’, McGraw-Hill readily available to populations is important. Education (UK). Dant, T. 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Paper #1: The Influence of Public Discourse on Charitable behaviors. Through a series of investigations of charitable giving, Giving this special session seeks to fill this gap and addresses the following: Lez Trujillo Torres, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA • What role(s) does the marketplace play in enacting pro- Yingting Wen, ESSEC Business School, France social behaviors? Akon E. Ekpo, Loyola University Chicago, USA • How does public discourse shape the types of pro-social Benét DeBerry-Spence, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA causes we value and thus contribute to? • How does pro-social and market logics shape meanings of Paper #2: Bodies as Gardens, Bodies as Machines: Charitable pro-social behaviors and thus decisions to enact them? Giving as Coping Rebecca Scott, Cardiff University, UK According to Giving USA (2019), total charitable giving rose Tonya Williams Bradford, University of California – Irvine, 0.7% over a total of $424.74 billion contributed in 2017. Interest- USA ingly, while giving by individuals decreased by 1.1% (for a total estimate of $292.09 billion), giving by foundations and corporations Paper #3: A Divine Duty: Commercial Surrogacy in India and increased by 7.3% and 5.4% respectively, leaving giving by bequests Kin Altruism flat. Though individual giving has decreased, individual giving re- Sujit Raghunathrao Jagadale, Xavier University Bhubaneswar, mains the highest form of charitable giving, accounting for 68% of India the total giving. Thus, charitable giving is an ideal context to exam- Lez Trujillo Torres, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA ine pro-social behaviors across multiple levels, journeying from the Laetitia Mimoun, Cass Business School, City, University of micro-level: A Divine Duty: Commercial Surrogacy in India and Kin London, UK Altruism (individual). To the mezo-level: Bodies as Gardens, Bodies Paper #4: When Pro-social and Market Logics Collide: the as Machines: Charitable Giving as Coping (family). And finally, to Sensemaking Journeys of Egg Donors in the American Infertility the macro-level: The Influence of Public Discourse on Charitable Field” Giving (societal) and When Pro-social and Market Logics Collide: Anna E. Hartman, University of Melbourne, Australia the Sensemaking Journeys of Egg Donors in the American Infertility Eileen Fischer, York University, Canada Field (market). This session will be of interest to pro-social, gift-giving, and SESSION OVERVIEW healthcare marketing scholars. Increasingly, scholars are interested in understanding the motivating factors and consequences of consumers engaging in pro-social The Influence of Public Discourse on Charitable Giving consumer behavior. In fact, a recent special issue of the Journal of the Association for Consumer Research points to an 848% increase EXTENDED ABSTRACT in such studies from 2000 – 2018 (White, Habib, and Dahl 2020). This research investigates the influence of public discourse Pro-social behavior refers to behaviors that consumers engage in that on charitable giving and how this evolves over time. The context may come at some cost to the self for the greater good or benefit for of our study is the United States charitable marketplace, the larg- others (Small and Cryder 2016; White et al. 2020); and can include est philanthropic market in the world, between the years of 1991 to behaviors such as: charitable giving, volunteering, altruistic behav- 2015. We contribute to a growing literature devoted to understanding iors, ethical purchasing, engagement in cause-related activities, and how individuals, through monetary contributions to nonprofit orga- advocacy or activism. For the most part, motivations for pro-social nizations, address pressing societal issues, such as poverty, hunger, consumer behaviors have dealt with individual and situational fac- public health, animal welfare, and socioeconomic and environmental tors mainly from a micro-level perspective. From an individual per- justice. The significance of these issues, alongside the rise in chari- spective, factors such as maintaining a positive image (Aaker and table giving to the nonprofit sector, makes the focus of this research Akutsu 2009), self-concept (Grant and Dutton 2012), moral self- important. To this point, in 2018 alone, the nonprofit sector hit a worth (Jordan, Mullen, and Murnighan 2011; Sachdeva, Iliev, and new record with $410 billion U.S. dollars in contributions distributed Medin 2009), or acting in one’s self-interest through charitable giv- across approximately 10 million nonprofit organizations worldwide ing may create positive feelings that encourage pro-social behaviors (Giving USA 2018; Salamon and Newhouse 2019). (Chang and Hung 2018). From a situational perspective, factors such By large, extant research encompasses two major influences as whether one may socially benefit from public displays of pro- on charitable giving. The first influence deals with individual do- social behavior (Ariely, Bracha, and Meier 2009; White and Peloza nor characteristics such as altruistic identity, morality, and personal 2009), situational norms surrounding engagement in pro-social be- values of the donor (e.g., Boenigk and Helmig 2013; Nilsson, Er- havior (Frey and Meier 2004; Shang, Reed, and Croson 2008); and landsson, and Västfjäll 2016; van Dijk, Van Herk, and Prins 2019). attempts to gain a sense of belonging (Lee and Shrum 2012; Twenge The second influence deals with the strategic action of and within et al. 2007) all contribute to whether and how someone engages in nonprofit organizations and includes the effectiveness of rhetorical pro-social behaviors. communication appeals, perceived characteristics of the organiza- While these studies provide insight into why individuals choose tion, and the entrepreneurship of institutional actors (e.g., Botner, to engage in pro-social behaviors, there remains a limited under- Mishra, and Mishra 2015; Gautier, Pache, and Chowdhury 2016; standing of the role of meso- and macro-level factors vis-à-vis these Sargeant, Ford, and West 2006). Surprisingly, little is known about

Advances in Consumer Research 1118 Volume 48, ©2020 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1119 how macro factors, such as public discourse, which both reflect and Bodies as Gardens, Bodies as Machines: Charitable influence historic, regulatory, socioeconomic, and political issues, Giving as Coping impact charitable giving over long periods of time. In addressing this gap, we show how charitable behavior emerges and evolves as EXTENDED ABSTRACT public discourse also changes. And, consequently we provide a more Individuals source solutions to problems in the marketplace. comprehensive understanding of the dynamism associated with These problems range from basic provisioning and entertainment charitable behavior. to broader issues such as managing significant life transitions (e.g., Our research methods involved a multi-method approach. We marriage, death) and addressing societal issues (e.g., homeless- collected charitable giving patterns of the top 400 charities in the ness, health crisis). We investigate charitable giving as a means of US (1991-2015) and related fundraising expenses. This data served addressing societal issues, with a focus on the shortage of organ to operationalize actual historical charitable behavior and the rank- donation for transplantation. ing of organizations based on total contributions received in a given Charitable giving is recognized as a means for individuals to year. We also utilized three archival data sources of public discourse. provide help, hope, and life to others in need (Sherry 1983). The First, we used a consumer opinion dataset that provide an aggregated psychological literature examines roles for individual differences picture of what issues or charitable causes consumers value. Second, and empathy to inspire charitable behaviors (Lee and Bradford we used archival data from popular news media including newspa- 2015), and sociocultural perspectives examine such gifts in relation pers, magazines, TV, radio, podcasts, to identify, quantitatively and to their impact on society (Bradford 2013; Strathern 2012; Titmuss qualitatively, what issues and topics the U.S. society values. Third, 1997). While benefits of charitable giving accrue to those in need, we collected information about the top 400 charitable organizations, donors may be motivated to participate to attain any number of including advertisements in high-circulation news media to assess benefits such as enhancing the well-being for others, or attaining the strength of and/or interaction between public discourse and orga- benefits (e.g., tax, career advances) for themselves (Bendapudi, nizational strategic actions on charitable giving. Singh, and Bendapudi 1996). The literature provides insights into The quantitative analysis of datasets includes correlations, t- how donors may partner with organizations to support those in tests, and automated content analysis. The qualitative analysis of need. Missing is an understanding of how donors may employ news media data and charitable data (e.g., textual like articles, tex- charitable giving as a means of coping in response to loss. tual/visual like advertisements) follows a hermeneutical approach Consumer researchers examine various forms of loss and (Thompson 1997) to interpret patterns of meanings in these data. We roles for consumption related to loss. Individuals experience loss integrate both approaches by following Sanders’ (1982) recommen- in various forms throughout life—jobs, relationships with people dation to identify and reflect on emerging patterns, and to derive key or brands, or the transference of possessions from one owner to themes from the team’s reflections. We use the program MaxQDA to another. Prior research finds that voluntary losses may be managed transcribe analytical memos and analyze both qualitative and quan- as individuals prepare for disposition of their wealth or special titative data. possessions (Bradford 2009; Price, Arnould, and Curasi 2000; Our preliminary results indicate that there is not a significant Winterich, Reczek, and Irwin 2017). And though less prevalent, correlation between fundraising expenses and donations received there are some considerations in the literature of involuntary loss by nonprofit organizations, from 1991 to 2015, across 18 categories such as with homelessness (Hill and Stamey 1990), illness (Wong of charities (e.g., social services, children & youth, health, public and King 2008), or death (Bonsu and Belk 2003). What is the rela- affairs, international, arts & culture, education, and environment tionship between loss and charitable giving? The present research & animal welfare). Rather, we find that three interrelated types of examines the traumatic experiences of loved ones’ sudden loss. public discourse played a role in the rise of donations received by More specifically, we examine the experience of deceased family nonprofit organizations in the US: consumer opinions of pressing (DDF) members who participate in charitable giving by donating societal problems, earned media by nonprofit organizations, and ad- their loved one’s organs to others in need. More specifically, our vertisements by non-profit organizations in high-circulation news research examines how experiences of charitable giving may serve media outlets. For instance, we find a significant correlation between as a means of coping when individuals are faced with loss. pressing societal problems in the mind of consumers and donations The relationship between the marketplace and coping find that received by organizations focused on those issues in 1991-1999. In the market may be both a source of and a relief from stress. For addition, over time we find that consistently nonprofits in the social example, scholars examine how consumers cope with stress in the services and college education categories have received combined marketplace, such as with unsatisfactory experiences (Duhachek the highest amounts of earned media and advertised across high- 2005), brand termination (Russell and Schau 2015), difficult deci- circulation news media. sions (Luce, Bettman, and Payne 1997), or bias (Bone, Christensen, Our research provides two key contributions. First, we expand and Williams 2014). Further, scholars find consumers employ the the literatures on prosocial behavior and value by providing evidence marketplace as a means of coping to manage life transitions, such of public discourse-driven charitable behavior and their resulting hi- as divorce (Yap & Kapitan, 2017), or relieve temporary stress, as erarchies of value (e.g., pressing societal issues, charitable causes, through retail therapy (Atalay & Meloy, 2011; Townsend & Sood and non-profit organizations). In doing so, we extend the types of 2012). It is evident the marketplace provides opportunities for con- antecedents and consequences of prosocial behavior examined thus sumers to cope with life stressors. While prior research considers far in consumer research. Second, we contextualize patterns of indi- common life stressors and roles for the marketplace in consumer vidual charitable behavior and embed them in macro historical con- coping, the present research examines sociocultural influences texts, thus addressing calls for contextualization of micro consumer to explain how individuals employ the marketplace to cope with behavior (Askegaard and Linnet 2011). trauma. We conduct an ethnographic study with deceased organ donor family members to interrogate experiences of involuntary loss. We find three themes: transforming loss into gifts of comfort; crafting 1120 / Reimagining Pro-Social Behaviors through Micro-, Meso-, and Macro-Level Perspectives of Charitable Giving new futures from loss; and, the marketplace and the sacred. De- service providers and politicians, and systematically collected and ceased donor families contemplate the life of their loved one, and the analyzed articles on the topic published in four leading daily news- potential of some part of the body living even as the essence of their papers. We rely on prolonged engagement, purposive sampling, and loved one is dead. For those families, sacralization is evident as they thick description to address the issue of trustworthiness (Belk, Fisch- recognize continuity of life through a loved one: er, and Kozinets 2013). Our initial findings suggest that surrogates construe their mar- Good, really positive that something good comes out of something ket participation as two forms of kin altruism (Ashton et al. 1998; so tragic, it doesn’t seem a waste. In some way it’s better than if Lee, Winterich, and Ross Jr 2014; Small and Simonsohn 2008) someone just dies, they’re cremated or buried and that’s it. He’s still downplaying the pecuniary aspects related to it. Kin altruism refers out there, part of him is still out there. When you’ve come from the to the “tendency to feel empathy and attachment toward others. This family that we have, we’ve all worked helping other people in our is based on the deduction that one is more likely to behave altruisti- lives, it’s a natural thing to do to, go on a do it when you’re dead. cally toward one’s kin if one considers costs and benefits to those Totally unselfish. ~ Jade kin, and not only costs and benefits to oneself, when deciding among behavioral alternatives” (Ashton et al. 1998). On one hand, surro- Deceased donor family members begin to consider parts of the gates adopt a discourse that invokes existing and popular sociocul- body and how body parts may provide life to others. In so doing, tural and religious symbols, which aims to remove social-cultural the body itself is recognized as sacred as a whole as well as each of differences between them and non-surrogates in India. For instance, its parts due to its life-giving forces. We extend prior understand- several participants equate themselves with Yashoda, a foster mother ings of consumer coping with an explanation of how charitable of mythological Hindu God Lord Krishna. In doing so, they empha- giving facilitates the transformation of loss from that of suffering size the responsibility put on them by their divinity to help the needy into new futures. and deficient. On the other hand, surrogates create kin-like connections with the commissioning mothers, often with the aid of market- A Divine Duty: Commercial Surrogacy in India and Kin place intermediaries such as health clinics and for-profit agencies. Altruism By adopting empathetic and deep sisterhood connections, surrogates aim to remedy the deficiencies (i.e., infertility) of commissioning EXTENDED ABSTRACT mothers, which enable them to justify and manage their own bodily, The emergence and global expansion of Assisted Reproduc- social, and cultural sacrifices. Through these discursive constructive Technologies (ART) continues to challenge deeply held values tions, commercial surrogates attempt to challenge and to rectify the and beliefs regarding reproduction, parenthood and family across increasingly disdainful societal attitudes toward gestational carriers the world (Sobande, Mimoun, and Trujillo Torres 2019; Takhar and and influence policymakers. Rika Houston 2019). While certain types of ART such as in vitro Our work contributes to understanding how constructions of fertilization have become more accepted(Fischer, Otnes, and Tuncay altruism are used to justify the participation in a market exchange 2007), commercial surrogacy remains a highly controversial (Tada- process in dramatically under-researched context (Belk 2016; Tada- jewski 2016), and regulated practice characterized by perceptions of jewski 2016), which is characterized by vastly different sociocul- exploitative commodification and (dis)empowerment of gestational tural, economic, political, and legal values and systems than the carriers (Fenton-Glynn 2019). This industry, now estimated at 6 bil- typical free market contexts seen in the literature. Furthermore, our lion dollars (USD), is subject to moral, ethical, legal, and political work addresses the justification of actors engaging in an increasingly debates, especially in countries with large numbers of socioeconomi- regulated and stigmatized market exchange, while most of the prior cally vulnerable women (Varman et al., 2016). literature considers market actors’ practices in contexts which are In public discourse surrounding international reproductive tour- destigmatizing (e.g., Sandikçi and Ger 2010; Scaraboto and Fischer, ism, commercial surrogacy is often construed as dirty work (Pande 2013). By doing so, our work highlights how market participation in 2010) and surrogates are derided and silenced for participating in stigmatized market exchange is emphasized as a prosocial behavior this exchange process. Moreover, commercial surrogates operate helping deficient consumers. This work also broadens the growing as commodified consumers and stigmatized producers in a market literature on assisted reproductive technologies markets by show- system where the exchange boundaries between these two roles are ing how constructions of charitable giving intersects with the emer- blurred. That is, they consume conventional health services and act gence, growth, and eventual decline of an international biotechnol- as value-producing actors within socio-cultural contexts that harbor ogy market. negative attitudes towards surrogate’s participation. Because commercial surrogacy, especially in an emerging market context like When Pro-social and Market Logics Collide: the India, is conceived as a stigmatized exchange, market actors cannot Sensemaking Journeys of Egg Donors in the American rely on mainstream discourses to legitimize their participation in this exchange. Particularly, in the Indian context, the public discourse Infertility Field associated with gestational surrogacy is increasingly influenced by EXTENDED ABSTRACT ongoing regulatory actions to ban surrogacy and curb the growth of In fields characterized by institutional complexity, where mul- this industry. Thus, our project investigates how surrogates, as con- tiple and often contradictory logics are at play, the prescriptions and sumers and co-producers, construct and justify their participation in proscriptions of differing logics can lead to tensions in the market- an increasingly regulated and stigmatized exchange process. place (e.g., Ertimur and Coskuner-Balli 2015; Scaraboto and Fischer To address our research question, we conducted an examina- 2013) . These tensions are likely to be particularly acute in contexts tion of gestational surrogate women in the heart of the international, characterized by both market and pro-social logics (e.g., Beverland commercial surrogacy industry in Gujarat, India. Data were collect- and Luxton 2005; Hartman and Coslor 2019). While considerable ed primarily through nineteen in-depth interviews with commercial research has studied how formal organizations such as social en- surrogates and their families over a period of eighteen months. To terprises navigate competing market and prosocial logics (e.g., Jay triangulate this initial dataset, we also interviewed eight local health Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1121

2013; McMullen and Bergman 2017) less research has examined done this? How could you have given your babies away?’ But they how individual actors who are not members of formal organizations weren’t babies, you know. It wasn’t like I was putting them up for manage the multiple logics that confront them as they interact with adoption, these weren’t mine. These were just things that we pro- other market actors and engage in exchanges. duce each month.” Another stated. “It was like having an old piece In this study, we examine a particular category of actors who of furniture in your house that you don’t need and somebody said, engage in exchanges in a context characterized by competing pro- ‘Hey, I’ll give you $8,000 for it.’ I was planning on getting rid of it social and market logics: we study women who sell their ova or eggs anyway.” This market-logic influenced way of making sense of their to buyers in the U.S. infertility industry. We do so to understand how own egg donation was compounded for those who became “known they make sense of their role in the marketplace, and how their sen- donors,” a term used to describe those whose previously donated semaking influences their actions. This paper thus contributes to a eggs had reliably resulted in the birth of healthy babies. These indi- better understanding of the implications of logic multiplicity in gen- viduals could command higher compensation levels; choosing to do eral, and of conflicting pro-social and market logics in particular. so would be difficult to reconcile with a pro-social logic. Since the mid 1980’s, the demand for donated human eggs has Our data analysis suggests, however, that not all egg donors steadily increased as a solution to certain types of infertility diagno- came to rely purely on market logics to rationalize their behaviors. ses. Egg donors are usually young, college-aged women recruited by In particular, those donors who exerted their agency to connect with market intermediaries (donor egg agencies) or fertility clinics to be the recipients who purchased their eggs, and particularly with their matched with potential recipients. Historically, donors would work biological offspring, often tended to circle back to a reliance on both directly with matched recipients to provide eggs through a fresh pro-social and market logics to make sense of their past behaviors cycle and embryo transfer to the recipient. More recently, due to in- and plan their future actions. As a tentative theoretical insight, we novations in Assisted Reproduction Technologies (ART), donors can posit that when actors can engage in meaningful social relations in also provide eggs without a matched intended recipient, where eggs contexts of the type described here, they are more likely to find pro- are retrieved for frozen egg banking to be used at a later time. While social logics and market logics similarly salient. In contrast, those there is no data available on how many women have donated their whose exchanges commence and remain anonymous are less likely eggs, nor how many cycles have been performed on donors, we do to draw on pro-social logics to rationalize their actions and more apt know that in 2016, 24,300 ART cycles were performed for recipients to rely solely on market logics for sensemaking. using donor eggs (CDC, 2018). 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Scaraboto, Daiane and Eileen Fischer (2013), “Frustrated Takhar, Jennifer and H Rika Houston (2019), “Forty Years of Fatshionistas: An Institutional Theory Perspective on Assisted Reproductive Technologies (Arts): The Evolution of a Consumer Quests for Greater Choice in Mainstream Markets,” Marketplace Icon,” Consumption Markets & Culture, 1-11. Journal of Consumer Research, 39 (6), 1234-57. Thompson, Craig J (1997), “Interpreting Consumers: A Shang, Jen, Americus Reed, and Rachel Croson (2008), “Identity Hermeneutical Framework for Deriving Marketing Insights Congruency Effects on Donations,”Journal of Marketing from the Texts of Consumers’ Consumption Stories,” Journal Research, 45 (3), 351-61. of Marketing Research, 34 (4), 438-55. Sherry, John F., Jr. (1983), “Gift Giving in Anthropological Titmuss, Richard M. (1997), The Gift Relationship: From Human Perspective,” Journal of Consumer Research, 10 (2), 157-68. Blood to Social Policy, New York: The New Press. Small, Deborah A and Cynthia Cryder (2016), “Prosocial Consumer Twenge, Jean M, Roy F Baumeister, C Nathan DeWall, Natalie J Behavior,” Current Opinion in Psychology, 10, 107-11. Ciarocco, and J Michael Bartels (2007), “Social Exclusion Small, Deborah A and Uri Simonsohn (2008), “Friends of Victims: Decreases Prosocial Behavior,” Journal of personality and Personal Experience and Prosocial Behavior,” Journal of social psychology, 92 (1), 56. Consumer Research, 35 (3), 532-42. van Dijk, Mathilde, Hester Van Herk, and Remco Prins (2019), Sobande, Francesca, Laetitia Mimoun, and Lez Trujillo Torres “Choosing Your Charity: The Importance of Value Congruence (2019), “Soldiers and Superheroes Needed! Masculine in Two-Stage Donation Choices,” Journal of Business Archetypes and Constrained Bodily Commodification Research, 105, 283-92. in the Sperm Donation Market,” Marketing Theory, White, Katherine, Rishad Habib, and Darren W Dahl (2020), “A 1470593119847250. Review and Framework for Thinking About the Drivers of Strathern, Marilyn (2012), “Gifts Money Cannot Buy,” Social Prosocial Consumer Behavior,” Journal of the Association for Anthropology, 20 (4), 397-410. Consumer Research, 5 (1), 000-00. Tadajewski, Mark (2016), “Relevance, Responsibility, Critical White, Katherine and John Peloza (2009), “Self-Benefit Versus Performativity, Testimony and Positive Marketing: Other-Benefit Marketing Appeals: Their Effectiveness in Contributing to Marketing Theory, Thought and Practice,” Generating Charitable Support,” Journal of Marketing, 73 (4), Journal of marketing management, 32 (17-18), 1513-36. 109-24. Carrots over Candy: A Multi-Method Examination of the Social Factors That Affect Healthy Food Choices Chairs: Janina Steinmetz, City University of London, UK Rima Touré-Tillery, Northwestern University, USA Blake DiCosola, Oxford University, UK

Paper #1: Feeling Judged? The Presence of Outgroup Members The third and fourth paper look at consumers’ active role in Promotes Virtuous Choices shaping the social environments of their food choices. In more de- Rima Touré-Tillery, Northwestern University, USA tail, the third paper argues that consumers encourage others to match Janina Steinmetz, City University of London, UK their consumption behavior when making indulgent (vs. healthy) Blake DiCosola, Oxford University, UK choices to justify their own indulgence. Consumers feel worse about indulging when their social environment eats healthily. Therefore, Paper #2: Conspicuous Self-Control: When Status Motives consumers try to influence others to indulge so they can, too. The Lead Consumers to Signal Restraint fourth paper investigates consumers’ beliefs about being influenced Aziza Caimile Jones, Rutgers University, USA by their social environment to make healthy choices. Consumers ap- Kristina Durante, Rutgers University, USA prove of others trying to influence their food choices by nudging, but Aparna A Labroo, Northwestern University, USA only when the nudges are perceived to be effective at aiding healthier Paper #3: Have Your Cake and Make Her Eat It too: Influencing choices. Thus, consumers endorse social influence when they believe One’s Social Influence to Justify Indulgence that it helps them to eat healthily. Stephanie Lin, INSEAD, Singapore Taken together, we show that consumers take an active role in Christian Wheeler, Stanford University, USA influencing others’ impression of them based on their food choices, Sherrie Ying Ying Ying Xue, Singapore Management influence others based on their desires, and approve of being influ- University, Singapore enced if it helps their healthy eating. These behaviors are based on Paper #4: Effectiveness and Acceptance of Healthy Eating consumers’ beliefs about healthy choices being desirable but diffi- Nudges cult to make without a little help from others. These findings have Romain Cadario, Rotterdam School of Management | Erasmus important theoretical implications for research on social influences University, The Netherlands and food choices, as well as practical implications for marketer and Pierre Chandon, INSEAD, France public policy makers.

SESSION OVERVIEW Feeling Judged? The Presence of Outgroup Members An increasing share of the population in industrialized countries Promotes Virtuous Choices is obese, with severe public health consequences. Although consumers generally have the goal to eat healthily, they often struggle to EXTENDED ABSTRACT follow through (Hofmann et al. 2012). Helping consumers to make Consumers routinely choose between products of virtue (e.g., healthier food choices is thus an important avenue for marketing re- healthy food) and those of vice (e.g., indulgent food). These choices search to ultimately foster consumer well-being. take place not in a social vacuum, but often in the presence of ob- This special session examines how consumers navigate the so- servers, for example in supermarkets or cafeterias. Whereas much cial influence that other people exert on their food choices and what research has shown that consumers choose virtue over vice in the beliefs underlie their behavior. We use a multi-method approach presence of observers compared to when alone (e.g., Griskevicius, to investigate which social situations aid versus hinder consumers’ Tybur and van den Bergh 2010), what is not yet known is whether healthy choices, and how consumers think about social influence characteristics of the observers affect consumers’ choices. on their food choices. Thereby, we add to the understanding of con- Social diversity is increasing in neighborhoods, schools, and sumption not only as need satisfaction, but also as a way to seek workplaces (Putnam 2007). As a consequence, consumers regularly recognition and belonging (Berger and Rand 2008). encounter outgroup others who belong to different social groups The first and second paper highlight that consumers use healthy (e.g., ethnic, academic, or professional outgroups). In such instances, food choices to manage the impression that others have of them. Spe- consumers might fear negative judgment, because they themselves cifically, the first paper shows that consumers make healthier food judge outgroup members more negatively than ingroup members choices in the presence of outgroup (vs. ingroup) others. This effect (Brewer 1979). As consumption not only fulfills personal needs for holds across a variety of outgroups (e.g., racial, professional, or aca- specific products, but also social needs for recognition and accep- demic outgroups). Consumers anticipate that outgroups others judge tance (Berger and Heath 2007), consumers might choose products to them more negatively than ingroup others, and they use healthy food alleviate the negative judgments they expect from outgroup observ- choices to counter these anticipated negative judgments, as healthy ers. eating is believed to be a generally praiseworthy behavior (Stein and In this research, we investigate whether the presence of an in- Nemeroff 1995). The second paper tests whether consumers believe group vs. outgroup observer influences consumer choices of virtu- that they can use healthy food choices as a means to signal social sta- ous versus indulgent foods. We predict that consumers will make tus to others. Because restraint is associated with many positive life healthier choices in the presence of outgroup (vs. ingroup) others, outcomes, restraint itself might signal status. Consumers who chroni- mediated by the anticipation of being judged negatively by out- cally or situationally desire high social status make healthier food group members. In seven studies, we showed the effect of observ- choices, due to the belief that high status entails exerting restraint. ers’ group-membership on choice virtuousness using various types of group memberships (race/ethnicity, school- and work-affiliation),

Advances in Consumer Research 1124 Volume 48, ©2020 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1125 food choices, and participant populations (university-students and ities in a state (our proxy for the presence of outgroup observers) and general-adult populations). the relative number of Google searches for pretested healthy versus Study 1 tested the causal link between an observer’s group unhealthy foods in that state (our proxy for food choices). We found membership and participants’ food choices. Three hundred thirty-six a significant interaction of food type × percentage of minorities (b = participants were approached by a black or a white research assistant 15.63 (6.85), t(49) = 2.28, p = .027). As expected, as the percentage (RA) to complete a filler survey. Afterwards, participants chose be- of minorities in that state increased, the relative number of searches tween an indulgent KitKat bar and a healthier fruit snack (our depen- for healthy food (vs. unhealthy food) also increased. dent measure). We coded as ingroup (vs. outgroup) any responses Our finding that observer group-memberships affects consum- for which the RA and the participant were of the same (vs. different) ers’ indulgent vs. healthy choices has several implications. On a race. A greater proportion of participants in the outgroup condition theoretical level, research has not yet shown that people use food chose the healthier raisins (44.16%) than in the ingroup condition choices to influence others’ perceptions. This finding is important be- (29.41%; b = .64 (.33), z = 1.94, p = .053. cause it highlights that the social environment impacts food choices Studies 2 and 3 replicated the effect of observer group-member- in more complex ways than previously thought. On a practical level, ship on food choice for another type of group membership: univer- marketers should consider the diversity of the environment in which sity affiliation. In Study 2, 180 student participants were approached they market healthy vs. unhealthy products. Thus, social diversity by an RA dressed either in their university’s t-shirt and cap (ingroup matters when marketing products and segmenting consumers. condition) or in another local university’s t-shirt and cap (outgroup condition) to complete a filler survey. Afterwards, participants chose Conspicuous Self-Control: When Status Motives Lead between indulgent M&Ms and healthier raisins (our dependent mea- Consumers to Signal Restraint sure). A greater proportion of participants in the outgroup condition chose the healthier raisins (31.25%) than in the ingroup condition EXTENDED ABSTRACT (12.16%; b = 1.19 (.45), z = 2.66, p = .008. In Study 3, 154 student Extant research suggests that status signaling motivations lead participants completed an online study they believed originated from consumers to behave indulgently. They are more willing to purchase their own university (ingroup) or a foreign university (outgroup). conspicuous luxury products over less expensive options to convey For our dependent measure, participants chose between a health- wealth and signal high status (Rucker and Galinsky 2008). We posit minded vs. an indulgent restaurant gift-card. A greater proportion of that when consumers are unable to convey wealth, they respond to participants in the outgroup condition (80.77%) chose the healthier status signaling desires by attempting to convey self-control because restaurant than in the ingroup condition (65.79%; b = .78 (.38), z = of the need to appear goal-oriented. Goal-oriented individuals are 2.08, p = .037. more likely to succeed in school and in their careers (Locke and Study 4 tested the role of expected interpersonal-judgment in Latham 2006), both of which can lead to high status. Self-control the effect of observer group-membership on food choice. Using a may indicate that a consumer is goal-oriented because it involves causal-chain mediation, two separate studies examined this proposed sacrificing an immediate desire for a long-term result. Thus, status psychological process (expected interpersonal-judgment) as both an signaling consumers may attempt to conspicuously engage in self- effect of the independent variable (observer group-membership) control as a way to signal that they are highly goal-oriented, and and as a predictor of the dependent variable (food choice). In Study ultimately high status. 4a, 206 participants imagined making an indulgent food choice in Six studies examined whether consumers display self-control the presence of an ingroup (vs. outgroup) observer, and indicated to signal high status because such behaviors signal that they are their expected interpersonal-judgment from this person. Participants goal-oriented. In studies 1-4, we held the product prices constant expected the outgroup member would judge them more negatively in all the choices that participants made. We conducted Study 1 in a (M = 4.87, SD = 2.03) than the ingroup member (M = 5.52, SD = low-income area of a large metropolitan city. Two experimenters ap- 1.87, t(204) = 2.39, p = .018). In Study 4b, 192 participants imag- proached individuals in public and gave each participant one of two ined choosing between indulgent and healthy food options in the flyers, one that stimulated a status-signaling motivation or one that presence of an observer (with unspecified group membership), and did not. After reading the flyer, participants chose between receiv- indicated their expected interpersonal-judgment from this person, as ing a self-control signaling product (banana) or a different product well as their food choice. The more harshly participants expected (M&Ms). Status signaling motives (vs. control) led participants to the observer to judge them, the more likely they were to choose the select the banana (i.e., the self-control product; p = .04). healthier option, β = .235, SE = 0.113, t(197) = 2.076, p = .039. Study 2 replicated the effect in a controlled environment. We Study 5 tested the moderating roles of internal-attribution ten- randomly assigned participants to a status signaling or control con- dencies. Three hundred twenty-three student participants completed dition. After the status manipulation, they imagined that they were an online survey they believed originated from their own university with two other people while at home and had the choice between (ingroup) or another local university (outgroup). Participants indi- sharing a self-control related video (self-control signaling product) cated their preference for healthy and indulgent subscription food- or an enjoyable video. Status motives (vs. control) led consumers to clubs, and their general tendency to make internal attributions for select the self-control video (p < .01). their own actions using Touré-Tillery and Light’s (2018) self-diag- If status signaling motives lead consumers to conspicuously nosticity scale. We found a significant interaction of observer group- choose products that signal self-control, then consumers should membership × internal-attribution tendency × food type (F(1, 298) attempt to make such products observable to others (Sundie et al. = 4.76, p = .030). As we expected, internal-attribution tendencies 2011). Study 3 examined this by employing a 3 (status signaling moderated the effect of observer group-membership on food choice motivation: high, low, vs. control) × 2 (self-control signaling prod- such that it replicated at lower—but not at higher—levels of internal- uct: yes vs. no) between-subjects design in which preference for a attribution tendencies. transparent versus an opaque container was our dependent variable In Study 6, we used (US) state-level search data from Google of interest. We primed participants with either a high, low, or con- Trends to examine the relationship between the percentage of minor- trol (no prime) desire to signal status and randomly assigned par- 1126 / Carrots over Candy: A Multi-Method Examination of the Social Factors That Affect Healthy Food Choices ticipants to a healthy meal (i.e., self-control signaling product) or an to indulge more when others are indulging (Burger et al. 2010; Her- unhealthy meal condition. Participants imagined that they were with man, Roth, and Polivy 2003; Prentice and Miller 1993), and feel less a group of people and were purchasing lunch from a local restaurant guilty if another person engages in small indulges with them than if that served healthy (i.e., self-control signaling product) or unhealthy they indulge and the other person abstains (Lowe and Haws 2014). meals. They picked between 2 containers for their meals – one that If others’ bad behavior makes people feel better about their own was transparent or another that was opaque. The analysis revealed transgressions, might people manipulate those norms directly? We only a significant interaction (p = .04). Status signaling participants hypothesize that people encourage others to match their consump- preferred the transparent container more for a healthy, self-control tion behavior when they indulge (vs. not indulge) in order to justify signaling meal compared to an unhealthy meal (p = .009), an effect their indulgence. not found in the other two conditions. In study 1a, participants (100 MTurk) rated how fun and indul- Study 4 sought to examine whether a desire to signal that one gent 40 activities were (e.g. eating a slice of cake, buying grocer- is goal-oriented mediated the effect. We randomly assigned partici- ies) and how justified they would feel doing those activities alone pants to a status signaling or control condition. After completing and with a friend. People felt more justified doing indulgent activi- the manipulation, they imagined shopping with several people and ties with friends than alone, and this difference increased with rat- indicated their preference between receiving a self-control applica- ings of indulgence t(3996)=16.45, p<.001. In study 1b, participants tion or a gaming application. They also reported their need to signal (100 MTurk) rated how fun and indulgent the same activities were, that they were goal-oriented. Status signaling participants were more and how likely they were to encourage their friends to do those ac- likely to select the self-control application (p < .05). Desire to signal tivities with them. Indulgence predicted encouragement of friends that they were goal-oriented mediated the effect. to match their behavior, controlling for how fun the activity was, While the previous studies held the product prices constant, t(3980)=9.33, p<.001. Study 5 aimed to show that the effect weakens when consumers Study 2 tested whether people are more likely to encourage oth- choose between products that vary largely in price, and therefore, ers to match their indulgent (vs. non-indulgent) behavior to justify allow the consumer to signal wealth instead of self-control. We ran- their behavior. Participants (295 MTurk) imagined that they ordered domly assigned participants to a status signaling or control condi- a beer or lemonade with lunch, and that their friend asked what they tion. After completing the manipulation, they imagined shopping should order. Participants indicated their recommendation and how with several people and indicated their preference between purchas- justified they would feel if their friend ordered beer and how justi- ing a tablet with preloaded self-control applications or a tablet with fied they would feel if their friend ordered lemonade. Participants preloaded games. We told half the participants that both tablets cost encouraged their friend to match their consumption more when they $150. We told the rest of the participants that the gaming tablet cost ordered beer than lemonade, t(192)=–6.99, p<.001. This was not $350 and the self-control tablet cost $150. The results revealed a sig- driven by participants always encouraging beer; those in the beer nificant interaction (p < .001) in which status signaling participants condition encourage beer more than those in the lemonade condi- were more likely to select the self-control tablet, but only when it tion, t(192)=4.39, p<.001. (Across studies, matching and indulgence was equal price with the games tablet. are examined separately when relevant; we expect both more match- Study 6 aimed to demonstrate that even in situations where ing and more indulgence encouragement in the indulgence vs. non- status signaling consumers are tempted to purchase more expensive indulgence conditions). Mediation indicated that people encouraged products over less expensive options, they can be motivated to pur- matching more for beer than lemonade because they anticipated chase the less expensive option if they remember that saving behav- matching to make them feel more justified when drinking beer (vs. ior is a signal of self-control. We randomly assigned participants to a lemonade), CI95[-.21, -.02]. status signaling or control condition. After completing the manipula- Study 3a tested the underlying reason for this anticipated jus- tion, they imagined shopping with several people and indicated their tification. Female participants (N=200 MTurk) imagined ordering preference between purchasing one of two cell phones. One phone either cake or fruit salad, and indicated what they would encourage was $200 more than the other. We reminded half the participants that their friend to order. They responded to mediator items representing saving behavior signals self-control. The results revealed a signifi- three proposed mechanisms: (1) having a partner-in-crime (e.g., “If cant interaction (p < .05) in which status signaling participants were my friend followed my recommendation…I would feel more justi- more likely to select the less expensive phone, but only when we fied because at least we would both be engaging in equally bad be- reminded them that saving behavior signals self-control. havior,” (2) lowering perceived consequences (e.g., “…I would feel Our findings suggest that status-signaling motives can enhance like my choice was less ‘bad’ or ‘wrong’,”), and (3) changing the preferences for products associated with self-control because con- situational norm (e.g., “…it would feel like I made my choice for a sumers equate high status with a strong goal orientation. From a prac- celebration”). Those who chose cake recommended that their friend tical perspective, our findings suggest that marketers can encourage match their behavior more than those who chose fruit, t(192)=-5.33, consumers who desire to signal status to engage in self-control and p<.001 (and recommended cake more, t(192)=–4.39, p<.001). Only purchase self-control related products. the partner-in-crime measure mediated the effect, CI95[.022, .530]. Study 3b manipulated whether ordering cake was justified or not: Have your cake and make her eat it too: Influencing cake either exceeded (unjustified) or was within (justified) their alone’s social influence to justify indulgence lotted “diet points.” Participants (N=200 female MTurk) who had unjustifiably (vs. justifiably) ordered cake were more likely to en- EXTENDED ABSTRACT courage that their friend match their behavior by ordering cake, Because indulging violates personal standards of behavior t(197)=6.01, p<.001. Both partner-in-crime (CI95[.001, .244]) and (Dahl, Honea, & Manchanda, 2003), people have a variety of ways situational norms (CI95[.059, .417]) mediated this effect. to justify their actions (Khan and Dhar 2006; Kivetz and Zheng Study 4 explored the role of gender in the lab. Same-gendered 2006; Xu and Schwarz 2009). One way to justify one’s transgres- friend dyads were directed to two separate rooms, each containing sions is by comparing one’s behavior to others’. People are likely a face-down playing card (one red, one black, randomly assigned). Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1127

The experimenter explained that if the card was red, they would eat ers’ welfare “as judged by consumers themselves » (Sunstein 2018), a Snickers bar (indulgence), and if it was black, they would eat sal- this assumption is rarely tested. Certainly, it seems cavalier to as- tine crackers (non-indulgence). Participants privately checked their sume that consumers will welcome any nudge, especially those that card. The experimenter then said she “forgot” to choose a card for restrain their perceived sense of agency. the other participant, and asked participants to choose a card for Therefore, the goal of this study is to help decision makers their friend from a box. The box contained eight face-down cards select the best healthy eating nudge by measuring consumers’ per- and two face-up cards (one red, one black). Participants chose a ceptions—including their acceptance—of the seven types of nudges card matching their own more when they were assigned to indulge identified in the literature. In a second step, these perceptions are (B=.38, SE=.15, p=.012), with no gender interaction. When examin- compared to the actual effectiveness of the same nudges reported in ing choice of indulgence, a pre-registered gender by snack interac- Cadario and Chandon (2019). tion emerged, B=.29, SE=.15, p=.052. Women were marginally more likely to choose indulgence when they were assigned to indulge than Methods not, B=.32, SE=.19, p=.085; men did not show this difference, B=– We surveyed 118 American citizens about their acceptance of .25, SE=.22, p=.27. different types of healthy eating nudges. To investigate the drivers Study 5 tested whether people indulge more when they can first of their acceptance, we asked them about their perceptions of the ef- facilitate indulgence in others. Participants (150 female students) fectiveness of each nudge and of the beneficiaries of the nudge (good expected to be assigned to snack or not while watching a video. In for health, good for business, or both). Participants were presented, the “self-only” condition the participant served herself mini peanut in random order, the scenarios for seven healthy eating nudges. butter cups from a large bowl. In the “both” condition, the participant We asked participants to answer two questions: “Do you ap- was also asked to serve another participant, ostensibly in another prove or disapprove of the following policy?” (Approve/disapprove) room. As expected, those in the “both” condition served themselves and “Do you think that this policy will make people eat better?” (Yes more than those in the “self-only” condition, t(103)=3.00, p=.003. it will/No it will not). Then, we compared these perceptions to the To ensure that participants in the “both” condition were not being average effect sizes about these seven nudges reported in Cadario generous and subsequently anchoring their own serving on a larger and Chandon (2019). amount, there was also an “other-only” condition in which participants served only another participant (ostensibly because the stimuli Results were in the wrong room). They unexpectedly served the other partic- The actual effectiveness of these seven nudges was inversely ipant more in the “other-only” condition than they did in the “both” related to their mean approval rating (r=-.57) as well as to their per- condition, t(100)=3.45, p<.001. This suggests that people were not ceived effectiveness (r=-.49). For example, only 43% of respondents simply anchoring on a generous amount in the “both” condition, as approved the most effective intervention – portion and package size they were even more generous in the “other only” condition. reductions. Thus, consumers play a role in shaping their social contexts To examine the drivers of nudge approval, we regressed ap- when they wish to justify their own indulgence. This contributes to proval on the effectiveness of the nudge (the standardized mean dif- research on social influence, dyadic consumption, and justification ference reported in the meta-analysis), its perceived effectiveness, literatures, while having marketing implications (e.g., when to offer two binary variables capturing the effects of the perceived benefi- “bring a friend” deals vs. BOGO deals). ciary of the nudge, and the individual characteristics. First, we found that approval was positively associated with Effectiveness and Acceptance of Healthy Eating Nudges perceived effectiveness, as one would expect, but negatively associated with actual effectiveness. Second, we found that interventions EXTENDED ABSTRACT perceived as a “win-win” for business and health had higher approv- A growing number of governments, food producers and retail- al than interventions perceived as benefiting either health or busi- ers, are considering implementing nudges promoting healthier eat- ness, and that there were no differences in approval between each of ing. A nudge can be defined as “any aspect of the choice architecture these respectively that alters people’s behavior in a predictable way (1) without forbid- ding any options, or (2) significantly changing their economic incen- Discussion tives. Putting fruit at eye level counts as a nudge; banning junk food The average approval rate of the seven healthy eating nudges does not” (Thaler and Sunstein 2008). was only 56%, a lower rate than we would expect based on prior Not all healthy eating nudges are equal. A recent meta-analysis results suggesting that the United States is a “pro-nudge” country (Cadario and Chandon 2019) found that their effectiveness increases (Sunstein et al. 2017). More importantly, there were large variations as their focus shifts from influencing what people know (cognitive in approval across nudges. Consistent with prior research, there was nudges), how they feel (affective nudges), or what they do (behavior higher approval for deliberative (“system 2”) than for automatic nudges). This study further distinguishes between two or three sub- (“system 1”) nudges (Felsen et al. 2013; Jung and Mellers 2016). types of nudges for each category, leading to seven types of nudges. Nudges with the highest approval (85%) were those that simply in- Cognitive nudges include “descriptive nutritional labeling,” “evalu- form consumers, such as descriptive nutrition labels. The addition of ative nutritional labeling,” and “visibility enhancements”. Affective interpretive symbols (such as color-coding) to shift from description nudges consist of “healthy eating calls” and “hedonic enhance- to prescription reduced approval levels from 85% to 76%. ments”. Behavioral nudges include “convenience enhancements” Our results extend this research by showing that the most effec- and “size enhancements.” tive healthy eating nudges receive significantly lower approval than Selecting the optimal healthy eating nudge is not just a ques- the rest. The average approval rate of the two most effective nudges, tion of selecting the most effective one. Governments and companies convenience enhancements and portion and package size reductions, must also consider whether these nudges are likely to be accepted by was 43%, indicating that when asked to choose between healthy eat- consumers. Although all nudges are supposed to improve consuming nudges, there is a tradeoff between approval and effectiveness. 1128 / Carrots over Candy: A Multi-Method Examination of the Social Factors That Affect Healthy Food Choices

What, then, drives the approval of healthy eating nudges? Our Kivetz, Ran and Yuhuang Zheng (2006), “Determinants of analyses rule out that people simply reject nudges that they deem Justification and Self-Control,”Journal of Experimental to be the most effective – for example because they do not want Psychology: General, 135(4), 572–87. to be influenced. In fact, approval ratings increased with perceived Locke, Edwin A., and Gary P. Latham (2006), “New Directions in effectiveness. This suggests that the problem is not that people dis- Goal-Setting Theory,” Current Directions in Psychological like being nudged but that they are poor judges of which nudges are Science, 15 (5), 265-68. effective. Lowe, Michael L. and Kelly L. Haws (2014), “(Im)Moral Support: The Social Outcomes of Parallel Self-Control Decisions,” REFERENCES Journal of Consumer Research, 41(2), 489–505. Berger, Jonah, and Chip Heath (2007), “Where consumers diverge Prentice, Deborah A. and Dale T. Miller (1993), “Pluralistic from others: Identity signaling and product domains,” Journal Ignorance and Alcohol Use on Campus: Some Consequences of Consumer Research, 34(2), 121-134. of Misperceiving the Social Norm,” Journal of Personality Berger, Jonah, and Lindsay Rand. 2008. “Shifting Signals to Help and Social Psychology, 64(2), 243–56. Health: Using Identity Signaling to Reduce Risky Health Putnam, Robert D. (2007), “E pluribus unum: Diversity and Behaviors.” Journal of Consumer Research 35 (3): 509–18. community in the twenty‐first century the 2006 Johan Skytte Brewer, Marilynn B. (1979), “In-group bias in the minimal Prize Lecture,” Scandinavian Political Studies, 30(2), 137- intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis,” 174. Psychological Bulletin, 86(2), 307-324. Rucker, Derek D. and Adam D. Galinsky (2008), “Desire to Burger, Jerry M., Heather Bell, Kristen Harvey, Jessica Johnson, Acquire: Powerlessness and Compensatory Consumption,” Claire Stewart, Kelly Dorian, and Marni Swedroe (2010), Journal of Consumer Research, 35 (2), 257-67. “Nutritious or Delicious? The Effect of Descriptive Norm Stein, Richard I, and Carol J Nemeroff (1995), “Moral Overtones Information on Food Choice,” Journal of Social and Clinical of Food: Judgments of Others Based on What They Eat,” Psychology, 29(2), 228–42. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(5), 480–90. Cadario, Romain and Pierre Chandon (2019), “Which Healthy Sundie, Jill M., Douglas T. Kenrick, Vladas Griskevicius, Joshua Eating Nudges Work Best? A Meta-Analysis of Field M. Tybur, Kathleen D. Vohs, and Daniel J. Beal (2011), Experiments,” Marketing Science, in press. “Peacocks, Porsches, and Thorstein Veblen: Conspicuous Felsen, Gidon, Noah Castelo, and Peter B Reiner (2013), Consumption as a Sexual Signaling System,” Journal of “Decisional enhancement and autonomy: public attitudes Personality and Social Psychology, 100(4), 664-80. towards overt and covert nudges,” Judgment and Decision Sunstein, Cass R, Lucia A Reisch, and Julius Rauber (2017), Making, 8 (3), 202-13. “Behavioral insights all over the world? Public attitudes Griskevicius, Vladas, Joshua M. Tybur, and Bram Van den Bergh toward nudging in a multi-country study,” in Working Paper. (2010), “Going green to be seen: status, reputation, and Sunstein, Cass R. (2018), ““Better off, as judged by themselves”: conspicuous conservation,” Journal of Personality and Social a comment on evaluating nudges,” International Review of Psychology, 98(3), 392-404. Economics, 65(1), 1-8. Herman, C. Peter, Deborah A. Roth, and Janet Polivy (2003), Thaler, Richard H. and Cass R. Sunstein (2008), Nudge: Improving “Effects of the Presence of Others on Food Intake: A Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness. New York: Normative Interpretation,” Psychological Bulletin, 129(6), Penguin Books. 873–86. Touré-Tillery, Maferima, and Alysson E. Light (2018), “No self to Hofmann, Wilhelm, et al. (2012), “Everyday temptations: an spare: How the cognitive structure of the self influences moral experience sampling study of desire, conflict, and self- behavior,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision control,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Processes, 147, 48-64. 102(6), 1318-1335. Xu, Jing and Norbert Schwarz (2009), “Do We Really Need a Jung, Janice Y and Barbara A Mellers (2016), “American attitudes Reason to Indulge?,” Journal of Marketing Research, 46(1), toward nudges,” Judgment and Decision making, 11 (1), 62- 25–36. 74. Khan, Uzma and Ravi Dhar (2006), “Licensing Effect in Consumer Choice,” Journal of Marketing Research, 43(2), 259–66. Obstacles and Opportunities to Consumer Engagement in Medical Decision Making Chair: Mohamed A. Hussein, Stanford University, USA

Paper #1: Shopping in the Dark – Barriers to Determining the and Menon further investigate how self-diagnosis is influenced by Price of American Healthcare contextual cues and find that ambiguous symptoms are perceived to Peter A. Ubel, Duke University, USA be less diagnostic and weighted less. Lastly, Lieberman et al . take the perspective of policy mak- Paper #2: How Search Strategy Shapes Self-Diagnosis ers and examine ways to encourage consumers to complete medi- Mohamed A. Hussein, Stanford University, USA cal screening. In two large field experiments, the authors leverage Szu-chi Huang, Stanford University, USA financial incentives and deadlines to encourage preventive screening. Paper #3: Web Wizard or Internet Addict? How to Help Together these papers raise (and provide answers to) the follow- Consumers Assess Risk ing questions: Priya Raghubir, New York University Stern Business School, • What are some of the hurdles to consumers’ involvement USA in medical decision making (e.g., inability to estimate out- Geeta Menon, New York University Stern Business School, of-pocket expenses and susceptibility to contextual cues)? USA • What are the psychological drivers that lead consumers to I-Ling Ling, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan seek diagnosis (e.g., through self-diagnosing online and Paper #4: Testing the Role of Motivation and Procrastination in through taking a screening test), and what are the opportu- Colorectal Cancer Screening nities to encourage more accurate diagnoses? Alicea Lieberman, Rady School of Management - University This session provides timely insights into medical decision of California, San Diego, USA making, a critical topic given consumers’ increasing engagement Ayelet Gneezy, Rady School of Management - University of with medical decisions. This session echoes some of the confer- California, San Diego, USA ence’s themes, such as the use of multi-method approaches (e.g., fo- Emily Berry, Moncrief Cancer Institute - University of Texas cus groups, interviews, lab experiments, and field experiments) and Southwestern, USA understanding consumers’ interactions with technology (e.g., search Keith Argenbright, Moncrief Cancer Institute - University of engines) in the context of medical decision making. We believe that Texas Southwestern, USA this proposed session should be of interest to a broad audience of Samir Gupta, Department of Internal Medicine - University of scholars and practitioners working on healthcare and medical deci- California, San Diego, USA sions, technology, extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, and context effects. SESSION OVERVIEW Because of the rapid proliferation of medical information, con- Shopping in the Dark – Barriers to Determining the Price sumers are becoming more engaged in decisions about their health. of American Healthcare For example, consumers increasingly track their health-related behaviors (e.g., number of steps, calorie intake, sleep quality) through EXTENDED ABSTRACT wearable devices (e.g., Fitbits); go online to diagnose themselves and The United States is rapidly shifting toward a high out-of- learn about possible treatment options; and leave online reviews re- pocket healthcare system. People are increasingly enrolling in health flecting on their experiences with healthcare providers. insurance plans that expose them to costs when they receive health- Importantly, medical decisions often involve multiple stake- care services, either in the form of high deductibles (the amount they holders: physicians, consumers/patients, insurance providers, and pay out-of-pocket before insurance kicks in), co-pays (flat fees for policy makers. This session aims to explore these different perspec- medical services), or coinsurance (exposure to a certain percent of tives, and highlight four specific ways in which social, cognitive, and healthcare expenses). motivational variables could hamper or facilitate consumers’ medical In previous research, my colleagues and I have describe the decision making. These papers incorporate a diverse array of empiri- kind of challenges patients and physicians face trying to determine cal methods including focus groups, semi-structured interviews, on- out-of-pocket expenses in time to inform medical decisions – e.g. line studies with mock search engines, surveys with 1200 physicians, figuring out the relative cost of alternative medications for a patients’ and large-scale field experiments. illness to help determine which medicine the physician should pre- The first paper examines the obstacle of estimating out-of- scribe (Hunter et al. 2017; Ubel 2019; Ubel 2016). pocket costs. Consumers often cannot determine how much they I will discuss two studies which are currently underway, both of need to pay for different treatment options, which complicates their which will be completed by the time of the conference. Both studies decisions. Ubel tests physicians’ ability to estimate patients’ out-of- shed new light on this important topic. pocket costs and finds that about one-third of physicians incorrectly The first study involves a series of focus groups with physi- estimate these costs. In another study, Ubel uses focus groups with cians from four medical specialties – rheumatology, neurology, on- physicians to solicit solutions to overcome this challenge. cology, and primary care. We have completed five focus groups and The second and third papers take the perspective of consumers will have completed five more by the time of the conference. In the and examine factors that can bias their self-diagnosis, i.e., consum- focus groups, we present physicians with examples of patients strug- ers’ assessment of the extent to which they have a medical condi- gling to figure out the cost of their care. We draw these examples tion. Hussein and Huang examine how consumers’ search strategy from direct observation of clinic appointments and from interviews (symptom-focused vs. disease-focused) affect the process and out- of participating patients. We use the examples to prompt physicians come of self-diagnosis and find that symptom (vs. disease)-focused to discuss their own challenges trying to ascertain patients’ out-of- search leads to higher accuracy of self-diagnosis. Raghubir, Ling,

Advances in Consumer Research 1129 Volume 48, ©2020 1130 / Obstacles and Opportunities to Consumer Engagement in Medical Decision Making pocket expenses. More importantly, we then probe physicians to sug- We investigated how consumers’ search strategy affects self-di- gest ways to overcome these challenges. agnosis. First, we documented search strategies consumers naturally The solutions we have explored so far in the focus groups have use when self-diagnosing online (Study 1). We found that consum- been wide-ranging. They include: incorporating costs into electronic ers used two main types of search strategies: disease-focused and health records; employing financial navigators to help patients de- symptom-focused. Second, we investigated the consequences of termine the costs of potential care; developing tip sheets for patients these two search strategies on self-diagnosis (Study 2). We found with specific health conditions to suggest ways of reducing their that participants randomly assigned to use a symptom-focused (vs. out-of-pocket expenses – e.g. “co-pay assistance programs available disease-focused) strategy reported more accurate self-diagnoses. for patients with lupus;” and screening patients in waiting rooms, to We then turned to examining the psychological mechanism driving identify those struggling with out-of-pocket expenditures. the increased accuracy. We found that participants in the symptom- The focus groups have also yielded rich insights into barriers focused (vs. disease-focused) condition generated more abstract (vs. for implementing potential solutions, with the main challenge being concrete) hypotheses during their information search (Study 3), and misalignment of financial incentives: “You can hire financial coun- that those abstract (vs. concrete) hypotheses prevented consumers selors to make the physicians’ jobs easier, and to improve patients’ from being biased by disease-specific information and allowed them lives, but if you reduce income for the Anonymous Hospital Organi- to focus more on disease-agnostic information (Study 4), which in- zation, administrators won’t hire them.” creased their accuracy. In the second study, we survey a representative sample of 1200 In Study 1, participants (N = 120) were asked to imagine they US physicians and assess how well they can ascertain patients’ out- went on a nine-day Safari in rural Africa and that they suddenly fell of-pocket expenditures when they have sufficient information to do ill. Participants read that they experienced three symptoms (e.g., so. We present physicians with a hypothetical patient: back pain) and that travelers who visited the safari park sometimes Now, imagine the following: contracted one of four diseases (e.g., Malaria). Next, participants • You are about to prescribe the oral biologic DMARD to- were asked to use Google to better understand their health situation. facitinib to your patient, Ms. Gray. We used a software called Pipe, which allowed us to record par- • One month’s supply of tofacitinib costs $1,000. She asks ticipants’ screen as they conducted a Google search. We analyzed how much she’ll have to pay out of pocket. the search terms participants used on Google and found that 47.06% • Luckily, you have access to her private insurance informa- of participants used symptom-focused search terms, such as “fever tion. Tofacitinib is a tier 4 drug, and her insurance runs chills and backpain in Africa,” while 45.38% of participants used from January to December. disease-focused search terms, such as “Trachoma in rural Africa.” In Study 2, we investigated whether these two search strategies We ask them four questions about out-of-pocket expenses. For influenced the accuracy of self-diagnosis. We used the same safari example, in one question, we tell the physicians it is January 3, and paradigm described in Study 1, and randomly assigned participants ask them to advise the patient on how much she will have to pay (N = 400) to either a symptom-focused or a disease-focused search out-of-pocket for the drug this month. The correct answer is $1000, strategy. Participants in the symptom-focused (vs. disease-focused) because the patient has not met her $2000 deductible yet, so the full condition were asked to choose the symptoms (vs. diseases) they price of the drug is her responsibility to bear. In another question, we would like to focus their Google search on. After screen-recording asked them to imagine it is April, and the patient is still taking the their Google search using the same screen-recording client (Pipe), drug. We asked them to estimate how much the drug will cost her participants reported the probability that they had each of eight dis- that month. In that case, the patient has met her deductible, but is still eases: two diseases closely matched the symptoms in the scenario, responsible for half the price of the drug, meaning she will pay $500 two diseases were mentioned in the scenario but did not match the that month for the medication. symptoms, and four diseases were neither mentioned in the scenario We have conducted the first of two waves of data collection, nor matched the symptoms. We pre-registered all analyses. We found with a response rate so far of 40%. Our preliminary results reveal that participants in the symptom-focused (vs. disease-focused) con- widespread misunderstanding of out-of-pocket expenditures. For dition were more accurate in their self-diagnosis: they reported both example, for the two questions described above, 35%, and 41% of higher probabilities for having diseases that matched their symptoms responding physicians so far answered those questions incorrectly. (b = 7.58, z = 3.31, p = .001) and lower probabilities for diseases that These two studies provide a window into a dysfunctional did not match their symptoms (b = 4.84, z = -2.70 p = .007). market – in which people face high out-of-pocket expenses for the In Studies 3 and 4, we examined how search strategy affect- medical care but cannot determine their costs in time to inform their ed consumers’ hypothesis generation and testing (Klayman & Ha, healthcare choices. Moreover, when they turn to their physicians, 1987). To capture the key hypothesis motivating their search, par- they often cannot receive good information about their costs. ticipants in Study 3 (N = 200) engaged in a thought listing exercise How Search Strategy Shapes Self-Diagnosis (Posavac et al., 2010), in which they shared the questions they hoped their Google search would answer. These questions were coded for EXTENDED ABSTRACT the total number of thoughts, whether a concrete hypothesis was One of the key reasons consumers search for health information mentioned (e.g., “do I have Malaria?”), and whether an abstract hy- online is to self-diagnose (Fox & Duggan 2013). Self-diagnosis re- pothesis was mentioned (e.g., “which diseases exhibit symptoms of fers to consumers’ assessment of the extent to which they developed chills in general?”). We found that, despite reporting the same total a medical condition. In 2013, more than 35 percent of Americans number of thoughts (b = .27, t(198) = 1.01, p = .31), participants went online to self-diagnose (Fox & Duggan 2013), and in 2017 this in the symptom-focused (vs. disease-focused) condition were less percentage increased to 57 percent (Consumer Health Online 2017). likely to report a concrete hypothesis (logistic b = .28, z = -4.16, p Importantly, 77 percent of online self-diagnosis starts on a search < .001) and more likely to report an abstract hypothesis (logistic b = engine, like Google (Fox & Duggan 2013). 4.62, z = 4.84, p < .001). Together, these results suggest that search Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1131 strategy influences the hypotheses consumers generate and bring to symptoms are elicited prior to risk estimates; and (c) including a the search engine. “none-of-the-above” option on the symptom list affects judgments In Study 4, we further tested whether the difference in hypoth- of how common they are. eses documented in Study 3 changed the type of information partici- Experiment 1 (n=75) showed that risk estimates for self pants subsequently chose. We predicted that symptom-focused par- (M=2.82) were significantly lower than the average undergraduate ticipants would pay more attention to information that can address (M=4.01, p<.001), but no different than one’s best friend (M=2.84; their abstract hypotheses (e.g., “Common causes of fever”) while F(2, 146)=31.80, p<.001). A regression of self-risk estimates on diseases-focused participants would pay more attention to informa- internet usage was significant (F(1, 69)=11.39, p<.001, Ra2=.129; tion that can better address their concrete hypotheses (e.g., “Malaria B=.046, t=3.38, p<.001). – Symptoms and Causes”). We pre-registered these predictions and Experiment 2 (n=109) estimated the effect of whether the IAD related analyses. To test this prediction, we used a yoked design in symptoms checklist had a “None-of-the-Above” option. When the which the hypotheses organically generated in Study 3 were present- option was present, fewer symptoms were identified (M=2.62 vs. ed to a new set of participants (N = 400), such that each participant in 3.52; F(1, 107)=8.14, p<.005), and risk estimates were directionally Study 4 read the hypothesis generated by a randomly selected partic- lower (M=56.96 vs. M=61.94; F(1, 107)=1.90, p=0.171), while the ipant from Study 3. Participants were then asked to select up to three self-positivity bias was robust reflecting lower self- versus other- search results that would best answer the central questions raised by judgments (M=55.83 vs. M=63.07; F(1, 107)=14.74, p<.001). A the hypothesis they were assigned. Participants chose between 10 moderated mediation (process 5) model showed that the effect of search results, five of which were disease-specific (i.e., the title con- self-reports of internet use affected risk judgments indirectly via retained the names of specific diseases, such as Malaria) and the other ports of behaviors associated with addiction, while the direct effect five were disease-agnostic (i.e., the title made no reference to a spe- was moderated by how internet use is elicited: in no “none-of-the- cific disease, such as “Types of Fevers in Travelers Returning from above” condition, there was no effect, but in the “none-of-the-above” Abroad”). We found that symptom-focused (vs. disease-focused) present condition, there was a direct effect. participants chose fewer disease-specific information sources (b = Experiment 3 (n=146 US undergrads) examines the effects of .31, t(180) = 3.13, p = .002) and more disease-agnostic information the contextual cue of the range of response alternatives (Schwarz sources (b = .27, t(180) = 2.74, p = .007). Together, these results sug- et al., 1985). Participants indicated internet use on low-, or high- gest that search strategy influenced both the hypothesis generation frequency response alternatives, such that the percentage of partici- and subsequent evidence selection needed for self-diagnosis. pants checking the last category in the “low” condition is compa- In summary, we investigated how online search strategy affects rable to the last four categories in the “high” condition. Those in the the process and outcome of self-diagnosis. Importantly, employing “low” condition should infer that they use the internet more than the a symptom-focused strategy resulted in greater self-diagnosis accu- average person, identify more symptoms, and estimate higher risk racy. This enhanced accuracy appears to be driven by consumers’ (Schwarz et al. 1985). Participants were then assigned to one of two adoption of more abstract hypotheses which attracts them away from order conditions (symptoms-before-risk, risk-before-symptoms) pri- disease-specific information and towards disease-agnostic informa- or to indicating the likelihood of having IAD (0-100) for themselves tion. and others, resulting in a 2 (response-alternatives) x 2 (order) x 4 (target: self, average person taking the study, average undergraduate Web Wizard or Internet Addict? How to Help student, and average person) mixed design. Consumers Assess Risk The range-of-response-alternatives affected the participants’ report of using the internet for >5 hours (Low=48.7%, High=83.8%, EXTENDED ABSTRACT (1)=19.70, p<.001). A mixed ANOVA on risk estimates revealed a A key issue with health risk assessments is one of self-diag- main effect of target (F(3, 426)=30.39, p<.001, =.176), and a target nosis. The surge in DTC advertising for conditions ranging from x order interaction (F(3, 426)=3.70, p=.012, =.025). The interaction depression to diabetes, typically involve a range of symptoms that showed that perceptions of self-risk (but not risk of the three other consumers are asked to identify in an attempt to self-diagnose. But targets) were lower only when symptoms were elicited prior to risk many of these are ambiguous. This paper examines how consum- estimates (M=44.61 vs. 54.01). ers assess the risk of internet addiction, which has a number of am- Overall, self-risk perceptions were significantly lower biguous symptoms. The prevalence and growth of internet addiction (M=49.31) than estimated risk for the average person taking the disorder (IAD) could pose a risk to consumer welfare, as well as study (M=55.745, t145=4.01, p<.001), the undergraduate (M=61.76, the industries that depend on the internet, from personal computers t145=7.31, p<.001), but no different from the average person (IBM, Apple), software (Microsoft, Adobe), and hardware providers (M=49.155). When the symptoms were elicited first, risk esti- (HP), to retailers (Amazon, Land’s End), search engines (Google) mates were based on both unambiguous and ambiguous symptoms and portals (Yahoo). (Bs=11.78 and 4.74, ts=3.39 and 2.33, ps<.01 respectively). When Five studies replicate and extend the robust self-positivity in risk estimates were elicited first, risk estimates were based on report- judgments of IAD. Studies 1 and 2 examine self-positivity effects used internet usage and ambiguous symptoms (Bs=20.68 and 12.10, ing open-ended estimates of number of hours of internet use. Studies ts=2.36 and 4.81, ps<.01, respectively). Study 4 replicated Study 3’s 3-5 examine the effect of the range-of-response-alternatives used to results using a different sample (n=167 Indian MBAs). elicit these estimates (Schwarz et al., 1985). A person is considered Study 5 (n=721 MTurkers) combined the designs of Studies 2 “addicted” when they have 5/8 symptoms of IAD. However, five and 4, manipulating elicitation at three levels (hi, lo, control open of these symptoms are more ambiguous than the remaining three. ended) x 2 (order) x 2 (None of the above: present/ absent), to show Overall, results show contextual cues affect risk judgments due to that these results are robust. Overall, results suggest that the greater symptom ambiguity: (a) the range of response alternatives used to the ambiguity of a symptom, the more prone it is to context effects, elicit internet usage affects reports of how many hours of the internet and the less likely it is to be assimilated into risk judgments. a person uses a day; (b) judgments of self-risk are lower when IAD 1132 / Obstacles and Opportunities to Consumer Engagement in Medical Decision Making Testing the Role of Motivation and Procrastination in participants who completed FIT within three weeks of invitation. Colorectal Cancer Screening Results indicated that both non-incentivized deadlines and deadlines coupled with a declining financial incentive (small or large) signifi- EXTENDED ABSTRACT cantly increased completion relative to standard outreach (ps < .005). Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second leading cause of can- Further, completion in the short-deadline condition was higher than cer death in the U.S. (NIH, 2018). Although screening reduces CRC in the long-deadline condition (Short: 9.7% vs. Long: 7.2%; (1, N incidence and mortality (USPSTF, 2016), uptake is suboptimal, = 3,086) = 6.42, p = 0.011, ϕ = .05). Most notably, imposing a short especially among underserved populations (Gupta, 2013). Mailed non-incentivized deadline was just as effective as a deadline coupled outreach—inviting individuals to complete a fecal immunochemical with a financial incentive: completion in the short-deadline contest (FIT) in the comfort of their own home—offers a non-invasive dition (9.7%) was not statistically different than completion in the and more cost-effective approach. Yet, completion rates remain low small-declining(9.1%; (1, N = 3,076) = 0.33, p = 0.568, ϕ = .01) or (Singal et al., 2016). Using insights from behavioral science, we large-declining (12.0%; (1, N = 3,089) = 4.20, p = 0.04, ϕ = .04) con- predicted that both a lack of intrinsic motivation and procrastina- ditions. Thus, attenuating procrastination by imposing deadlines— tion tendencies may be contributing to low FIT completion. We test with or without financial incentives—increased FIT completion. these hypotheses in two large field experiments (N=16,336). Study Two large field experiments demonstrate that while fixed in- 1 aimed to increase screening by enhancing extrinsic motivation centives did not increase CRC screening relative to standard out- through financial incentives. Study 2 tested whether targeting pro- reach, deadlines did. Moreover, deadlines were equally effective at crastination—both with and without financial incentives—affected increasing FIT completion whether they were coupled with declining screening rates. We hypothesized that both financial incentives and financial incentives or were non-incentivized. These results impli- deadlines would increase screening completion relative to standard cate procrastination as a key barrier to FIT completion and suggest outreach. that offering modest incentives—at least in this context—amounts to Incentives are increasingly used in an attempt to influence paying for nothing. This paper provides insight into the psychology health behaviors (Saunders et al., 2018). However, while incentives underlying low cancer screening rates and suggests key consider- have been shown to motivate some behaviors (DellaVigna, 2016; ations in the use of behavioral science interventions to encourage Stone, 2002), their effectiveness is contextually dependent (Gneezy, health-behavior change. 2001), and whether they lead to long-term changes is uncertain (Charness & Gneezy, 2009). Thus, Study 1 tested the effectiveness REFERENCES of offering repeated financial incentives for FIT completion annually Akerlof, G.A. (1991), “Procrastination and obedience,” American for 3 years. Participants (N=8,565) received either standard mailed Economic Review. 81, 1-19. FIT outreach (N=6,565), outreach plus $5 (N=1,000), or outreach Ariely, D. & Wertenbroch, K. (2002), “Procrastination, deadlines, plus $10 (N=1,000) for FIT completion. 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Thus, in addi- Hunter WG, Zafar SY, Hesson A, Davis JK, Kirby C, Barnett JA, tion to deadlines, we add a declining incentive component such that Ubel PA (2017), “Discussing Health Care Expenses in the participants are able to compare two incentives relative to one an- Oncology Clinic: Analysis of Cost Conversations in Outpatient other. Participants (N=7,771) were randomly assigned to receive one Encounters,” Journal of Oncology Practice. 13(11). 944-56. of five invitations: (1) control (standard invitation); (2) long deadline John, L.K. et al (2011), “Financial incentives for extended weight (three weeks); (3) short deadline (one week); (4) small declining in- loss: a randomized, controlled trial,” J Gen Intern Med. 26, centive ($10 for completion within one week or $5 for completion 621-626. within three weeks); or, (5) large declining incentive ($20 for com- Klayman, J. and Ha, Y.W. 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Menon, Geeta, Priya Raghubir, and Norbert Schwarz (1995), Singal, A.G. et al. (2016), “Outreach invitations for FIT and “Behavioral Frequency Judgments: An Accessibility- colonoscopy improve colorectal cancer screening rates: A Diagnosticity Framework,” Journal of Consumer Research, 22 randomized controlled trial in a safety‐net health system,” (2), 212-228. Cancer. 122, 456-463. ______, ______and ______(1997), “How Much Will I Stone, E.G., et al, (2002), “Interventions that increase use of adult Spend? Factors Affecting Consumers’ Estimates of Future immunization and cancer screening services: a meta-analysis,” Expenses,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 6 (2), 141-164. Ann Intern Med. 136, 641-651(2002). O’Donoghue, T. & Rabin, M (1999), “Doing it now or later,” Am Sun, Yalin, Yan Zhang, Jacek Gwizdka, and Ciaran B Trace (2019), Econ Rev. 89, 103-124. “Consumer Evaluation of the Quality of Online Health Posavac, S., Kardes, F., & Brakus, J. (2010), “Focus induced tunnel Information: Systematic Literature Review of Relevant vision in managerial judgment and decision making: The Criteria and Indicators.” Journal of Medical Internet Research peril and the antidote,” Organizational Behavior and Human 21, no. 5. Decision Processes, 113, 102–111. Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program—Cancer Raghubir, Priya and Geeta Menon (1998), “AIDS and Me, Never stat facts: colorectal cancer (NIH, 2018); seer.cancer.gov/ the Twain Shall Meet: Factors Affecting Judgments of Risk,” statfacts/html/colorect.html Journal of Consumer Research, 25(1), 52-63. Tice, D.M. and Baumeister, R.F. (1997), “Longitudinal study of ______and ______(2005), “Depressed or Just Blue? The procrastination, performance, stress, and health: The costs and Persuasive Effects of a Self-Diagnosis Inventory”Journal of benefits of dawdling,”Psychol Sci. 8, 454-458. Applied Social Psychology, 35(12), 2535-2559. Ubel PA. (2019), Sick to Debt: How Smarter Markets Lead to Schwarz, Norbert, Hans-J. Hippler, Brigitte Deutsch, and Fritz Better Care, Yale University Press. New Haven & London. Strack (1985), “Response Scales: Effects of Category Range Ubel PA, Zhang CJ, Hesson A, Davis JK, Kirby C, Barnett J, on Reported Behavior and Comparative Judgments,” Public Hunter WG. (2016), “Study Of Physician And Patient Opinion Quarterly, 49(Fall), 388-395. Communication Identifies Missed Opportunities To Help Saunders, R., Vulimiri, M., Japinga, M., Bleser, W. & Wong, C Reduce Patients’ Out-Of-Pocket Spending,” Health Affairs. (2019), “Are carrots good for your health?” Current evidence 35(4): 654–661. on health behavior incentives in the Medicaid program. Vol. 1 Zauberman, G., & Lynch Jr, J. G (2005), “Resource slack and (Duke Margolis Center for Health Policy). propensity to discount delayed investments of time versus Screening for Colorectal Cancer US Preventive Services Task Force money,” J Exp Psych Gen. 134, 23-37. Recommendation Statement (2016), JAMA. 315, 2564–2575. Shu, S.B. & Gneezy, A. (2010), “Procrastination of enjoyable experiences,” J Mark Res. 47, 933-944. The Social and Behavioral Consequences of Browsing Social Media Chairs: In-Hye Kang, University of North Carolina Greensboro, USA Yuechen Wu, Johns Hopkins University, USA

Paper #1: Social Media Users are Penalized for Lacking Self- about the past (vs. present) less favorably because they perceive the Control bragging as more intentional. As a result, consumers become less In-Hye Kang, University of North Carolina Greensboro, USA likely to engage with the mentioned brand when the bragging is Yuechen Wu, Johns Hopkins University, USA about past (vs. present) experiences. Neeru Paharia, Georgetown University, USA Moving to the corporate social media posting, Rifkin, Chan, and Kahn examine how encountering postings about brand events Paper #2: I Care About Why You Share: Inferences about can affect consumers’ future engagement with the brand. Theau- Sharing Motives Influence Observers’ Engagement in Similar thors find that seeing social media photos of brand events can trigger Experiences FOMO for consumers who missed the events, increasing these con- Matthew J. Hall, Oregon State University, USA sumers’ intentions to engage with the brand. Daniel M. Zane, Lehigh University, USA Taken together, the four papers examine how browsing social Paper #3: The Time-Dependent Effects on Bragging media postings can influence consumers’ various perceptions and Francesca Valsesia, University of Washington, USA behaviors. This session is highly relevant to one of the themes of Jared Watson, New York University, USA ACR 2020, “Technology,” as the four papers generate timely wisdom Paper #4: The Role of Social Media-Induced FOMO in on how social media—a relatively new online platform made pos- Strengthening Brand Communities sible by advances in the mobile and Internet technology—impacts Jacqueline R. Rifkin, University of Missouri-Kansas City, consumer behavior. This session will appeal to a broad audience, USA including researchers interested in social media, people perception, Cindy Chan, University of Toronto, Canada inference making, temporal frame, and branding. Barbara E. Kahn, University of Pennsylvania, USA Social Media Users are Penalized for Lacking Self- SESSION OVERVIEW Control Consumers today spend a significant amount of time on social media platforms such as Facebook and Instagram. In 2018, Inter- EXTENDED ABSTRACT net users spent about 1.25 hours per day on social media platforms Reflecting the popularity of consumers’ social media use, a (Statista 2019). As such, a growing amount of research has started growing amount of research has examined the motivations for using to examine consumers’ motivations for posting on social media social media (Buechel and Berger 2018; Toubia and Stephen 2013) (Buechel and Berger 2018; Toubia and Stephen 2013) and how post- and the consequences of social media use (Barash et al. 2018; Wil- ing about one’s experiences on social media can influence their well- cox and Stephen 2013). Prior literature, however, has not explored being, including enjoyment of an experience (Barash et al. 2018). what inferences observers make about social media users. This is an Yet, little research has examined how browsing social media and important gap because consumers often use social media in publicly more specifically the content consumers encounter while browsing visible situations, such as while waiting for coffee (Herhold 2018). social media can influence consumers’ judgments and behavior. For We argue that visibly using social media can trigger negative infer- example, what does browsing social media in publicly visible situ- ences of increased addiction and lower self-control by observers, ations signal to others? How does seeing other consumers’ postings leading to unfavorable downstream consequences. about their experiences influence consumers’ own intention to con- Prior research suggests that social media use can be addictive sume similar experiences? How does encountering a brand’s post- (Kuss and Griffiths 2011). In our pretest (n=100), when asked to ing about its offline brand event influence consumers’ intentions to evaluate the addictiveness of several activities people do on their engage with the brand? smartphones, people believed that browsing social media was more This session sheds light on these questions. Kang, Wu, and addictive than reading a magazine, reading news, watching a movie Paharia examine how observers judge consumers who browse so- or even playing a game (ps ≤ .001). Therefore, we expect that ob- cial media in publicly visible situations. The authors find that visibly servers will infer that a person using social media is more addicted using social media can trigger negative inferences of increased ad- compared to a consumer engaging in other activities, leading to the diction and lower self-control by observers, leading to unfavorable inference of lower self-control. We further propose that the inference downstream consequences, such as being less likely to be chosen as of low self-control will lead to numerous negative reactions, such as a service provider or as a partner to work on a task requiring self- being less likely to be chosen as a service provider. control. We identify two theoretical boundary conditions. First, if a tar- The next two papers examine how browsing other consumers’ get consumer uses social media only for a small fraction of his free postings impact one’s future consumption. Hall and Zane find that time, the inference of addiction should be less, attenuating the nega- when consumers infer that others posted their experiences on social tive inferences on self-control. Second, individuals who have posi- media for extrinsically-motivated (vs. intrinsically-motivated) rea- tive attitudes towards social media may associate using social media sons, they show lower desire to engage in similar experiences, be- more strongly with positive attributes rather than negative attributes cause they anticipate that other people will infer extrinsic motives if such as addiction, again attenuating the negative inferences on self- they engage in similar experiences. control. Turning towards interventions, we expect that consumers Valsesia and Watson examine how consumers differentially are not spontaneously aware of the negative inferences about social evaluate others’ self-bragging postings depending on the temporal media users. Thus, we hypothesize that prompting consumers to take frame. The authors find that consumers evaluate others’ bragging

Advances in Consumer Research 1134 Volume 48, ©2020 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1135 an observer’s role can reduce their own intention to use social media evaluated the woman in the three scenarios, participants indicated in public. what activities they would do while waiting in line at a café. Par- Studies 1-2 tested negative downstream consequences using an ticipants in the after condition (56.1%) were less likely to choose incentive-compatible choice. In study 1 (n=333), participants viewed to browse social media than those in the before condition (71.7%; the bios of two personal trainers at a local gym. One trainer indicated p = .002). that he liked to browse social media in his free time while the other This research contributes the literature on social media. Practi- liked to watch movies. 35.44% of participants chose the trainer who cally, our findings can better guide consumers’ impression manage- liked to browse social media (p < .001) because they perceived the ment strategies. trainer as having lower self-control (p < .001). In study 2 (n=118), participants selected a partner with whom I Care About Why You Share: Inferences about Sharing they would like to work on a word search task. We showed partic- Motives Influence Observers’ Engagement in Similar ipants the profiles of the two partner candidates. The two profiles Experiences were similar except that [one/the other] student spent [55%/10%] of her free time using social media. 33% of participants chose a heavy EXTENDED ABSTRACT social media user (p < .001) because they perceived the heavy user While some consumers post about their experiences on social as having less self-control (p < .001). media because they genuinely enjoy giving others insight into their Are the participants’ perceptions accurate? In a separate test, lives, others share to demonstrate their uniqueness or consumption we asked participants to engage in the same word search task by of conspicuous/luxury experiences (Bronner and de Hoog 2018; themselves. Social media use was not correlated with participants’ Kim 2018). Given that consumers’ sharing motives differ, do others performance (p = .98), suggesting that people’s beliefs about social who view shared content make different inferences about the sharers’ media users are not accurate. posting motives? If so, might these inferred sharing motives influ- In studies 3A-3B, we tested our multi-step mechanism (social me- ence observers’ desire to have a similar experience? dia use→perceived addiction→perceived self-control→downstream Prior research on perceptions of others’ sharing motives has consequences). In study 3A (n=247), participants in the [social me- only explored perceived motives behind sharing about experiences dia/online magazine] condition viewed a picture of a woman scroll- relative to material goods. This work demonstrates that perceived ing through [a social media account/an online magazine] on her sharing motives influence evaluations of the sharer—observers infer phone at the airport. In both conditions, we showed the same images the sharer to have relatively more intrinsic motives when viewing on the phone to control for the content the woman was browsing. The shared experiences (vs. material goods), leading to more positive woman in the social media (vs. magazine) condition was evaluated evaluations of the sharer (Van Boven et al. 2010). However, it is less positively overall (p = .012), as having less self-control (p = unlikely that all experiential sharing is perceived to be equally in- .006), and as being more addicted (p < .001). The hypothesized serial trinsically-motivated. In addition, prior research has yet to consider mediation path was significant. Neither impression management nor how perceived motives behind sharing about an experience might materialism served as a significant mediator. In study 3B (n=488), influence observers’ preference to purchase a similar experience. we replicated the findings of study 3A by comparing browsing so- We first propose that consumers will infer a broad range of cial media with other control conditions: playing an online game and sharing motives when viewing others’ shared experiences. As ini- browsing news. The negative effect of social media occurred when tial support, pilot study participants (n=92) viewed a post featuring the target person browsed social media on a smartphones or laptop. someone’s camping experience and described the poster’s sharing Study 4 (n=418) tested the moderating effect by the percentage motives. Two independent coders rated these qualitative descriptions of free time used for social media. Participants in the [100%/4%] (-3=purely extrinsic motives; 0=equally intrinsic/extrinsic motives; condition read a scenario that the flight was boarding in [five min- 3=purely intrinsic motives; M= -.223; SD=1.91; interrater reliabil- utes/two hours] and the woman was looking at her phone for five ity=.812). This distribution suggests that consumers infer sharers to minutes by browsing [Instagram/the Wall Street Journal]. We mea- have different motives when sharing about their experiences. sured willingness to hire the woman for a job as a downstream mea- Second, we propose that when consumers infer a sharer’s post sure. The interaction effect was significant for the intention to hire to be more extrinsically-motivated, it will decrease the desirability of (p = .014). Participants in the social media (vs. news) condition re- the shared experience itself. This will occur because consumers’ in- ported lower intention to hire in the 100% condition (p = .001), not ferences about the sharer’s motives will influence the observers’ own in the 4% condition (p = .89). We found similar patterns of result for perceptions of how others might view them if they had a similar ex- perceived self-control. perience (social motivation contagion; Wild et al. 1992). If consum- Study 5 (n=431) tested the moderating role of attitudes to- ers anticipate others will see them as having more extrinsic motives wards social media. Participants read a scenario that a 30-year-old if they engage in an experience, it should decrease the experience’s man at the airport was [browsing his Instagram account/reading a desirability (Wild and Enzle 2002). Thus, while firms are assumed magazine]. The regression analysis for the overall favorability of the to benefit when customers share about their firm-related experiences man revealed a significant interaction (p = .023). Specifically, the (WOM, buzz, etc.), we suggest such sharing may sometimes deter negative effect of social media (vs. magazine) on overall favorability other customers if the sharer is perceived to have extrinsic sharing occurred for participants with attitudes towards social media lower motives. than 5.80. We found similar results for perceived self-control. In Study 1, participants (n=361) viewed a mock Instagram post Study 6 (n=378) tested the proposed interventions to reduce so- featuring either a jacket (product) or camping scene (experience). cial media use. All participants read the three scenarios describing a Participants reported their likelihood to purchase the featured ex- woman [browsing her social media account on her phone/browsing perience/product and their perceptions of the poster’s sharing mo- news on her phone/looking around at the café]. After reading each tives (scale from pilot study). They also evaluated the sharer on a scenario, participants rated the woman on self-control and overall fa- number of positive/negative traits (Van Boven et al. 2010). Repli- vorability. In the before (after) condition, before (after) participants cating prior research, those viewing the experience post perceived 1136 / The Social and Behavioral Consequences of Browsing Social Media the sharer to have more intrinsic motives (MExperience=.52; SD=1.89; The Time-Dependent Effects on Bragging

MMaterial= -.97; SD=1.82; F(1,359)=61.10, p<.001). Pertinent to our hypothesis, however, there was heterogeneity in perceived sharing EXTENDED ABSTRACT motives within the experience condition, evidenced by a mean near Much research has been dedicated to understand why people the scale midpoint and substantial variance. Furthermore, a regres- brag (Baumeister 1982; Speer 2012) and perceptions of those who sion revealed an interaction between the experience/product condi- do (Tal-Or 2010; Berman et al. 2015). Self-promotion is a fact of tion and perceived sharing motives on product/experience purchase life, but with the proliferation of social media usage, people encoun- likelihood (b= -.249; t(357)=2.26, p=.024). As expected, within ter braggarts more than ever before. More recently, the conversa- the experience condition, those who perceived the sharer to have tion has shifted to understand characteristics of social media posts more extrinsic motives reported lower purchase likelihood (b=.296; (Matley 2018a, 2018b). For example, Matley (2018a) demonstrates t(357)=3.76, p<.001). Interestingly, perceived sharing motives did that the explicit use of the hashtag “#brag” attenuates some of the not affect purchase likelihood in the product condition (b=.046; negativity that might be commuted through a self-praising message. t(357)=.60, p=.551). Perceived motives equally predicted evalua- In this research, we explore other message characteristics that might tions of the sharer in both conditions, suggesting our consumption- moderate the effect of a self-praising message. Our primary focus related consequences are driven by a distinct process than that in Van investigates the temporal framing of a message. Recent work has Boven et al. (2010). demonstrated that people are more likely to share information about In Study 2, undergraduates (n=338) identified a post in their rewards that will occur in the future vs. the past (Weingarten and own social media accounts featuring an experience shared by some- Berger 2017), but little is known about how the temporal framing of one they follow. After describing the experience, they reported how a message affects how consumers respond to it. much they would enjoy consuming that same experience (1=not at This research posits that past-oriented self-promotion is viewed all; 7=very much) and the sharer’s motives (-2=purely extrinsic; negatively relative to both present-oriented self-promotion as a func- 2=purely intrinsic)—these measures were counterbalanced and or- tion of the message’s perceived intentionality. Present-oriented mes- der had no effect. Perceived sharing motives were normally distrib- sages are thought to be spontaneous and emotion-laden, whereas uted (M=.097; SD=1.13). Furthermore, perceptions of the sharer’s past-oriented messages are perceived to be intentional signals sent by motives predicted anticipated enjoyment of the experience (b=.232; the messenger. Our first study employed a 2-cell design (time: past, t(334)=1.90, p=.059). Participants then also justified why they present), between-subjects. Participants were told that they would scored the sharer’s motives as they did. An independent research as- view a tweet then be asked to evaluate the individual. The tweet read sistant coded these explanations for themes about what aspects of either “I cannot believe I just won the Valley half marathon! Hard shared experiences led to inferences of intrinsic/extrinsic motives. work pays out! #proud #win #today” or “I cannot believe it is ex- Participants perceived sharers to have more extrinsic motives when actly 5 years since I won the Valley half marathon! Hard work paid the sharer did not seem truly interested in the experience itself (con- out! #proud #win #throwback”. We asked participants to what extent suming for the purpose of sharing) or when the sharer’s presence they perceived the tweet to be “bragging” and a one-way ANOVA in the photo seemed to be the focus (staged poses, heavy makeup, indicated that participants viewed tweeting about the past to be sig- provocative clothing, etc.). Captions featuring text unrelated to the nificantly more braggy (Mpast = 6.66, Mpresent = 6.05; F(1,163) = experience (poems, quotes, etc.) or that conveyed social comparison 4.82; p = .03). Moreover, we found impressions of the sender to be or tried to elicit sympathy also signaled extrinsic motives. significantly more positive when the person tweeted about the pres- In Study 3, undergraduates (n=114) viewed a mock Instagram ent (Mpresent = 5.30) compared to the past (Mpast = 4.68; (1,163) = post featuring a bowling experience, manipulated based on the 6.09; p = .01). In reflection, we realized that the message also had an themes discovered in the previous study. In the intrinsic post, the element of skill given the amount of effort required to win a mara- sharer was less prominent and was displayed in the act of bowling thon. Thus, in the next study we sought to test whether our effect held with a caption related to bowling. In the extrinsic post, the sharer when a brag lacked skill and happened due to sheer luck. was featured prominently in a staged pose with a caption unrelated In study 2, we employed a 2(time: past, present) x 2(deserving- to bowling. Participants then reported how likely they would be ness: luck, skill), between-subjects design. This time, an Instagram to purchase a bowling experience. They also reported how others post was used to further generalizability. A picturesque waterfall was might view their own motives for going bowling, including three accompanied with the caption “one year ago today, I was in Costa intrinsically-motivated explanations (e.g., for the enjoyment of the Rica…” or “right now, I am in Costa Rica…” to manipulate the tem- experience) and three extrinsically-motivated explanations (e.g., to poral factor. To manipulate the deservingness factor, the caption also impress others), averaged to create our focal mediator. As expected, mentioned that the trip was won from a “random raffle for new em- mediation analysis revealed that participants who viewed the ex- ployees” or “receiving the highest customer satisfaction score for trinsic post thought others would view their own motives for go- my company”. A 2x2 ANOVA on participants’ overall evaluation of ing bowling as more extrinsic (MExtrinsic=4.27; MIntrinsic=5.01; b=.368; the poster revealed a significant interaction (F(1,111) = 4.46; p= t(111)=3.57, p<.001), which then predicted purchase intentions .04). When the brag was framed in terms of skills, and thus had a

(b=.285; t(111)=2.16, p=.032; index of mediation: CI95=[.005,.245]). deservingness component, we replicate our earlier effect, such that a We demonstrate that when consumers are perceived to have present brag led to more positive evaluations of the sender compared extrinsic motives for sharing experiences, observers see the same to past brags (Mpast = 3.86 vs. Mpresent = 4.63, F(1,111) = 3.54; p = experience as less desirable to consume themselves. This occurs be- .06). Nonetheless, this was not the case when the brag was framed cause observers assume that others will perceive their own motives in terms of luck (Mpast = 4.55 vs. Mpresent = 4.22, F(1,111) = 1.23; p as being more extrinsic if they are to consume the experience. These = NS). results suggest that firms do not always benefit when their customers Thus far, we have established that temporal framing matters, share about their firm-related experiences and identify characteristics but we’ve done little to determine the velocity of the effect. In study that lead consumers to infer different motives behind shared content. 3, we assign participants to past, present, and future conditions to explore whether disclosing upcoming events are bragging as well. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1137

However, to account for individual differences in time perceptions ture people from their local community, rather than from the brand we ask participants to report the extent to which they view these community (H3). Second, building on previous research on FOMO events as occurring between the distant past and distant future identifying the critical role of anxious attachment (Rifkin, Chan, and (5-point scale) and use this item as our primary independent variable. Kahn 2020), we predict that the effects will be stronger among those We do this to account for the subjective nature of time and deter- who feel more anxious about their belonging in the brand commu- mine the trend between distant and near time horizons. Participants nity (H4). Finally, consistent with work on fear appeals, we predict viewed a Facebook post discussing the purchase of a new BMW. We a boundary condition in which the effects will be attenuated when then asked them to evaluate the poster. In this study we also mea- consumers are not offered a means of coping with their FOMO (e.g., sured behavioral intentions to determine the managerial relevance if an event is private and closed to the public; H5). of our effect. A one-way ANOVA of temporal perceptions on poster We first conducted a field experiment in conjunction with Lu- evaluations yielded a significant effect (F(4, 403) = 2.807;p = .025). lulemon (N = 278). The study began with an initial survey where we A curvilinear function emerged such that a positive relationship ex- measured participants’ connection to the brand and their brand inten- ists from the distant past to near future (Mdistant past = 1.56, Mrecent past = tions. We then invited participants to an actual in-store event; pro-

2.97, Mpresent = 3.06, Mnear future = 3.44) before exhibiting a negative fessional photos of the event were subsequently posted on the local effect in the distant future (Mdistant future = 2.92). Similarly, a one-way Lululemon Facebook page. Afterwards, we conducted a follow-up ANOVA of temporal perceptions on brand intentions yielded the survey in which participants were directed to a Lululemon Facebook same pattern (Mdistant past = 2.67, Mrecent past = 3.57, Mpresent = 3.62, Mnear album containing either photos of the event or Lululemon merchan- future = 4.12, Mdistant future = 2.92; F(4,403) = 2.486; p = 043). Natu- dise. Among participants who did not attend the event (>90% of the rally, some of these cells suffer from small sample sizes, but none- sample), we found that, across both photo conditions, participants theless, further investigation into temporal perceptions is warranted. with higher brand connections felt more FOMO after seeing the pho- Through three studies, this research demonstrates that temporal tos (p < .001), and this increased their future brand intentions (95% framing of messaging yields significant effects of not only messen- CI = .04, .15), providing support for H1 and H2. Contrasting the two ger perceptions but can also have consequences for brands. Bragging photo conditions, we found that, relative to seeing merchandise pho- about the past vs. the present (or the future) seems to have negative tos, seeing event photos featuring people from the local community consequences for both but this is the temporal frame in which most (i.e., fellow university students) increased brand intentions among people brag. Thus, our next steps will be to investigate strategies by people who were initially less connected to the Lululemon brand (p which firms can encourage consumers to brag about present or future = .03; H3). interactions vs. past, and to determine whether consumers are aware In a subsequent lab study (N = 355) with more experimental of this bias when craft a message in the first place. control, we re-ran the same three-phases of the field study (using the same photos from the previous event). In the pre-event survey, we The Role of Social Media-Induced FOMO in also measured participants’ anxious attachment to the brand com- Strengthening Brand Communities munity (adapted from Wei et al. 2007) and brand intentions toward Lululemon. We then used the same two conditions from the field EXTENDED ABSTRACT study: participants were directed to Facebook pages featuring either We are witnessing a dramatic change in the world of retailing. event or merchandise photos. Finally, we conducted a post-event Rather than shopping in store, consumers can order anything they survey measuring FOMO and brand intentions. We again found that want online. However, while online shopping has changed the retail- seeing social media photos increased FOMO among those with high- ing scene, no one is predicting that physical stores are going away. er brand connection (p = .003; H1), and this increased their future To drive traffic to physical stores, specialty and brand retailers are in- brand intentions (95% CI = .01, .05; H2). Supporting H4, we also creasingly hosting in-store events and then posting photos on social found that seeing event (vs. merchandise) photos increased brand media. For example, Footlocker in Harlem, NY hosted a challenge intentions among those who were more anxiously attached to the where fans competed to see who had the highest vertical jump. The brand community (interaction p = .02). event featured celebrity appearances and elite sock customization, As a further test of H3, we conducted a lab study (N = 702) in and photos were posted on Footlocker social media pages. Similarly, which we manipulated whether the people in the event photos were Lululemon frequently hosts in-store yoga classes and posts event from the local community or the brand community. In this and the photos to social media. subsequent study, we also allowed participants to choose from sev- While these in-store events likely generate positive outcomes eral brands to generalize our effects. We replicated the finding that for customers who participate, how do these strategies affect cus- highly brand-connected consumers felt more FOMO from seeing the tomers who do not attend? We predict that seeing photos of missed photos (p < .001; H1), which in turn increased brand intentions (95% brand-community events will elicit a negative emotional feeling of CI = .03, .14; H2). We also observed a photo condition by brand FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) among those who feel more connected connection interaction in which seeing local (vs. brand) community to the brand (H1). Although this negative response may seem un- photos increased brand intentions among less-connected consumers desirable, prior research has found that fear appeals can positively (p < .001; H3). influence intentions and behaviors (Tannenbaum et al. 2015). We Our final study (N = 704) tests a boundary condition (H5) by therefore predict that consumers will cope with their negative feel- asking participants to imagine seeing social media photos from a ings of FOMO by increasing their intentions to engage with the brand event that was either open or closed to the public. We pre- brand in the future (e.g., by attending a future event; H2). dicted that only open events would offer consumers a means for cop- We also identify three moderators. One benefit of these events ing with their feelings of FOMO and would therefore increase brand is that they foster local brand communities, attracting people who intentions, whereas closed events would not. We observed a signifi- are members of the local community, but may not be brand loyal- cant mediated moderation whereby seeing event photos increased ists. Therefore, we predict that less brand-connected consumers FOMO among highly brand-connected consumers (95% CI = -.26, will respond more favorably when seeing event photos that fea- -.12). However, this enhanced FOMO only increased brand inten- 1138 / The Social and Behavioral Consequences of Browsing Social Media tions when the event was open (95% CI = .11, .19), but not when it Kim, Youngseon, (2018), “Power Moderates the Impact of Desire was closed to the public (95% CI = -.05, .06). for Exclusivity on Luxury Experiential Consumption,” In summary, we find that seeing social media photos of local Psychology & Marketing, 35 (4), 283-93. brand events triggers negative feelings of FOMO, which increases Van Boven, Leaf, Margaret C. Campbell, and Thomas Gilovich intentions to engage with the brand in the future. These effects are (2010), “Stigmatizing Materialism: On Stereotypes and stronger among those who feel more connected to the brand and Impressions of Materialistic and Experiential Pursuits,” more anxious about their belonging. This research broadens our con- Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36 (4), 551-63. ceptualization of brand community and has implications for social Wild, T. Cameron and Michael E. Enzle (2002), “Social media strategies. Contagion of Motivational Orientations,” Handbook of Self- Determination, eds. Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan, REFERENCES University of Rochester Press: Rochester, New York. Wild, T. Cameron, Michael E. Enzle, Glen Nix, and Edward SESSION OVERVIEW L. 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Paper #1: Insights From a Process Model of Retrospective tal representation-based and are considered subjective decisions vs. Evaluation objective judgments. Finally, the last paper offers a cautionary note Rory M. Waisman, University of Alberta, Canada about how best to apply computational models of cognition in consumer research. The authors show that estimation and interpretation Paper #2: What I Like Is What I Remember: Memory of free model parameters is hampered under certain modeling condi- Modulation in Preferential Choice tions, and they offer solutions to help researchers overcome these Ada Aka, University of Pennsylvania, USA challenges and avoid deriving spurious insights from computational Sudeep Bhatia, University of Pennsylvania, USA models of cognition. Paper #3: Packaging vs . Product: Distinguishing Between The papers in this session offer concrete examples of how mod- Choice Domains with Computational Modeling els and methods developed in cognitive science can be fruitfully ap- Stephanie M. Smith, University of California Los Angeles, plied in consumer research to deepen our understanding of consumer USA behavior phenomena. This session will appeal to scholars interested Ian Krajbich, The Ohio State University, USA in preference construction, decision making, cognitive processes (at- Paper #4: Structural Dependencies in Computational Models of tention and memory in particular), as well as those with an interest in Cognition in Consumer Research the application of modeling methods in consumer research. Antonia Krefeld-Schwalb, Columbia University, USA Thorsten Pachur, Max Planck Institute for Human Insights From a Process Model of Retrospective Development, Germany Evaluation Benjamin Scheibehenne, University of Geneva, Switzerland EXTENDED ABSTRACT SESSION OVERVIEW Consumers’ evaluations of consumption experiences are im- This session showcases how computational models of cogni- portant to researchers, firms, and consumers themselves. Scholars tion can be leveraged to offer new insights for consumer research. depend on retrospective self-reports (e.g. Heitmann, Lehmann, and Marketing scholars have been calling for greater cross-pollination Herrmann 2007), firms treat customer ratings as metrics ofsuc- between theory-rich cognitive science and the more pragmatically cess (Keiningham, Cooil, Andreassen, and Aksoy 2007; Reichhel, oriented field of consumer research (e.g., Bartels and Johnson 2015; 2003), and consumers rely upon their own (Moore 2011) and oth- Weber and Johnson 2006). This call is being increasingly answered ers’ (Nielse, 2015) evaluations as a basis for consumption decisions in the cognitive and psychology literature (e.g., Bhatia and Mullett (Babić Rosario, Sotgiu, De Valck, and Bijmolt 2016). Research has 2016; Bhatia and Pleskac 2019; Trueblood, Brown, and Heathcote revealed innumerable variables that influence retrospective evalua- 2014; Trueblood, Brown, Heathcote, and Busemeyer 2013), allow- tion, but more limited progress is evident in understanding the basic ing cognitive science to profit from validating models and theories cognitive mechanisms responsible. Weber and Johnson (2006) called in more realistic consumer settings (e.g., Vinson, Dale, and Jones for explicit exposition of the memory processes involved in prefer- 2019). But there has been less advancement along these lines in the ences construction. I respond with a process model of retrospective field of consumer research. In fact, this call was echoed again last evaluation: Minerva Evaluative Memory (Minerva-EM). year during a Knowledge Forum on Models of Behavioral Decision Comparison of model predictions to empirical results suggests Making held at the 50th ACR Conference. Participants appealed for the model’s instance encoding, resonance-based retrieval, and evalu- greater openness to incorporating modeling approaches from differ- ative mechanisms explain consumers’ evaluative behavior. Deriva- ent disciplines, and some argued that consumer research can benefit tion from the model of novel, empirically testable hypotheses dem- by the application of theory and methods from cognitive psychol- onstrates the value of applying computational models of cognition in ogy. This session aims to answer the call by presenting four papers consumer research. that apply computational models of cognition to better understand Inspired by Hintzman’s (1984) Minerva-2 memory model, Mi- the mechanism that underlie consumers’ evaluations of products and nerva-EM is a precise mathematical account of memory and evalu- experiences and their construction of preferences. ative mechanisms. According to Minerva-EM, memory is single The first paper introduces a process model of basic encoding, system for encoding and storage of episodic memory traces, and retrieval, and evaluative mechanisms that account for the behav- retrieval operates by principles of resonance. In the computational ior of consumers when they rely on memory to evaluate their con- instantiation of the theory, memory is a matrix with each trace consumption experiences. The author uses model simulations to derive stituting one vector. An experience is encoded as a series of traces novel hypotheses about variables that alter consumers’ retrospective for constituent events. Retrospective evaluation involves probing evaluations. In the second paper, a computational model of language memory to retrieve a representation matching the specified context. representation is utilized to help identify commonalities and isolate This produces an effect analogous to singing into a piano. The strings key differences between the cognitive processes employed in pure- of the piano (the traces) resonate (are activated) in response to the memory tasks and those employed in making preferential choices singer’s voice (the probe). In effect, the piano (memory) produces an that rely on memory. The key insight is that choice modulates mem- echo, with each string (trace) contributing in proportion to its match ory, altering the prioritization of retrieval to favor preference- and to the incoming sound (probe). The echo produced at retrieval is an behavior-relevant items. The authors of the third paper use machine imperfect representation of the target experience because traces from learning and a computational model of attention in decision mak- other experiences also contribute to the echo. Evaluation proceeds by ing to show that preferences are influenced by attention to different comparison of the target evaluative dimension to the corresponding degrees depending on whether choices are stimulus-based vs. men- features of the retrieved representation.

I tested the model against empirical data in simulations of the Most choices that we make on a day-to-day basis are memory- rating effect—the effect of explicitly evaluating an experience on based, with consideration sets and choice items being retrieved from retrospective evaluation of that experience (Ibrahim, Häubl, and memory at the time of decision. A large body of work has estab- Waisman, Working Paper). Ibrahim et al. had participants watch an lished the importance of memory for many different decisions (e.g., enjoyable time-lapse video and then either rate their enjoyment of Dick, Chakravarti, and Biehal 1990; Hertwig, Barron, Weber, and it (rating condition), briefly describe the first and last scenes (recall Erev 2004; Lynch, Marmorstein, and Weigold 1988; Murty, Feld- condition), or go on with their day (control condition). One, three, or manHall, Hunter, Phelps, and Davachi 2016). While previous work seven days later participants reported their enjoyment of the video. in the field of cognitive psychology has established regularities in After one day no difference in retrospective evaluation was apparent memory processes and highlighted the importance of value-based across conditions. After three days, participants in the rating condi- recall using free recall list-learning paradigms, memory processes in tion reported having enjoyed the video marginally more than those choice behavior have not been examined in a similar manner (Klein, in the control condition, with the recall condition in between. The Addis, and Kahana 2005; Castel 2007). Thus, we do not know the same pattern emerged as significant after seven days. To simulate degree to which memory processes at play in pure-memory tasks in- the rating effect in Minerva-EM the probes and echoes produced fluence memory-based choice, and if memory-based choice involves via initial rating or recall tasks were encoded as events. Three time a unique set of decision-specific memory mechanisms. intervals were simulated by adding 1000, 5000, or 10000 random The order in which people recall items in pure-memory tasks traces to memory, and 10000 participants were simulated per condi- is sensitive to primacy and recency effects (higher likelihood of re- tion. Consistent with the empirical results, the evaluative response membering words that appear at the beginning and end of lists) and (echo intensity) was greatest in the rating condition, with the recall temporal and semantic clustering (tendency to make recall transi- condition in the middle, and the difference increased as more events tions among temporally-close and semantically-related items) (Ka- intervened. In another experiment, Ibrahim et al. tested if previously hana and Miller 2013). Some of these effects have also been shown rating an experience increases enjoyment regardless of experience in memory-based choice. For example, brand memories display se- valence. Participants in rating and control conditions watched an un- rial position effects (e.g., Li 2010; Sherrick et al. 2016), and items enjoyable history video and seven days later reported how enjoyable recalled in everyday choice are semantically clustered (Hutchinson it was. Again, simulation results correspond well with the empirical 1994; Bhatia 2019). That said, thus far, researchers have examined data. Simulated and experimental participants evaluated the experi- pure-memory and memory-based choice in isolation, and have not ence as less enjoyable if they previously rated the video. systematically compared memory-based choice with pure-memory I derived novel hypotheses for future investigation from a para- in list-learning settings. We provide such a systematic comparison. metric analysis across 81 simulation conditions. For instance, the We first investigated the domain of food choice (Study 1). In model predicts that a request to rate a dining experience will influ- the subsequent study (Study 2), we extended our tests into the so- ence retrospective evaluation to a greater extent when the experience cial decision domain, namely gift choices. In both of our pre-regis- involves grabbing a snack in a familiar fast-food outlet compared to a tered studies, we adopted a list learning paradigm from the episodic more involved and lengthy experience such as eating dinner at a new memory literature. More specifically, we asked our participants to fine dining establishment. Correspondence of simulation and empiri- study a list of 25 items (food items or gift items, in Study 1 and 2, cal results indicates that the mechanisms described by Minerva-EM respectively), and manipulated the recall task across our participants. account for the rating effect and suggest the model captures basic We randomly asked half of our participants to recall as many items processes responsible for retrospective evaluation more generally. as they could from the just-presented list (pure-memory condition). This work makes three important contributions. First, the model The other half of the participants deliberated through the items and extends a classic theory of memory (Hintzman 1984) to offer a unify- recalled them during a decision making task with the ultimate goal ing framework for our understanding of the behavior of consumers of making a choice (choice condition). when they rely on memory to evaluate consumption experiences. By analyzing the particular sequence of presented and recalled Second, simulation in Minerva-EM can benefit marketers seeking items of each participant, we were able to identify memory processes to understand when soliciting consumer feedback is advantageous. that underlie pure-memory and choice behavior tasks and compare Third, I demonstrate that cognitive computational modeling offers a them based on the particular task participants were engaged in. Our useful and fruitful strategy for investigating and understanding con- results showed that traditional memory regularities such as the pri- sumer behavior. macy effect, as well as semantic and temporal clustering, appear in both pure-memory and decision making situations. That said, we What I Like Is What I Remember: Memory Modulation found a stronger influence of temporal clustering in pure-memory in Preferential Choice than in choice. Additionally, preferences and frequency of consumption have a bigger effect in choice, with participants being more like- EXTENDED ABSTRACT ly to recall items they like or items they have consumed previously. Imagine meeting your new next-door neighbor for an afternoon Computational models fit to participant data provided converging tea. First, try to remember all of the restaurants in your neighborhood support for our results. to give her a list of available options. Now try to remember these Our results suggest a substantial overlap in the memory pro- restaurants with the explicit goal of choosing where to go for dinner. cesses used in pure-memory settings and in choice. However, these It is clear that your choice depends fundamentally on memory: A res- processes are not identical. Choice involves the modulation of taurant cannot be selected unless it is successfully recalled. But what memory to prioritize the retrieval of decision-relevant items, such as is less clear is how the choice task (the goal of selecting somewhere items that are highly desirable. One result of this is that other mem- to eat) modulates memory. How do memory processes during pref- ory effects, such as temporal clustering, weaken. Ultimately, our erential decision making compare with memory processes that guide experiments showcase a novel experimental paradigm for studying recall when individuals do not have to make a choice? memory in decision making. This paradigm is able to connect decision making with established memory-theories in cognitive psychol- Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1141 ogy. Future work should build on these connections, so as to better things they rated more highly, they did spend longer, on average, characterize the domain-general and domain-specific memory mech- looking at heavier foods and looking at food images that take up anisms at play in choice, and to better understand the ways in which more of the screen. memory can be intervened on to influence and improve choice. In order to identify the strongest connections (and thus, separa- tions) between the tasks, we use a combination of subject-level mod- Packaging vs . Product: Distinguishing Between Choice eling and machine learning. First, we draw on the attentional drift Domains With Computational Modeling diffusion model (Krajbich et al. 2010)—a computational model of decision making—to characterize the degree to which attention mod- EXTENDED ABSTRACT erates the choice process. We estimate subject-level effects in each When people shop, they are undoubtedly influenced by both the task and then examine inter-task correlations (or lack thereof). We products’ packaging and their mental representations of the products find the strongest positive correlations (1) between the two stimulus- inside the packaging. Therefore, it is important to understand how based tasks (i.e. image size and package preference) and (2) between people make decisions based on both types of information. Although the two representation-based tasks (i.e. taste and weight), while the choosing based on the packaging and choosing based on the prod- rest of the inter-task correlations were much smaller in magnitude (or uct inside the packaging are clearly different decisions, they may even negative). This provides some evidence that subjects’ stimulus- have similar underlying mechanisms. For instance, past research has based decision processes and mental representation-based decision uncovered a consistent effect of visual attention in many different processes are similar (regardless of whether the decision is objective types of choices; specifically, more attention to an option leads to or subjective in nature), specifically with regard to the link between an increased likelihood of choosing that option. This link applies to attention and choice. choices in many domains, including consumer goods (Krajbich et al. In a separate set of analyses, we combine ~30 machine learning 2012), monetary gambles (Stewart, Hermens, and Matthews 2015), classification methods to estimate inter-task (dis)similarity. These and even complex decision environments, like moral dilemmas (Pär- machine learning models utilize a wide variety of decision process namets et al. 2015). This attention-choice link also extends to per- measures (spanning choice, response time, and attention-based met- ceptual judgments, such as choosing the option that more closely rics) from the odd-numbered trials to learn patterns in the data. Then, resembles a target stimulus (Tavares, Perona, and Rangel 2017). the models use these learned patterns to try to accurately classify the However, past research (Polanía et al. 2014) has also demon- even-numbered trials into the appropriate category. We use pairwise strated, using neural (EEG) data, that there may be differences in classification accuracy rates as an index of dissimilarity, since the the decision-making process between preference-based choices (e.g. most dissimilar tasks should be the easiest to classify correctly. (On choosing which food to eat) and perceptual judgments (e.g. deciding the other hand, the most similar tasks should have the lowest classifi- which image is larger). However, in our initial example, choosing cation accuracy.) The machine learning models are most accurate at an item based on its packaging is both a perceptual- and preference- distinguishing between the taste and size tasks (in line with Polanía based task. Accordingly, we argue that the separation of perceptual et al. 2014), and the models are least accurate at distinguishing be- judgments and preference-based choices in the literature thus far has tween the representation-based tasks (i.e. taste and weight). Overall, been conflated with the separation of stimulus-based decisions (e.g. the machine learning results (in combination with the drift diffusion choosing which image is larger, based on the image itself) vs. de- approach described above) imply greater similarity in the decision cisions about the object represented by the stimulus (e.g. choosing process within the stimulus/representation categories than within the which food to eat, based on pictures representing the foods). There- subjective/objective categories. fore, it has not been possible to determine if the differences observed In this study, we investigate the separation of perceptual- and between perceptual- and preference-based choices are truly due to preference-based decisions suggested in the literature and demon- the perceptual/preference categorization or instead due to the stimu- strate that a more important distinction is the presentation of the lus/representation split. choice (i.e. whether the decision is about the stimulus itself or about Here, we present an alternative way to categorize decisions, a mental representation of the stimulus), rather than in the nature of based on two independent dimensions: (1) subjective vs. objective the choice (i.e. whether it is based on objective or subjective crite- and (2) stimulus vs. representation. In this project, we cross these ria). Therefore, there seems to be greater similarity in the decision dimensions and investigate the decision-making process in the four process among choices about which food is tastier or heavier (i.e. resulting categories, using the same stimulus set: food images. Spe- the representation-based tasks) than there is among choices based cifically, subjects (N = 42) first gave incentivized ratings for each of on taste or packaging (i.e. the preference-based tasks). Ultimately, the 100 food images in each of the four categories: taste (subjective; this study provides us with evidence that (1) although attention plays representation), weight (objective; representation), attractiveness of a large role across several different choice domains, (2) the choice the package (subjective; stimulus), and size of the image (objective; processes for products and packages are decidedly distinct. stimulus). Then, subjects made 100 incentivized, eye-tracked, binary choices in each of the four categories. Structural Dependencies in Computational Models of Overall, we find remarkable similarity between the tasks. In line Cognition in Consumer Research with past research, subjects chose in line with their subjective ratings (i.e. their preferences or perceptions, depending on the task). They EXTENDED ABSTRACT also tended to choose the option they looked at more; looking at One of the major purposes of cognitive modeling in consumer one option for a half-second longer translates to choosing the more research is measuring latent traits. This procedure is sometimes re- looked-at option ~70% of the time. Subjects also tended to choose ferred to as “cognitive psychometrics” (Batchelder and Riefer 1999; the option they looked at last; when subjects were indifferent be- Riefer, Knapp, Batchelder, Bamber, and Manifold 2002). Despite a tween the options, they chose the last looked-at option ~70% of the model’s fit and even despite a model’s predictive accuracy out-of- time. However, there were also some divisions between the tasks. sample, however, the model’s parameters might still not be correct For instance, although subjects did not spend more time looking at operationalizations of the underlying latent traits. Instead, the model 1142 / New Insights from Computational Models of Cognition in Consumer Research as-a-whole can be a very good proxy for the entire cognitive pro- reduced the parameter correlations, it greatly increased the model’s cess, while the individual parameter estimates do not represent the fit to the empirical data. suggested latent traits. An overconfidence in interpreting the param- Adding stochasticity to parameters has been proposed else- eters of cognitive models is often addressed with the famous quota- where as a better approach for risk (Blavatskyy and Pogrebna 2010) tion: “All models are wrong, but some are useful” (Box 1979). This as well as temporal discounting data (Apesteguia and Ballester idea emphasizes that cognitive models remain nonetheless statistical 2018). Our results dovetail with these findings. Following this line models, being proxies of cognitive processes. Researchers should be of reasoning, adding stochasticity to model parameters may be tested cautious when interpreting the model parameters, and even more so as a better-suited approach to cover the type of noise observed in if the necessary pre-condition to measuring latent traits is not ful- choice data, in general. filled—that is, the independent and reliable estimation of model pa- Two major suggestions that are relevant for the application of rameters. cognitive models in consumer research can be inferred from these Unfortunately, in several cognitive models that are commonly results. First, we suggest that the different model selection criteria used in consumer research, parameters are indeed structurally depen- should be weighted differently considering the purpose of the cogni- dent. One particular set of models that is commonly applied in con- tive model. Evaluating a model and comparing it with competitors sumer research is subject to very strong parameter intercorrelations. can lead to different results, depending on which model selection These models assume that behavior can be regarded as a probabilis- criterion is the focus. For instance, a model’s fit and out-of-sample tic choice among alternatives. The alternatives are assigned subjec- prediction are most important if the main purpose lies in predict- tive values. Free parameters in the model govern non-linear func- ing behavior across similar tasks. Independent parameter estimation, tions assigning the subjective values to the alternatives, and other parameter recovery and parameter correlations with neuronal or pro- parameters govern probabilistic choice functions, such as a logistic cess data are important if the researcher aims to measure the under- choice function to map the subjective values to the choices. This lying cognitive process or latent traits, and if the researcher aims to structure can be found in risky choice models, temporal discount- generalize predictions across tasks and domains. If the goal of the ing models or categorization models, to name but a few models that cognitive model lies in measuring latent traits that can subsequently are relevant to consumer research. In these models, parameters that be used for follow-up analyses, it must be guaranteed that the cor- determine the subjective value function also scale the input values, responding model parameters are estimated independently, in order while the response noise parameters in the choice function scale the to make valid inferences on the parameters. Second, we suggest subjective values to map them to the probability scale. As a conse- consumer researchers to conduct a parameter-recovery study. Every quence, the response noise parameter is dependent not only on the introduction of a new cognitive model to measure latent traits or in- scale introduced by the other parameter, it depends on the parameter dividual differences should be accompanied by a parameter-recovery itself that is governing the function. The dependency between the study to prove that parameter estimation is reliable. 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Paper #1: Resource Sharing in the Sharing Economy: Low should do both an overnight work-shift and sleep), and, when the Childhood Socioeconomic Status as a Barrier poor fail to meet these impossible expectations, they judge them as Yuechen Wu, Johns Hopkins University, USA lazier and less competent than the rich. Meng Zhu, Johns Hopkins University, USA Taken together, this session integrates new perspectives regarding the psychological, behavioral and social consequences of being Paper #2: Effects of Childhood Socioeconomic Status on Product poor. We believe that this session will appeal to a broad audience, Retention and Disposal Behavior in Adulthood including researchers interested in resource scarcity, socioeconomic Lisa Park, Georgetown University, USA status, poverty, the sharing economy, prosocial and ethical behaviors, Rebecca Hamilton, Georgetown University, USA and person perception. Paper #3: Are Rich/Educated Consumers less Ethical and Prosocial? Two Direct, Preregistered Replications of Piff et al.’s Resource Sharing in the Sharing Economy: Low (2012) Field Studies Childhood Socioeconomic Status as a Barrier Minah Jung, New York University, USA Joachim Vosgerau, Bocconi University, Italy EXTENDED ABSTRACT Paul Smeets, Maastricht University, The Netherlands In the past decade, the sharing economy has blossomed across Jan Stoop, Erasmus University, The Netherlands a range of domains such as lodging (e.g., Airbnb, HomeAway) and Paper #4: Impossible Expectations for the Poor transportation (e.g., Lyft, Uber, Turo). While extant literature has Anuj K. Shah, University of Chicago, USA systematically examined consumers’ motivation to join the sharing economy on the demand side as users (Belk 2013; Lamberton and SESSION OVERIVEW Rose 2012), it remains understudied what factors might impact con- Although abundance has emerged as the norm in modern in- sumers’ willingness to share their own assets on the supply side. dustrialized societies, resource distribution inequality and scarcity In this paper, we examine one fundamental factor that could remains prevalent across the globe (Roux, Goldsmith and Bonezzi impact consumers’ tendency of providing their own assets in the 2015). According to the World Bank, in 2015 about 10 percent of the sharing economy: socioeconomic status (SES). Somewhat intuitive- world population lived on less than $1.90 per day. Even within devel- ly, current SES might positively impact a person’s resource sharing oped economies like the United States, approximately 38.1 million behavior in the sharing-economy, as higher current SES consumers people lived in poverty in 2018, and more than 25% of children (20.1 have more assets (e.g., rooms, cars, spare tools) that can be shared million) live in households where no parent has secure employment with others in the first place. However, it is unclear whether and how (Kids Count Data Book 2019). Despite the accumulating interest in the socioeconomic environment one grew up in might exert an inde- topics regarding poverty and scarcity, many questions still need to be pendent impact on consumers’ willingness to share their resources answered regarding the consequences of being poor. For example, in the sharing economy. Although current SES and childhood SES how are consumption behaviors shaped by the experience of being are correlated, a rich body of research in psychology and sociology poor? Does low socioeconomic status make a consumer more self- has suggested that SES exposures during childhood, independent of ish? Are there social penalties to being poor? adulthood, are predictive of individuals’ preferences, decisions and This session sheds light on these questions; four papers exam- behaviors in the adulthood, including reproductive timing, eating ine the behavioral, psychological, and social consequences of being habits, and health outcomes (Amir et al. 2016; Cohen et al. 2010; poor. Wu and Zhu investigate whether socioeconomic status influ- Hill et al. 2016). In the present paper, we seek to isolate the effects ences consumers’ participation in the sharing economy as service of childhood SES on consumers’ resource sharing decisions from the providers. They find that consumers growing up in a lower socio- possible impact of current SES and resource availability. economic environment are less likely to share their own resources We propose (and find) that lower childhood SES decreases con- the sharing economy, controlling for current SES. Further, they show sumers’ willingness to share their own assets in the sharing economy. that greater territorial feelings over one’s own possessions serve as a In particular, drawing from prior research characterizing different so- central mechanism driving this effect. Consistent with these territori- cioeconomic environments (Amir et al. 2016; Evans and Kim 2012; al feelings, Park and Hamilton show that childhood SES influences Evans and Cassells 2013; Kraus et al. 2011; Stamos, Altsitsiadis, and consumer decision making related to product retention and dispos- Dewitte 2019) and past work on territoriality (Brown, Lawrence, and al. Controlling for current SES, low childhood SES consumers are Robinson 2005; Kirk, Peck, and Swain 2017), we argue that the psy- found to experience more negative emotions during disposal, report chological costs of sharing ownership can be higher for consumers greater desire to retain products, and dispose of products less fre- growing up in a lower socioeconomic environment, as these consum- quently than consumers with more abundant resources growing up. ers might have developed greater territorial feelings towards their The third and fourth papers examine social interactions and in- own property. As a result of the greater territoriality, lower childhood ferences. Jung, Vosgerau, Smeets, and Stoop investigate whether SES consumers might be less likely to share their own assets in the socioeconomic status predicts ethical behaviors. Contrary to prior sharing economy, an effect that goes above and beyond the effect of findings suggesting that the poor behave more ethically compared individuals’ current socioeconomic status. to the rich (e.g., are less likely to cut-off others at intersections and We conducted three preregistered studies as well as used a cross-walks), they find no relationship between socioeconomic status national-level field dataset to test the proposed effect and the under- and consumers’ ethical behaviors. The last paper examines the social lying mechanism. Study 1 (N = 204) tested the effect in a peer-to- consequences of being poor. Shah finds that consumers can have peer car-sharing domain using a real-behavioral dependent variable. inconsistent and even impossible expectations of the poor (e.g., they Participants first described a car that they currently have, and read

Advances in Consumer Research 1144 Volume 48, ©2020 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1145 about a short description about Turo, a car-sharing platform. We then versus resource scarce environment (Griskevicius et al. 2011). In our asked participants to choose between reading two topics about Turo: research, we explore the lasting effects of childhood SES on consum- an article about how to list cars on Turo, and a recent news article er retention and disposal habits. More specifically, when controlling about Turo. Participants then indicated their childhood SES (“When for current SES, we predict that low childhood SES consumers will you were growing up, what was your assessment of your family’s experience more negative emotion during disposal, report greater de- social and economic status?”; Amir, Jordan and Rand 2018) and cur- sire to retain products, and dispose of products less frequently than rent SES (e.g., “I have enough money to buy things I want”; Hill et high childhood SES consumers. al. 2016) As predicted, controlling for current SES, individuals with Because childhood SES adjusts individuals’ expectations and lower childhood SES were significantly less likely to read the article patterns of responses, it may be more predictive of adult behavior about listing cars on Turo, implying decreased interests of resources than current SES (Chen and Miller 2012; Griskevicius et al. 2011; sharing. Griskevicius and Kenrick 2013), especially combined with the im- Study 2 (N = 201) explored the underlying mechanism. Partici- pact of parental influence. In particular, early life conditions may pants read a scenario where they imagined that they had a spare room program individuals to respond to future adversity in different ways. in their house, indicated their likelihood of listing their spare room Although adults with different SES backgrounds may behave simi- on Airbnb, and explained in an open-ended question, why they made larly in benign situations, they may behave very differently when the decision. We coded the open-ended responses (Khan et al., 2011, facing threatening conditions. For example, in response to a threat, Zhu et al. 2018) and found that people with lower SES growing up individuals of low childhood SES were found to be more impulsive, had stronger territorial feelings over their possessions, which medi- risk-taking, and suggestible to temptation compared to their high ated the effect of childhood SES on participating in sharing economy. childhood SES counterparts (Griskevicius et al. 2011). Study 3 (N = 594) provided further evidence for the territorial- We propose that low childhood SES consumers may experi- feeling mechanism by directly manipulating participants’ level of ence more negative emotion during disposal and greater reluctance ownership toward the object. Participants described an object in to dispose of products than high childhood SES consumers due to their house that they purchased (control condition) or other people early life experiences that encourage them to focus on self-preser- purchased (low ownership condition) and indicated their likelihood vation and resource preservation. In a sense, disposal of products of listing this object on a community resource-sharing platform. We contradicts the life history strategy they adopted as resource-scarce found that in the control condition, lower childhood SES participants children. Notably, childhood SES may have distinct effects across were less likely to list their own possessions on the sharing-economy stages of the consumer decision journey (Hamilton et al. 2019). For platforms, replicating prior findings. However, in the low ownership example, while low childhood SES seems to predict greater impul- condition, the effect of childhood SES on likelihood to share own siveness during initial choice (Griskevicius et al. 2011), it predicts assets in the sharing economy was attenuated. greater patience after consumers make an initial choice and learn that Study 4 (N = 57,155) employed a publicly available nation-lev- their choice is not immediately available (Thompson, Hamilton and el field dataset: China Family Panel Studies (2010). Our primary DV Banerji 2020). Although there is some evidence that low socioeco- was whether participants had ever rented out a spare room in their nomic status consumers tend to repurpose consumption items (see house. We used maternal education attainment as a proxy for early- Hill 2001; Rosa et al. 2012), there has not been a systematic exami- life socioeconomic stability (Duncan and Brooks-Gunn 1997) and nation of the effects of childhood SES on consumers’ disposal and coded individuals as high (vs. low) childhood SES if their mother retention habits. Thus, we used a multi-method approach to examine had completed some formal education (vs. no formal education). We the effects of childhood SES on consumers’ disposal and retention used propensity score matching method to control for confounding habits and emotions experienced during disposal. variables including the mother’s year of birth, household current Our first step was to conduct 22 interviews with consumers to SES, house space, family size, participants’ number of siblings, age, understand their disposal and retention habits, potential relationships gender, marital status, education and job types. Replicating prior between these habits, their current and childhood socioeconomic sta- studies, individuals whose socioeconomic stability was high (vs. tus and other demographic variables. We leveraged peer networks low) in their early life were more likely to rent out their spare room. to recruit participants who varied in gender (10 male, 12 female), Further, as a robustness check, we regressed participants’ room- age (21-78), ethnicity (13 Caucasion, 7 Asian, 2 Hispanic), and both renting behaviors on childhood SES index (i.e., parents’ completed childhood and current SES. Overall, participants were more likely to schooling and occupational prestige), controlling for the covariate self-categorize as “savers” than as “tossers,” perhaps due to the social variables, and found similar results. desirability of avoiding wastefulness. However, their descriptions of To conclude, the current research reveals that lower childhood when and why they preferred to save items rather than dispose of SES can lead to decreased likelihood of sharing own resources the them diverged substantially. Eight prominent themes emerged after sharing economy, an effect for which greater territorial feelings over analyzing all of the interviews: concerns about price paid for items, one’s own possessions emerge as a central driver. emotional attachment to items, clutter/space concerns, desire to repurpose items, concern over having to replace products, childhood Effects of Childhood Socioeconomic Status on Product experiences, and the impact of parents on retention and disposal. Retention and Disposal Behavior in Adulthood These interviews revealed that childhood experiences have a strong impact on post-purchasing habits, primarily through parental EXTENDED ABSTRACT influence. Many interviewees admitted to emulating their parents’ Earlier research has demonstrated that socioeconomic status habits in adulthood. For example, those who observed frugal par- (SES) in childhood has enduring effects on consumers’ attitudes ents were more likely to be conscious of their disposal and reten- towards products (Chaplin et al. 2014), their attitudes towards risk tion habits than those who did not. Moreover, changes in childhood (Griskevicius et al. 2013), and their willingness to wait for products SES seemed to have a particularly strong effect. Participants who (Thompson, Hamilton and Banerji 2020). Childhood SES reflects experienced financial shocks (e.g., immigrating to a new country, the degree to which an individual grew up in a resource abundant bankruptcy) during their childhood often experienced more nega- 1146 / The Social, Psychological and Behavioral Consequences of Being Poor tive emotions when disposing of products in adulthood than those The Piff et al. (2012) paper, and particularly these two field who did not experience financial shocks. Changes in disposal and studies, have been discussed extensively in the popular media (e.g., retention habits also coincided with changes in SES. Ultimately, one New York Times 2010, 2013, 2015, 2017; The Economist 2010; of the most critical determinants of retention and disposal habits Business Insider 2012, 2015; BBC 2015; CNN 2018; NPR 2018; in adulthood seemed to be how a consumer remembered his or her The Washington Post 2018) and in the academic literature (at the childhood SES rather than more objective measures of childhood in- time of writing this proposal, the paper had over 825 Google Scholar come or parental education. citations). Next, we conducted confirmatory research to measure the re- Research in economics and sociology, in contrast, has hypoth- lationship between childhood SES and retention and disposal habits esized and found the opposite, a positive relationship between SES in adulthood. Specifically, we developed items to capture each of and prosocial/ethical behavior. From an economic point of view, so- the eight themes identified in our exploratory research, disposal and cial preferences such as caring about others’ wellbeing and valuing retention habits, and emotions experienced during disposal. We also ethical principles implicate substantial opportunity costs, costs that included measures of both objective and subjective childhood SES only those with sufficient resources can afford to bear (Trautmann and current SES. Two hundred twenty-eight consumers of varying et al. 2013). In line with this reasoning, individuals living in richer ages, ethnicities, education and income levels were recruited to par- areas have been shown to be more likely than those from poorer ticipate via Amazon MTurk. The results point to a significant rela- areas to send back wrongly addressed letters containing cash (An- tionship between childhood SES and retention and disposal habits dreoni, Nikiforakis, & Stoop 2017). Korndörfer et al. (2015), using in adulthood. Consumers with higher childhood SES reported more the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP), the GSS, the American frequent disposal and different reasons for disposing of products. Consumer Expenditure Survey (CEX), and the International So- Specifically, high childhood SES consumers were more likely to cial Survey Programme (ISSP), showed that―across 30 countries dispose of products based on how they looked and dispose of unfin- including the US―high SES individuals are more likely to make ished products. The data also revealed that positive emotions when charitable donations and to contribute a higher percentage of their disposing, such as pride, strength and enthusiasm, were more closely family income to charity, to be more helpful and likely to volunteer, correlated to high childhood SES than current SES. In contrast, low and to be more trusting and trustworthy in an economic game when childhood SES consumers were more likely to report retaining items interacting with a stranger than low SES individuals. because they had paid a lot for them or holding onto them based on We conducted two direct, highly-powered, and pre-registered concern about needing them in the future. replications of the two field studies in Piff et al. (2012). In summary, both our exploratory and confirmatory research Study 1 is a direct replication of field study 1 in Piff et al. (2012). suggest that childhood SES has a lasting effect on consumer post- We observed the behavior of drivers at the same four-way intersec- purchase behavior in adulthood. Consumers who reported lower sub- tion in Berkeley, California, as in the original study. We aimed at jective childhood SES are more reluctant to dispose of products than collecting 2.5 times the original’s study’s sample size (Noriginal = 274, those who reported higher subjective childhood SES. Notably, con- Nreplication= 685). With a correlation of r = .12 between vehicle status sumers’ memory of financial hardships during childhood seems to be and likelihood of cutting off as observed in the original study, the a more important predictor than the accuracy of recall. Building on replication had 88% power to detect the effect at the 5% level (two- prior research linking childhood SES to adult choice and consump- sided test). The training of the coders (research assistants), coding of tion behavior, our research suggests that experiences in the formative vehicle status (1 = cars worth $3,000 or less; 2 = $3,001-$10,000; 3 years of childhood have a particularly strong effect on adult habits = $10,001-$25,000; 4 = $25,001-$40,000; 5 = cars worth more than related to retention and disposal of products. $40,000), age and gender of drivers, and position of the coders were the same as in the original study. Unlike in Piff et al.’s (2012) study Are Rich/Educated Consumers less Ethical and 1, vehicle status and cutting-off as judged by the first team of coders Prosocial? Two Direct, Preregistered Replications of Piff were not correlated, r = .014, p = .71, nor were vehicle status and et al .’s (2012) Field Studies cutting-off as judged by the second team of coders, r = -.024, p = .53. Binary logistic regressions on the likelihood of cutting-off other EXTENDED ABSTRACT vehicles, controlling for traffic density, time of day, and driver’s age Who behaves more miserly and unethically, the poor or the and sex, neither showed a relationship between vehicle status and rich? Some psychologists maintain that it is the rich, or more specifi- likelihood of cutting-off ps( > 0.60). cally, citizens of high socioeconomic status (SES). It is argued that Study 2 is a direct replication of field study 2 in Piff et al. (2012) people of high SES are more independent and less socially attuned at a crosswalk in Berkeley, California. Research assistants blind to than the lower social classes, and thus feel less compassion towards the study hypothesis observed and coded the likelihood of drivers others (Stellar et al. 2012). As a consequence, they are hypothesized not yielding right of way to pedestrians at the crosswalk. The cross- to be more likely to engage in antisocial and unethical behaviors walk on Bancroft Way at the intersection with Ellsworth in Berkeley (Piff et al. 2010; Kraus et al. 2012). Consistent with this hypothesis, was chosen rather than the crosswalk at the intersection of Bancroft it has been shown that high SES individuals are less likely to give to Way and Dana Street used in the original study, because Paul Piff charity and to help and trust others (Piff et al. 2010), and to be more informed us that the original crosswalk now has pedestrian lights likely to engage in selfish and unethical behaviors, such as taking installed and is hence no longer suited for the study. We aimed at candies from children, lying in job negotiations, cheating, pilfering, collecting 2.5 times the sample size of the original study (N = 152). and outright stealing (Piff et al. 2010; Piff et a. 2012; Côté et al. The final dataset included 439 observations. Due to a data encoding 2013; Guinote et al. 2015; Dubois et al. 2015). Piff et al. (2012) con- error we lost 75 observations, leaving us with 364 complete records, ducted two field studies, which show that ― compared to drivers of 16 short of the 380 that we had pre-registered. With a correlation of less luxurious cars ― drivers of luxurious vehicles are more likely to r = .17 between vehicle status and likelihood of not yielding right cut off others at intersections and are less likely to yield right of way of way to pedestrians as reported in Piff et al. (2012), study 2 had to pedestrians at crosswalks. 91% power to detect the effect at the 5% level. Unlike in Piff et al. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1147

(2012), vehicle status and likelihood of not yielding right of way to day across different tasks, participants’ answers sum to more than 24 pedestrians did not correlate, r = .004, p = .93. Also, binary logistic hours for the poor, not so for the rich. regressions controlling for traffic, time of day, and driver’s age and Studies 5A-D show that the poor are judged as lazier and less sex showed no relationship between vehicle status and likelihood of competent for failing to meet these (impossible) expectations; the not yielding to pedestrians (lowest p = .59). rich are not. For example, in Study 5D participants read a scenario describing how a (poor/rich) person could participate in one of two Impossible Expectations for the Poor gig-economy promotions that offered higher wages than usual. One of the promotions was a “driving” promotion (e.g., driving for Uber); EXTENDED ABSTRACT the other was a “delivery” promotion (e.g., deliveries for Uber Eats). People often believe poor individuals should do various things These two promotions were mutually exclusive. Half of the partici- to improve their lives (e.g., work longer hours, sell certain posses- pants were asked whether they thought the person should do the driv- sions). It is possible that these are just matters of opinion (about ing promotion. The other half were asked whether they thought the which people can agree or disagree). This paper asks whether these person should do the delivery promotion. Overall, significantly more beliefs are formed in a way that might lead to inconsistent or im- participants thought the poor should do the promotion they were possible expectations for the poor (but not the rich). That is, some asked about (86%) than should the rich (63%). Critically, expecta- of these beliefs might not just be things that people can agree or tions for the poor were essentially impossible—88% of participants disagree about, but are actually impossible and violate normative said the poor should do the delivery promotion, 85% said they should standards. do the driving promotion (both significantly greater than 50%). Why does this occur? When evaluating whether a person should The next phase of the study asked participants to make an attri- do something to make money, people focus narrowly on the oppor- bution about the person they just read about. Participants were either tunity without considering other things a person might do. There are assigned to the “control” condition or the “failure” condition. Par- many intuitive reasons why the poor should take the opportunity ticipants in the control condition were asked how lazy they think the (they need money). There are fewer intuitive reasons why the rich person is (on a scale from 1 to 7). Participants in the failure condition should (they have enough money). So when people consider whether were asked to first imagine that the person does not do the promo- the poor should do something to make money, the intuitive answer tion that the participants were just asked about. Then participants is “Yes.” were asked how lazy they think the person is. There was a signifi- Here, I document three effects that stem from this. First, this cant interaction such that participants in the failure condition rated intuitive belief means that people’s expectations for the poor depend the poor as significantly lazier (M=3.47) than in the control con- heavily on how a question is framed; their expectations are therefore dition (M=2.36). But participants did not rate the rich significantly often inconsistent. Moreover, people often argue that the poor should differently in the failure condition (M=2.86) and control condition do mutually exclusive things (i.e., do the impossible). Second, when (M=2.68). Taken together, people have impossible expectations for the poor fail to meet these inconsistent or impossible expectations the poor (more so than for the rich) and people judge the poor more (which is inevitable), they rate the poor are lazier or less competent. harshly (but not the rich) when they fail to meet these expectations. Third, this leads people to set inconsistent or impossible conditions Studies 6A-B show that this leads people to set inconsistent and for poverty alleviation policies. I find evidence for this across over impossible conditions for anti-poverty policies. For example, when 10 studies with ~100 participants per cell (e.g., 400 Ps for a 2x2 be- participants are asked how long the poor should have to work in tween-subjects study) in all studies. Below, I highlight a few studies. order to qualify for food stamps, the median response is age 50. But Study1 (2x2 between-subjects): Participants read about a rich when asked whether the poor should have to work past age 51 to or poor person, and participants were assigned to Phase1 or Phase2. qualify for food stamps, 64% of people say yes. This leads to escalat- Phase1 participants were asked how many hours the (rich or poor) ing requirements for the poor to receive benefits. person should work for a given wage. Median response for the poor: 10 hours; rich: 5 hours. Phase2 participants were asked a narrower REFERENCES version of this question—whether the person should work more than Amir, Dorsa, Matthew R. Jordan, and Richard G. Bribiescas the median response from Phase1. Normatively, Phase2 answers (2016), “A Longitudinal Assessment of Associations Between should be around 50% (because people are asked whether someone Adolescent Environment, Adversity Perception, and Economic should work more than the median number of hours). 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Stellar, Jennifer E., Vida M. Manzo, Michael W. Kraus, and Dacher Thompson, Debora V., Rebecca W. Hamilton and Ishani Banerji Keltner (2012). “Class and compassion: Socioeconomic (2020), “The Effect of Childhood Socioeconomic Status on factors predict responses to suffering.”Emotion, 12(3), 449- Patience,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision 460. Processes, 157 (March), 85-102. Stamos, Angelos, Efthymios Altsitsiadis, and Siegfried Trautmann, Stefan T., Gijs van de Kuilen, and Richard J. Dewitte (2019), “Investigating The Effect Of Childhood Zeckhauser (2013). “Social class and (un) ethical behavior: A Socioeconomic Background On Interpersonal Trust: Lower framework, with evidence from a large population sample.” Childhood Socioeconomic Status Predicts Lower Levels Of Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(5), 487-497. Trust,” Personality and Individual Differences, 145, 19-25. Vernon-Feagans, Lynne, Patricia Garrett-Peters, Allison De The Annie E. Casey Foundation. 2019 Kids Count Data Book: Marco, and Mary Bratsch-Hines (2012), “Children Living In State Trends in Child Well-Being. https://www.aecf.org/m/ Rural Poverty: The Role Of Chaos In Early Development,” resourcedoc/aecf-2019kidscountdatabook-2019.pdf. In V. Maholmes & R. King (Eds). The Oxford handbook of The Washington Post (2018). “Are rich people more likely to poverty and child development (pp. 448-466). Oxford: Oxford lie, cheat, steal? Science explains the world of Manafort University Press. and Gates.” retrieved on August 14th 2018 from https:// Zhu, M., Y. Yang & C. K. Hsee (2018), “The Mere Urgency Effect,” www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/ Journal of Consumer Research, 45(3), 673-90. wp/2018/08/13/are-rich-people-more-likely-to-lie-cheat-steal- science-explains-the-world-of%E2%80%A6/ The Troubles of Gifts: Exploring the Challenges Faced by Givers and Receivers Chair: Lingrui Zhou, Duke University, USA

Paper #1: Buying Gifts for Multiple Recipients: How Culture ceivers, and that this is caused by mispredictions in feelings of guilt. Affects Whose Desires Are Prioritized Indebtedness then leads to increased likelihood for receivers to get a Ruomeng Wu, Western Kentucky University, USA return gift, which givers also do not anticipate. Mary Steffel, Northeastern University, USA In paper 4, Ward, Lowe, Reich, and Fajardo examine circum- Sharon Shavitt, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, stances where giving a spontaneous gift results in worse outcomes USA than not giving a gift. The authors find that for high-investment relationships, receiving a low-expenditure gift decreases affiliation with Paper #2: Buying Love: Gifts as a Form of Social Support the giver compared to not receiving a gift at all. The effect is attenu- Hillary Wiener, University at Albany, USA ated for low-investment relationships. Holly Howe, Duke University, USA These four papers highlight the various obstacles givers and re- Tanya Chartrand, Duke University, USA ceivers encounter and some of the unintended consequences of gifts. Paper #3: The Burden of Gifts: How Givers Mispredict Negative Taken together, we provide insight on givers’ thought processes Reactions of Receivers when choosing what to give, as well as the potentially negative reac- Lingrui Zhou, Duke University, USA tions experienced by receivers. Accordingly, this session should have Tanya Chartrand, Duke University, USA broad appeal to those who are interested in gift giving, cultural differ- Paper #4: Thanks for Nothing: When Giving a Gift is Worse ences, social support, and consumer relationships. than Giving Nothing at All Morgan Ward, Emory University, USA Individuating Gifts out of Liking and Respect: Michael L. Lowe, Georgia Institute of Technology, USA Expanding Gift Giving Theory with a Cross-Culture Taly Reich, Yale University, USA Perspective Tatiana M. Fajardo, Florida State University, USA EXTENDED ABSTRACT SESSION OVERVIEW Gift givers often tailor their gift selections to show consideration Gift exchange is a common societal practice that has been a to recipients. Consequently, givers who shop for multiple recipients tradition for thousands of years (Culture and Society 2015). The pur- at once tend to pass up gifts that they know would be preferred in chasing of gifts is a giant industry all across the world. The aver- favor of different gifts for each recipient (Steffel and LeBoeuf 2014). age American was expected to spend over $900 on gifts in 2019, Although prior research illuminates how the immediate context in- a number that has been steadily growing over the past few years fluences overindividuation, little is known about the influence of the (Haury 2019). Moreover, gifts have important psychological effects, broader cultural context. The present research explores how cultural being able to bring people closer together and perpetuate relation- values influence overindividuation. ships (Belk and Coon 1993; Chan and Mogilner 2016). On the other We predict that overindividuation is not a uniquely Western hand, gifts also have the potential to create conflict and negatively phenomenon—Westerners’ independent values may foster overin- impact relationships (Sherry, McGrath, and Levy 1993). Given such dividuation by emphasizing the value of treating people as unique immense financial and psychological consequences, understanding individuals, but Easterners’ interdependent values may also foster the potential impacts, both positive and negative, that underly gift overindividuation by emphasizing the value of moderating choices exchange can provide important insight for consumers. In particular, based on the social context (Fukuoka et al. 2005). Additionally, how this session aims to shed light on the challenges faced during gift giv- people from different cultures individuate gifts may differ depending ing, from both the givers’ and receivers’ perspectives. on norms regarding how to properly acknowledge others’ standing Papers 1 and 2 examine the burdens givers experience when within a given social context. Whereas Western values emphasize given the opportunity to give a gift. In paper 1, Wu, Steffel, and choosing mainly based on personal preferences, Eastern cultures em- Shavitt explore the overindividualization of gift giving for multiple phasize choosing based on social hierarchy and status (Riemer et al. recipients from a cross-cultural perspective. The authors find that 2014). As a result, the criteria that consumers use to decide whose while both Easterners and Westerners tend to overindividuate when preferences to prioritize should differ across cultures. We predict that choosing for multiple others, Easterners are more likely to overindi- Westerners will prioritize the preferences of recipients that they like viduate when there are status differences amongst recipients. better by choosing a better-liked gift for personally preferred recipi- Sometimes gift giving is the response to a difficult situation ents and a unique but less-liked gift for less preferred recipients. But rather than the cause of one. Wiener, Howe, and Chartrand look they will not differentiate recipients based on their social status. By at gift giving as a method of social support. They demonstrate that contrast, Easterners will prioritize the preferences of recipients who when encountering someone in need of support, consumers are more have higher social status and not necessarily the preferences of re- likely to give gifts instead of providing emotional support when the cipients they like better. other is perceived as difficult to support. Interestingly, gift giving Experiment 1 examined whether givers from both a Western actually reduces the receiver’s negative affect more so than providing culture (United States) and an Eastern culture (China) overindividu- emotional support. ate gifts for multiple recipients. Participants were recruited simulta- Papers 3 and 4 explore the potential negative reactions that re- neously from the U.S. (N = 114) and China (N = 149) and randomly ceivers experience when getting a gift. Zhou and Chartrand examine assigned to imagine choosing a birthday gift for either one or two the mismatch between givers and receivers in terms of predicting unacquainted recipients. In the two-recipient condition, the target receivers’ feelings of indebtedness caused by the gift. They find that recipient preferred silver but also liked gold, and the other recipi- givers underestimate the amount of indebtedness experienced by re- ent preferred only silver. In the one-recipient condition, participants

Advances in Consumer Research 1150 Volume 48, ©2020 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1151 chose gifts only for the target recipient. Despite their cultural differ- Overindividuating gifts for multiple recipients occurs across ences, givers in both cultures were less likely to get the silver frame cultures. However, the dimensions along which overindividuation for the target recipient in the two-recipient condition than in the one- occurs vary in ways that reflect cultural values. Although Americans recipient condition (41% vs. 76%; p < .001), and overindividuation overindividuate based only on personal liking, Chinese overindivid- did not vary based on culture (p = .98). uate based on both liking and status. Experiment 2 sought to determine whether givers from West- ern and Eastern cultures overindividuate differently based on - per Buying Love: Gifts as a Form of Social Support sonal liking, relative status, or both, and whether these differences are driven by cultural values dictating who should be shown greater EXTENDED ABSTRACT consideration. Participants from the U.S. (N = 318) and China (N Social support is critically important to people’s health and = 341) imagined choosing iPad cases for two unacquainted recipi- happiness (Thoits 1995), and not providing or providing low-qual- ents who either differed in how much they were liked (favorite co- ity social support damages relationships (Dakof and Taylor 1990). worker vs. liked coworker) or in their status (higher-status coworker However, people often do not provide support to others. When con- vs. same-status coworker). Both recipients preferred a black case, fronted with a loved one’s tragedy, would-be support providers often but the higher-status/favorite coworker also liked brown, and the avoid the affected, refuse to talk about the difficult topic, or mini- same-status/liked coworker also liked beige. Participants were free mize the problem (Barbee and Cunningham 1995; Dakof and Taylor to choose the same or different iPad cases for the recipients. Finally, 1990). One reason people avoid providing support is because provid- participants reported to what extent they felt they should show con- ing high-quality emotional support can be difficult and unpleasant sideration to each recipient. (Wortman and Dunkel-Schetter 1987). Overall, participants overindividuated by choosing the pre- In this paper we propose an alternate way that consumers can ferred black iPad case for the higher status/favorite coworker more support others who are struggling: giving them a gift. Gifts have often than for the same status/liked coworker (p < .001). More im- been found to be important in relationship maintenance, but most gift portantly, there was a three-way interaction between culture, rela- research has focused on gifts given for celebratory events (Ward and tionship, and recipient on gift choices (p = .01). Both Chinese and Chan 2015). We focus on gifts given in response to others’ negative American participants chose the preferred gift more often for the events, such as a loved one’s death. Consumers regularly give gifts, favorite coworker than the liked coworker (both p = .001). By con- such as flowers or care packages, under these circumstances (Post trast, Chinese participants chose the preferred gift more often for and Senning 2017). However, little is known about when consumers the higher-status coworker than the same-status coworker (p < .001), are most likely to give these gifts or how supported recipients feel but American participants did not differentiate between recipients when receiving them. based on status (p = 1.00). Furthermore, both American and Chinese We propose that the more difficult it is to provide emotional participants felt their favorite (vs. liked) coworker should be treated support, the more likely the support provider is to give a gift. In with greater consideration (both p < .05). However, Chinese partici- particular, support providers report that providing support to pessi- pants felt their higher (vs. same)-status coworker should be treated mistic, negative people is stressful and difficult (Forest et al. 2014). with greater consideration more so than did American participants (p Giving a gift is an alternative way to fulfil the support obligation < .001 vs. p = .07, respectively). (Clark 1987), so we propose that givers will be more likely to pro- Experiment 3 examined whether power distance belief, the de- vide support by giving a gift when the recipient is pessimistic. gree to which people believe in or endorse hierarchy and status dif- We also investigate how effective recipients find emotional sup- ferences in society, predicts gift choices in the same manner as the port versus gifts to be. Recipients may view gifts negatively, as giv- national culture differences. The design of Experiment 3 was similar ers “buying their affection” but also report that emotional support is to that of Experiment 2, except that participants completed a measure often ineffective (Lehman, Ellard, and Wortman 1986). Therefore, of power distance belief (α = .55; Zhang et al. 2010) rather than a we propose that receiving a gift will lead to a larger improvement in measure of consideration norms. mood than receiving emotional support will. As expected, Westerners and Easterners followed different Study 1a examines when givers choose to support someone criteria to overindividuate gifts for multiple recipients. U.S. givers with a gift rather than by providing emotional support. Participants (N = 210) prioritized the preference of the better-liked recipient ac- (n = 48) came to the lab in groups and were told that they would cording to their relative attitudes towards the recipients, such that be paired with another participant. They were shown the personality U.S. givers (p < .001), but not Chinese givers (N = 241, p = .26), profile of their “partner.” They did not have a partner; instead these chose the preferred gift more often for the best friend than for the profiles contained the recipient personality manipulation: The part- acquittance. However, Chinese givers prioritized the preferences of ner was either pessimistic or optimistic. Then participants were told the higher-status recipient according to the relative social status of their partner had been through a break-up and were asked whether the recipients, as Chinese givers (p < .001), but not U.S. givers (p = they wanted to spend five minutes talking to them about it (i.e., pro- .11) chose the preferred gift more often for the manager than the co- vide emotional support) or pay $1 (from their $7 study payment) worker. Moreover, power distance belief predicted gift choices (the to give them a gift. Participants were significantly more likely to three-way interaction: p < .05) in the same manner as did national provide support by giving a gift, rather than by providing emotional culture differences. This pattern of results was consistent with prior support, when the support recipient seemed pessimistic (54%) rather research, such that individual differences in power distance belief than optimistic (25%, χ2 = 4.27, p = .039). predict attention to the status signals sent by one’s consumption (e.g. Study 1b (n = 225) is a conceptual replication of study 1a. Par- Gao et al. 2016). In line with this, givers higher in power distance ticipants read a scenario about a pessimistic or optimistic person in belief prioritized the preferences of the recipient with higher status, need of support. Participants chose whether to support the recipient whereas those lower in power distance belief prioritized the prefer- by sending them a care package or talking to them on the phone and ences of the recipient that they liked better, but not vice versa. indicated how difficult providing support would be. Participants who read about the negative recipient were significantly more likely to 1152 / The Troubles of Gifts: Exploring the Challenges Faced by Givers and Receivers send a care package (46%) than were those who read about the posi- feelings of indebtedness that givers are unable to anticipate. Further- tive recipient (27%, χ2 = 9.60 p = .002). A mediation analysis showed more, we hypothesize that this effect is driven by recipients feeling that difficulty of providing support mediated the effect of condition more guilty than givers expect them to feel after receiving the gift. on gift giving (95% CI: [.02, .48]). People experience guilt when they think they have gone against an Study 2 (n = 118) is a dyadic lab study (59 dyads) that inves- important value (Sznycer 2019), in this case feeling currently unbal- tigates how recipients feel about receiving social support through a anced on reciprocity norms. We propose that feelings of guilt lead gift. This study had a 2 (emotional supported provided v. no emo- to a cognitive recalibration of the situation (Tooby and Cosmides tional support provided) x 3 (time: initial, post-support manipula- 2008) in which receivers realize they are indebted. This indebtedness tion, post-gift opportunity) mixed design. Participants came to the increases a need for reciprocity (Belk and Coon 1993), leading re- lab with a close other. One participant from each pair was randomly ceivers to want to give a return gift in order to reinstate equilibrium. assigned to the role of giver or recipient. Recipients first wrote about Across four studies, we demonstrate the inaccuracy of givers in (un- a current life problem that did not involve their partner and answered der)anticipating the burdens placed on receivers. questions about their mood and feelings about the problem. Then In study 1, we examined the mismatch between feelings of in- they talked to their partner for five minutes about their problem debtedness that givers predict receivers will experience compared (emotional support condition) or completed a control task before to what receivers actually experience. Participants were recruited completing the attitude measures again. Then givers were given the right after Christmas and were randomly assigned to think back to option to spend some of their study payment to purchase 0-4 gifts the winter holidays to either recall a gift they gave to someone or for their partner. The research assistant gave recipients their gift(s) if to recall a gift they received from someone. Givers then rated how they were given one, and recipients completed the measures a third indebted they thought the recipient would feel while receivers rated time. how indebted they actually felt (100-point slider scale). Results re- We first examined whether receiving emotional support made vealed that those who recalled giving a gift (M = 17.21) significantly recipients feel better than did completing a control task. We conduct- underestimated the indebtedness felt by those who recalled receiving ed a repeated measures ANOVA with the time at which the recipient a gift (M = 26.8; t(198) = -2.53, p = .01). rated their feelings as the within-subjects factor (time 1 [immediately Study 2 conceptually replicated the results of study 1 using after writing about their problem] v. time 2 [post-manipulation]) and dyads in the lab. Participants came into the lab in pairs (63 pairs), whether they received emotional support as the between-subjects with one partner assigned as the giver and the other assigned as the factor. Receiving emotional support did not reduce participants’ neg- receiver. The giver chose a gift for the receiver on the premise that ative mood (F (1, 57) = 2.15, p = .15), and only marginally reduced one receiver would be picked from the lottery to obtain the gift the their negative feelings toward the problem (F (1, 57) = 3.03, p = giver chose for them. Givers and receivers then rated feelings of the .087) more than completing the control task did. receiver’s indebtedness. Using a multi-level modeling approach to In contrast, receiving a gift reduced negative mood and feelings account for violations of statistical independence for pairs (Kenny, about the problem significantly more than not receiving a gift did. Kashy, and Cook 2006), we again find that givers underestimated We conducted a repeated measures ANOVA with the time at which feelings of indebtedness (B = 7.77, t(64.22) = 2.03, p = .05). the recipient rated their feelings as the within-subjects factor (time In study 3, we conducted a 2 (role: giver vs. receiver) x 2 2 [post-manipulation] v. time 3 [post-gift]) and whether or not they (friend: close vs. distant) experiment to test the proposed mechanism received emotional support as the between-subjects factor. Partici- and examine whether closeness with the exchange partner would af- pants who received a gift experienced a larger decrease in negative fect the results. Participants first named either a close friend or an emotions (F (1, 57) = 7.61, p = .008) and negative feelings toward acquaintance. Then they read a scenario in which they met with the the problem (F (1, 57) = 8.56, p = .005) than those who did not. friend and either gave or received a gift. Givers predicted receivers’ There was no main effect of having received support on post-gift feelings of indebtedness and guilt while receivers rated own feelings feelings (ps > .15). of indebtedness and guilt. An ANOVA revealed only a main effect In conclusion, these three studies show that gifts are not con- of role (F(1, 395) = 15.34, p < .001), with givers again mispredict- sumers’ default way of providing social support, but they use them ing indebtedness (Mgiver = 20.25 vs. Mreceiver = 31.01). There was no when they think the recipient will be difficult to support, and that effect of closeness or interaction between role and closeness (ps > they are quite effective at improving recipient mood. .46). Receivers also felt more guilty after getting the gift than givers

anticipated (Mgiver = 7.40 vs. Mreceiver = 11.55; F(1, 395) = 15.34, p = The Burden of Gifts: How Givers Mispredict Negative .03). Ratings of guilt mediated the mispredictions on indebtedness Reactions of Receivers (ab = -3.05, SE = 1.36, 95% CI [-5.63, -.36]). Finally, in study 4, we examined the predictions for both the EXTENDED ABSTRACT negative experiences of indebtedness and guilt as well as the positive Givers make many mispredictions when it comes to getting emotion of happiness. We conducted a 2 (role: giver vs. receiver) gifts for receivers. For example, they mistakenly think that unsolicit- x 2 (gift: desirable vs. not) experiment in which the pretested gift ed gifts would be appreciated more (Gino and Flynn 2011; Ward and was either a desirable or undesirable gift card. Then givers predicted Broniarczyk 2016) and that desirability matters more than practical- while receivers rated own feelings of happiness, indebtedness and ity (Baskin et al. 2014). Additionally, givers often focus on maximiz- guilt. We also measured predicted likelihood to give a return gift ing the happiness of receivers (Baskin et al. 2014), but do not seem as a downstream consequence of indebtedness (1 = not likely, 7 = to consider the potential negative consequences of the gift. Thus, very likely). First, we ran an ANOVA on happiness, which revealed the present research focuses on givers’ mispredictions of receivers’ a main effect of role (F(1, 397) = 16.66, p < .001), a main effect of negative feelings during gift giving. desirability (F(1, 397) = 7.35, p = .007), and a marginal interaction Social norms dictate that we cannot always be on the receiving between the two (F(1, 397) = 3.10, p = .08). For desirable gifts, giv- end of exchanges (Ruth, Otnes, and Brunel 1999). Thus, we propose ers and receivers had similar estimates of happiness (Mgiver = 79.35 that from the receiver’s perspective, receiving a gift will lead to more vs. Mreceiver = 84.68; p = .10), whereas for undesirable gifts, givers un- Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1153 derestimated the happiness that receivers actually felt (Mgiver = 69.10 Gift giving is a cultural tradition meant to perpetuate future vs. Mreceiver = 82.50; p < .001). relationships. Given the future-looking nature of gift exchange, we Next, we ran an ANOVA on indebtedness and guilt ratings. For consider recipients’ predicted future relationship ‘affiliation’ with indebtedness, we found a main effect of role (Mgiver = 18.81 vs. Mre- givers as the focal dependent measure. ceiver = 31.51; F(1, 397) = 21.80, p < .001), but no significant effect of In Study 1, an RA asked students who had completed various gift desirability or interaction (ps > .66). We found the same pattern research studies, if they would complete an ‘additional task’ to help for feelings of guilt. Finally, we examined likelihood of buying a the PR department at the university. Participants were told that no return gift. Although there were no effects regarding desirability, we compensation would be given but that their participation would be found a main effect of role such that receivers felt more obligated to of great assistance to the PR department. Participants were instructed get a return gift for givers than the givers anticipated (Mgiver = 5.05 vs. to search the university’s name on Google.com/news, then read and

Mreceiver = 6.06; F(1, 397) = 50.97, p < .001). This effect was serially summarize the top search results. To manipulate relationship invest- mediated by the mismatch between giver and receiver on feelings of ment, students were either assigned to summarize 10 (vs. 2) articles. guilt and indebtedness (index = .03, SE = .02, 95% CI [.002, .07]. Those in the 10 article condition felt they had worked harder and Taken together, we demonstrate that givers chronically under- thus were more highly invested in their relationship with the orga- estimate how indebted receivers actually feel after getting a gift be- nization. After completing the task, participants were given either a cause they cannot foresee the guilt experienced by the receiver. As low expenditure gift (i.e. three plain pencil erasers) or nothing at all. a downstream consequence, receivers become more likely to give a Subsequently, participants endorsed their feelings of affiliation with return gift for the giver, which givers also do not anticipate. the PR department. An ANOVA conducted on the affiliation measure revealed a significant interaction between the two factors (F(1, 296) Thanks for Nothing: When Giving a Gift is Worse than = 4.04, p = .04). When HIR participants received a low-expenditure

Giving Nothing at All gift, they expressed lower feelings of affiliation (MLE = 4.09) than

when they received no gift (MNo Gift = 4.67; t = -3.04, p < .01). How-

EXTENDED ABSTRACT ever, in LIRs, this effect was attenuated (MLE = 4.62 vs. MNo Gift = Receiving a gift is generally regarded by both the giver and re- 4.69; t = -.32, p = .75). cipient as a relationship-validating experience. Prior research shows In Study 2, we examined whether HIR recipients were more that even when a giver chooses a less preferred item, the relation- sensitive to the relational implications of low-expenditure gifts re- ship between giver and recipient is typically enhanced (Dunn et al. ceived under spontaneous (vs. normative) conditions. In a 2 (Gift: 2008) as the recipient is likely to view the gift as a signal of the None vs. Low-Expenditure) by 2 (Gifting Context: Normative vs. giver’s positive intentions toward the recipient. Given strong social Spontaneous) participants read a scenario. To manipulate gift con- endorsement to avoid ‘looking gift horses in the mouth,’ coupled text, participants read a scenario in which they imagined completing with consumers’ motivation to interpret gifts as positive relational a project at work, after which their employer usually presented them symbols, it may seem unlikely that receiving a gift would harm the a gift (normative) or did not usually present one (spontaneous). Next giver-recipient relationship. However, we predict and find that there they imagined receiving a low-expenditure gift (a $5.00 gift card to are instances in which certain gifts may damage relationships. a restaurant) or no gift. Subsequently, participants endorsed their af- The context in which gift exchange takes place influences the filiation with the firm. recipient’s interpretation of the offering. Much of the prior gifting re- An ANOVA on affiliation revealed a significant interaction be- search focuses on ‘normative’ gift contexts wherein recipients have tween gift context and gifting scenario (F(1,178) = 5.24, p = .02). In high expectations of receiving a gift (e.g., birthday) and the items normative conditions, there was no significant difference in affilia- chosen are pre-determined by social norms (Joy 2001). However, tion when participants received no (vs. low-expenditure) gift (MNo Gift many gifts are offered spontaneously -- outside of prescribed giv- = 4.03 vs. MLE= 3.96; F(1, 178) = .082, p = .76). However, in spon- ing occasions. According to Carrier (1990), spontaneous gifts rep- taneous conditions, receiving no (vs. low-expenditure) gift resulted resent the truest form of giving because givers select these items for in significantly higher feelings of affiliation with the giverNo (M Gift recipients without the pressure of social obligation. Consequently, = 4.83 vs. MLE = 3.83; F(1, 178) = 10.93, p = .001). Thus, low- we suggest that recipients are likely to be more attuned to the mes- expenditure gifts given under normative circumstances ameliorated sages imbued in spontaneous gifts, because they are perceived to recipients’ feelings of disaffiliation. demonstrate the giver’s ‘true’ perceptions of the relationship (Belk In Study 3, in the context of interpersonal relationships, we and Coon 1993). examine how recipients’ perceptions of givers’ individual resources We predict that the context of spontaneous gift giving recipi- influence their predicted affiliation. In a 2 (Relationship investment: ents will interpret givers’ expenditures of resources on gifts as prox- High vs. Low) x 3 (Giver resources: Control vs. Restricted vs. Unre- ies for givers’ value for the relationships (Ruth et al. 1999). Thus, stricted) x 2 (Gift Expenditure: Low vs High) between-subjects ex- low-expenditure gifts may devalue the relationship relative to re- periment, participants imagined receiving either a low-expenditure ceiving no gift; in response recipients may distance themselves from gift (a $3, easily found, generic keychain) or no gift, after a book the giver. club meeting (spontaneous context). Notably, recipients were told We suggest that when gifts are offered spontaneously, low ex- that their HIR (LIR) friend either had “a really tight (light) schedule penditure gifts have especially detrimental effects on high-invest- this semester.” Under control conditions, participants were given no ment relationships (HIR) – relationships in which individuals have information about the giver’s time resources. committed substantial time or effort to one another. Conversely, in An ANOVA revealed a significant three-way interaction the context of low-investment relationships (LIR) – relationships in (F(2,378)=5.07, p<.01). When no mention of the givers’ resourc- which the individuals are less involved with or committed to one es was made in the unrestricted resource condition, results reveal another – recipients are likely to have lower expectations for the gifts significant two-way interactions between relationship investment they receive. Thus, receiving a low expenditure gift should be less and gift type (Control: (F(1,378)=3.88, p<.05); Unrestricted: (F(1, damaging for LIRs. 378)=4.31, p<.05)). However, when participants knew the giver had 1154 / The Troubles of Gifts: Exploring the Challenges Faced by Givers and Receivers restricted resources, the focal interaction among high investment re- Haury, Amanda (2019), “Average Cost of an American Christmas,” lationships was attenuated (MLEt=4.69, MNoGift=4.66; F(1,378)=0.25, Retrieved from: https://www.investopedia.com/financial- p=.87). edge/1112/average-cost-of-an-american-christmas.aspx In conclusion, we demonstrate that in spontaneous gift contexts, Joy, Annamma (2001), “Gift Giving in Hong Kong and the giving nothing to an HIR recipient may be more likely to preserve Continuum of Social Ties,” Journal of Consumer Research, the relationship than giving a low-expenditure gift. 28(2), 239-56. Kenny, David A., Deborah A. Kashy, and William L. Cook (2006), REFERENCES Dyadic Data Analysis. Guilford Press. Barbee, Anita P. and Michael R. Cunningham (1995), “An Lehman, Darrin R., John H. Ellard, and Camille B. 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Paper #1: Thumbs Up or Down: Consumer Reactions to stress and compulsive behaviors. In four studies, the authors find Decisions by Algorithms Versus Humans that consumers perceive AI (vs. human) mental health providers to Gizem Yalcin, Erasmus University, The Netherlands be less warm, which harms their perceived competence, resulting in Sarah Lim, Cornell University, USA higher aversion of AI providers. Finally, the paper by Weingarten Stefano Puntoni, Erasmus University, The Netherlands et al . tests whether AI outperform human experts in creative mar- Stijn van Osselaer, Cornell University, USA kets, specifically in logo design. The authors consistently find that the quality of the logos from human experts outperform those from Paper #2: People Prefer Forecasting Methods Similar to the artificial intelligence. Event Being Predicted This session provides timely insight into objective and subjec- Lin Fei, University of Chicago, USA tive valuation of algorithms and humans, an increasingly important Berkeley J. Dietvorst, University of Chicago, USA topic given the proliferation of this technology in consumer contexts. Paper #3: Stress, Addiction, and Artificial Intelligence Our proposed session directly addresses the ACR 2020 conference Mohamed Ayman Hussein, Stanford University, USA theme as it examines the value of deep thinking, rational thought, and Szu-chi Huang, Stanford University, USA reason for humans relative to algorithms in a new era of machine in- Paper #4: Experts Outperform Technology in Creative Markets telligence. We believe that this proposed session should be of interest Evan Weingarten, Arizona State University, USA to a broad audience of scholars and practitioners working on judg- Michael Meyer, University of California – San Diego, USA ment and decision-making, advice/recommendations, aesthetics, and On Amir, University of California – San Diego, USA new technologies. All projects have at least four completed studies. Amit Ashkenazi, Fiverr, USA Thumbs Up or Down: Consumer Reactions to Decisions SESSION OVERVIEW by Algorithms Versus Humans With the accelerated demand for new technologies, algorithms / artificial intelligence (AI) have integrated diverse and refined skills. EXTENDED ABSTRACT These advancements make them a viable alternative to using humans Companies are increasingly adopting algorithms to make deci- to complete the same tasks. Algorithms can outperform humans on sions that affect existing and potential customers, such as accepting medical diagnoses (Hutson 2017), taste-based recommendations and rejecting applications. Today, algorithms are commonly used to (Yeomans et al. 2019), predictions (Grove et al. 2000), and games decide who a company should hire (e.g., JetBlue) or provide services (Hosanagar 2019). to (e.g., rayatheapp.com). This growing trend calls for marketing Despite advancements in these new technologies in businesses, researchers to gain a better understanding of customers’ reactions however, the literature diverges on the extent consumers embrace or to decisions made by algorithms and humans. Previous research has dislike algorithms. It is still unclear from the literature when consum- predominantly focused on how individuals choose between an algo- ers are open to using algorithms (e.g., Dietvorst et al. 2015; Logg rithmic and human service provider (Castelo et al. 2019; Logg et al. et al. 2019). This disagreement raises important questions about the 2019; Longoni et al. 2019). Unlike this line of research, we investi- dynamics between humans and their valuation of technology: What gate the responses of individuals as a recipient of decisions made by factors affect consumers’ reactions towards decisions by algorithms either an algorithm or a human. (vs. humans)? Do consumers value decisions differently when gen- In this research, we propose that customers react to decision- erated by algorithms or humans? Does the framing of algorithms makers (algorithms vs. humans) differently depending on the valence change consumers’ willingness to use it? Under which situations are of decision outcomes, namely whether they are accepted or rejected consumers more likely to (de)value algorithms? Can algorithms ob- by a firm. Specifically, we hypothesize that customers react less posi- jectively outperform humans in domains involving aesthetics? tively (e.g., less perceived self-worth, less positive attitudes towards This session aims to identify the boundary conditions of when the firm), to an algorithm than a human decision-maker in the case of consumers appreciate algorithms more than humans (subjective val- favorable decisions (e.g., acceptances), whereas such a negative re- uation), and when algorithms do or do not objectively outperform action to an algorithm (vs. a human) would be attenuated in the case humans (objective). In the first paper,Yalcin et al . study consumers’ of unfavorable decisions (e.g., rejections). Our theorizing is based reactions to decisions that are made by algorithms versus humans. on attribution theory demonstrating that individuals tend to attribute Across seven studies, they reveal less positive reactions to favorable their successes and failures in a self-serving way (Halperin et al. outcomes (e.g., acceptances) by algorithms (vs. humans), whereas 1976). Namely, people tend to take credit for their success but blame they find no increased negative responses to algorithms when the others for failures so as to defend their self-esteem. Accepted cus- outcome is unfavourable (e.g., rejections). They also show that these tomers would be motivated to view the positive outcome as a result differences are explained by a shift in perceptions depending on the of their individual characteristics, thereby reacting more positively valence of the decision outcome. Lin and Dietvorst explore how to a human (vs. an algorithmic) decision-maker, who is perceived as the way algorithms are described changes consumers’ likelihood of more capable of incorporating individuals’ uniqueness into the deci- using them. Across seven studies and different prediction methods sion. Rejected customers, however, would attribute the unfavorable (e.g., navigation), they demonstrate that consumers prefer methods outcome to decision-makers (regardless of who the decision-maker of prediction that replicate the event in question even when doing is), viewing a human decision-maker as less objective and an algo- so is counterproductive. Next, Hussein and Huang investigate what rithm as more ignorant of their individual uniqueness. type of professional help consumers value more when dealing with

We tested our predictions across seven experiments (N = 3,535) In this paper, we find that the more similar a prediction method and showed that customers react differently to favorable (vs. unfa- is to the event being predicted (e.g. in its outcome distribution, pro- vorable) decisions that are told to be made by algorithms and humans cess, etc.), the more people like it, even when it does not perform as across various contexts (e.g., dating websites, bank loans), In studies well as alternatives. Humans often learn by mimicking and mirror- 1 and 2, we demonstrated that participants felt lower feelings of self- ing others’ actions (Meltzoff and Moore 1977), and people tend to worthiness when favorable decisions were made by an algorithm (vs. “over-imitate” - copying actions that are unnecessary to accomplish a human). This relatively negative reaction to algorithms is, howev- the given goal (McGuigan et al. 2011; Hoehl et al. 2019). We pro- er, mitigated when the decision outcome is unfavorable. Extending pose that this innate behavior transfers to consumers’ preferences these findings, study 3 revealed the same pattern of customers’ reac- for prediction methods: consumers prefer prediction methods that tions towards firms: participants demonstrated less positive attitudes best resemble the event being predicted. However, this preference towards the firm when an algorithm (vs. a human) accepts them, but can lead consumers to prefer prediction methods that offer subopti- such a relatively negative reaction to algorithmic decision-making mal performance. For example, when the outcomes of an event are was mitigated in the case of unfavorable decisions. at least partially determined by random chance (Fox and Ülkümen In studies 4a, 4b and 5, we aimed to understand possible driv- 2011), mimicking the event in question to predict its outcome will ers of such an interaction effect. In studies 4a-b, we revealed the result in overfitting of random error. In a set of 7 studies, we inves- negative impact of disclosing algorithmic decision-makers. Specifi- tigate consumers’ preference for similar prediction methods using cally, when the decision-maker was not explicitly mentioned by the both incentivized studies and real-world consumer scenarios. company, participants reacted similarly as they did to a human de- In Study 1, we present evidence that people like a prediction cision-maker. Next, study 5 tested whether participants would react method to be similar to the event in question by having participants more positively to humans even when they do not actively engage in predict the outcome of a die roll. We chose this task because rolling decision-making but monitoring the process. In line with our theori- a die has a clear process to be replicated, and its outcome is deter- zation, our results demonstrated that the relatively positive effect of mined by random chance. Participants were tasked with predicting human decision-making is driven by knowing that a human actively the outcome of a 7-sided die roll (sides 1,2,3,4,5,6,7). Participants made a decision to accept the applicants instead of passively moni- chose between two prediction methods: one that always predicts “4” toring the evaluation process. Finally, in study 6, we directly exam- (constant), and another that chooses a random number between 1 and ined the psychological mechanism underlying different reactions 7 (similar). Participants learned that they would receive a linearly to algorithmic versus human decision-makers. In these studies, we increasing bonus depending on the difference between their predic- showed that the differences in customers’ reactions stem from how tion and the actual outcome ($0.21 for a perfect prediction, -$.03 for they perceive these two decision-makers and that their perceptions each unit of error). With this payment scheme, choosing “4” (i.e. the of algorithms and humans (i.e., perceived objectivity, consideration constant method) offers the highest possible return in expectation. of applicants’ uniqueness). Thus, choosing the similar method instead of the constant method We believe that our research makes several contributions. Ex- is costly. However, we found that a substantial proportion of partici- tending the previous work that has predominantly studied situations pants (44.5%) chose the similar method. Even among participants where people choose whether to rely on algorithms or humans, we who passed a comprehension check by reporting that choosing “4” study situations where customers are recipients of decisions made by produced the highest expected earnings, 36.8% chose the similar algorithms versus humans. Furthermore, the current research dem- method, which suggests that consumers’ preference for a similar onstrates how motivated attribution plays a role in people’s percep- method is not due to ignorance. tion of algorithmic versus human decision-making. From a practical In Studies 2 and 3, we found that the more similar a prediction perspective, our work offers important managerial guidance. Manag- method is to the event in question, the more people like it. In study ers are often worried about deploying algorithms in customer-facing 2, we offered participants a choice between two randomly selected functions as they fear algorithms to amplify customers’ negative re- methods out of a set of three: the similar and constant options from actions in the case of unfavorable decisions. Our findings, however, Study 1, and a “mixed” option that was a combination of the two. suggest that managers should be more concerned about deploying The mixed option used the similar method with a probability of 50% algorithms in the case of favorable experiences as it can result in and the constant method with a probability of 50%. Participants were less positive customer reactions. Together, our work provides valu- more likely to select the similar method both when the alternative able insights on how firms can effectively communicate decision was the constant method (58%) and the mixed method (56.2%). In outcomes to customers. Study 3, we show that method similarity can be increased along multiple dimensions. Specifically, we hypothesized that participants People Prefer Forecasting Methods Similar to the Event would prefer a method that uses the same process as the event (roll- Being Predicted ing a die instead of drawing a marble) in addition to matching the outcome distribution. Participants rated the constant method and 4 EXTENDED ABSTRACT methods that varied on their proximity to the event being predicted Consumers face many scenarios where they have to make pre- (a fair 7-sided die roll) on 5-point scales: rolling a die that is skewed dictions by choosing between prediction methods. People can check towards the optimal answer (process resemblance), drawing a mar- multiple navigation tools for traffic predictions, analysts choose ble with values 1-7 from a jar (outcome resemblance), rolling a die between models to make financial market predictions, and patients with the same numbers as the focal die (perfect resemblance), and can choose between doctors and AI for medical diagnosis. It is clear drawing a marble with values skewed towards the optimal answer from past research that people don’t always pick the best perform- (no resemblance). Participants also rated the similarity of each pre- ing method (Arkes et al. 1986; Dietvorst et al. 2015; Yeomans et al. diction method to the event being predicted on two 5-point scales. 2019). However, it is still unclear how consumers choose between Consistent with our hypothesis, participants rated the prefect re- prediction methods. What features do people look for in prediction semblance method higher than all other methods (t’s(404)≥ 7.16, methods? p’s<.001). Further, participants ratings of the similarity between Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1157 each method and the focal die roll mediate the differences in method We replicate this finding in a variety of different stress domains ratings [10.29,35.99]. These results suggest that the more similar a (Studies 1b-e). We consistently find that the AI adviser is dominated prediction method is to the event in question, the more people like it. by the two other advisers. The percentage of participants choosing In the remaining studies, we extend these findings to real-world an AI adviser ranges from 5.41% (academic/relationship stress) to consumer scenarios. In study 4, participants made an incentivized 20.99% (financial stress). choice between two prediction methods to predict a consumer’s rat- In Study 2, we investigate consumers’ choice of mental health ing of a movie. Participants chose between a similar method that adviser in a high-stigma context: porn addiction, which has harmful finds the person who gave the most similar responses to the focal consequences such as cognitive decline and isolation (Alarcón et al. consumer in a survey of movie preferences and uses their rating, 2019). We recruited men who watch at least 5 hours of porn per week and an alternative that uses the average rating of the movie among (2 SD higher than average). We provided these participants with an all consumers. 71% of participants chose the similar method even article that described the negative consequences of porn overuse and though it performs 1.5 times worse than the alternative. In study 5, asked them to choose which of the three advisers they would con- participants preferred a navigation tool that based a travel time pre- sider discussing their porn consumption habits with. Similar to the diction on the most similar trip in its data over another that averaged results above, we find that the AI adviser is dominated by the two among many somewhat similar trips. In follow up studies (Studies other choices (χ2 = 12.6, p-value<0.001). Interestingly, the percent- 6 and 7), we investigate how companies can frame the prediction age of participants willing to choose the AI adviser was higher (23%) methods that they offer consumers to be more similar to the event than in the stress-related domains we tested. in question. In Study 3, participants were told about a new service in which People’s systematic preference for similar prediction methods customers share symptoms with a (virtual vs. human) doctor who provides novel insight into consumer decision making, and suggests diagnose if they have common mental health disorders, such as de- interventions to boost consumers’ use of a prediction method. For expression and anxiety. Participants then reported their willingness to ample, it suggests that framing a prediction method as similar to the pay for the service. We found that participants in the AI condition event in question will make it more palatable to consumers, which reported a lower willingness to pay compared to the human condi- can help companies boost the use of prediction methods that they of- tion ( = -2.8, t(402) = -2.8, p = .005). Importantly, we found support fer consumers (e.g. recommendation systems, calculators, etc.). for our proposed serial mediation model, such that an AI (vs. human) provider was associated with lower perceived warmth, which Stress, Addiction, and Artificial Intelligence lowered the perceived competence of the provider, thereby leading to lower willingness to pay for the service (indirect effect = −.91, SE EXTENDED ABSTRACT = .27, 95% CI [−1.44, −.39]). As a robustness check, we included About 90.2% of people suffering from mental illness worldwide uniqueness neglect as a parallel mediator in the model and found do not receive adequate treatment (Alonso et al. 2018). A solution to that, while the indirect effect through warmth and competence re- this problem is therapy powered by artificial intelligence (AI), which mained significant (indirect effect = −.89, SE = .26, 95% CI [−1.40, is scalable at a low cost, convenient, and private. Are consumers −.38]), the indirect effect through uniqueness neglect was not signifi- open to adopting AI to manage their mental health? We first inves- cant (indirect effect = −.012, SE = .048, 95% CI [−.11, .082]), sug- tigate if consumers would choose an AI adviser over other types of gesting that uniqueness neglect did not affect consumers’ willingness human advisers present in the marketplace to treat anxiety and stress to pay for mental health providers in this context. (Studies 1a-e). We find that consumers are averse to choosing an AI In Study 4, participants were first asked to reflect on a recent provider to manage their mental health. We replicate our finding in time they experienced financial stress. Participants were then pre- a highly stigmatized context—porn addiction (Study 2)—and using sented with a [virtual] mental health coach [powered by artificial additional dependent variables, such as willingness to pay and shar- intelligence] that could help them deal with stressful situations. To ing intentions (Studies 3 & 4). We argue that perceptions of warmth ensure that consumers’ AI aversion generalized across other depen- shape consumers’ aversion to AI mental health providers: AI (vs. hu- dent variables of importance to marketers, we included a measure man) providers were perceived as less warm, which harmed their of participants’ intent to share information about the provider with perceived competence, resulting in higher aversion. others. Consistent with Study 3, we found that participants in the In Study 1a, we asked college students to fill out a survey about AI (vs. human) condition reported a lower willingness to pay (β = stress-related resources. After reflecting on an instance in which they −2.56, t(498) = −3.23, p = .001) and a lower interest in sharing in- experienced academic stress, participants were offered three types formation about this provider with others (β = −.39, t(498) = −2.05, of advisers to choose from to help them improve how they deal with p = .041). Importantly, perceptions of warmth again mediated the stress. Descriptions for all three advisers were based on real-world effect of provider on perceived competence, which in turn influenced descriptions. We scrapped the top 500 Google search results for participants’ willingness to pay (indirect effect = −.83, SE = .30, 95% mental health care providers, and two independent coders catalogued CI [−1.42, −.23]) and sharing intentions (indirect effect = −.41, SE = the providers into 5 categories. Three types of advisors—clinical, .07, 95% CI [−.55, −.28]). integrative, and virtual/AI—together form more than 80% of the Overall, we found that consumers are reluctant to use AI mental market. We thus focus on these three types of mental health provid- health advisers, and that perceptions of warmth played an important ers. The first was a clinical adviser with an MD from the university, role in shaping consumers’ preference for a mental health provider. who has published peer-reviewed articles on stress. The second was AI (vs. human) providers were judged as less warm, which harmed an integrative adviser, a life coach who has triumphed over dealing their perceived competence, and resulted in higher aversion. We rep- with stress. The third was a virtual adviser powered by artificial in- licated this finding across different types of mental health domains, telligence; the order of these advisers was counterbalanced. We find such as stress and addictive behaviors (e.g. porn addiction), across that only 5.4% of the participants chose the AI adviser (χ2 = 59.14, experimental paradigms (within-subject and between-subject), and p-value<0.001), compared to 64.9% choosing the integrative adviser across dependent variables (choice, willingness to pay, and sharing and 29.7% choosing the clinical adviser. intentions). 1158 / Subjective to Objective Value of Humans and Algorithms Experts Outperform Technology in Creative Markets In Study 1c, we replicate Studies 1a and 1b but with additional ratings designed to determine what dimensions the human expert lo- EXTENDED ABSTRACT gos exceeded artificial intelligence logos on. Undergraduates ina Recent decades have seen an increase in machines and other design course completed the procedure from Study 1a and also rated technological advancements coopting jobs from humans (Autor to what extent the logos conveyed the company’s industry, were aes- 2015; Brynjolfsson and McAfee 2014; Hosanagar 2019). Notably, in thetically pleasing, and were unique. In addition to replicating Study many cases algorithms or technology based on training from initial 1a on overall evaluations (F(1, 144) = 131.92, p < .001), human ex- human inputs can outperform humans (see Dawes et al. 1989; Diet- pert logos were also evaluated, relative to artificial intelligence, to vorst et al. 2015, 2016). Once thought unlikely, the machines have convey the company’s industry better (F(1, 144) = 290.20, p < .001), become dominant in games of human skill such as Jeopardy, chess, to be more aesthetically pleasing (F(1, 144) = 51.85, p < .001), and and Go (Hosanagar 2019). to be more unique (F(1, 144) = 57.40, p < .001). Recently, there has been discussion of technology based on ar- In Study 1d, we conceptually replicated the previous studies tificial intelligence supplanting workers (Lohr 2018; Peiser 2019). with incentivized choice with a set of west coast laboratory partici- While this replacement is argued to occur more for lower-skilled pants. That is, participants were informed that those participants who jobs (Autor 2015; Mokyr et al. 2015) and is expected more for chose the logo that was selected most often would be eligible for a jobs involving thinking (Waytz and Norton 2014), there have also $50 Amazon Gift card as a prize. Consistent with the previous stud- been market entrants from artificial intelligence in domains that are ies, participants chose logos produced by human experts more often typically considered to require the human spark of creativity (Rand than would be expected by chance (z = 8.49, p < .001). 1968). For example, for logos design, sites such as logomaster.ai Study 2a replicates Study 1a on the 62 logos produced for and Wix offer affordable artificial intelligence builders for logos. ONAK using Amazon Mechanical Turkers. Again, compared with Like with human experts, these artificial intelligence makers present the artificial intelligence logos, the human expert logos were evalu- people with multiple initial design concepts from which they can ated more favorably (F(1, 394) = 114.47, p < .001). Further, Study 2b choose, and they allow for iteration and revision on the initial con- replicated Study 1c on overall evaluations (i.e., human expert logos cept they like most (Goodwin 2009). were judged to be better than artificial intelligence logos) with a set Does artificial intelligence outperform human experts in cre- of west coast laboratory participants (F(1, 423) = 170.40, p < .001). ative markets, such as in logo design? To explore this question, we Finally, Study 2c attempts to replicate Study 1d on choice with a run two logo elicitation studies (Studies 1 and 2) in which subjects sample of west coast laboratory participants. When choosing among worked with artificial intelligence and/or human expert designers, logos for ONAK, participants were only marginally more likely to and then run seven follow-up studies (Studies 1a-1d and 2a-2c), us- select logos produced by human experts (z = 1.95, p = .051). ing both ratings and incentivized choice, in which an external set of Overall, using two types of logo elicitation methods, we find participants evaluate the quality of the logos. that logos from human experts outperform those from artificial intel- Importantly, we align the logo design process in the two logo ligence. This advantage may result from human expert logos being elicitation studies. In each, participants start with a creative brief, superior on aesthetics and clarity. However, subsequent coding and have a designer selected for them or by them, see at least two initial analyses revealed that those managers in Study 2 who invested more concepts for a logo, and then go through a revision process before effort into their creative briefs (based on an expert designer coding arriving at a final logo. In Study 1, we impose more experimental the strength of each brief) had more favorably evaluated artificial control by providing a fixed set of creative briefs for three (ficti- intelligence logos, which might mean that the advantage to human tious) companies (the data science company Empirical, the fashion experts may disappear with more experience or clarity of what is company Forward, and a restaurant Hyperion) and assigning par- desired from the design process. ticipants to work with either human experts or artificial intelligence logo makers, both of which provide initial concepts and a revision REFERENCES process. In Study 2, with a separate set of participants we allow for Alarcón, Rubén de, Javier de la Iglesia, Nerea Casado, and Angel more natural design by having participants write creative briefs for Montejo (2019), “Online Porn Addiction: What We Know and a company (ONAK, an origami canoe company), and then let them What We Don’t—A Systematic Review.” Journal of Clinical work both with one human expert designer of their choice and one Medicine 8 (1), 91. artificial intelligence logo maker. Study 1 yielded 17 human expert Alonso, Jordi, Zhaorui Liu, Sara Evans-Lacko, Ekaterina Sadikova, logos and 30 artificial intelligence logos, while Study 2 yielded 62 Nancy Sampson, Somnath Chatterji, Jibril Abdulmalik, et logos (31 human expert, 31 artificial intelligence). In Study 1, the al. (2018), “Treatment Gap for Anxiety Disorders Is Global: participants were MBA students enrolled in a new product develop- Results of the World Mental Health Surveys in 21 Countries.” ment course; in Study 2, the participants were managers enrolled in Depression and Anxiety 35 (3), 195–208. an evening MBA program. Arkes, Hal R., Robyn M. Dawes, and Caryn Christensen In Study 1a, we first seek overall evaluations on the logos from (1986), “Factors influencing the use of a decision rule in Study 1 using external raters. Amazon Mechanical Turkers evaluated a probabilistic task,” Organizational behavior and human all of the logos from one of the three companies (Empirical, Hyper- decision processes, 37 (1): 93-110. ion, or Forward) from Study 1 on a seven-point scale (1 = Very Bad, Autor, David H. (2015), “Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The 7 = Very Good). 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Paper #1: Decision Diagnosticity: Rejecting Induces a Larger options “stickier” in subsequent decisions. The rejecting procedure Post-Decision Evaluation Gap Than Choosing can thus be adopted to mitigate variety-seeking tendencies that im- Adelle X. Yang, National University of Singapore, Singapore pede consumer welfare. Jasper Teow, National University of Singapore, Singapore Besharat, Romero, and Haws find that the choose versus reject frames can influence the perception of customized products in Paper #2: “Swipe Left for No”: Why Options That Survive the context of food ordering. Their studies demonstrate that the re- Rejection Lead to Greater Purchase jecting procedure (i.e., eliminating ingredients) leads consumers to Jen H. Park, Stanford University, USA estimate the customized food as containing fewer calories and being Itamar Simonson, Stanford University, USA healthier than the choosing procedure (i.e., selecting ingredients), Paper #3: Rejections Are Stickier than Choices which also induces positive changes in intended future consumption Minzhe Xu, University of Florida, USA and the type of subsequent consumption. Yang Yang, University of Florida, USA Together, this special session sheds new light on when and how Paper #4: When More Is Less: How Rejecting (vs . Selecting) decision framing can be adopted to influence important post-decision Food Ingredients Leads to Lower Estimates of Calories consequences. Ali Besharat, University of Denver, USA Marisabel Romero, Colorado State University, USA Decision Diagnosticity: Rejecting Induces a Larger Post- Kelly L. Haws, Vanderbilt University, USA Decision Evaluation Gap Than Choosing

SESSION OVERVIEW EXTENDED ABSTRACT Many consumer decisions can be reached by either choosing A decision can be framed as either choosing wanted options or preferred options, or rejecting less preferred options. While prior re- rejecting unwanted options in a consideration set. For example, when search has established that framing a decision as choosing versus managers make a hiring decision between two job candidates, the rejecting influences the decision-making process, much of the previ- decision may be posed either as “Which candidate would you rec- ous studies focuses on how decision framing produces inconsistent ommend to accept?” or “Which candidate would you recommend to decision outcomes that violate the principle of procedural invari- reject?” While the difference between the two decision frames may ance (e.g., Dhar and Wertenbroch 2000; Shafir 1993; Sokolova and appear nominal, research shows that framing a decision as choose Krishna 2016). By contrast, the downstream consequences of choose versus reject produces systematically different decision outcomes versus reject framing, beyond the decision outcomes, have been rela- and consequences (Dhar and Wertenbroch 2000; Shafir 1993; Nag- tively underexplored. pal and Krishnamurthy 2008; Perfecto, Galak, Simmons, and Nelson This special session presents four papers that examine in- 2017; Sokolova and Krishna 2016). teresting consequences of decision framing, and highlight previ- In this research, we examine how decision framing affects ously unexamined strengths of the reject frame over the choose choice-induced preference changes. Six pre-registered experiments frame . Each paper uncovers an important consumer-relevant con- (N = 3,412) show that when a decision is framed as rejecting un- sequence of decision framing, from post-decision preference updat- wanted options, it leads to a larger post-decision evaluation gap being (paper 1), satisfaction and purchase likelihood (paper 2), variety tween the wanted and unwanted options, than when the decision is seeking in repeated consumption (paper 3), and perceptions of con- framed as choosing wanted options. Building on self-perception the- sumption outcomes (paper 4). ory (Bem 1972), and previous findings that rejecting tends to invoke Yang and Teow examine how decision framing influences post- greater processing depth (e.g., Nagpal and Krishnamurthy 2008; So- decision preference updating. They find the reject frame leads to a kolova and Krishna 2016) and greater attitude strength (Bizer and bigger post-decision evaluation gap between the wanted and unwant- Petty 2005; Bizer, Larsen, and Petty 2011), we propose that people ed options, compared with the choose frame, a finding attributable to perceive rejecting as more diagnostic of one’s true underlying pref- the act of rejecting being perceived as more diagnostic than the act of erences. Across the studies, we find process evidence consistently choosing. This effect was mitigated when the focal decision induced supporting the role of decision diagnosticity underlying the effect. a high level of decision difficulty, and reversed when all options were The studies followed a similar basic paradigm, with participants negatively-valenced. randomly assigned into 2 (choose vs. reject) between-subjects con- Park and Simonson test how the availability of an explicit re- ditions. Each participant was simultaneously presented with two or jecting procedure in sequential evaluation influences psychological more options, and asked to either choose the wanted option(s) or closure and subsequent consequences. They demonstrate that, be- reject the unwanted option(s). After their decision, participants were ing able to explicitly reject options, such as “swipe left to reject,” asked to evaluate each option. We calculated the post-decision evalu- heightens evaluation closure over the forgone options compared with ation gap by taking the difference between their evaluation of the when the decision procedure involves implicit rejection procedures wanted option(s) and their evaluation of the unwanted option(s). only. Consequently, when explicit rejection is allowed, it increases Study 1 (N = 256) established the effect with a pair of visually the likelihood of subsequent purchase. different consumer products (smartphone cases). Participants’ post- Xu and Yang investigate the effect of decision framing on decision evaluation gap was larger after the rejecting decision than variety-seeking behaviors in repeated decisions. Their experiments after the choosing decision (Mchoose = 2.08, SD = 1.87 vs Mreject = 3.02, 2 reveal that, consumers seek less variety when the repeated decisions SD = 2.78, F(1, 254) = 10.14, p = .002, ηp = .04). Moreover, we mea- are framed as rejecting than choosing, because rejecting reduces the sured the perceived decision diagnosticity, decision difficulty, and liking of the less preferred options, and hence renders the preferred decision finality associated with each option, and found that decision

Advances in Consumer Research 1160 Volume 48, ©2020 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1161 diagnosticity best accounted for the effect: rejecting was perceived “Swipe Left for No”: Why Options That Survive as more diagnostic of one’s true underlying preferences than choos- Rejection Lead to Greater Purchase ing (Mchoose = 5.56, SD = 2.09 vs Mreject = 6.12, SD = 2.31, F(1, 254) = 4.20, p = .042), which induced more post-decision preference up- EXTENDED ABSTRACT dating (indirect effect in mediation analysis = -.282, CI95% = [-.57, Most alternatives considered by decision makers are rejected or -.01]). The other process measures only partially contributed to the not chosen, yet the manner in which individuals pass on alternatives effect, and choice share of the options did not differ between condi- has not received much attention. In social apps like Tinder, users tions. Similar results on the process measures were observed in later “swipe left” to make an explicit rejection before proceeding to the studies. next match, while interviewers often pass on a job candidate rather Study 2a (N = 308) replicated this effect with consumer prod- implicitly by looking at the next candidate. Despite the common use ucts that were presented with descriptions of multiple attributes, to of rejection strategies in everyday life, little research has examined be more in line with related prior research (e.g., Meloy and Russo how individuals make rejections and the psychological consequenc- 2004). Replicating our initial findings, participants’ post-decision es of rejection. evaluation gap was larger after the rejecting decision than after the We suggest that having the option to explicitly reject each al- choosing decision (Mchoose = 2.00, SD = 2.53 vs Mreject = 2.94, SD = ternative during sequential evaluation increases subsequent purchase 2 2.81, F(1,306) = 9.54, p = .002, ηp = .03), and decision diagnosticity from the narrowed set, largely due to the feeling of “evaluation clo- mediated the effect (indirect effect = -.275, CI95% = [-.56, -.01]). In sure.” Building on prior literature on psychological closure (Gu, addition, decision difficulty moderated this effect (2-way ANOVA Botti, and Faro 2013), we propose “evaluation closure”— the state F(1,304) = 6.47, p = .011): the framing effect was attenuated when experienced by consumers when their evaluation is perceived to be the participants perceived a high level of decision difficulty (> 4.4, complete—as a key driver of determining whether consumers pro- the Johnson-Neyman value), which impeded the self-inferential proceed to the next phase of decision-making: making a purchase. We cess that lead to post-decision preference updating. The effect was test in four experiments the predicted difference between options that also replicated in study 2b (N = 875) with visually different photo- survive explicit rejection (e.g., add-or-reject) and those identified graphs. through implicit rejection (e.g., add-only). The implications of this Next, study 3 (N = 461) expanded the generalizability of this research are discussed with respect to our understanding of evalua- effect by crossing the framing manipulation (choose vs reject) with tion modes in the current information environment. the size of the choice set: (picking 1/2 vs 2/4 paintings). The effect Study 1 (N = 296) tested the effect of explicit rejection during generalized to both the 1/2 and 2/4 conditions: participants’ post- sequential evaluation on purchase. Participants reviewed 10 paint- decision evaluation gap was marginally larger after the rejecting de- ings and indicated their liking of each painting. In the like-only con- cision than after the choosing decision (Mchoose = 2.50, SD = 1.62 vs dition, participants were asked to “swipe right” (drag the slider to the

Mreject = 2.80, SD = 2.33, F(1,457) = 2.78, p = .096), regardless of the right) for the paintings that they liked before moving onto the next size of the choice set, which had a separate main effect (M ½ = 2.30, painting. In the like-or-dislike condition, participants had to not only

SD = 2.2, M2/4 = 2.99, SD = 1.73; F(1,457) = 2.08, p < .001), and did “swipe right” on the paintings that they liked but also “swipe left” not significantly interact with framing F( (1,457) = 2.07, p = .151). on the paintings that they did not like. Then, participants indicated Study 4 (N = 1,051) revealed that the effect reversed when the their purchase likelihood (“Assuming that the price is reasonable, options were negatively valenced instead of positively valenced (2- would you buy any of the 10 paintings that you have just evalu- 2 way ANOVA: F(1,1047) = 6.5, p = .011, ηp = .01), consistent with ated?”). Results revealed that participants who made explicit rejec- prior findings supporting a compatibility effect between framing and tions were more likely to purchase a painting than those who did not 2 attribute valence (e.g., Nagpal and Krishnamurthy 2008; Perfecto, make rejections (Mlike-or-dislike = 91.7% vs. Mlike-only = 84.4%), χ (1) = Galak, Simmons, and Nelson 2017; also see Tversky et al. 1988). 3.80, p = .051. Study 5 (N = 461) replicated the effect when participants ex- In Study 2 (N = 605), we extended the rejection effect to non- plicitly expressed their preference before the decision (Mchoose = 2.81, binary purchase intentions and added another condition (i.e., dislike- 2 SD = 2.14 vs Mreject = 3.49, SD = 2.43; F(1,457) = 5.31, p = .022, ηp only) to further delineate the effect of rejection. Participants were 2 = .01; overall main effectF (1,457) = 4.52, p = .034, ηp = .01). Thus, randomly assigned to one of three conditions (like-only, like-or- the effect was not contingent on existing preference uncertainty. dislike, and dislike-only) and engaged in the sequential evaluation Last, we explored the potential influence of the weak axiom task as in Study 1; participants in the dislike-only condition were of revealed preference (WARP) across these studies. When treat- instructed to “swipe left” to reject the paintings and proceed to the ing violation of WARP (i.e., choosing A over B, yet rating A lower next painting if otherwise. Then, participants reported their overall than B) as an attention failure, we screened out participants who had satisfaction with the paintings that survived the evaluation (1 = Not internally inconsistent choice and preferences, and compared their at all, 7 = Very much). We found that compared to participants who results with those previously reported. This comparison allowed us did not make explicit rejections (Mlike-only = 5.94), those who had the to examine if the findings were attributable to an alternative explana- option to reject each painting reported greater satisfaction (Mlike-or- tion: if participants were more impelled to appear consistent after dislike= 6.22, Mdislike-only = 6.15), p = .008. This effect persisted even the rejecting procedure than the choosing procedure. The ratio of after controlling for the number of surviving paintings, p = .007. inconsistent responses was low (6% on average) and similar between Study 3 (N = 320) extended the effect to the shopping cart choose and reject conditions. Moreover, this screening did not sig- context and captured evidence of “evaluation closure.” Participants nificantly affect the main results. In sum, the reject frame enlarges evaluated nine microwaves one at a time and decided whether to the post-decision evaluation gap primarily because of greater prefer- add each microwave to their cart. While the button to add micro- ence diagnosticity perceived in reject decisions. waves (“add this item to shopping cart”) remained the same, the button to reject before looking at the next microwave differed across three conditions: “reject this item” (explicit rejection condition), “look at other items” (implicit rejection), no button (add-only). After 1162 / Rejecting over Choosing: The Unknown Strengths of the Reject Frame reviewing all microwaves, participants reported how much closure seeking. Imagine, for instance, you need to decide which restaurant they had experienced and decided whether they would purchase any to go to for lunch every day. Would you be more likely to stick to microwave from their cart. Consistently, participants who made ex- your favorite restaurant if you decide by choosing or rejecting? plicit rejections were more likely to make a purchase from their cart Across five studies and a wide range of product decisions, we

(Mreject this item = 92.8%) compare to those who did not make such re- find that rejections are stickier than choices—consumers tend to seek jections (Mlook at others = 88%; Madd-only = 86.7%), p = .039. Importantly, less variety across repeated decisions when the decisions are framed participants also reported feeling greater closure over their evalua- as rejections (vs. as choices). This effect occurs because the act of tions after making explicit rejections (Mreject this item = 4.75) vs. implicit rejecting has an asymmetric effect on one’s preference for different rejections (Mlook at others = 4.02; Madd-only = 3.91), t(317) = 3.40, p = .001. options: while it does not influence the liking of the more-preferred Study 4 (N = 394) examined the effect of rejection on purchase option(s), it significantly reduces the liking of the less-preferred likelihood in a free search task whereby participants viewed as many option(s). As a result, the act of rejecting broadens the liking gap or as few alternatives as they wished. Participants reviewed an un- between options, increasing one’s likelihood of selecting the more- known number of $25 gift cards that differed in their brands, and preferred option(s) in future decisions. we used the stopping point (i.e., the number of cards participants re- Study 1 (N=111) tested our hypothesis in a natural setting in- viewed before terminating their search) as an indicator of the evalu- volving real decisions. Specifically, participants made two snack ation completion; at any point during this task, participants could decisions—they first selected a snack to eat at the end of the lab end their evaluation by clicking the checkout button. To ensure that session, and then selected a snack to take home. Participants made participants treated their evaluation as consequential, they were en- these two decisions by either choosing or rejecting between snacks. tered into a lottery to win the gift card of their final choice. Similar We found that participants who rejected between snacks sought to Study 3, the button to reject each card was labelled as either an less variety than those who chose between snacks (5% vs. 36%, explicit rejection (“reject this item”) or an implicit rejection (“look at χ2(1)=15.47, p<.001) because the act of rejecting reduced the liking other items”). Finally, when participants reached their checkout, they of the less-preferred snack (3.07 vs. 3.82, F(1, 109)=7.37, p=.008; could choose a gift card option in their cart or defer (i.e., receive a 95% CI=[.036, .501]). bonus payment of $10 instead). Results showed that making explicit Study 2 (N=400) tested whether our framing effect is attribut- rejections led to earlier stopping points after evaluating fewer cards able to the increased level of deliberation associated with rejections.

(Mreject this item = 28.64) compared to making implicit rejections (Mlook Specifically, participants imagined that they were using a meal kit at other items = 31.07), t(392) = 2.02, p = .044. As expected, participants service and needed to select three out of six recipes each week for the who passed on gift cards through explicit (vs. implicit) rejections upcoming two weeks. We orthogonally manipulated framing and the were more likely to commit to an option from their “rejection sur- amount of deliberation by asking participants to either deliberate or vivors” rather than to defer (Mreject this item = 89.9% vs. Mlook at other items = not before they made choice or rejection decisions. We found that 1) 84.2%), χ2(1) = 2.86, p = .091. Importantly, this effect remained after deliberation did not moderate our effect (F(1, 396) = .79, p = .374); controlling for the number of evaluated options (B = .62, Wald’s χ2(1, 2) participants who removed three less-preferred recipes (i.e., reject- N = 394) = 3.86, p = .050). ing) sought less variety, compared with those who added three pre- In four studies, we demonstrate that explicit rejection during a ferred recipes (i.e., choosing; switches: 1 vs. 1.42, F(1, 398)=18.43, sequential evaluation of alternatives can increase consumers’ choice p<.001); 3) the liking of the less-preferred recipes mediated the commitment (e.g., purchase) to the “rejection survivors.” Overall, framing effect on variety-seeking (95% CI=[.058, .167]). this research has not only theoretical implications for understanding Study 3 (N=301) replicated the framing effect in real decisions rejection motivations but also practical implications for marketers to involving real consumption experiences, and demonstrated an inter- recapture online consumers’ commitment. esting boundary condition. Participants were told that they would view one of two photos across five iterations. During each -itera Rejections Are Stickier than Choices tion, they decided which photo to view and then viewed the selected photo for 10 seconds. Critically, this study included three condi- EXTENDED ABSTRACT tions: choosing, rejecting, and a new choosing-and-rejecting condi- Consumers often make the same decision repeatedly, ranging tion where participants indicated which option they would choose from which product to buy, which restaurant to visit, to which song and which option they would reject simultaneously. Replicating our to listen to. A prominent pattern in repeated decisions is variety- previous findings, participants in the rejecting condition sought less seeking—instead of sticking to their favorite option, consumers tend variety than those in the choosing condition (switches: 1.84 vs. 2.28, to alternate between different options due to satiation (Inman 2001; F(1, 298)=6.19, p=.013). Interestingly, the newly added choosing- McAlister 1982), preference uncertainty (Kahneman and Snell 1992; and-rejecting condition yielded the same pattern as the choosing Simonson 1990), information-seeking (McAlister and Pessemier condition (switches: 2.19 vs. 2.28, F(1, 298)=.26, p=.610). 1982), need for stimulation (Huang et al. 2019; Menon and Kahn Study 4 (N=404) further tested the generalizability of our effect 1995), or merely for the sake of variety (Ratner, Kahn, and Kahne- by manipulating option valence. Participants imagined that they had man 1999). to consume a serving of sparkling water on each of three consecutive Although existing literature on variety-seeking has enriched days. Half of the participants were asked to either choose or reject our understanding of when and why people seek variety, it predomi- among three pleasant flavors (i.e., watermelon, lime, and blueberry), nantly focuses on choices when eliciting consumer preferences, ask- while the other half were asked to either choose or reject among ing participants to make decisions by choosing what they like more. three unpleasant flavors (i.e., buffalo wing, ranch dressing, and clam This focus on choices, however, may not fully capture what happens chowder). Rejecting decreased variety-seeking among both positive in the real world where it is equally likely that consumers make de- (switches: 1.28 vs. 1.84, F(1, 400)=24.42, p<.001) and negative op- cisions by rejecting what they like less (Perfecto et al. 2017; Shafir tions (switches: 1 vs. 1.38, F(1, 400)=10.88, p=.001). 1993; Sokolova and Krishna 2016). The current research investigates Consumers have been found to seek more variety than nor- whether choosing versus rejecting influences the degree of variety- matively warranted (Ratner, Kahn, and Kahneman 1999; Read and Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1163

Loewenstein 1995; Steffel and LeBoeuf 2014). Study 5 (N=400) can have important implications on consumers’ desire to visit the aimed to demonstrate that in situations where consumers tend to seek restaurant and subsequent food orders. too much variety, framing the decisions as rejections (vs. as choices) We test this premise in a series of four studies using various will lead to better decisions. This study is incentive compatible. Each approaches. In all of our studies, we measured calorie estimation participant listed two friends and then selected gifts for either one or by calculating the difference between actual and estimated calories both friends. When the gifting decisions were framed as choices, we and then dividing by the actual number of calories. Therefore, higher replicated the overindividuation effect (Steffel and LeBoeuf 2014): numbers indicate lower estimation of calories. while more than 79.8% of participants correctly selected the better- In Study 1, we utilized a controlled approach that involved a liked gift for either friend individually, only 55.0% of participants step-by-step customization task designed to be as realistic as pos- selected the better-liked gift for both friends (χ2(1)=14.34, p<.001). sible, holding constant the contents of the final product. Undergradu- When the gifting decisions were framed as rejections, however, ate students (n = 133) were shown either a selection or rejection path 79.0% of participants selected the better-liked gift for both friends to a chicken burrito with shredded cheese, lettuce, and sour cream (χ2(1)=.02, p=.892). that another customer was ordering and asked to estimate the final In sum, this research identifies a novel framing effect on vari- calories. They were provided with calorie counts for the base product ety-seeking and significantly extends the literatures on variety-seek- and the product with all six possible ingredients included, such that ing and decision framing. Practically, it offers recommendations for the possible range for the calorie estimation was restricted. Consum- firms on how to increase market shares and enhance consumer loy- ers estimated a lower amount of calories in the final product when alty without incurring additional cost. It also yields implications for they were performing a rejection compared to a selection task (Mrejec- consumer welfare: for domains in which consumers typically seek tion = 3.19% vs. Mselection = -11.70%; F(1,129) = 9.21, p < .01). more variety than normatively warranted, framing decisions as rejec- In the next studies, we allow participants to customize their tions can improve decision quality and increase consumer welfare, own food product using either a selection or elimination task. Even whereas for domains in which consumers typically seek too little though the selection of ingredients could vary across conditions, the variety, framing decisions as rejections may exacerbate the problem index of calorie estimation accounts for this difference. In Study 2, and reduce consumer welfare. students (n = 190) built their own nachos that they received at the end of the session through a selection or rejection approach and then When More Is Less: How Rejecting (vs . Selecting) Food estimated calories in the final product. The results of an ANOVA Ingredients Leads to Lower Estimates of Calories revealed that the rejection (vs. selection) condition led to a lower

estimation of calories (Mrejection = 24.44%, Mselection = - 11.27%; F(1, EXTENDED ABSTRACT 172) = 5.54, p < .001; η2= .18). Consumers are increasingly interested in customizing their Studies 3-4, asked participants to customize their own sand- food orders. As such, restaurants often allow customers to tailor wich and then estimated calories. After customization, participants their products, but this can be achieved in different ways. For in- in Study 3 (n = 111) indicated how likely they would be to order stance, consumers can order a pizza using a “pare-down” approach food from this restaurant. An ANOVA on the individualized calorie in which they eliminate undesired ingredients from a specialty pizza estimation measure revealed that participants in the rejection (vs. or a “build up” approach in which they add desired ingredients to a selection) task estimated lower calories (Mrejection = 13.18%; Mselection base product (Coker and Nagpal 2013; Nagpal, Lei, and Khare 2015; = - 8.13%; F(1, 102) = 19.22, p < .001; η2= .16). Furthermore, we Park et al. 2000). An important benefit of these strategies is that they found that participants that rejected (vs. selected) ingredients had a allow consumers to tailor food consumption based not only on taste higher desire to visit the restaurant (Mrejection = 4.79; Mselection = 4.18; preferences but also on health considerations. F(1, 102) = 4.02, p < .05; η2= .04). We also found a significant indi- Prior literature on product customization and decision frames rect effect of calorie estimation on patronage (Hayes 2013; 95% CI documents how a pare-down, versus a build-up, strategy shifts focus = .02, .53). to negative product attributes (Laran and Wilcox 2011; Shafir 1993; Study 4 explores the influence of customization on subsequent Huber, Neale, and Northcraft 1987). Different from the previous dis- food choices. Given that a rejection task leads to lower calorie esti- cussion, our work focuses on the influence of rejection versus selec- mates, we expect that they will feel more licensed to eat an unhealth- tion customization routes on calorie estimation. Our work proposes ier snack after this process takes place. MTurk panelists (n = 116) that the nature of the customization task can serve as a signal that bi- rejected (vs. selected) ingredients for a sandwich and then estimated ases calorie estimation of the final product. For instance, the process calories in the final product. Next, participants indicated how likely of rejecting is considered to be in line with a consumption-limiting they would be to add a cookie to their order (1 = not at all likely, 7 = mindset (Krishnamurthy and Prokopec 2009). Given that the rejec- very likely). An ANOVA on this measure revealed that participants tion (vs. selection) approach highlights the food items consumers are in the rejection (vs. selection) task estimate lower calories (Mrejection avoiding, the process of rejecting (vs. selecting) is more likely to be = 6.54%; Mselection = - 7.50%; F(1, 106) = 3.95, p < .05; η2= .04). associated with avoiding immediate pleasure to achieve long-term Participants in the rejection (vs. selection) task were also more likely benefits (Hung and Labroo 2010; Vohs and Baumeister 2016). Thus, to add a cookie to their order after the initial customization occurred the literature suggests that the nature of the rejection (vs. selection) is 2 (Mrejection = 3.85; Mselection = 2.98; F(1, 106) = 4.38, p < .05; η = .04). related with a higher degree of restraint. Moreover, because consum- We also found a significant indirect effect of calorie estimation on ers lack expertise to accurately estimate calories (Burton et al. 2006; likelihood to order dessert (Hayes 2013; 95% CI = .02, .45). Sharpe, Staelin, and Huber 2008), they generally use impressions to Across multiple scenarios, we find that a customization task that infer calorie content (Chandon and Wansink 2007). Given that in the involves rejecting unwanted ingredients, versus selecting desired in- rejection task, consumers focus on the food options that they denied gredients, leads to lower estimation of the caloric intake, even when themselves, they may rely on this association to estimate fewer calo- the final product is exactly the same. As the customization trend ries in their final product. Furthermore, this calorie underestimation continues to grow, consumers are continuously modifying their food orders. Our research provides a deeper understanding of the detri- 1164 / Rejecting over Choosing: The Unknown Strengths of the Reject Frame mental consequences that a specific food customization process can Laran, Juliano and Keith Wilcox (2011), “Choice, Rejection, and have on caloric estimation, future food choices, and retail evaluation. Elaboration on Preference Inconsistent Alternatives,” Journal of Consumer Research, 38 (2), 229-41. 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Paper #1: Defending the Human Need to Be Seen: Recipient highly subjective or consisting of unstandardized tasks. In the final Identifiability Aggravates Algorithm Aversion in Resource paper, Yalcin, Mehta and Dahl present a conceptual framework for Allocation Decisions integrating AI in creative cognitive processes. Given that creativity Jasper Teow, National University of Singapore, Singapore is no longer a process that is single-handedly achieved by humans, Adelle X. Yang, National University of Singapore, Singapore the authors develop Cyber-Creativity Framework, that captures the dynamics of the relationship between humans and AI in creative Paper #2: The Human Black Box: Illusionary Understanding processes. Specifically, they theorize that collaborating with AI en- Drives Preference for Human over Algorithmic Decision-Making hances humans’ performances in earlier stages whereas humans have Andrea Bonezzi, New York University, USA an edge over AI in the later stages. Massimiliano Ostinelli, Winthrop University, USA This session provides timely insight into how-and when-con- Johann Melzner, New York University, USA sumers are able to cooperate with algorithms, an increasingly im- Paper #3: How Will AI Affect Job Choice? portant topic given the proliferation of this technology in consumer- Noah Castelo, University of Alberta, Canada contexts. This session directly addresses ACR’s call for papers that Gerald Häubl, University of Alberta, Canada generate new knowledge on how consumers make decisions in the Paper #4: Cyber-Creativity: Unraveling the Dynamics Between age of new technology. This session should be of interest to scholars Humans and Algorithms in Creative Processes working on choice and decision making, inference-making, recom- Gizem Yalcin, Erasmus University, The Netherlands mendations, creativity, innovation, and new technologies. Ravi Mehta, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Darren W. Dahl, University of British Columbia, Canada Defending the Human Need to Be Seen: Algorithm Aversion and the Identifiable Human Recipient in SESSION OVERVIEW Resource Allocation Decisions With rapid technological progress and data proliferation, decisions previously made by humans are increasingly being delegated to EXTENDED ABSTRACT algorithms and Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies, which have Many important allocation decisions, which used to rely on hu- been shown to outperform humans in a wide array of domains (Don- man judgment, can now be made by algorithms with advanced data nelly 2017; Lohr 2016; Silver 2012). Prior research has shown that processing and analytic capabilities. While algorithms are widely consumers are often averse to algorithms (Castelo et al. 2019; Önkal adopted in market predictions and product recommendations, the et al. 2009; Longoni et al. 2019) and are concerned that these tech- involvement of algorithms have provoked much resistance in the nologies could one day replace them (Granulo et al. 2019; Rainie and decisions that distribute scarce resources among individuals. For in- Anderson 2017). Though they engender substantial resistance, the stance, a recent survey indicated that 67% of Americans find it unac- widespread adoption of these technologies appears inevitable. The ceptable to use algorithms in hiring decisions (Pew Research 2018). papers in this session utilize different methodological approaches to Recent research shed important light on people’s general atti- explore how consumers can adapt to this impending transformation. tudes towards algorithms in decision making: while people appreci- Together, they explore what it means to be human in the age of AI, ate algorithmic advice for its superior efficiency and accuracy, they and how technology may change how consumers think and act. are less tolerant of algorithms’ mistakes (Dietvorst, Simmons, and The session’s first two papers discuss impediments to human- Massey 2015; Logg, Minson, and Moore 2019). In certain domains, AI collaborations. Teow and Yang show that consumers’ algorithm such as medical decision making, people tend to reject the use of aversion in resource allocation decisions depends on their empathetic algorithms due to a concern that algorithms may overlook the unique reactions towards the recipients. Seven studies reveal stronger algo- characteristics of each individual (Longoni, Bonezzi, and More- rithm aversion when an identifiable person is highlighted among the wedge 2019). decision recipients, than when no identifiable person is highlighted. Joining this growing literature, we examine people’s prefer- This is because the presence of an identifiable recipient heightens the ence between human experts and algorithms in resource allocation sentiment that individual human circumstances should be attended decisions. We find in seven pre-registered experiments (N = 2,732) to by fellow human beings instead of emotionless algorithms. In the that information about an identifiable decision recipient exacerbates second paper, Bonezzi, Ostinelli and Melzner show that people fos- algorithm aversion by evoking greater empathic reactions than inter an illusion of understanding human better than algorithmic deci- formation about statistical recipients. In particular, the empathic sion-making, when in fact both are black boxes. This occurs because, reactions evoked by the identifiable decision recipient highlight the for human decision-makers, people confuse a superficial, high-level concern that algorithms cannot produce appropriate emotions in re- understanding of what the decision-maker does, for a deeper, low- sponse to each recipient’s circumstance. These findings may reflect level understanding of how the decision-maker operates. Such con- a shared sentiment for the “compassionate gaze,” namely, that indi- fusion is less likely to occur for algorithmic decision-makers. vidual human beings’ circumstances should be attended to by fellow The remaining papers explore potential pathways for success- human beings. ful human-AI collaborations. Castelo and Häubl report five studies In each study, we introduced participants to a resource alloca- that show that students and workers are discouraged from pursuing tion decision, and asked them to indicate their preference between jobs that AI can also perform. Importantly, they find that the effect two decision methods: a committee of human experts versus an algo- hinges on whether consumers perceive the technology as helping hu- rithmic judge. The context of the focal decision varied across studies. mans or competing with them and is reduced when the job is seen as

Across these studies, we also find process evidence in support of our ent category. Thus, the stronger algorithm aversion evoked by an theorization and rule out important alternative explanations. identifiable recipient reflects the concern that algorithms are unable Studies 1 (N = 241), 2a (N = 232), 2b (N = 427), 2c (N = 417), to understand emotions. and 2d (N = 231) all followed a mixed design, with 2 repeated measures (recipient description: statistical versus identifiable), and coun- The Human Black Box: Illusionary Understanding terbalancing of the presentation order of the recipient description Drives Preference for Human over Algorithmic Decision- between-subjects. The description of the statistical recipients em- Making phasized the number of total recipients and the differences in their circumstances, whereas the description of the identifiable recipient EXTENDED ABSTRACT featured an image of one individual recipient with descriptions of Algorithms are increasingly used to make judgments and deci- the person’s circumstance. Participants were first presented with one sions that profoundly impact people’s lives, from whom gets incar- version of recipient description (either statistical or identifiable), cerated or admitted to universities, to whom gets hired or granted followed by an 8-point scale measuring participants’ preference be- credit. Prior research shows that people are often hesitant to trust al- tween the two decision methods for the focal allocation decision (1 = gorithmic over human decision-makers (Castelo, Bos, and Lehmann definitely prefer human committee; 8 = definitely prefer algorithmic 2019; Dietvorst, Simmons, and Massey 2014; Longoni, Bonezzi, judge), as well as a binary choice between the two decision methods. and Morewedge 2019). We propose that people’s reluctance to trust Then, participants were asked to indicate their empathic reactions on algorithmic over human decision-makers stems, at least in part, from a 6-point scale adopted from Erlandsson, Björklund, and Bäckström an illusion of explanatory depth (IOED; Rozenblitz and Keil 2002). (2015), followed by a 9-point scale measuring the compassionate Specifically, people foster the illusion that they understand how hu- gaze belief (with 4 items, e.g., “I believe that their [her] situation man decision-makers arrive at judgments and decisions better than should be seen”). Next, the same participant was presented with the how algorithmic decision-makers do so, when in fact both are black other version of recipient description, following by the same depen- boxes. This occurs because, for human decision-makers, people are dent variables and process measures. Therefore, each participant was more likely to confuse a superficial, high-level understanding of presented with both versions of recipient descriptions, and explicitly what the decision-maker does, for a deeper, low-level understanding informed that both descriptions were about the same decision sce- of how the decision-maker does it. This is less likely to occur for nario. algorithmic decision making. These studies revealed highly consistent results: featuring an Study 1. The goal was to provide initial evidence that people identifiable decision recipient evoked stronger algorithm aversion foster the illusion that they understand human decision-makers bet- than presenting statistical recipients (despite participants being ex- ter than algorithmic decision-makers. We test this hypothesis using plicitly reminded that the focal decision applies to each individual as a typical IOED paradigm, which unveils illusionary understanding well as the entire group); regardless of presentation order. More spe- by asking people to explain in detail how something works (Alter, cifically, these inconsistent preferences were observed both between- Oppenheimer, and Zemla 2010). subjects and within-subjects. We thus collapsed the data to compare 401 MTurkers were randomly assigned to a 2(decision-maker: the average preference under each version of recipient description. algorithm, judge) by 2(explanation: yes, no) between-subjects de- In addition, the process measures in these studies suggest that, an sign. Respondents were presented with a news story about a man identifiable decision recipient evoked stronger emotional reactions found guilty of stealing a car and sentenced to five years in prison, and a stronger endorsement of the compassionate gaze belief. Serial on the basis of a recidivism assessment conducted either by a judge/ mediations supported their roles underlying the observed effect (e.g., algorithm. In the no explanation condition, respondents were asked serial mediation in study 1: indirect effect = -.39,CI 95% = [-.56, -.25]). to rate to what extent they understood how the judge/algorithm Next, study 3 (N = 441) included the same mixed design with evaluated the risk that the defendant would re-offend (three items on another between-subjects factor of recipient prospect (good vs bad). 7-point scales, α=.94, averaged into a sense of understanding score). In a college admission scenario, the identifiable decision recipient In the explanation condition, respondents were asked to explain in was either a more qualified candidate with a good prospect of get- detail how the judge/algorithm evaluated the risk that the defendant ting admitted to a top university, or a less qualified candidate with would re-offend, before rating their understanding. a poor prospect of getting admitted. We found highly similar results A 2(decision-maker: algorithm, judge) x 2(explanation: yes, between conditions (more qualified recipient: Mstatistical = 4.89, SD = no) ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of explanation,

1.92 vs Midentifiable = 2.94, SD = 1.64, F(1,878) = 139.00, p < .001; F(2,397)=5.27, p=.022 and a marginally significant interaction less qualified recipient: Mstatistical = 4.68, SD = 1.96 vs Midentifiable = F(2,397)=3.73, p=.054. Participants in the no explanation condi- 2.44, SD = 1.31, F(1,878) = 187.33, p < .001), and no interactions tion indicated a lower sense of understanding when the decision- between identifiability and recipient prospect (F(1,878) = 1.54, p = maker was an algorithm (M=2.83, SD=1.61) rather than a judge .216). These results suggest that the effect is generalizable across (M=3.46, SD=1.80, p=.013). However, in the explanation condition, identifiable decision recipients and not attributable to participants participants’ sense of understanding did not differ significantly as perceiving the identifiable individual to be more deserving than the a function of decision-maker (judge: M=2.70, SD=1.88; algorithm: average recipient. M=2.76, SD =1.83, p=.819). Key to our hypothesis, asking to pro- Last, study 4 (N = 743) crossed the same mixed design with an- vide an explanation significantly reduced sense of understanding other between-subjects factor (recipient category: victim vs. villain), when the decision-maker was a judge (p=.003), but not when it was to further examine if the effect holds when the decision recipients an algorithm (p=.795). These results provide evidence that people evoke negative emotional reactions, or if participants (mis)perceive foster an illusion of understanding human decision makers better human decision makers to be more lenient towards any identifiable than algorithmic decision makers. individual. Again, we observed the main effect (Mstatistical = 4.27, SD Study 2. The goal was to provide converging evidence for our

= 2.61 vs Midentifiable = 3.31, SD = 2.54, F(1,1484) = 50.97, p < .001), illusionary understanding hypothesis, and test our proposed process and no significant reversal between recipient description and recipi- via moderation. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1167

442 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to a 2(de- abstraction (Kim and Duhachek 2020) and confuse a superficial un- cision-maker: algorithm, judge) by 3(mindset: how, why, control) derstanding of the process for a deeper understanding of how the between-subjects design. Respondents in the how/why mindset con- process actually works. ditions were instructed to consider how/why they would improve and maintain their health (Freitas, Gollwitzer, and Trope 2004). The How Will AI Affect Job Choice? control group did not complete this manipulation. Respondents then read the same news story described in the previous study, and an- EXTENDED ABSTRACT swered the same three items aimed to measure their sense of under- We explore how learning about the existence of AI in a given standing (α=.78). job alters students’ and workers’ willingness to pursue that job. We A 2(Decision-maker: algorithm, judge) x 3(mindset: how, why, show that perceiving AI as competing with humans in a given job de- control) ANOVA revealed a significant interaction, F(2,436)=5.11, creases willingness to pursue that job, while perceiving AI as helping p=.006. In the control condition, sense of understanding was higher humans in a job increases willingness. We also propose two modera- when the decision-maker was a judge (M=4.37, SD=1.51) rather than tors of this effect. an algorithm (M=3.68, SD=1.38, p=.003). This result replicates the The first is whether the job is seen as more objective or subjec- findings from Study 1. When the decision-maker was an algorithm, tive. Objective jobs require the use of quantifiable facts and data to sense of understanding did not differ across mindsets (algorithm con- perform them successfully, relative to subjective jobs which require trol: M=3.68, SD=1.38; algorithm how: M = 3.86, SD =1.15; algo- the use of intuition or personal opinion. People tend to see algorithm why: M=4.09, SD=1.18, p=.191), but when the decision-maker rithms as more capable of performing objective vs. subjective tasks. was a judge, sense of understanding differed across mindsets (judge Thus, emphasizing that a given job is best accomplished by subjec- control: M=4.37, SD=1.51; judge how: M=3.59, SD=1.52; judge tive (vs. objective) means may encourage more people to pursue that why: M=4.00, SD=1.34, p=.003). Importantly, when the decision- job even if AI is competing in that job. maker was a judge, participants in the how mindset reported a sig- A related factor is whether people focus on the standardized nificantly lower sense of understanding than participants in the con- vs. unstandardized aspects of a given job. Independent of whether trol condition (p=.001). These results provide further evidence that people believe that a job is best accomplished by objective or sub- people foster an illusion of understanding human decision-makers jective means, most jobs also consist of some tasks that are rela- better than algorithmic decision-makers, because they construe hu- tively rule-based, repetitive, routine, and standardized, as well as man decision-making in terms why and algorithmic decision-making some tasks that are relatively qualitative, non-repetitive, variable, in terms of how. and unstandardized. Emphasizing the more unstandardized aspects Study 3: The goal was to probe our proposed process via media- of a given job may therefore also encourage more people to pursue tion, test for consequential outcomes, and extend the investigation to that job even in the presence of AI. In Study 1,221 business students a different domain. read an article either about AI being used in accounting, or about a 198 MTurkers were presented with five activities in the HR neutral topic, before indicating their interest in accounting careers. domain (e.g., screening job candidates). Respondents indicated how Reading the article about AI in accounting significantly decreased much they would trust a manager/algorithm to perform each of these students’ interest in accounting careers (β = -.86, p = .002). In the activities on a 7-point scale (α=.89). Respondents then indicated the control condition, 70% of students scored at or above the scale mid- degree to which they understand how a manager/algorithm performs point on the dependent variable, indicating at least moderate interest each of these activities (α=.92). Finally, respondents completed a in accounting careers; in the AI condition, this figure was 50% (χ2 = task, designed in the spirit of the behavioral identification form (BIF; 8.34, p = .004). Vallacher and Wegner 1989), aimed to measure how they construed In Study 2, 151 Prolific participants chose to work on 1 of 2 pre- each of the five activities performed by a manager/algorithm. Final- diction tasks; after working on their chosen task for several rounds ly, to measure perceived accuracy, respondents rated the likelihood (i.e., making several predictions), we introduced an AI system to the of a manager/algorithm being inaccurate when performing each task task, which we told them would be either competing with them for (α=.84). bonus payments, helping them at the task, or we left the AI’s role ambiguous. We measured whether they chose to continue working on Respondents indicated higher trust (MManager=5.45, SD=.95; their chosen task with the AI or switch to the other task where there MAlgorithm=3.76,SD=1.27; t(196)=10.55, p<.001), higher sense of was no AI. Participants in the ambiguous AI condition chose to work understanding (MManager=5.32, SD=1.11; MAlgorithm=3.93, SD=1.55; alongside the AI 76% of the time, those in the AI help condition 86% t(196)=7.21, p<.001), and more why identifications (MManager=3.11, of the time, and those in the AI competition condition 65% of the SD=1.19; MAlgorithm=1.44, SD=1.39; t(196)=9.06, p<.001) in the manager versus the algorithm condition. We conducted a mediation time. The only significant two-sample proportions test was between analysis with decision-maker as independent variable and trust as de- the competition and help conditions (χ2 = 5.16, p = .023). pendent variable. Behavioral identification and sense of understand- 500 Prolific participants completed Study 3, choosing to work ing were specified as serial mediators, and accuracy as an alternative on a task either alone or with AI. We again manipulated whether the mediator. The results revealed a significant sequential indirect ef- AI would help them or compete against them. We also told them that fect (decision-maker -> abstraction -> understanding -> trust: b=.16, they could expect a higher bonus payment if they chose to work with CI95% [.06;.29]). The indirect effect through accuracy (decision- AI, since the per-round bonus payment would be higher. Neverthe- maker -> accuracy -> trust) was also significant (b=.19, CI95% less, 11% chose to work alone in the “AI help” condition, and 28% [.06;.36]). The direct effect (decision-maker -> trust) was reduced did so in the “AI competition” condition (χ2 = 20.6, p < .001). Thus, a after accounting for both processes (b=1.17, CI 95% [.82;1.51]), in- preference to avoid working with AI persists despite financial incen- dicating partial mediation. tives to the contrary. Across three studies, we show that people foster an illusion Study 4 manipulated both help vs. compete framing as in Study of understanding human better than algorithmic decision-making, 3 and framed the task itself as either objective or subjective. We because they construe human decision-making at a higher level of again measured the choice to work alone or with AI on the task. A 1168 / Being a Human in the Age of Artificial Intelligence

2x2 regression revealed that the choice of working alone was more processes raises a vital question about the future of the relationship likely when AI was competing vs. helping (β = .52, p < .001) and between humans and AI in creative industries. more likely when the task was framed as being subjective (β = .10, p Despite the widespread adoption of AI in creative industries, = .068); there was also a significant interaction (β = .24, p = .002). what is known in the CB academic literature is based on human cre- When the task was framed as being highly objective, 70% of par- ativity. Previous work on creativity predominantly studies the cogni- ticipants chose to work alone when AI was competing, compared tive processes that lead to an output that is not only different from to 18% choosing to work alone when AI was helping (χ2 = 62.32, what is already known but also is effective in solving the problem p < .001). When the task was framed as being highly subjective, at hand (Moreau and Dahl 2005). In their influential paper, Finke 80% chose to work alone when AI was competing, compared to 52% and colleagues (1992) propose that such cognitive processes can be when AI was helping (χ2= 21.41, p < .001). Thus, in both cases, there categorized into two critical phases that define creative cognition was a strong effect of AI helping vs. competing, but the effect was and present the “Geneplore Model” of creative thinking. The authors significantly smaller when the task was seen as subjective. argue that generative processes entail constructing mental repre- Finally, Study 5 manipulated 267 business students’ focus on sentations or preinventive cognitive structures of a desired creative the standardized vs. unstandardized aspects of accounting before solution (Murphy 1988). Once these preliminary mental structures reading one of the same articles from Study 1 (about either AI in ac- are generated, exploratory processes are engaged to interpret these counting or a neutral topic). We mentioned that accountants mainly preinventive structures in a meaningful way until a satisfactory cre- work on tasks like “calculating taxes owed and filling out tax filing ative solution is reached. forms” which are largely repetitive and rule-based, or like “interact- In the current work, we evaluate and assess how AI technolo- ing with clients in order to understand their short- and long-term fi- gies may redefine creative cognitive processes. Building on an in- nancial goals and obligations” which are non-repetitive and intuition fluential theory of human creative processes (Geneplore model by based. We again measured interest in accounting careers. Finke et al. 1992), we present the Cyber-Creativity Framework, that A 2 (AI vs. control article) x 2 (high vs. low job standardization) captures the dynamics of the relationship between humans and AI in ANOVA revealed a significant interaction,F (1,265) = 7.13, p = .008, creative processes. but no significant main effects,F ’s < 2.20, p’s > .139. When account- The creative cognitive process starts with the generative phase ing was described as consisting of highly standardized tasks, reading during which one constructs mental representations and preinventive about AI in accounting decreased students’ interest in accounting ca- structures that are evaluated in the exploration phase to reach a final reers (M = 2.84) relative to reading about a neutral topic (M = 4.17, creative solution (Murphy 1988; Perkins 1981). In this initial phase, t(126) = 3.04, p = .003). When accounting was described as consist- individuals retrieve mental information, form associations among ing of highly unstandardized tasks, reading about AI in accounting retrieved mental concepts, and then synthesize or transform these did not decrease interest in accounting careers (M = 3.38) relative concepts/information to generate preliminary mental structures. We to reading about a neutral topic (M = 3.02, t(124) = .79, p = .431). propose that AI can augment human performance during generative Students and workers are therefore discouraged from choosing processes by mitigating their possible weaknesses (e.g., limited com- jobs in which AI can also perform, especially when AI is seen as puting power, limited memory, mental blocks, unconscious plagia- competing; this effect can be reduced by highlighting the subjective rism; e.g., Baddeley 2013; Dahl and Moreau 2002; Miller 1956). or unstandardized nature of the job. Specifically, our model demonstrates that collaborating with AI improves humans’ performances by enhancing their memory, flex- Cyber-Creativity: Unraveling the Dynamics Between ibility, and comprehension. In contrast, we argue that AI shows a Humans and Artificial Intelligence in Creative Processes more secondary role during exploratory processes. Exploratory process entails interpreting the newly defined structures in meaningful EXTENDED ABSTRACT ways (Finke et al. 1992). Such evaluations of preinventive structures For decades, the role of advancing technology had been limited utilize cognitive processes that encompass metaphorical or theoreti- to helping humans perform tasks more efficiently and with higher cal interpretations of the generated concepts, exploration of different quality (van Bruggen et al. 1998). As technologies became more so- meanings and functional inferences of structures, as well as testing phisticated; however, they started taking over tasks from humans, and searching limitations of these interpretations. We suggest AI to performing them autonomously. Recent reports indicate that an in- have a secondary role during the exploratory stage as humans have creasing percentage of human labor has been replaced either par- an edge due to their (relative) advanced capabilities of intuition, tially or completely by new technologies in the last decade (Arntz adaptive decision-making and their ability to assess effectiveness et al. 2016; Brynjolfsson et al. 2018), and people who hold jobs that across contexts. Put differently, even though collaboration with AI are easy to automate (e.g., frontline service employees)– that cor- can enhance the overall effectiveness of exploratory processes, we responds to 30 million American workers– are expected to continue propose that AI is best to play an assistive role during this phase of being replaced (Muro et al. 2019). creative cognition. In addition to their adoption in easy-to-standardize business We believe that our work builds on the current comprehension processes, many companies have been utilizing artificial intelligence of human creativity and proposes a framework that captures the dy- (AI) technologies in business areas that are fundamentally driven namics of the relationship between AI and human creative processes. by high-order human cognition, such as creativity. Due to the wide- By theorizing how humans and AI can collaborate instead of replac- spread adoption of novel AI technologies, creativity is no longer a ing one another, we also contribute to literature on technology by process that is single-handedly achieved by humans. Today, many offering an alternative approach to studying a dark future that awaits companies (e.g., Google, IBM) increasingly employ AI in their cre- humanity (Castelo and Lehmann 2019; Granulo et al. 2019). Addi- ative processes (Ringel et al. 2019) to generate and execute ideas tionally, our work offers timely and actionable strategies for man- (e.g., medicine, food; Fry 2018), to design clothes (e.g., Glitch), and agers and creative professionals. We provide understanding on how even to compose songs (e.g., Watson Beat). This widespread adop- the integration of AI can impact the creative process and facilitate tion of AI technologies in tasks that require higher-order cognitive creative outcomes across different stages of the creative process. By Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1169 doing so, we provide managers with insights into defining and de- Kim, Tae Woo and Adam Duhachek(2020), “The Impact of signing more successful creative processes (e.g., new product devel- Artificial Agents on Persuasion: A Construal Level Account, opment), and how to determine the effective distribution of tasks and Psychological Science, 31 (4), 363-380. resources shared between AI and humans. Logg, Jennifer M, Julia A Minson, and Don A Moore (2019), “Algorithm Appreciation: People Prefer Algorithmic to Human REFERENCES Judgment,” Organizational behavior and human decision Alter, Adam L., Daniel M. Oppenheimer, D. M., and Jeffrey C. processes, 151, 90-103. Zemla. 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Paper #1: Belief-based Discrimination: Beauty Premium and and Norton investigate how a company’s gender pay gap affects Beauty Penalty consumers’ willingness to pay. When firms’ gender pay gaps are re- Meng Zhu, Johns Hopkins University, USA vealed, consumers are found to be less willing to pay for their goods, Tingting Nian, University of California at Irvine, USA an effect driven by consumer perceptions of unfairness and moder- Joachim Vosgerau, Bocconi University, Italy ated by gender. Finally, Cossu, Estes and Vosgerau show that consumers are Paper #2: Racial Discrimination in Customer Service: A Field willing to reward companies for their inclusiveness, specifically Experiment for using disabled models in their advertisements. While disabled Alexandra Feldberg, Harvard Business School, USA models to some extent evoke negative emotions (e.g., pity), they are Tami Kim, University of Virginia, Darden School of Business, shown to more strongly trigger positive emotions such as admiration USA that transcend to the advertisement and the brand. These positive ef- Paper #3: Paying for Parity: Consumer Response to Gender Pay fects cannot be accounted for by social desirability alone. Gaps We expect the session to generate significant interest among Bhavya Mohan, University of San Francisco, USA conference attendees in general given the timeliness of the research Tobias Schlager, University of St. Gallen, Switzerland topic; it should specifically attract researchers interested in inclusive- Katy DeCelles, University of Toronto, Canada ness, discrimination, and minorities. Michael Norton, Harvard Business School, USA Paper #4: Uncommon Beauty: Physically Disabled Models Belief-based Discrimination: Beauty Premium and Positively Affect Consumers’ Attitudes and Choices Beauty Penalty Martina Cossu, Bocconi University, Italy Zachary Estes, Bocconi University, Italy EXTENDED ABSTRACT Joachim Vosgerau, Bocconi University, Italy The positive discrimination in favor of attractive workers—the so-called beauty premium—is a robust phenomenon. Explanations SESSION OVERVIEW for the beauty premium fall into three classes: taste-based accounts The public debate about discrimination and inclusiveness is in- (Becker, 1957) which maintain that beauty is in itself valued by con- tensifying in our societies. Social media is proliferating the means sumers, statistical-based explanations (Phelps, 1972; Arrow, 1973) to socially connect, thereby exposing consumers to more and more which argue that beauty serves as a reliable indicator for produc- information on different cultures and giving voice to vulnerable mi- tivity, and belief-based explanations (Mobius and Rosenblat 2005; norities. The #metoo movement has made it possible to openly talk Bohren, Imas & Rosenberg 2019) which suggest that the beauty pre- about sexual discrimination at the workplace, a topic that had been mium is caused by consumers’ mistaken beliefs about the relation- taboo just a few years ago. And the notion of discrimination itself is ship between beauty and productivity. changing and no longer covers only race and gender but is extended We conjecture that both beauty premium and beauty penalty to other dimensions such as body image and beauty. Given these en- can occur due to belief-based discrimination. The psychology litera- couraging developments, one may be optimistic about the market- ture has shown that attractive people are perceived as more sociable, place overall becoming more inclusive. This special topic session is dominant, sexually warm, mentally healthy, interpersonally compe- aimed at providing an insight as to how inclusive the marketplace has tent, confident, and better adjusted than unattractive people (Dion, become. The evidence is mixed. While consumers and service pro- Berscheid & Walster, 1972; Feingold 1992; Langlois et al., 2000). viders are found to still be discriminating in certain areas, consumers Based on this validated positive link between beauty and social are also observed to be willing to punish companies that discriminate skills, we conjecture that consumers positively discriminate in favor and to reward those that promote inclusiveness. of the attractive for activities in which social skills are important. In In particular Zhu, Nian and Vosgerau show that discrimina- contrast, a beauty penalty may occur for activities that require analyt- tion based on beauty―a beauty premium or a beauty penalty―can ical skills and extensive solitary training, because consumers believe occur because consumers hold incorrect beliefs about the relation- that less attractive individuals incur higher cost in social interactions ship between beauty and productivity. Consumers discriminate in than attractive individuals. favor of the attractive when social skills are deemed important, but In Study 1 (preregistered https://aspredicted.org/blind. discriminate against the attractive when analytical skills are deemed php?x=mf7pe7), 5704 MTurkers each rated a set of 30 photos of the important. same gender and race along one of the following dimensions: attrac- Feldberg and Kim investigate discrimination in the service tiveness, intelligence, responsibility, trustworthiness, social skills, sector in a national field experiment involving 6,000 hotels. Hotels analytical skills, and age. The set of 30 photos for each respondent received emails from one of twelve fictitious email accounts (vary- was created out of a total of 8 sets with varying gender (male vs. fe- ing race, gender, and education) asking for local restaurant recom- male) and race (Asian, African Americans, Hispanics vs. Caucasians; mendations. Hotel representatives’ email responses revealed racial photos were sampled from the Chicago Face Database: https://facul- discrimination along three dimensions of service quality: responsive- ty.chicagobooth.edu/bernd.wittenbrink/cfd/index.html). For each of ness, helpfulness, and rapport. the 240 photos, we averaged the standardized ratings across respon- While those first two papers document extant discrimination in dents within dimensions (attractiveness, intelligence, responsibility, the marketplace, the next two papers show that consumers are also trustworthiness, social skills, analytical skills, age). With photo as willing to punish companies that are still discriminating and to re- the unit of analysis, we then regressed the averaged and standardized ward those that promote inclusiveness. Mohan, Schlager, DeCelles social and analytical skill ratings onto the averaged and standardized

Advances in Consumer Research 1170 Volume 48, ©2020 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1171 ratings of attractiveness, intelligence, responsibility, trustworthiness, tels, investigating the manner in which their service representatives and age in two separate regressions. Consistent with our prediction, would treat potential customers based on perceived race, gender, and people (photos) perceived as more attractive were perceived to have class of customers. Through a simple email inquiry, we examined better social skills (standardized b = 0.53, t(235) = 10.76, p <.001) how much knowledge about restaurants—and the way in which— but worse analytical skills (standardized b = -0.26, t(235) = -5.95, p hotel service representatives were willing to share by asking whether < .001). hotel staff had recommendations for “unique” dining experiences in In Study 2 (N = 205), we manipulated the relative importance their cities. of social skills to analytical skills within the same profession (i.e., Prior to beginning data collection, we set the sample size for computer science professors). Half of the participants were asked to this experiment based on previous audit (e.g., Bertrand & Mullaina- predict the professors’ teaching performance (a domain where social than, 2004; Milkman et al., 2015; Tilcsik, 2011) and aimed for 500 skills are more important), and the other half were asked to predict hotels per condition. We randomly selected 6,000 hotels from OR- their research performance (a domain where analytical skills are BIS, a global company database, using a random number generator. more important). Consistent with our prediction, professors (photos) The experiment employed 12 treatment groups based on the perceived as more attractive by one set of subjects were rated to be perceived race (white, black, Asian), gender (male, female), and better teachers by another set (β = 0.219, SE = .059; t(35) = 3.71, p class of customers. Based on previous research (Milkman et al., < .001) but worse researchers by a third set (β = -0.294, SE = .065; 2012, 2015), we generated six different names to signal both the t(35) = -4.49, p < .001). race and gender associated with each name. To vary perceptions of Can such beauty penalties also be observed in the marketplace? class, we either included or excluded “MD/PhD” at the end of each To address this question, we investigated the influence of physical name. We validated the list of names and titles through a pretest on attractiveness on users’ evaluations of others’ on an online question- Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. We emailed hotels from one of 12 ficti- and-answer site for professional programmers, Stack Overflow. We tious accounts with a simple inquiry. The emails were identical ex- randomly sampled 126,573 profile images, and using Face ++ API, cept for two components: (1) the city that the customer planned to we calculated a physical attractiveness score for each image. Based visit (which corresponded to the city of the recipient hotel) and (2) on the belief-based discrimination account by Bohren, Imas and the customer’s signature at the end of the email. We worded emails Rosenberg (2019), we hypothesized that new programmers with low as follows: “Hello, I will be visiting [hotel’s city location inserted reputation scores should incur a beauty penalty because for program- here] in a few weeks. I’m interested in dining experiences unique ming, analytical skills are deemed more important than social skills. to your city—could you make some recommendations? Thank you, In contrast, among programmers with high reputation scores, attrac- [Customer’s signature inserted here].” Using an email help tool, we tive programmers must produce higher quality output than unattract- scheduled all emails to be sent at 10am in the time zone correspond- ive programmers to overcome the initial beauty penalty, resulting in ing to each hotel’s location. a beauty premium. Consistent with these predictions, among (new) We assessed information availability and quality on the follow-reputation programmers, the questions/answers of attractive lowing three dimensions: responsiveness, helpfulness, and rapport. programmers received more downvotes and fewer upvotes (a beauty Responsiveness refers to the accessibility of information from ho- penalty). In contrast, among experienced high-reputation program- tel representatives, which we measured in two ways: whether or not mers, the questions/answers of attractive programmers received each hotel responded and email length (i.e., the number of characters more upvotes than downvotes (a beauty premium). in each email). Helpfulness evaluates how directly and extensively The results of our three studies suggest that discrimination representatives addressed the customer’s inquiry, which we mea- based on beauty is belief-based, and hence context dependent. Con- sured in three ways: (1) number of restaurants recommended, (2) sumers may discriminate in favor of attractive individuals when so- whether or not hotels referred the customer to another source instead cial skills are deemed important, but may discriminate in favor of the of making any restaurant recommendations, and (3) whether or not plain-looking when analytical skills are more important. Likewise, hotels inquired after the customer’s dining preferences. Note that the discrimination against the attractive can switch to discrimination in act of referring to another source is not helpful, given that respond- favor of the attractive when objective performance criteria are pres- ers are not directly answering the customer’s question. Conversely, ent. inquiring about one’s restaurant preferences is helpful, since it represents an attempt to customize the content of a response. Rapport Racial Discrimination in Customer Service: A Field considers the extent to which representatives attempted to establish a Experiment relationship with the customer, for example, by conveying personal engagement and providing unsolicited information that goes beyond EXTENDED ABSTRACT responding to the inquiry. Finally, five variables measured efforts to Service interactions between service providers and customers establish rapport: whether or not hotels (1) provided extraneous in- are ubiquitous in everyday life; they are also rife with service pro- formation not about restaurants (e.g., attractions in the city, history viders’ discretion and subjective assessments and may be especially of the city), (2) acknowledged the customer as a guest, (3) encour- susceptible to discrimination. Yet, much of the existing research on aged the customer to stay at the hotel, (4) addressed the customer us- discrimination has tended to focus on formal transactions—such ing his/her name or honorific in the response (e.g., Dr. Washington, as the buying and selling of goods and services, or the interactions Mr. Andersen) and (5) signed the email with a complimentary close with organized bureaucracies. Here we study discrimination in the (e.g., Best, Sincerely). context of customer service—the manner in which service providers Patterns across these variables broadly reflect a white advan- (i.e., frontline employees) assist customers. tage in customer service. Compared to customers with white names We chose the United States hotel industry, which generated (42.9%), those with black names and Asian names were less likely over $170 billion in sales revenue and employed 1.9 million people to receive a response (Black: 39.7%, χ2(1)=3.91, p< 0.05; Asian: in 2015 (AHLA, 2015), as our experimental setting. We conducted a 32.0%, χ2(1)=16.29, p<0.001). We found consistent results of racial field experiment using the audit study methodology with 6,000 ho- discrimination for helpfulness and rapport. In terms of helpfulness, 1172 / Discrimination and Inclusiveness in the Marketplace compared to customers with white names (M=3.35, SD=3.72), cus- in a total of 93,627 tweets referencing the 158 firms in our dataset. tomers with black names and Asian names received significantly Next, we used the LIWC database to code all the tweets for positive fewer restaurant recommendations (MBlack=2.97, SD=3.65, p=0.05; versus negative emotional valence about the organization (Pfarrer et

MAsian=3.00, SD=4.16, p=0.10). Customers with black and Asian al. 2010). names were also more likely to be referred to another source (Black: We conducted a linear mixed model regression, using the gen- 14.0%, χ2(1)=3.84, p=0.05; Asian: 15.9%, χ2(1)=8.64, p<0.01) than der pay gap as the independent variable, publication date (before vs. customers with white names (10.7%). Furthermore, customers with after publication) as the moderator, and consumer sentiment as de- black and Asian names were less likely to receive preference inqui- pendent variable (Bpay gap = .001, t(1) = -.19, p = .31, Bpublicationdate_after = 2 2 ries (Black: 3.8%, χ (1)=10.25, p<0.01; Asian: 3.3%, χ (1)=13.34, .14, t(1) = 8.65, p = .003, Bpay gap×publicationdate_after = -.01, t(1) = -8.20, p p<0.01) than those with white names (7.9%). In terms of rapport, < .001; SDrandomintercept_company = .41). The negative interaction between compared to customers with white names (28%), customers with pay gap and publication date shows that after disclosure, a larger black and Asian names were less likely to receive extraneous in- gender pay gap led to more negative emotional tweets referencing formation from the hotel in advance of their visit (Black: 16.0%, the company on Twitter (see Figure 1). A follow-up pilot study re- χ2(1)=29.1, p<0.001; Asian: 4.0%, χ2(1)=158.9, p< 0.001). They vealed that women responded significantly less positively to gender were also less likely to be encouraged to stay at the focal hotel wage gap disclosure online than men, as indicated by a lower sen- 2 2 (Black: 4.7%, χ (1)=4.06, p<0.05; Asian: 4.7%, χ (1)=3.52, p<0.10) timent measure (Mfemale = .43, Mmale = .80, t(339) = 2.65, p = .01, than white customers (7.2%), suggesting that hotels were being se- Cohen’s d = .29). lective about which individuals to invite as hotel guests. These re- We next designed an incentive compatible experimental para- sults were robust to the inclusion of hotel and hotel-county charac- digm to examine whether the disclosure of gender pay gaps caus- teristics as controls. There were neither main nor interaction effects ally affects consumers’ preferences for a firm’s goods. Participants of gender or education. (N = 501, Mage = 36.6, 51% male) were randomized to one of two Through an audit study of 6,000 hotels, we found that hotel rep- conditions: the control condition versus gender pay gap disclosure. resentatives provided service in greater quantities and with greater Regardless of condition, participants saw descriptions of two com- enthusiasm to white customers than nonwhite customers, regardless peting ride share platforms, Uber and Lyft. In the gender pay gap of their gender or education level. The study advances understand- present condition, participants were given the following additional ings of inequality and knowledge-sharing in the marketplace, high- information about Uber, based on actual self-reported data on the lighting the need to focus not only on the quality of customer service United Kingdom’s publicly available Gender Pay Gap Service por- but consistency—as well as the need to identify organizational in- tal: “According to a recent report, women working for Uber have an terventions. average hourly rate that is 33% lower than men’s. In other words, comparing average hourly rates, women earn 67 cents for every $1 Paying for Parity: Consumer Response to Gender Pay that men make.” Participants indicated whether, if they won, they Gaps would like a $50 gift card for Lyft versus for Uber. In this study, we also examined whether consumers responded differently to such EXTENDED ABSTRACT disclosure based on their self-identified gender. Participants of both The gender pay gap—when women earn less money relative to genders were significantly less likely to choose the Uber gift card men for the same work—is a pervasive pattern worldwide (Blau and when they saw the company’s disclosed gender pay gap relative to Kahn 2017). One recent estimate suggests that globally comparing 2 when they did not (MDisclosure = 48.2%, MControl = 71.8%; χ = 27.95, differences in average annual pay, women earn 57% of what men p < 0.01). However, we observed a significant interaction between make (Harris 2017). We explore the effects of gender pay gaps from gender and pay gap (B = 0.78, p = 0.04); women were less likely a unique perspective—that of consumers. We build on an emerging than men to choose the Uber gift card when they were shown that the area of research exploring the influence of inequality on consumer company has a gender pay gap. behavior (e.g., Ordabayeva and Chandon, 2011; Yoon and Kim, Next, we examined perceived wage fairness as a mediator of 2018). Our investigation of the impact of gender pay inequality is the effect of disclosing a gender pay gap on product desirability, particularly timely as countries move towards compelling firms to again using stimuli directly informed by actual self-reported data. publicly disclosure pay gap information, such as the UK (Alderman Participants (N = 304, MAge = 34.8, 57.7% male) were all given a 2018). description of the clothing retailer Adidas. In the gender pay gap Building on past research, we first propose that disclosing gen- present condition, participants were told: “Adidas recently reported der pay gaps can adversely affect consumer purchase decisions by women working for the company have an average hourly rate that is undermining consumers’ perceptions of wage fairness (Benedetti 18% lower than men’s.” Willingness to buy when Adidas’ pay gap and Chan 2018; Mohan, Schlager, Deshpandé and Norton 2018). was revealed was significantly lower than when the pay gap was not Moreover, we propose that participant gender moderates the impact revealed for both genders (Mdisclosure = 3.82, SD = 1.72 vs. Mno_disclosure of pay gap disclosure on product desirability, given that gender plays = 5.42, SD = 1.42; t(298) = 8.76, p < .01). However, women were a role in how an individual takes fairness in account when assessing significantly less willing to buy then men when a pay gap was re- the compensation of others (Leventhal and Lane 1970; Witt and Nye vealed (t(155) = 3.27, p < .01).We conducted a moderated mediation 1992). analysis, with gender pay gap disclosure as the independent variable, In our pilot study, we used Twitter data on consumer sentiment wage fairness as the mediator, gender as the moderator, and willing- before and after mandated pay gap disclosure in the United Kingdom ness to buy as the dependent variable.. The indirect effect of pay gap to provide an initial examination of whether pay gap disclosure influ- disclosure on willingness to guy via wage fairness was significant for ences consumer responses. A research assistant monitored compa- men (B = -.73, CI 95% [-1.05, -.45]), and women (B = -1.56, CI 95% nies that published their gender pay gap leading up to the mandated [-1.97, -1.21]; Preacher and Hayes 2008). Given that the confidence April 4, 2018 deadline. We obtained all tweets between March 28 intervals between both genders did not overlap, the effect is signifi- and April 8 (i.e., five days prior to and after April 3). which resulted cantly more negative for women. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1173

Two pilot studies and two experimental studies show that gen- d = .97), greater admiration for the model (Mdisabled = 4.66, SD = 1.10, der pay gap disclosure can affect consumer purchase intentions. This Mcontrol = 3.15, SD = 1.07; F(1, 199) = 95.40, p < .001, Cohen’s d area of inquiry is particularly timely and important given that firms = 1.38), and were judged as more novel (Mdisabled = 4.74, SD = .90, are under increasing pressure to disclose gender pay gap informa- Mcontrol = 3.38, SD = .94; F(1, 199) = 107.82, p < .001, Cohen’s d = tion that was previously kept confidential. Thus, consumer-facing 1.18). Disabled models enhanced participants’ attitudes (F(1, 199) = firms with gender pay gaps could directly lose equity as a result of 13.79, p < .001, Cohen’s d = .53) and increased their willingness to greater customer awareness, and particularly when their customers buy (Mdisabled = 3.19, SD = .97, Mcontrol = 2.66, SD = .96; F(1, 199) = are women. 14.99, p < .001, Cohen’s d = .55). Study 3 (N = 298; lab; preregistered) tested if previous results Uncommon Beauty: Physically Disabled Models were driven by social desirability bias, using a response deadline Positively Affect Consumers’ Attitudes and Choices procedure. If social desirability is acting, participants should have an immediate negative reaction to the ad and then subsequently adjust EXTENDED ABSTRACT their answer more positively. If this is the case, we would expect to Recent research examined how advertisements that promote see a positive effect only if it has enough time to emerge, such as body positivity and multiethnic inclusiveness impact consumers’ going from one to two seconds. Participants were exposed to both responses. This paper studies the impact of promoting diversity us- ads with disabled models and controls and were asked to evaluate ing a different minority (people with a disability) on a more general them (on a 3-point scale) within either 1 or 2 seconds (between- audience. participants). Again, ads with disabled models were evaluated more The present research analyzes how the inclusion of physically- positively in the one second condition (Mdisabled = 1.80, SD = .49, disabled models in ads influences consumers’ attitudes, emotional 2 Mcontrol = 1.63, SD = .34; F(1, 149) = 14.10, p < .001, η = .08), and responses, and choices. Negative attitudes toward people with dis- in the two seconds condition (Mdisabled = 1.86, SD = .50, Mcontrol = 1.60, abilities originate from the perpetuation of negative stereotypes. The SD = .37; F(1, 149) = 37.17, p < .001, η2 = .20). The effect did not most common, the paternalistic stereotype, portrays people with a interact with the response deadline (p =.139), suggesting the absence disability as high in warmth and low in competence (Fiske et al. of social desirability bias. 2002). Following this line of reasoning, we would expect physically- Study 4, a field experiment (N = 300, preregistered), tested if disabled models to have a negative impact on consumers’ attitudes previous results were driven by participants’ impression manage- and choices, because the stigma associated with the disability should ment by manipulating anonymity of choice. Participants were re- be transferred from the model to the brand. However, according to cruited in the gym of a European university. A research assistant social categorization theory (Kunda, Miller, and Claire 1999) a dis- approached gym members while they were entering the gym and abled model belongs to two social categories: first, a person with a offered an energy drink for free. Both drinks were advertised, the disability and hence part of a stigmatized minority, and second, as a ad for one drink pictured a disabled model, while the other pictured model, an admirable subgroup. When looking at a disabled person the control. Participants were brought into a room where they could that is also a model, people infer that s/he must have been through choose the drink. In the private condition, participants were left many difficulties. What previously was a negative attribute becomes alone while choosing. In the public condition, they communicated a signal of the model’s strength and determination. Therefore, ads their choice to the research assistant. Participants preferred the drink with disabled models shift the negative stereotypical view of peo- advertised by the disabled model whether they made their choice in ple with a disability and increase consumers’ attitudes. We tested private (60.1%) or in public (68.4%; both percentages are greater whether disabled models have a positive impact on consumers’ at- than 50%, z’s > 2.38, p’s < .001) and choice did not differ across titudes (study 1), and emotional responses (study 2). We further in- conditions (χ2 (1) = 2.24, p = .134). vestigated whether the findings are due to social desirability (study The present study contributed to the literature in advertising by 3). Finally, in a field experiment, we tested whether energy drinks considering a specific minority that has not been studied before. Our advertised with disabled models are preferred in private as well as studies suggest that disabled models enhance attitudes, evoke posi- public choices (study 4). tive emotional responses and increase choice both in private and in Study 1, a between-participants study (N = 159; M-Turk), test- public. ed whether ads with disabled models enhance attitudes. Participants were assigned to one of two conditions (disability vs control). We Belief-based Discrimination: Beauty Premium and created two versions of two ads, one with a model (control) and an- Beauty Penalty other identical ad except the same model was missing a limb (dis- Arrow, Kenneth. (1973), “The theory of discrimination. Ashenfelter ability). Compared to the control condition, ads with disabled mod- O, Rees” A ed. Discrimination in labor markets, Princeton els were rated more favorably (Mdisabled = 4.30, SD = 1.09, Mcontrol = University Press, Princeton, 3-33. 3.87, SD = .85; F(1, 153) = 7.32, p < .01, Cohen’s d = .43). Becker, Gary. (1957),” The Economics of Discrimination,” Study 2, a between-participants study (N = 200; lab), replicated University of Chicago Press, Chicago. the previous result and, in addition, tested the effect of disabled mod- Bohren, J. Aislinn, Alex Imas, and Michael Rosenberg. (2019),” els on consumers’ emotional responses, perception of novelty and The dynamics of discrimination: Theory and evidence,” willingness to buy. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the American Economic Review, 109 (October), 3395-3436. two conditions (disability vs control) and saw four advertisements. Dion, Karen, Ellen Berscheid, and Elaine Walster. (1972), “What

Disabled models evoked more pity (Mdisabled = 3.90, SD = 1.39, Mcontrol is beautiful is good,” Journal of Personality and Social = 3.25, SD = 1.30; F(1, 199) = 11.55, p < .001, Cohen’s d = .48), and Psychology, 24 (March), 285-290. to a lesser extent also more negative emotions (Mdisabled = 2.43, SD = Feingold, Alan. (1992), “Good-looking people are not what we

1.01, Mcontrol = 2.17, SD = 1.10; F(1, 200) = 3.10, p = .08, Cohen’s d think,” Psychological Bulletin, 111 (February), 304-341.

= .25). They evoked also more positive emotions (Mdisabled = 3.94, SD

= 1.03, Mcontrol = 2.99, SD = .93; F(1, 199) = 46.72, p < .001, Cohen’s 1174 / Discrimination and Inclusiveness in the Marketplace

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Paper #1: The Objectivity Illusion of Ranking Procedures: How “matters of taste.” Lastly, Hur, Woolley, and Tu (N=1,425) examine and Why Ranking Alleviates Decision Difficulty how choice architecture can affect consumers’ subjective evaluations Yonat Zwebner, Interdisciplinary Center (IDC), Israel of the effort they put into a decision. When holding actual effort in- Rom Y. Schrift, Indiana University, USA vested constant, consumers perceive their effort had a bigger payoff, that is, was better spent and more worthwhile, when they discover Paper #2: Roads or Rome? How Product Categorization Shapes the best option at the end (vs. beginning) in a choice set. As a result, the Attributions and Consequences of Choice Difficulty even though consumers all chose the same best option, those who Xiang Wang, University of Florida, USA found this option at the end (vs. beginning) valued it more and were Aner Sela, University of Florida, USA more committed to their choice. Paper #3: Nuanced Effects of Decision Effort on Decision Together, this session advances our understanding of how Confidence in Matters of Quality versus Matters of Taste choice difficulty and objective and subjective effort investment af- Nahid Ibrahim, University of Alberta, Canada fect consumers’ decision processes and search behavior. This session Gerald Hӓubl, University of Alberta, Canada offers broad appeal on how choice structure can enhance or mitigate Paper #4: Hidden Benefits of Hiding the Best Option: Consumers perceived effort and the consequences of choice difficulty on con- Value Their Selection More When Discovering it Later sumers’ decisions. Elina Yewon Hur, Cornell University, USA Kaitlin Woolley, Cornell University, USA The Objectivity Illusion of Ranking Procedures: How Yanping Tu, University of Florida, USA and Why Ranking Alleviates Decision Difficulty

SESSION OVERVIEW EXTENDTED ABSTRACT How difficult was your last decision? How did this difficulty The degree to which consumers experience decision difficulty during the decision process affect your choice? Consumers often is an important and fundamental aspect of the decision-making pro- face difficult decisions (Tversky and Shafir 1992). Choice difficul- cess. For example, previous research demonstrated that experienced ty shapes, and is shaped by, effort invested in the decision process difficulty may elicit negative emotional states (e.g., Luce, Payne and (Dhar 1997; Iyengar and Lepper 2000). The proposed session joins Bettman 1999), cause consumers to end up choosing nothing (e.g., together four papers offering a new perspective on these questions, Iyengar and Lepper 2000), delay their choice (Dhar 1997, Tversky examining how features of the choice context and decision process and Shafir 1992), increase the need to justify the decision (Shafir, affect perceived choice difficulty, with implications for consumers’ Simonson, and Tversky 1993), and increase the likelihood to com- information search. They further examine perceived and objective promise (e.g., Novemsky et al. 2007). Additionally, the subjective effort invested in choosing, with outcomes for choice confidence and experience of decision difficulty has been shown to also impact con- valuation of their chosen product. sumers’ tendency to engage in simplifying and complicating behav- The first two papers examine novel factors that influence con- iors (e.g., Schrift, Netzer and Kivetz 2011, Schrift, Kivetz, Netzer sumers’ perception of how difficult a choice is.Zwebner and Schrift 2016) and could even play an important role when observing others (N=955) identify how preference-elicitation modes (choice vs. rank- making decisions (e.g., Schrift and Amar 2015). ordering) affect perceived choice difficulty. Although rank-ordering Indeed, as the subjective experience of difficulty impacts vari- requires more effort than simply choosing a preferred option, these ety of different behaviors, understanding what factors increase or de- authors found that rank-ordering reduces perceived choice difficulty. crease it, is important from both theoretical and applied perspectives. This effect occurs because rank-ordering makes judgments feel more The current work focuses on how the preference elicitation mode objective. Wang and Sela (N=1,224) investigate how product cat- impacts consumers’ experience of difficulty. In particular, we focus egorization influences attributions of choice difficulty, and implica- on two prominent modes, namely, choice and rank-ordering. tions for consumers’ information search behavior. When products are When comparing a choice task to a ranking task, it is quite in- framed in different categories, consumers perceive that the options tuitive to expect that a ranking task will elicit greater experience of represent distinct goals and therefore attribute choice difficulty to difficulty (supported by a pilot study (N=100) where 76% of people preference uncertainty (i.e., to the self - “I am not sure what I want”). believed that choosing would be easier for them than rank-ordering). In contrast, when products are framed under the same category, That is, while choosing includes the selection of one option that of- consumers see the options as representing means to an overarching fers the greatest utility, rank-ordering includes the same selection goal and attribute choice difficulty to preference matching (i.e., to (i.e. ranked first), as well as the ordering of all the other options in the option - “These options are not what I want”). This differential the set. Thus, the operations required to make a choice are embedded attribution of choice difficulty to the self (vs. options) drives search in those required to complete the ranking procedure. However, in behavior; people seek information to discover their own preferences, the current research we repeatedly find that consumers’ experienced but seek alternative choices when they feel the option is to blame. difficulty is actually lower when asked to rank as opposed to choose The remaining papers examine how consumers’ effort evalua- among the options. That is, even though the outcome of the ranking tion shapes preferences and choice. Ibrahim and Hӓubl (N=2,335) procedure is identical to that of the choice (i.e., consumers are fully examine when and why exerting greater effort increases decision aware that the option they rank first is the one they will eventually confidence. Specifically, when consumers put more effort (e.g., time) receive), framing the process as ranking as opposed to choosing de- into the decision process, they feel less confident about decisions that creases the difficulty that consumers experience. are “matters of quality” but more confident about decisions that are

Advances in Consumer Research 1175 Volume 48, ©2020 1176 / Difficult by Design: Choice Difficulty and Effort in Decision Making Following recent research on consumer’s perceived objectivity Roads or Rome? How Product Categorization Shapes the vs. subjectivity in judgement (Berman et al., 2018; Goodwin and Attributions and Consequences of Choice Difficulty Darley 2008; Spiller and Belogolova 2017) we find that ranking compared to choosing increases perceptions of objectivity in judg- EXTENDED ABSTRACT ment and, therefore, reduces the associated decision difficulty. That Consumers often experience choice difficulty while making de- is, while choosing highlights subjective evaluation criteria (i.e., a cisions (Broniarczyk and Griffin 2014; Sela and Berger 2012), and matter of taste), ranking procedures increases the perceived objec- they often cope with such experiences by deferring choice and pro- tivity of the decision and eases the selection process. longing their information search (Corbin 1980; Dhar 1997; Dhar and Study 1 (N=217, lab), utilized an incentive-compatible para- Simonson 2003). But how do people select the specific strategy for digm in which participants viewed five products and either chose coping with choice difficulty? For example, when do they seek more their most preferred product, or rank-ordered the products according information on existing alternatives as opposed to new alternatives, to their preferences. Across both conditions we informed participants or try to figure out their own preferences? that their most preferred product (chosen or top-ranked) is the one Choice difficulty may be attributed internally, to preference un- they will receive should they win a lottery that was conducted. After certainty (e.g., “I am not sure what I want”), or externally, to quali- choosing or rank-ordering, participants rated the difficulty they ex- ties of the available options (e.g., “the available options are not good perienced using five items (Cronbach α=.88). Results confirmed that enough”). Each of these possible attributions has distinct implica- compared to the difficulty experienced in choice (M=3.42, SD=1.3) tions for information search, namely, seeking information about how ranking reduced the experienced difficulty (M=2.54, SD=1.02; the options differ in an attempt to form a preference, versus seeking t(215)=5.49, p<.001). Interestingly, this difference was despite the other, presumably better options, respectively. fact that participants spent more time ranking the options (p<.001). We argue that framing the choice options as representing dif- In Study 2 (N=199, MTurk) participants received only two op- ferent categories (e.g., “2-in-1”, “ultraportable”, “gaming”) leads tions and were asked to either choose or rank-order the two options consumers to construe the decision as choosing among different (between-subjects). Because the set consisted of only 2 options, the goals, whereas framing them as representing one overarching cat- actual task in both conditions, is virtually identical. Results con- egory (e.g., “laptops”) leads them to perceive the decision as choos- firmed that even when only two options were available, participants ing among different means to a goal. We argue this based on the still felt lower degree of difficulty in the rank (M=3.24, SD=1.49) notion that category labels often indicate the consumption goals compared to the choice condition (M=3.74, SD=1.5; t(197)=2.35; associated with products under the category (Lamberton and Diehl p=.02). Thus, these finding suggest that the effect is driven by how 2013). Goals are self-diagnostic, because they are seen as desired people construe the task and not by the actual cognitive operations end-states of the self (Carver and Scheier 1990, 1998; Chartrand et required to performing it. al. 2008; Sela and Shiv 2009), whereas means are more instrumen- In Study 3 (N=160, lab) we aimed to further examine why con- tal and situationally determined (Kruglanski et al. 2002; van Osse- sumers construe the same decision differently when choosing com- laer and Janiszewski 2012). Consequently, we propose that, to the pared to ranking. After either choosing or ranking, participants were extent that consumers experience choice difficulty, distinct product asked to indicate (on a 1-7 scale) the extent to which they found categories lead consumers to attribute choice difficulty to the self (as the (i) selection of a TV and (ii) differences among TVs, to be a opposed to the available options) and, therefore, seek information matter of taste or a matter of quality. As hypothesized, participants that may help them discover their own preferences. Conversely, a in the ranking condition indicated greater objectivity for their se- single product category frame leads them to attribute difficulty to the lected TV (M=5.29, SD=1.34) as well as for the differences among options available (as opposed to the self) and, therefore, seek other TVs (M=5.13, SD=1.33) compared to those in the choice condition choice alternatives. (M=4.53, SD=1.74; t(158)=3.12, p=.002, and M=4.53, SD=1.53; Experiment 1 examines the effect of categorization on informa- t(158)=2.66, p=.009, respectively). Further, 68.8% in the ranking tion search, using consequential choice. Participants saw three tea condition indicated that their chosen option is objectively better bag options from which to choose, each described on several attri- compared to only 51.2% in the choice condition (χ2(1)=5.1, p=.024). butes, framed as representing either the same category or different Study 4 (N=279, lab) replicated the effect observed in Stud- categories. Product attributes were the same across conditions and ies 1-2 (p<.001) and the perceived objectivity effect demonstrated in category labels provided no additional information not already con- Study 3 (p=.026) and extended these findings by testing the mediat- tained in the attributes. Presumably to help them with the decision, ing role of perceived objectivity on experienced difficulty. Employ- we offered participants the option to view either additional informa- ing a similar design to Study 3, a mediation analysis (using the macro tion about the existing options that can help them figure out what PROCESS, model 4, Hayes, 2013) confirmed that the perceived ob- type of tea bag they want or, instead, to view other options alto- jectivity mediated the effect of elicitation mode (choice vs. rank) on gether, corresponding to preference uncertainty and option quality participants’ experience of difficulty (B=-.09; 95% CI=[-.19, -.02]). attributions, respectively. They also rated their subjective feelings To summarize, we find that ranking, although takes longer and of choice difficulty. Participants were more likely to seek detailed requires greater cognitive operations, reduces experienced decision information about the existing options in the different-categories difficulty as it fosters greater perceived objectivity of the selection condition (M=70%) than in the same-category condition (M=47%; process. We discuss the applied contribution of these findings given χ2(1)=7.08, p=.008). Supporting our suggestion that this effect re- the prevalence of decision aids that could foster ranking procedures flects attributions of choice difficulty, it was pronounced when diffi- as opposed to direct choice. culty was moderate-to-high (greater than 3.13 on a 7-point scale) but attenuated when participants experienced no difficulty (moderation β=.57, Wald=4.43, p=.035). Categorization had no effect on difficulty itself. Experiment 2 examines how product categorization influences attributions of choice difficulty. Participants saw three laptop mod- Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1177 els, framed as representing either one category (“laptops”) or differ- that exerting more mental effort increases metacognitive difficulty, ent categories (“ultraportable”, “performance”, “premium display”). resulting in low decision confidence (e.g., Dhar 1997; Iyengar and Participants rated choice difficulty and indicated whether the diffi- Lepper 2000; Tversky and Shafir 1992; see Anderson 2003 for a re- culty was due to preference uncertainty (e.g., “I am not sure what view), we theorize that, under some circumstances, exerting greater exactly I want”) or the options (e.g., “the options do not perfectly fit effort actually increases decision confidence. my wants”). As expected, participants were more likely to attribute We argue that whether exerting more effort in the decision pro- choice difficulty to preference uncertainty in the different-categories cess increases or decreases decision confidence (Parker et al. 2016; condition (M=4.22 on a 7-point scale: 1=attribute to preference un- Thomas and Menon 2007; Zakay 1985) is a function of consum- certainty, 7=attribute to option availability) than in the same-catego- ers’ effort sensitivity (the strength of the relationship between effort ry condition (M=4.99; F(1,98)=9.40, p=.003). There was no effect exertion and consumers’ judgment of metacognitive difficulty) in a on choice difficulty itself or perceived option similarity, variability, particular domain and its impact on the inferences consumers draw and comparability. from their effort exertion. Experiment 3 tests the mediating role of participants’ percep- We theorize that consumers tend to be more effort sensitive tion that they chose among goals versus means. Participants saw four when they consider effort exertion to be detrimental in achieving the mutual fund options, framed as representing either one or different desired decision outcome and less effort sensitive when they con- categories. Compared with the same-category condition, participants sider effort exertion to be beneficial in achieving the desired decision in the different-categories condition attributed difficulty to- prefer outcome. We demonstrate that consumers are systematically more ence uncertainty more (F(1, 195)=9.07, p=.003) and indicated that effort sensitive in domains that are considered “matters of quality” they thought more during the decision about which financial goal (where alternatives can be rank-ordered based on product features they would like to achieve rather than which option would best reflecting objective quality) than in domains considered “matters of serve their financial goals (F(1, 195)=3.90, p=.050). This measure of taste” (where alternatives cannot be rank-ordered in terms of objec- thought process mediated the effect of categorization on attribution tive quality). This divergence in effort sensitivity in turn differen-

(βindirect=.10, 95% CI=[.01,.26]) tially impacts two distinct aspects of decision confidence – prefer- Experiment 4 uses the same scenario to provide further insight ence clarity (i.e., to what extent consumers’ choices reflect their true into the process. If using multiple (vs. single) product categories af- inclination) and preference correctness (i.e., to what extent choices fects attributions by leading people to perceive that they are choos- can be validated or justified by normative preferences) (Olson et al. ing among goals (vs. means), then drawing participants’ attention, in 1983; Petrocelli et al. 2007). both conditions, to their personal goals before the decision should In quality domains, consumers tend to attribute the locus of attenuate this effect, because it should increase goal-based choice their evaluations to product features and consider normative prefer- regardless of product categorization. Consistent with our logic, the ences for these features (i.e., rank-ordering) to be diagnostic of the effect of product categorization on choice difficulty attributions rep- optimality of their own choices. In this case, exerting more (vs. less) licated in the baseline condition (F(1,690)=8.64, p=.003), but was effort in the decision processundermines inferences about preference attenuated when participants answered several questions regarding correctness, in turn diminishing decision confidence. By contrast, in their financial goals before seeing the four mutual fund options (F(1, taste domains, consumers tend to attribute the locus of their evalua- 690) < 1, NS; interaction F(1,690)=5.00, p=.026). Choice difficulty tions to personal preferences and consider normative preferences for did not differ across the four conditions. product features to be less diagnostic of the optimality of their own Experiment 5 further examines the downstream effect of attri- choices. In this case, exerting more (vs. less) effort in the decision butions on information search. Participants saw three wine options, process promotes inferences about preference clarity, in turn increas- framed as representing either one category (i.e., dinner party wine) or ing decision confidence. We present evidence from five studies that different categories (i.e., pre-dinner wine, table wine, dessert wine). were designed to test this conceptual model (see figure 1). Compared with the same-category condition, participants in the dif- In study 1 (N=245), we tested consumers’ predisposition toward ferent-categories condition attributed choice difficulty to preference exerting effort across 16 different product domains (adapted from uncertainty more (F(1,98)=5.35, p=.023). This, in turn, led them to Spiller and Belogolova 2017). We found that, on average, consumers indicate that they would prefer to view additional information that are willing to exert more effort (i.e., actively spend time; log-trans- could help them discover what they wanted rather than see other op- formed) in the decision process when they consider a domain to be 2 tions (72% vs. 52%; χ (1)=4.24, p=.039; mediation βindirect=.21, 95% more of a matter of quality versus more of a matter of taste (b=.086, CI=[.01,.69]). SE=.004, p<.001; see figure 2). This finding is consistent with our Taken together, our findings provide novel insights on how theorizing but not fully conclusive, particularly since the 16 domains product categorization influences consumer interpretations of choice differed considerably in economic significance (e.g., Chaiken and difficulty and information search. In addition to their practical sig- Maheswaran 1994; Petty and Wegener 1998). We controlled for this nificance, the findings also make theoretical implications for goal in subsequent studies by using quality and taste domains with similar systems and self-perception theories by showing the link between price ranges. Using product-choice paradigms, we manipulated the categorization, goal construal, and attribution to internal versus ex- amount of decision effort exerted by varying aspects of the choice ternal sources of choice experiences. architecture, such as the number of alternatives to be inspected, as well as the format and timing of information presentation. Nuanced Effects of Decision Effort on Decision Both studies 2 (N=488) and 3 (N=503) showed that, as hy- Confidence in Matters of Quality versus Matters of Taste pothesized, greater effort exertion reduced decision confidence in quality domains (e.g., electric toothbrushes) but increased decision EXTENDED ABSTRACT confidence in taste domains (e.g., coffee tables) (ps<.05). We esti- Effort, be it physical or mental, is quintessential to everyday mated a bias-corrected moderated mediation model (Hayes 2013; consumer decision-making, and it has a profound impact on consum- 5,000 bootstrap samples) in each study. Our analyses revealed that ers’ preference and choice appraisals. Although evidence suggests in quality domains, inferences about preference clarity and prefer- 1178 / Difficult by Design: Choice Difficulty and Effort in Decision Making ence correctness were interdependent and corresponded to decision The current research explores a hidden benefit of saving the effort similarly. In this case, greater effort exertion diminished both best option late: Presenting the best option at the end (vs. begin- preference clarity and preference correctness, in turn reducing deci- ning) increases consumers’ valuation of the selected option. This is sion confidence (ps<.05). By contrast, in taste domains, inferences because, when searching within a limited choice set, discovering the about preference clarity and preference correctness were indepen- best option at the end (vs. beginning) leads consumers to perceive dent and corresponded to decision effort distinctively. In this case, that the effort they put into finding the best option paid off more – greater effort exertion reduced preference correctness but enhanced that is, was well spent and worthwhile (Delleart and Hӓubl 2012). preference clarity, in turn increasing decision confidence (ps<.001). We propose that such benefits arise because consumers perceive that These effects were robust to chronic individual differences in effort they have made more progress in their search (Harkin et al. 2016). valuation (i.e., need for cognition, α=.96; Cacioppo and Petty 1982; As such, finding the best option at the end (vs. beginning) has key Cacioppo et al. 1984). consequences for consumers’ enhanced valuation of their chosen op- In study 4 (N=499), we tightly controlled for the hedonic versus tion, as the positive experience of the search process transfers to the utilitarian nature of the decision domain by asking participants to outcome of search (Fishbach et al. 2004). choose within a common product domain (i.e., electric toothbrush- Five studies (N=1,325) test our theory. Study 1 examined effort es). We manipulated the set of alternatives so as to make the choice payoff using an incentive-compatible design. Participants opened among them either a matter of quality (products varied in objective five gift boxes containing different financial payouts with the goal quality and price, but not in their ergonomic and aesthetic properties) of discovering the highest prize to claim as a bonus. Participants in or a matter of taste (products varied in their ergonomic and aesthetic the best-option-beginning condition viewed the highest prize first properties, but not in objective quality or price). The results showed ($0.22) before viewing four lower prize amounts; participants in the again that greater effort exertion reduced confidence in quality do- best-option-end condition viewed the four lower prize amounts first mains but increased confidence in taste domains (p=.032; figures and found the highest prize ($0.22) at the end. After selecting their 3a–3d). prize, we measured how much participants felt their effort paid off. In study 5 (N=603), we distinguished between instrumen- As predicted, those who found the best option at the end (vs. begin- tal decision effort (the effort exerted in considering and reasoning ning) felt their effort paid off more (Mend=5.03; Mbeginning=4.05; t(136) about products: 20 vs. 5 alternatives) and incidental decision ef- =3.75, p<.001, d=.64). fort (the effort exerted in merely obtaining product information: 40 Study 2 extended these results when searching for a rental on vs. 10 seconds). Using a 3 (decision effort: low instrumental–high Airbnb. Participants searched through five different rentals before incidental vs. low instrumental–low incidental vs. high instrumen- making their selection. We manipulated the order of the highest tal–low incidental) x 2 (domain: quality vs. taste) between-subjects rated option so that it appeared either at the beginning or end of the product-choice paradigm, we again found that exerting more effort choice set. Participants who found the best option at the end (vs. diminished confidence in quality domains (i.e., power banks) but in- beginning) felt their effort paid off more (Mend=5.92; Mbeginning=5.00; 2 creased confidence in taste domains (i.e., ceramic mugs) (p=.071; F(1,161)=13.99, p<.001, ηp =.08). figures 4a–4d). Collapsing the levels of exerted decision effort to Study 3 examined our proposed process, that people feel a high versus low instrumental effort yielded the predicted interaction greater sense of effort payoff when finding the best option at the end effect (p=.020), but collapsing the levels of exerted decision effort because they experience a sense of progress during their search. To to high versus low incidental effort did not (p=.378), suggesting that test this, we manipulated the presentation order of the highest rated instrumental decision effort is the key driver of the predicted effects. restaurant as in study 2, and manipulated the sense of progress (pres- This research advances our understanding of the psychological ent vs. absent) by presenting options sequentially versus simulta- forces that govern how decision effort informs decision confidence. neously. In the progress-present-condition, participants viewed all Importantly, it pinpoints conditions under which choice architec- options one at a time, as in studies 1-2; in the progress-absent-condi- tures can benefit both firms and consumers by either promoting or tion, participants viewed all options at once, such that they were un- restraining the exertion of decision effort. able to feel a sense of progress during search. We found a significant 2 interaction (F(1, 340)=3.85, p=.051, ηp =.011; figure 5); finding the Hidden Benefits of Hiding the Best Option: Consumers best option at the end (vs. beginning) increased perceived effort pay-

Value Their Selection More When Discovering it Later off only for those who could experience search progress (Mend=6.23; 2 Mbeginning=5.60; F(1, 340)=11.00, p=.001, ηp =.03), which attenuated EXTENDED ABSTRACT when there was no search progress experience (p=.58). Consumers often suffer from choice overload. They at times Study 4 provided additional process evidence by measuring face endless options in stores and online that they need to sort consumers’ perceptions of progress during their search and we exam- through to find a product that fits their need. To address this, com- ined a consequence of this effect - that people value their selected op- panies have begun offering curated products that limit the search tion more when they feel greater effort payoff. Participants searched process and help consumers narrow in on the best option for them through a set of environmental non-profits with the goal of choosing (Cha et al. 2018). For example, online dating apps limit the number one charity to donate to. Participants who found the highest rated of potential relationship partners users can view and connect with non-profit at the end (vs. beginning) of their search felt greater ef- per day, and Book of the Month, a book subscription service, recom- fort payoff (Mend=5.39; Mbeginning=4.91; t(308) =2.81, p=.007, d=.31). mends five books every month with reviews, and consumers read Finding the best option at the end also increased valuation of the cho- each review from curators before ordering a book to read. sen option; these participants were more willing to recommend their When searching through a limited choice set, consumers often selected non-profit to others (Mend=5.97; Mbeginning=4.79; t(308)=7.24, learn about options in a specific order. When arranging such a choice p<.001, d=.82). A serial mediation analysis supported our predic- set, should marketers present the best option - the one that consum- tions; finding the best non-profit at the end (vs. beginning) increased ers are likely to prefer the most in the set - at the beginning of the perceived progress in search, which increased effort payoff, leading sequence or save it for last? participants to be more likely to recommend their selected non-profit Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1179 to others (βindirect=.10, 95% CI=[.01,.21]; PROCESS model 6; Hayes Dellaert, Benedict GC, and Gerald Häubl (2012), “Searching in and Preacher 2014) (figure 6). Choice Mode: Consumer Decision Processes in Product Our final study demonstrated another consequence of presen- Search with Recommendations,” Journal of Marketing tation order. Participants viewed five apartment options and chose Research, 49 (1), 277-88. one to rent. When the participants found the best apartment at the Diehl, Kristin, and Gal Zauberman (2005), “Searching Ordered end (vs. beginning), they were more willing to submit an applica- Sets: Evaluations from Sequences Under Search,” Journal of tion to rent the apartment sooner without viewing additional options Consumer Research, 31 (4), 824-32.

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30% Human is Better Than 10% Human: Consumers’ Sensitivity to Human Versus Machine Involvement in Production

Almira Abilova, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands Gizem Yalcin, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands Stefano Puntoni, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands

Prior research shows that people prefer human-made to machine-made products but has not investigated preferences for products made with more vs. less human involvement. Using a newly developed paradigm we find that consumer preferences for products decrease as less human labor is involved and that this decrease is linear.

It Tastes Better For Me Just Because You Don’t Like It: The Effect of Cognitive Dissonance on Product Enjoyment

Aya Aboelenien, HEC Montreal, Canada Caroline Roux, Concordia University, Canada

Prior research on cognitive dissonance has mostly focused on understanding consumers’ attitude and behavior after having to process counter attitudinal information. However little is known about the effect of cognitive dissonance on subjective consumption experiences. Across two experiments we investigate the effect of cognitive dissonance on subjective product enjoyment.

Markets as Contested Assemblages: Comparative Case Study

Aya Aboelenien, HEC Montreal, Canada Jack Sadek, Concordia University, Canada

Through studying meat vape and cryptocurrency markets we investigate actors contesting the legitimacy of these markets and their strategies. Involved actors include industry associations specialized media consumers religious institutions federal agencies financial and scientific communities. Actors participate in strategies of problematization demarcation validation and affirmation.

When Indulgent Choice Can Promote the Next Indulgent Choice

Naoki Akamatsu, Meiji Gakuin University, Japan Reo Fukuda, Asia University, Japan

This study discussed the impact of the result of the prior indulgent choice (buy or restraint) on subsequent indulgent choices. Whereas the conventional idea is that “restraint” of a prior choice promotes subsequent indulgent choices we clarified the conditions where “exercising” a prior choice facilitates subsequent indulgent choices.

The Vulnerable Refugee Mother: Consumption Responses to Identity Threats

Roua Alhanouti, University of Lille, France

This paper attempts to summarize a research investigating the experience of refugees’ families in “transition phases” associated to forced migration. It considers strategies developed by mothers in consumer behavior to deal with identity threats. Research was conducted based on ethnographic approach. The study focuses on family identity and transitional challenges.

Catia Carvalheiro Alves, Nova School of Business and Economics, Portugal Irene Consiglio, Nova School of Business and Economics, Portugal Luis Martinez, Nova School of Business and Economics, Portugal

I propose that brand preferences affect creative performance as well as accuracy of self-reported creativity. Professional creatives and consumers produce more creative work when they work for brands they like (vs. dislike). Also I observe a brand preference bias on successful forecasting of their own creative work.

Using Consumer Neuroscience to Explain Product Choice From Experience

Oriana Rachel Aragón, Clemson University, USA

Academics and practitioners increasingly are expending valuable resources studying consumer behavior through neuromarketing. Elec- troencephalogram (EEG) investigations have thus far gauged consumers’ preferences for presented products. This is the first EEG investigation (N=135) to successfully capture consumers’ nonproduct-related internal states to predict consumers’ product choices made moments after EEG data collection.

Perceived Age of a Name: Adopting Age-based Names in Over-the-Top Media Content

Sunny Arora, S P Jain Institute of Management and Research, Mumbai, India M. G. Parameswaran, S P Jain Institute of Management and Research, India Unnati Dogra, Sardar Patel Institute of Technology,Mumbai, India Sarah Hawa, Sardar Patel Institute of Technology,Mumbai, India

With media content exploding there is a need for character names befitting to their age. Names from the Indian voters’ list and over-the- top media were analyzed using sound symbolism. When vowel and consonant sounds are of consistent frequency names with high-frequency sounds are perceived younger than names with low-frequency sounds.

Curious Abstraction: How Message Abstraction and Financial Scarcity Affect Processing of Mortgage Ads

Esra Asif, University of Leeds, UK J. Josko Brakus, University of Leeds, UK Alessandro Biraglia, University of Leeds, UK

Buying a house is one of the most important decisions consumers make in their lifetime weighing reality (e.g. their financial resources) against imagination (e.g. owning a mansion). We show that abundant - opposed to scarce - mindsets trigger consumer’s curiosity when exposed to an abstract (vs. concrete) mortgage advertising frame.

Soul Inside the Machine: Product Morphology Influences Consumer Valuation

Sumitra Auschaitrakul, University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce, Thailand Dan King, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, USA

Many products such as luxury wristwatches have a “creviced morphology” with a crevice bored into the product structure. We demonstrate the “crevice effect” in which products with a crevice (versus without) elicit a higher valuation underpinned by increased perceptions of a high level of materialized expression.

Experiences as Ends (versus Means) Bring More Happiness and Meaning

Hankyul Bae, University of Minnesota, USA Kathleen Vohs, University of Minnesota, USA

We tested whether pursuing an experience for intrinsic reasons (ends approach) versus extrinsic reasons (means approach) would differently affect consumer well-being. Two experiments revealed that people report more happiness and meaning when they think about their experiences as ends versus means to another end. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1183 Better With Diverse Contexts? The Effects of Contextual Diversity of Background on Consumption Imagery

Eunsoo Baek, Hong Kong Polytechic University, China Zhihong Huang, Hong Kong Polytechic University, China

The study explored the effect of contextual diversity of background images on consumption imagery with a moderating effect of processing style. Results showed that a multiple (v.s. a single and none) contextual background generated consumption imagery of a product for holistic (v.s. analytic) processors leading to positive product evaluation.

A Good Cry or A Gratifying Revenge? Desired Mixed Emotional Experience in Movie Consumption Across Cultures

Aaron J. Barnes, University of Louisville, USA Jie(Doreen) Shen, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Jennifer L Stoner, University of North Dakota, USA Carlos Torelli, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA

Prior research suggests that content with mixed emotions appeals to collectivists but not individualists. In contrast the current research suggests that both individualists and collectivists desire movies with mixed emotional themes as long as the mixed emotions align with their cultural values.

Can’t See You! The Effect of Packaging on Calorie Perceptions

Sara Baskentli, Western Washington University, USA Tracy Rank-Christman, University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee, USA

This research investigates how packaging material impacts consumers’ perceptions of calories. Results from two studies show that packaging material has an impact on consumers’ caloric perceptions. The authors suggest that the material of package impacts calorie perceptions which in turn could have implications on product consumption.

Augmented Reality Effects on Attitude and Memory

Juliana M. Batista, EAESP-FGV, Brazil Annaysa Salvador Muniz Kamiya, Centro Universitário FEI, Brazil Delane Botelho, EAESP-FGV, Brazil

Little is known about the underlying mechanisms on the effect of augmented reality (AR) on consumer´s attitude and memory. In two experiments we demonstrate that positive attitude toward the brand increases and memory recall decreases when consumers are exposed to AR. Perception of media´s innovation and entertainment mediate such effect.

Understanding Recovery From Compulsive Consumption With Practice Theory

Larissa Carine Braz Becker, University of Turku, Finland Melissa Archpru Akaka, University of Denver, USA Hope Schau, University of Arizona, USA Elina Jaakkola, University of Turku, Finland

This paper analyzes how consumers reconfigure a system of practices during recovery from compulsive consumption. A study with recovering alcoholics reveals how consumers disengage from non-supportive practices and how new practices relate to each other. These findings contribute to the literature by using a sociological perspective to study behavioral change. 1184 / Working Papers Making Home Away From the Established Models of Ownership: Preliminary Findings From a Housing Cooperative

Ons Belaid, IAE Lyon, France Mariam Beruchashvili, California State University Northridge, USA Sonia Cappelli, University of Lyon, France William Sabadie, University Jean Moulin Lyon 3, France

Based on an ethnographic study conducted in the context of a large cooperative house located near the metropolitan area in France where residents practice consciously elected collective cohabitation we examine how consumers make home (Douglas 1991) in a physical space of a house deliberately devoid of conventional forms of ownership.

Digital Platforms and Market Intermediation

Kristin Bentsen, University of South-Eastern of Norway Eileen Fischer, York University, Canada Per Egil Pedersen, University of South-Eastern of Norway

This paper explores how market intermediation may be affected when market actors rely on digital platforms. It draws on participant observation conducted in “REKO” markets in which transactions and interactions are primarily conducted via groups organized on Facebook. The paper identifies four actor/platform intersections that may profoundly shape intermediation.

Another Advertising Stereotype: Effects of Non-Stereotyped Portrayals of Older Women in Advertising

Hanna Berg, Stockholm School of Economics, Sweden Karina T. Liljedal, Stockholm School of Economics, Sweden

This paper examines the effects of featuring non-stereotyped portrayals of older women in advertisements. In two empirical studies we demonstrate positive ad effects of using non-stereotyped portrayals of older models for female consumers. Furthermore these effects are explained with signaling theory and the social effects of advertising.

Commitment Contracts: The Effect of Commitment-Based Pricing on Customer Acquisition and Retention

Katja Berger, University of Hamburg, Germany Klaus Wertenbroch, INSEAD, Singapore Christina Schamp, University of Mannheim, Germany

Nowadays an increasing number of firms incorporate commitment into their pricing schemes and business models. Our research shows how to design and present commitment-based pricing optimally to acquire and establish long-term relationships with customers.

Feeling Pressured to Disclose Personal Information? Understanding The Role of Social Pressure on Consumers’ Information Disclosure Intention

Alena Bermes, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Germany Maximilian Alexander Hartmann, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Germany Peter Kenning, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Germany

This research examines if consumers feel social pressure to disclose personal information for mobile application usage. Grounded in the theory of self-determination the results prove that social pressure (being of multifaceted structure including fear of missing out subjective norms and image) is positively related to information disclosure intention. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1185 Stop It! Consumer Resilience as a Buffer Against Psychological Conflicts in the Digital Age

Alena Bermes, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Germany Nikita Maleev, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Germany Peter Kenning, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Germany

Drawing on psychological resilience theory this research is the first to define conceptualize and test the phenomenon of consumer resilience against the background of today’s digital environment which confronts consumers with rising psychological conflicts (e.g. fear of missing out). The preliminary results proof consumer resilience’s buffering effect against such stressors.

Dimensions of Believability of Brand News: An Exploratory Study

Kshitij Bhoumik, Texas Tech University, USA

This research explores the factors that shape consumer believability toward brand news on digital platforms. What are the cues consumers look to evaluate the authenticity of any brand communication? What kind of brand message is considered as highly believable? We identified eight dimensions that shape consumers’ perception of brand news.

Sequential Sensory Cues in Retailing and Food Packaging: Managerial and Ethical Implications

Dipayan Biswas, University of South Florida, USA Lauren I Labrecque, University of Rhode Island, USA Donald Lehmann, Columbia University, USA

Sensory cues are often encountered sequentially (than simultaneously) in many retailing food packaging and consumption contexts. A series of experiments demonstrate how the sequence in which sensory cues are encountered might influence food taste perceptions food choices and consumption volume.

It’s Written All Over Your Face—Applying Deep Neural Networks to Explain Human Mating Based on Facial Characteristics

Daniel Boller, University of St. Gallen, Switzerland

This research investigates human mating in online dating markets based on facial characteristics by utilizing high-dimensional profile section transaction and facial image data of 640000 users of an online dating platform. The results of this research assist software developers and marketing practitioners in designing algorithms for human matching.

Counterfeit Consumption Eliciting Group-Based Emotions

Delane Botelho, EAESP-FGV, Brazil Fernando A. Fleury, EAESP-FGV, Brazil Ramona de Luca, EAESP-FGV, Brazil

This paper investigates positive and negative emotions as consequences of the consumption of counterfeits in the context of soccer supporters. Specifically the perceived personal in-group responsibility for consuming counterfeits leads to negative affect (e.g. guilt and anger) while the responsibility for consuming original products leads to positive affects (e.g. pride).

A Contingency Theory of Artificial Intelligence: Consumer Beliefs, Value Creation, And Resistance to Creative AI

Anna Bouwer, University of St. Gallen, Switzerland Christian Hildebrand, University of St. Gallen, Switzerland

This paper examines the unexplored role of ‘creative AI’ by studying the perception of machine-generated ‘creative output’. It provides conceptual foundations on the notion of creative AI and demonstrate the consumer associations with AI along with the downstream consequences of creative AI for consumers’ perception of aesthetic quality and valuation. 1186 / Working Papers “’Sweet, Tasty Evil’ Or ‘Healthy Bliss’? Lay Theories On Food Products For Children”

Raphaela Elisabeth Bruckdorfer, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany Oliver B. Büttner, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany Gunnar Mau, Deutsche Hochschule für Gesundheit und Sport (DHGS), Germany

Based on qualitative and quantitative data we developed an instrument to assess consumers’ lay theories on child food products. In line with experts lays expected such products to contain high amounts of fat sugar and calories but at the same time perceived them as being moderately healthy and rather useful.

Unveiling the Color Matching Effect in Product Displays

Daniel Erik Brylla, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Germany Gianfranco Walsh, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Germany

Consumer researchers have long been interested in explaining the effects of individual and combined colors on consumer perceptions and behaviors. Across four studies the authors show that product colors that match a moderate amount of colors in the shopping environment increase consumers’ aesthetic perception and purchase intentions.

Uninformed But Unaware: How the Number of Likes Triggers a Knowledge Illusion on Social Media

Andrea Bublitz, University of Zurich, Switzerland Anne Scherer, University of Zurich, Switzerland René Algesheimer, University of Zurich, Switzerland

Drawing from theory on the group mind this research uncovers how likes on social media trigger a knowledge illusion: If individuals are not motivated or able to read but content received many likes they rely on external knowledge in the group mind and feel better informed than they objectively are.

How Can We Make Fat Women Feel Miserable?

Ana Julia Büttner, ESPM, Brazil Suzane Strehlau, ESPM, Brazil

The objective is to comprehend how plus-size women find well-being through fashion inside the symbolic violence. The qualitative method used semi-structured interviews using photo-elicitation reveals that fatshionistas play with fashion rules and present well-being. Al- though at the same time they reveal a subordination to the cult of thinness.

The Visual Impaired Tourist: Facilitators and Inhibitors in Choosing Tourist Destinations

Aline Delmanto Capone, ESPM, Brazil Vivian Iara Strehlau, ESPM, Brazil

This paper aims to understand what factors influence leisure travel destination choice for the visually impaired. A qualitative approach using in-depth interviews with three different groups preliminarily found that acquired blinds have more constraints than congenital or low vision. The origin of blindness affects their well-being and how they travel.

The Exquisite Exotic: Revalorization of Culinary Ingredients and Traditional Food Practices in the Global Marketplace

Flavia Cardoso, Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez, Santiago, Chile Angela Gracia B. Cruz, Monash University, Australia Pilar Ximena Rojas Gaviria, University of Birmingham, UK

This theoretical piece offers an integrative framework to theorize how marketing actors invest and participate in the international re- signification of culinary ingredients and food practices. It goes beyond localized case studies synthesizing the current theorizations on the internationalization of food and charts an agenda for future research. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1187 Chatbots an Exploratory Analysis on the Impact of NLP and Customer Sentiment Analysis

Lilian Carvalho, FGV/EAESP, Brazil Eusebio Scornavacca, University of Baltimore, USA

We partnered with a startup that uses NLP (natural language processing) to assist different firms to set up their virtual assistants. We analysed 4320 interactions and found that chatbot-human interaction had a better score than human-to-human interactions.

Let Me Split the Donation, I Will Donate More: How Installment Payment Reduces Perceived Cost and Increases Willingness to Donate .

Marta Caserotti, University of Padova, Italy Enrico Rubaltelli, University of Padova, Italy Paul Slovic, University of Oregon, USA

Do people prefer a donation split into several instalments or a lump sum? Do they prefer to pay now or later? Four experiments (and a pretest) investigated how payments options and intertemporal choice affect donations. We found that the opportunity of giving through instalments increased donations decreasing the perceived cost.

A Reimagining: Prefiguring Systems of Alternative Consumption

Katherine Casey, University of Kent, UK Maria Lichrou, University of Limerick, Ireland Lisa O’Malley, University of Limerick, Ireland

This ethnographic research reveals how an ecovillage prefigures consumption via a repertoire of alternative consumption and production systems designed to challenge neoliberal notions of choice value and ownership; explores how community members participate in broader changemaking and how the community engages the broader institutional framework to further environmental education.

Understanding Overconsumption – Symbolic and Spatial Transgressions in Public Places

Cecilia Cassinger, Lund University, Sweden Jörgen Eksell, Lund University, Sweden

Overconsumption refers to harmful or excessive consumption. This study demonstrates how experiences of overconsumption are constructed in transgressions of boundaries within places. Results are supported by a study of citizens’ experiences of tourism-consumption in touristified cities. They underscore the importance of considering experiences of overconsumption practices for sustainable consumption.

Causa Sui (Cause of Itself): How Self-benefit Appeal Framing Interacts With Situational and Dispositional as Donation Cause-types

Chia-Chi Chang, National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan Joseph Iesue, National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan Chia Hua Lin, National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan

Research provides insight on charitable giving by testing the interaction between donation cause-types (situational vs. dispositional) and self-benefit appeals (‘karma’ - intentional but dependent ‘feel-good’ - intentional and independent ‘humanity’ - unintentional). Results show ‘karma’ appeal elicits higher donations for situational causes with ‘feel-good’ and ‘humanity’ appeals benefiting dispositional causes.

Social Influence and Personalization in Behavioral Retargeting Advertising

Yaping Chang, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China Shaowei Chai, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China Jun Yan, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China

Through a serial of field experiments on Facebook this research examined the impacts of social and personalized messages in retargeting advertising on customer responses. Results indicate geographic proximity is more effective than number of likers on social media. Personal- ized message works negatively. Product knowledge works as a moderates. 1188 / Working Papers How Social Functioning Ability and Crowdedness Impact Consumer Behavior

Shiyun Chen, University of Iowa, USA Gary Gaeth, University of Iowa, USA Irwin Levin, University of Iowa, USA

In the current research we investigate the impact of social functioning on consumers under varying levels of social crowdedness. Our finding suggests that people with lower social functioning abilities feel less comfortable more anxious and dislike the more crowded environment compared to people with higher social functioning abilities.

Securing Non-Touristy Shops-- Claiming Local Collective Identities in Political Consumption Against Inbound Tourists’ Shopping Spree

Wei-Fen Chen, University of Leicester, UK Tin-yuet Ting, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China

Departing from behavioral perspectives that examine how consumers’ political consumption relates to personal characteristics this study investigates how collective identities of local consumers are shaped in response to overwhelming inbound shopping tourism informing the contemporary practices of citizen consumers and manifesting a novel approach to understand political consumption.

Utilizing Matte Packaging to Communicate Social Warmth

Yu-Shan Athena Chen, Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands Wei-Ken Hung, National United University, Taiwan

Two studies demonstrate that matte packaging conveys haptic information in the same manner as interpersonal touch (Study 1); and matte packaging is preferred over glossy packaging when people have a goal to reduce coldness (Study 2). Together these results suggest that matte packaging is instrumental in communicating warmth.

Waiting For A Download: The Effects of Congruency Between Anthropomorphic Cues and Shopping Motivation on Consumer Patience

Siyun Chen, Jinan University, China Xinliang Wei, Temple University, USA

People tend to be impatient while waiting for a webpage to download which might be negatively correlated with their satisfaction with the online providers. In particular we propose a new framework of how the congruence of anthropomorphic messengers and shopping motivation enhances patience (i.e. perceived quickness of a download).

What to Buy When the American Dream Fails? Understanding the Taste of Downwardly Mobile Consumers

Wei-Fen Chen, University of Leicester, UK Xue Wang, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China Ying-yi Hong, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China

This study examines how consumer behaviors are influenced by upward and downward economic mobility. Findings indicate that facing downward mobility consumers lessen the economic components in their self-identities and thus are less interested in purchasing products framed in advertisements that appeal to economic capital compared to their upwardly mobile counterparts. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1189 The Effect of Identical or Distinct Service Failure Recovery on Customer Satisfaction

Yin-Hui Cheng, National Taichung University of Education, Taiwan Shih-Chieh Chuang, National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan Ya-Ju Shen, National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan

This paper study showed that providing the same type of service is worse than providing a different service in terms of customer satisfaction. Two boundary conditions were examined in which the severity of the failure and consumer participation mitigate the effect of identical/ distinct service recovery on customer satisfaction.

I Can Be Perfect! Growth Mindset Moderates the Effect of Perfectionism on Maladaptive Eating Behaviour

Jennifer Chernishenko, University of Lethbridge, Canada Rhiannon MacDonnell Mesler, University of Lethbridge, Canada Debra Z Basil, University of Lethbridge, Canada

To clarify the link between perfectionism and eating behaviors we proposed that implicit mindset would moderate the relationship between perfectionism and maladaptive eating behaviour. Whereas a growth mindset increased use of dieting strategies and consequently maladaptive eating behavior fixed mindset reduced this effect. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

When Technology Environment is More Indulging: Impact of Accessibility to Technology-Equipped Environment on Self-Control Behaviors

Yunjia Chi, Huazhong Agricultural University, China Fue Zeng, Wuhan University, China Li Huang, Hofstra University, USA

The mere perception of accessibility to technology-equipped environment without actually using technologies triggers consumers’ effort conservation intention which results in lapses of self-control.

The Effects of Majority/Minority Source Status and Argument Quality of Online Reviews on Product Perceptions: The Moderating Role of Product Type

Yi-Wen Chien, National Taiwan University, Taiwan Shian-Ko Liu, National Taiwan University, Taiwan

This study posits that for different products (search vs. experience goods) source status and review quality may have different impacts. Experience goods rely more on source status whereas search goods rely more on review quality. Marketers are suggested to develop effective promotion strategies based on product type.

Strong As An Ox: Usage Of Storytelling By Vegan Athletes To Reduce Consumers’ Meat-Health Associations

Ziad Choueiki, Ghent University, Belgium Maggie Geuens, Ghent University, Belgium Iris Vermeir, Ghent University, Belgium Adriaan Spruyt, Ghent University, Belgium

This paper explores the implicit/explicit association between meat consumption and health. We propose that storytelling by vegan athletes (whose personal experiences challenge the prejudice of veganism being an inadequate diet) can help reducing both consumers’ implicit meat-health association and the explicit belief that meat is necessary normal natural and nice 1190 / Working Papers Friendship Alleviates Sense of Regret

JungHan Chung, Sogang University, South Korea Young-Won Ha, Sogang University, South Korea

The authors investigated whether psychological relatedness affects consumers’ sense of regret in consumption failure settings. Through three experiments the authors demonstrated that close relationship can alleviate sense of regret and this friendship effect was mediated by locus of causality and was moderated by individuals’ level of subjective well-being.

The Making of Healthy, Wealthy, and Happy Consumers: Practices and Politics of Nudging in For-Profit Firms

Leonardo Conte, Università della Svizzera italiana, Switzerland Lena Pellandini-Simanyi, Università della Svizzera italiana, Switzerland

This paper extends research in Consumer Culture Theory on the making of the consumer subject by examining (1) the performative role of nudging practices in businesses (2) their underlying normative visions and (3) the concrete processes through which they shape consumers within the Foucauldian framework of neoliberal governmentality.

Life Transition to Terminality: Dynamic Regimes of Representation, Permanent Liminality, and Coping Consumption

Michele Corengia, Università della Svizzera italiana, Switzerland Luca M. Visconti, Università della Svizzera italiana, Switzerland

Through the lenses of representation theory this (n)ethnographic research contributes to literature on consumer permanent liminality and coping consumption. Unpacking life and market transition of patients to terminality accounts for how they use representational agency and consumption to counterbalance etic representational regimes and the tensions arising from their liminal experience.

Salience Over Centrality? How Environmental Identity Drives Pro-Environmental Consumption

Sandor Czellar, HEC Lausanne, Switzerland Leila Rahmani, HEC Lausanne, Switzerland Simona Haasova, University of Lausanne, Switzerland Valentina Clergue, HEC Lausanne, Switzerland Christian Martin, National University of Ireland Maynooth, Ireland

We investigate the relationships between environmental identity centrality its salience and pro-environmental behavior. Five studies reveal a distinct influence of environmental identity salience and centrality but no interaction between the two on several types of self-reports and actual behaviors. Our findings bear implications for research aiming to promote pro-environmental consumption.

A Permanently Loose End: Constructing the Intersectional Identity of British South Asians

Ofer Dekel Dach, De Montfort University, UK Amandeep Takhar, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK

Moving away from dominant acculturation models this research study draws on intersectional theory to better understand how individuals from the British South Asian community in the U.K. respond to social complexity and engage in identity construction. Our findings present a picture of the way participants mix and juxtapose identity categories. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1191 Leaving the Field: Problematizing Temporality in and of Ethnographic Consumer Research

Christian Dam, University of Gothenburg, Sweden Mathias Sosnowski Krabbe, University of Southern Denmark, Denmark

This paper argues that the temporality of ethnographic consumer research is inadequately illuminated which prevents the conceptualization of exiting the field. Thus a stronger focus on the various methodological and ethical aspects of exiting the field is needed particularly due to the changing notions of what constitutes the field.

Group Buying of Experiential (vs . Material) Purchases

Gopal Das, Indian Institute of Management Bangalore, India James Agarwal, University of Calgary, Canada Mark T Spence, Bond University, Australia

This research examines how experiential vs. material purchases influence consumer preference for group buying (vs. individual buying). Specifically consumers while purchasing experiential (vs. material) goods anticipate more enjoyment which in turn results in higher intent to participate in group buying behavior. These effects hold for interdependent (vs. independent) self-construal.

Marketing’s Role in Promoting Common Good: A Systematic Examination and an Agenda For Future Inquiry

Benét DeBerry-Spence, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA Lez Ecima Trujillo Torres, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA Rumela Sengupta, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA Jia Chen, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA Kohei Matsumoto, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA

We examine the role marketing has played in promoting the ‘common-good’ by conducting a systematic multi-method multi-journal inquiry. Marketing consistently contributes to a dialogue of common-good by publishing impactful articles in areas like health and CSR. Opportunity exists for greater contributions to important areas such as gender-empowerment and education.

Does Alphago’s Victory Over Human Champions Reduce The Interest Of People In Go? The Negative Effect Of Artificial Intelligence On Competition Events

Zhongzhun Deng, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, China Donghong Zhu, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, China

Four studies (N=1214) confirm that how and why losing to robots (vs human) negatively affected consumer attitude toward these events. We contribute to the literature on Robot AI and goal theory from another perspective. In addition research help companies and governments to avoid negative effects when advertising robots.

Sacrificing Pleasure For Status. Which Customers Are Attracted by Healthy Luxury Goods?

Perrine Desmichel, Northwestern University, USA Goedele Krekels, IÉSEG School of Management, France

Luxury brands have recently entered the market of healthy products although healthy benefits can reduce the hedonic benefits of luxury consumption. Across two preliminary studies we propose and show that consumers who did not earn (vs. earned) their wealth present stronger desire for healthy (vs. non-healthy) luxury goods. 1192 / Working Papers Atemporal Nostalgia as Artefact in Post-Colonial Non-Western Context

Amina Djedidi, Université Paris-Est Créteil, IRG, France Nacima Ourahmoune, Kedge Business School, France

Often pictured as a passive longing for the past this paper conceives nostalgia as atemporal: it creates states and spaces where time is reconfigured to reach selective accounts of bridges between the past present and future. Nostalgia atemporality sutures complex and hetero- geneous sociocultural references in Post-Colonial Non-Western context Algeria

Keeping Track of What’s Deserved When Personal Finances Grow

David Dolifka, University of California Los Angeles, USA Stephen A Spiller, University of California Los Angeles, USA

All financial growth first requires principal to invest. In this project we explore the relationship between the perceived deservingness of both principal and downstream growth. Initial studies suggest consumers downplay whether or not their principal was deserved when judging the deservingness of subsequent financial growth.

Does a Flaw Outweigh a Flaw? The Bright Side of Negative Comments in Online Product Reviews

Shen Duan, Renmin University of China, China

The research find that two-sided information reviews are more persuasive to consumers than one-sided information reviews and the importance proportion and position of negative information play a moderating role in this relationship. This study enriches the relevant research on the impact of online reviews on consumer product purchases.

Recovering Cultural Authority: Marketplace Abandonment and Return

Toni Eagar, Australian National University, Australia Andrew Lindridge, Newcastle University, UK Diane Martin, RMIT University, Australia

This project investigates how a brand can recover its former position in a marketplace after losing legitimacy. We apply a process data approach to qualitatively analyse 614 media reports and 31 interviews. We extend the brand longevity concept and reveal brand recovery as a process involving return dormancy and resurrection.

Goal Conflict Undermines Self-Continuity and Leads to Greater Preference For Renting Vs . Buying

Mahdi Ebrahimi, California State University Fullerton, USA Anoosha Izadi, University of Massachusetts, USA

The present research identifies a novel antecedent for consumer renting behavior. We propose that consumers who experience goal conflict are more likely to rent vs. buy a product or service. We also show that the effect is mediated by lower perceptions of future self-continuity.

The “Common Good” Phenomenon in Country of Origin Effects

Martin Egger, University of Vienna, Austria Arnd Florack, University of Vienna, Austria Adamantios Diamantopoulos, University of Vienna, Austria Georgios Halkias, University of Vienna, Austria

The “common good” phenomenon describes that products share positive attributes but are distinguished according to negative attributes. In three studies we demonstrate that this phenomenon applies to products from different product categories and countries and show that it decreases the differentiating power of favorable country of origin labels. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1193 Coopetition and Creativity in Idea Crowdsourcing: Investigating the Mediating Role of Emotional and Motivational Ambivalences

Mehdi Elmoukhliss, TSM Research, France

We investigate why coopetition-based idea crowdsourcing has a positive effect on consumers’ creativity. We study two potential mediators: emotional ambivalence and motivational ambivalence. We found a significant indirect effect of motivational ambivalence. We contribute to the consumer research literature by introducing coopetition as a new model for engaging creative consumers.

The Effects of Mindfulness on Healthy Food Choice in Childhood Socioeconomic Groups

Amy Errmann, University of Auckland, New Zealand Yuri Seo, University of Auckland, New Zealand Felix Septianto, University of Auckland, New Zealand

The effects of mindfulness on healthy food selection is receiving attention in academia and practice. The current research examines which childhood socioeconomic groups benefit the most from mindfulness as it pertains to food choice. We propose that mindfulness pro- vokes low childhood socioeconomic groups to make healthier food choices.

Risk on the Edge: The Effect of Socio-spatial Location on Consumer Preferences

Sina Esteky, Miami University, Ohio, USA Amar Cheema, University of Virginia, USA

This paper explores how the relative spatial location of consumers in a group affects consumer preferences. We find that being located close to the center versus edge of a group primes the concepts of safety versus risk respectively. As a result being farther away from the center heightens risk-seeking.

How the Different Wordings of Message in Pop-Up Window Affect Consumers’ Behavior?

Yafeng Fan, Tsinghua University, China Jing Jiang, Renmin University of China, China

This research classifies the message wording approaches in pop-up windows into “guilt appeal” “delaying appeal” and the “no appeal” and examine how the different wording affect consumers’ behavior. Compared with not using any appeal “guilt appeal” and “delaying appeal” in pop-up windows can promote consumers’ retention rate and customer satisfaction.

When Social Media Word-of-mouth Catches Envious Eyes: How Feelings of Being Envied Influence Self-brand Connection

Wenting Feng, Hainan University, China Irina Y. Yu, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China Morgan X. Yang, The Hang Seng University of Hong Kong, China

We examined the ambivalent impacts of being envied experiences triggered by sharing luxury consumption on social media. Results from three experiments show that feeling being maliciously (benignly) envied decreases (increases) self-brand connection mediated by anxiety (pride). The effects are more salient when consumers interact with peers with lower social-distance.

Give Me the Fish Vs. Teach Me How to Fish: The Effect of Socioeconomic Status on Recipients’ Willingness to Accept Help

Maura Ferreira, Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Erick M. Mas, Vanderbilt University, USA Kelly Goldsmith, Vanderbilt University, USA

This research investigates an overlooked side of prosocial behavior the recipient’s willingness to accept help. We show that recipients’ socioeconomic status can decrease and increase willingness to accept low-order (money/food) and high-order (scholarships) help as these types of help can represent both self-threat and self-support depending on recipients’ socioeconomic status. 1194 / Working Papers Mitigating Uncertainty in Consumer Adoption of Medical Artificial Intelligence

Darius-Aurel Frank, Aarhus University, France Polymeros Chrysochou, Aarhus University, Denmark Panagiotis Mitkidis, Aarhus University, Denmark Dan Ariely, Duke University, USA

This pre-registered study investigates the potential of explicit uncertainty quantification information in mitigating consumers’ reluctance to trust and depend on recommendations by medical artificial intelligence agents’ in decision scenarios characterized by uncertainty.

Brand Familiarity Shows in Consumers’ Eyes

Léon Franzen, Concordia University, Canada Amanda Cabugao, Concordia University, Canada Aaron P. Johnson, Concordia University, Canada H. Onur Bodur, Concordia University, Canada Bianca Grohmann, Concordia University, Canada

Although brand familiarity has been linked to product recognition speed and prior experience the objective measurement of consumers’ brand familiarity remains challenging. We integrated an extensive product image validation study with novel pupillary response measure- ments to demonstrate reliable dissociation of familiar and unfamiliar brands without an overt response.

What Makes Services Luxurious? Insights From a Qualitative Study

Martin P Fritze, University of Cologne, Germany Jochen Wirtz, National University of Singapore, Singapore Jonas Holmqvist, Kedge Business School, France

We address the research question ‘What constitutes a luxury service experience’? and report results from exploratory interviews conducted with luxury service consumers to understand how they perceive differences between luxury and non-luxury services. Our results reveal key luxury perception dimensions in the search decision consumption and post-consumption states.

Re-imagining Subcultures: A Comparative Study of Generational Preconceptions of Music Consumption, Identity, and Belonging

Olivia Fulvio-Mason, University of Gloucestershire, UK Richard Warr, University of Gloucestershire, UK

As the existence of subcultures within today’s youth culture have begun to be questioned this study focuses on changes surrounding music consumption that have occurred between Millennials and their parent generations. Aims include the exploration of youth subcultures musical identity and the transformation of generational preconceptions towards popular music consumption.

Seeing Through Your Eyes: The Influence of Interface on Advertisement Processing

Lin Ge, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China Hao Shen, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China

Consumers are more likely to take a first-person perspective while viewing advertisements on a smartphone than on a personal computer. Consequently they might react more favorably to an ad with content generated from the first-person perspective if they view it on a smartphone (vs. a PC). Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1195 Mixed Emotions Inspire Missions (Im)possible – The Role of Emotions in Setting and Achieving High Aspirations

Jana-Verena Gerhart, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany Oliver Emrich, Johannes Gutenberg-University of Mainz, Germany Michael Norton, Harvard Business School, USA Jordi Quoidbach, ESADE Business School, Spain Ann-Kathrin Haderdauer, Johannes Gutenberg University (graduate), Germany

A longitudinal study of New Year’s Resolutions examines the effect of emotional states on goal setting and goal attainment. Participants (N=1004) assigned to experience mixed emotions when setting goals increased their aspiration levels more than those assigned to experience positive emotions. Higher aspirations in turn predicted resulting change.

How Incongruent Products Drive Brand Engagement: The Role of Curiosity

Maximilian H. E. E. Gerrath, University of Leeds, UK Alessandro Biraglia, University of Leeds, UK

Brands seek new ways to engage consumers on social media. For example McDonald’s recently generated buzz by announcing an incongruent product—Big Mac scented candles. Across three experiments we examine the link between (low vs. high) congruence and brand engagement. Moreover we identify curiosity as a driver of this effect.

You Don’t Need To Be Me To Win My Heart: The Impact of Cognitive Appeals on Empathy In Pro-Social Behaviors

Mahsa Ghaffari, university of Portsmouth,UK Giovanni Pino, University of Chieti-Pescara, Italy Daniel Nunan, University of Portsmouth, UK

Despite the widespread conviction that empathy and congruency between self and the target increase pro-social behaviours this research underscore the importance of marketing communication techniques in boosting altruistic behaviour when the self and target are incongruent.

The Effect of Warmth and Competence Perceptions on Algorithm Preferences

Zohar Gilad, Technion University, Israel Liat Levontin, Technion University, Israel Ofra Amir, Technion University, Israel

Perceptions of warmth (intent) and competence (ability) strongly affect people’s judgment of individuals groups and organizations. We find that surprisingly not only competence perceptions affect people’s preferences for artificial intelligence algorithms. Moreover similarly to the judgments of other people warmth perceptions tend to have a stronger effect on preferences.

Which Autonomous Vehicle (AV) Will be More Pro-Social? The One You Own or Rent .

Tripat Gill, Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada

Recent research reveals that consumers expect AVs to be less pro-social than regular car drivers. Current work examined how ownership would impact the latter moral shift. It was found that owned AVs are expected to be more pro-social than the ones that are rented due to self-extension into the AV. 1196 / Working Papers With God on My Side, I Have No Fear of Ultra-processed Foods and Lack of Exercise

Ali Gohary, Monash University, Australia Hean Tat Keh, Monash University, Australia Eugene Chan, Monash University, Australia

This research investigates the impact of God salience on consumers’ food choice and physical inactivity. Three studies (secondary data chronic and primed God salience) show that God reminders lead consumers to exhibit greater willingness to choose ultra-processed (vs. unprocessed) food products and being more physically inactive.

When Recycling Seems Risky: Are Consumers Afraid to Recycle Sensitive Information?

Gabriel E. Gonzales, SUNY New Paltz, USA Matthew D. Meng, Utah State University, USA Christopher Berry, Colorado State University, USA R. Bret Leary, University of Nevada, Reno, USA

The current research proposes that consumers are uncomfortable recycling items containing private information (e.g. “junk” mail bank statements etc.) despite seeing such items as recyclable. Two initial studies provide evidence for this effect suggesting a potentially untapped source of highly-recyclable material while generating insights for both scholars and practitioners.

Behavioral Option Value and Product Set Choice

Paniz Gorji, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands Benedict Dellaert, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands Bas Donkers, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands

We propose a behavioral theory of consumers’ option value for sets from which they consume a product in the future. For example consumers may choose between health insurance networks from which they select a provider for treatment later. Results from two experiments support our hypotheses and illustrate the proposed approach.

The Injustice of Envy

R Justin Goss, Colorado State University-Pueblo, USA

This research investigates the impact that status hierarchies within brand communities have on the occurrence of Envy. I examine the antecedents and consequences of Malicious and Benign Envy. Specific attention is paid to Deservingness. Findings show that Deservingness affects feelings of both Malicious and Benign Envy. Implications are discussed.

Consumer Deceleration Through Cultural Borrowing and Critical Reflection

Sarah Grace, University of Arkansas, USA

This research extends previous findings on consumer deceleration by exploring how cultural borrowing facilitated through marketing activities in a globally connected consumer culture can provoke critical reflection. The findings of this study empirically ground a theoretical process that marketers can use to constructively engage in the phenomenon of social acceleration.

Is That Brand Relevant to Me? Concept, Measurement and Antecedents of Brand Relevance

Amélie Guèvremont, École des Sciences de la Gestion, UQAM, Canada Fabien Durif, École des Sciences de la Gestion, Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada Cindy Grappe, Écoles des Sciences de la Gestion, Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada

This research explores the meaning of brand relevance according to consumers and its creation from a branding perspective. Across four studies it defines brand relevance and its dimensions (utilitarian/symbolic/social/environmental) develops a measurement scale identifies brand relevance’s antecedents and validates them through an in-depth analysis of relevant brands’ social media content. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1197 Investigating the Effects of Uncertainty Avoidance on Customer Loyalty Intention

Bingxuan Guo, University of Texas at San Antonio, USA Karen Page Winterich, Pennsylvania State University, USA Yinlong Zhang, University of Texas at San Antonio, USA

This research explores how cultural orientation of uncertainty avoidance affects customer loyalty intention. Secondary country level data and primary individual level experiment provide convergent evidence showing a negative effect of uncertainty avoidance on customer loyalty intention and this effect is mitigated by desire to change and need for structure.

Social Class and Risk Taking: The Effects of Perceived Benefits and Decision Domain

Yafei Guo, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Xue Wang, University of Hong Kong, China

The present paper is the first to systematically examine the class-related differences in consumer risk-taking behavior. It proposes a moderation of risk domain to reconcile the differential risk patterns among different socioeconomic consumers. The class-related risk patterns provide insights for managers who target consumers with social class differentiation.

Upskilling Communication and Self-Production: How to Communicate the Value of Cocreated Innovation?

Ajmal Hafeez, University of South-Eastern Norway, Norway Marit Engeset, University of Southeast Norway, Norway

Although much research have focused on how consumers derive value from engaging in self-production less focus has been given to how such offerings can be communicated to consumers. We posit that messages focuses on upskilling or ways in which engaging in self-production can improve consumers’ skills increases adoption of such products.

How Estimating One’s Minimum or Maximum Spend Affects Total Expected Expenditure on a Shopping Trip

Eunha Han, Monash University, Australia Harmen Oppewal, Monash University, Australia Eugene Chan, Monash University, Australia Luke Greenacre, Monash University, Australia

We investigate the effect of considering one’s possible minimum and/or maximum spend on the expected total spend during a grocery shopping trip. We propose that considering one’s maximum will increase the effect of unpacking on magnitude estimation while consideration of the minimum spend will decrease the effect.

Social Exclusion Causes People to Share Blatantly False Stories in the Service of Affiliation

Hyerin Han, University of Minnesota, USA Hyun Euh, University of Minnesota, USA

The present study demonstrated that participants who felt excluded (vs. accepted) were more likely to share fake news which was high in emotional intensity even though they knew that these news stories were highly likely to be false but only when doing so boosted their chances to communicate with others.

Do Happiness and Meaning in Life Uniquely Predict Consumer Well-Being?

Xianyu Hao, University of Minnesota, USA Kathleen Vohs, University of Minnesota, USA

We tested the influence of happiness and separately meaning on consumer well-being once their overlapping variance was removed. Two studies testing life views psychological needs and interpersonal outcomes indicated that happiness was a stronger predictor than meaning — thereby suggesting doubts about the influence of meaning on well-being. 1198 / Working Papers Consumer Reactions to Social Media Brand Blunders

Ceren Hayran, Ozyegin University, Turkey Melis Ceylan, Bilkent University, Turkey

This research explores how brand blunders - humorous and accidental business mistakes - that take place on social media influence consumers’ attitudes and relationship with the brand. Two studies show that loyal (vs. non-loyal) consumers are more negatively influenced by blunders as they think blunders are not funny but offensive.

The Impact of Gratitude on Consumer Maximization Tendency in Decision-Making

Dongjin He, Hong Kong Polytechic University, China Brent McFerran, Simon Fraser University, Canada Yuwei Jiang, Hong Kong Polytechic University, China

This research shows that gratitude can increase consumers’ maximization tendency evidenced by searching for more options spending more time on decision-making and choosing stores with larger assortment sizes. This effect appears because gratitude activates a self-improvement motivation. Furthermore we show the situations in which the proposed effect is weakened.

Feeling Justified to be a Jerk: Consumers Are More Likely to Complain For Someone Else Than For Themselves

Patrick Matthew Healey, Washington University, USA Cynthia Cryder, Washington University, USA Sydney Scott, Washington University, USA

Consumers’ participation in behaviors that lead to negative social perceptions increases when they are engaging in the behavior on behalf of another person. The present research is focused in the realm of customer complaints and nagging.

Communities of Stigmatized Knowledge: Social Exclusion, Political Sovereignty, and Globalized Capitalism

Tim Hill, University of Bath, UK Stephen Murphy, University of Essex, UK Robin Canniford, University of Melbourne, Australia

Prior studies show that consumers can be sceptical of the truth claims produced by the State universities and scientific communities. The proposed study investigates consumers who develop alternative claims to truth that are ignored or rejected by such dominant knowledge-making institutions.

Fractal Agency: Fetishization of Algorithms and the Quest For Transcendence

Soonkwan Hong, Michigan Technological University, USA

This research discusses critical topics related to algorithms and transhumanism to explicate and theorize the entanglement between big data marketable transcendence and fractal agency. Such discussion helps identify future research topics that highlight more specific characteristics of algorithms such as opacity messiness inscrutability hyper-legitimacy hyper-functionality and equal distribution of accountability.

The Impact of Social Crowding on Consumers’ Sensitivity to Price Magnitude

Yuansi Hou, Queen Mary University of London, UK Ke Zhang, Shanghai University, China

Crowding is a widely observed phenomenon. Through a correlational study and two experiments the research provides evidence suggesting consumers are less sensitive to the magnitude of service prices and reveals the underlying mechanism of reliance on feelings (vs. cognitions) when making judgments in the more (vs. less) crowded conditions. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1199 Adding Human Cues in a Green Advertisement Makes it More Engaging

Junhui Huang, Tsinghua University, China Maggie Wenjing Liu, Tsinghua University, China

Making a green advertisement more engaging has always been a great concern for marketers and environmentalists. With two studies we show that subtle human cues in advertisements can increase the audience’s engagement with the advertisement.

“Brain Damaged” Celebrity Followers: An Exploration Of The Effect Of Celebrity’s Brand Endorsement On Followers’ Social Media Engagement

Mei Huang, Xihua University, China Xiaodan zhang, Peking University, China Fang Wan, University of Manitoba, Canada Yifan Chen, University of Manitoba, Canada

The current research explores the impact of celebrity’s brand-related posts on followers’ social media engagement. We find that brand endorsement types in celebrity’s social media post impacts their fans’ engagement behaviors (i.e. likes comments and shares) differently.

The Closeness Buffering Effect: How Closeness Weakens Negative WOM Impacts

Li Huang, Hofstra University, USA Hang Nguyen, Michigan State University, USA

Word of Mouth (WOM) has great impacts on consumer decisions. Contrary to the common belief of greater impacts from close friends over strangers we found that negative WOM from close (distant) others were viewed more subjective (objective) and thus become less (more) influential on consumers’ decisions.

Wine Attributes For Purchase Satisfaction: an Exploration of Gender Difference

Hyowon Hyun, Hanyang University, South Korea Dongyoup Kim, Hanyang University, South Korea Jungkun Park, Hanyang University, South Korea

This research explores how numerous wine decision attributes affect satisfaction. The wine attributes were categorized into three wine factors (i.e. basic intrinsic extrinsic) and positively associated with satisfaction. The results of hierarchical regression and experiment showed the gender difference in the relationship between wine factors and satisfaction.

Semantic Congruity of Price and Name: The Effect of Precise or Round Numbers and Sound Symbolism

Hiroaki Ishii, Aoyama Gakuin University, Japan Jaewoo Park, Musashi University, Japan Taku Togawa, Sophia University, Japan

Previous studies show that consumers associate precise or round numbers with specific concepts. In this study we explore the semantic association of precise or round prices with the concept of smallness or largeness and the effect of semantic congruity between the price and sound of brand name on product evaluation.

Money Can Corrupt Others But Not Me: Asymmetrical Perception of Future Self-Continuity

Anoosha Izadi, University of Massachusetts, USA Mahdi Ebrahimi, California State University Fullerton, USA

The present research examines how people perceive change in their (vs. others) fundamental characteristics after facing with hypothetical situational changes in their (vs. others) future. We predict that the relationship in not symmetrical meaning that people perceive more change when the situational change is related to others (vs. themselves). 1200 / Working Papers The Effect of Implicit Bias on Marketing Practitioners’ Decisions For Minority Consumers

Jorge Rodrigues Jacob, Columbia University, USA Martin Davidson, University of Virginia, USA Valerie Purdie-Greenaway, Columbia University, USA Tatianna Dugue, Columbia University, USA

The mismatch between the identity background of those that define products’ marketing strategies and those who purchase them may increase the likelihood of biased marketing strategies that target stigmatized consumers.

“We” Don’t Always Like Copycats: How Self-construal Influences Evaluation of Product Imitation

Seongun Jeon, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands Femke van Horen, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands Peeter Verlegh, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands Keith Wilcox, Columbia University, USA

Three experiments provide converging evidence that self-construal (interdependent versus independents) affects the evaluation of copycats (products imitating the trade-dress of leading brands). Interdependents evaluate high similarity imitations more negatively than independents. Such copycat evaluation is moderated by norms regarding copycatting for interdependents but not for independents.

Setbacks as Self-Control Replenishment in Consumer Goal Pursuit

Lan Jiang, Menlo College, USA Stephanie Dellande, Menlo College, USA Miranda Canniff, Menlo College, USA

This research investigates the effect of setbacks in goal pursuit. Extending the literature on self-control as a resource we propose that occasional setbacks can be seen as a chance for replenishment resulting in longer term goal-consistent behaviors. The frequency and duration of the setback will be studied as potential moderators.

“Scarce- Insincere” Heuristic: Signaling Effect of Limited Quantity in Scarcity Appeal

Yufang Jin, Dalian University of Technology, China Guang-Xin Xie, University of Massachusetts Boston, USA

This research reveals a novel “scarce - insincere” heuristic when consumers make inferences of limited quantities in scarcity appeals. Product scarcity can reduce perceived sincerity of suppliers and deter consumers from purchase. Real-world transaction data demonstrate the counterproductive effect of product scarcity and experimental data suggest the underlying process.

Do Majority and Minority Always Act Differently? How Relative Group Size Affects Utilitarian Consumption

Yu Jinjun, City University of Hong Kong, China Yijie Wang, Hong Kong Polytechic University, China Nakaya Kakuda, City University of Hong Kong, China

This research investigates how relative group size affects consumers’ utilitarian consumption. We propose that consumers prefer utilitarian products more when they are situated in a relatively smaller group which is mediated by the need for self-improvement. Two experiments are conducted to test our hypothesis. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1201 Fostering Progressive Literacy Through New Media Consumption: How Memes, Podcasts, And Political Comedy Spur The Political Imaginary

Hunter Jones, Aalto University, Finland

This netnography of the increasingly popular digitally active and politically charged ‘Dirt Bag Left’ presents an original model depicting how consumption of political comedy in new media is used to foster progressive literacy and reignite stagnant socio-political imaginaries. In doing so it makes substantial contributes to Transformative Consumer Research.

I Hope Therefore I Save: The Positive Effect of Hope on Financial Decision Making

Stephen Juma, Virginia Tech, USA Mario Pandelaere, Virginia Tech, USA

Understanding what motivates people to save is critical in a time when most people do not have enough savings. We tested the prediction that hope motivates saving through an increased focus on the future. Results from three studies show that hope leads to savings and a boundary condition is identified.

“Others Seem to Move Further Than I Do”: How Perceived Change in Distance May Differ Depending on Who Creates the Distance

Wonsuk Jung, University of Wisconsin - Madison, USA Joann Peck, University of Wisconsin - Madison, USA

Our judgement on distance may be influenced by whether the distance in question is created by the self or the other. We propose that when the distance is created by the other the impact of that distance may seem greater compared to when the distance is created by the self.

Bibliometric Analysis of Immersive and NeurophysiologicalTools in Retailing

Shobhit Kakaria, University of Valencia, Spain Aline Simonetti, University of Valencia, Spain Enrique Bigne, University of Valencia, Spain

Given the evolving nature of marketing research and the prominence of neurophysiological and virtual tools this bibliometric analysis showcases the representative research trends in the past two decades and prospective directions in the domain of retailing.

Can Taste Predict Product Evaluation?: The Role of Variety-Seeking on Innovative Products .

Nakaya Kakuda, City University of Hong Kong, China Xiaolei Su, City University of Hong Kong, China Cheng Gao, Nanjing University, China

This research investigates the impact of taste sensation on innovative product evaluations. Specifically this research found spicy taste recall having a positive influence on product evaluation and bitter taste recall having the opposite effect. This effect is mediated by variety-seeking intention moderated by innovation types: radical innovation vs. incremental innovation.

The Effect of Gratitude Expression on Word-of-Mouth Intentions

Christine Kang, California State University Long Beach, USA

This research finds consumers’ tendency to reciprocate firm’s favor is modulated when they were given a chance to express gratitude. Participants who were guided to express their gratitude reported significantly lower intention to generate WOM offline or online compared to those who expressed happiness or those in control condition. 1202 / Working Papers The Effect of Nostalgia on the Ideal Self and Moral Identity

Hedieh Karachi, Deakin Business School, Australia Jeffrey Rotman, Deakin Business School, Australia Andrea Vocino, Deakin Business School, Australia

While past research has demonstrated that nostalgia leads to self-continuity (Sedikides et al. 2015; Sedikides et al. 2016) the current research suggests that self-continuity is linked to just thinking about the distant past. However only nostalgia reduces the discrepancy between one’s ideal-self and heightens moral identity.

The Effect of Assortment Categorization and Construal Level on Consumer Satisfaction

Bianca Kato, University of Guelph, Canada Juan Wang, University of Guelph, Canada

Our work explores the interplay between construal levels and assortment categorization on consumers’ satisfaction. We found that consumers are more satisfied with an assortment with fewer (vs. more) categories when under a concrete construal and that this effect is mediated by fluency perceptions attenuated by consumers’ familiarity with the product.

What Makes a Product Cute: Infantile Attributes Influence Perceived Cuteness of Products

Carolyn Wells Keller, Northwestern University, USA Neal Roese, Northwestern University, USA

In four studies we investigate the influence of infantile attributes on perceived cuteness in anthropomorphized products. We find that roundness of a product’s base or ‘body’ has a particularly consistent impact on perceived cuteness. Infantile attributes also had a stronger effect on perceived cuteness in utilitarian (vs. hedonic) products.

What Makes an Advertisement Offensive? The Interplay of Prescriptive and Descriptive Norms

Saeid Kermani, York University, Canada Peter Darke, York University, Canada

This research explores the joint impact of prescriptive and descriptive norms on consumers’ intention to complain about an offensive advertisement. Two experiments provide support to the proposition that descriptive norms influence intention to complain via perceptions of harm when a prescriptive norm has been violated.

A Time-Oriented Explanation Of Desire For Scarce Item In Online Retailing

Dongyoup Kim, Hanyang University, South Korea Jungkun Park, Hanyang University, South Korea

Throughout series of four studies this research examines the effect of scarcity on consumers’ purchase intention mediated by perceived control over time. The effect was moderated by two different online retail strategies (i.e. pressurizing by blinking the limited quantity and price discount promotion) and consumers’ initial time availability for shopping.

Consumers’ Responses to Sustainable Smart Home Services: The Role of Regulatory Focus

Moon-Yong Kim, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, South Korea

This research examines the role of consumers’ regulatory focus in their responses to sustainable smart home services. The results indicate that consumers who are not familiar with smart home services have more favorable attitudes toward hedonic smart home services when they are promotion-focused (vs. prevention-focused). Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1203 Consuming Beauty in Place of Power: Gender and Culture Moderation

Sahoon Kim, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Carlos Torelli, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA

How would consumers’ psychological sense of power – which can be influenced by numerous factors such as seller-buyer interaction – affect their apparels and beauty consumption? We theorize and demonstrate that men (women) consume more when feeling powerful (powerless). This tendency is stronger for individuals with certain cultural orientations.

From Powerlessness To Variety-Seeking When Choosing For Others: Making Gift Choices For A Romantic Partner

Sahoon Kim, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Sharon Shavitt, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Carlos Torelli, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA

Many goods are purchased for others (e.g. gifts). When choosing a gift for a romantic partner would one’s sense of power affect the choice? We demonstrate that feeling powerless increases variety seeking in choices made for the partner mediated by the reduced certainty in one’s partner’s preferences associated with powerlessness.

“I’m Cold But Feeling Warm”: Effect of Cold Temperature on Evaluations of Ad Message

Myung Joo Kim, Ewha Womans University, South Korea Jisoo Shim, Ewha Womans University, South Korea Eunice Kim, Ewha Woman’s University, South Korea

The present study investigates whether the temperature individuals physically experience influences their perception of social affiliation and evaluations of ad messages. This study shows that coldness generates more positive attitudes toward psychologically close (vs. distant) ad messages. The implications of our findings are discussed.

The Interactive Effects of Identity Salience and Accountability on Product Judgment

Claire Heeryung Kim, McGill University, Canada

A salient identity motivates consumers to think and behave consistently with that identity. Expecting to be required to explain a judgment to others later might increase motivation to engage in comprehensive information processing. Thus this research proposes that the act of providing reasons will diminish the identity salience effect.

When Is a Good Thing a New Thing? How Upcycling Product Display Affects Consumer Novelty Perception and Advertising Evaluation

Junghyun Kim, NEOMA Business School, France Youngju Kim, NEOMA Business School, France Junbum Kwon, University of New South Wales, UK

How does the position of source materials influence attitudes toward a repurposed product? We investigate the impact of product communication strategy on consumer attitude toward an upcycled product. Two studies demonstrate that how a company presents the past identity of an upcycled product influences consumers’ novelty perception and advertising evaluation.

Generation Z Consumers’ Luxury Goods Ownership Types and Purchase Intention Of Luxury Goods Using Collaborative Redistribution Platforms

Jihyun Kim-Vick, Kent State University, USA

The findings of this study extend our understanding of the young adult consumers’ channel choice intentions toward purchasing brand new or previously owned personal luxury goods via traditional retail vs. collaborative redistributional platforms. Pragmatic implications for the luxury brand marketers as well as the online resale industry were provided. 1204 / Working Papers Syllabic Fluency

Dan King, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, USA Sumitra Auschaitrakul, University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce, Thailand

We show that the syllabic structure of brand slogans and medical claims can influence consumers’ judgments of truth. When the number of syllables of the brand name matches the number of syllables in the outcome consumers feel a metacognitive sense of processing fluency which increases judgments of truth.

It is Better to be Unknown Than Known: Mixed Use of Less Known and Well-Known Luxury Brands Can Elicit Higher Status Inference

Min Jeong Ko, Seoul National University, South Korea Kyoungmi Lee, Seoul National University, South Korea

Across four studies we find that mixed use of less known and well-known brands compared to use of all well-known or all less known brands increases perceived status when well-known brands are in luxury(vs. non-luxury) domain. This is because observers infer user’s desire to dissociate from lower class luxury users.

The Three-component Multidimensional Model of Self-image Congruence

Magdalena Kolanska, University of Zielona Gora, Poland Oleg Gorbaniuk, University of Zielona Gora, Poland Wilczewski Michał, University of Warsaw, Poland

The Three-Component Multidimensional Model makes it possible to assess and distinguish between the values of the brand incorporated into the consumer’s self-image which correspond to self-enhancement self-protection and self -verification motives (Sedikides Gregg 2008). In order to build the Model a series of 3 tests was carried out.

Losing Possessions and Subsequent Spending

Shruti Koley, Portland State University, USA Christina Kan, University of Connecticut, USA Chiraag Mittal, Texas A&M University, USA

This research examines how losing one’s possessions affects consumers’ subsequent spending on unrelated purchases. We show that the effect depends on consumers’ perceived wealth and their manner of losing. After losing their possessions wealthy (less wealthy) consumers spend more (less) subsequently but only when they blame themselves for the loss.

Smart Homes From a Consumers’ Perspective

Monika Koller, Vienna University of Economics and Business, Austria Fanny Springer, Vienna University of Economics and Business, Austria

Smart homes play a major role in the world of digital change. The aim of this paper is to shed light on smart homes from a consumers’ perspective beyond focusing on technological solutions. We explore major associations with smart homes and dig deeper into a comprehensive understanding of their acceptance.

Small-Talking Brands: Exploring Phatic Brand Communication on Social Media

K.B. Koo, University of Alberta, Canada Sarah G Moore, University of Alberta, Canada Jennifer Argo, University of Alberta, Canada

We introduce and develop a new construct: phatic brand communication. The main function of such communication is to express sociability rather than information to consumers (e.g. “Happy Tuesday!”). Using Twitter data and experiments we propose and test a conceptual framework of phatic brand communication including its components and potential outcomes. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1205 Striving For Social Media Reduces the Ability to Filter Out Visual Distractors

Christina Kößmeier, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany Oliver B. Büttner, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany

This research examined how visual distraction is influenced by consumers’ striving for social media. In three laboratory experiments we showed striving for social media – measured as craving for social media situational social exclusion and situational fear of missing out – decreased the ability to filter out visual distractions.

The Role of Visual Perspective in Influencing Donation Giving

Sining Kou, Renmin University of China, China

Based on construal level theory this research demonstrates that when the consumer’s mindset (i.e. concrete vs. abstract) activated by visual perspective (i.e. first vs. third person perspective) is aligned (vs. misaligned) with the construal level of the message donation intentions and behaviors increase (vs. decrease).

Immunizing Against Diversity: Feeling Disgusted Reduces Positive Diversity Beliefs

Afra Koulaei, Innland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Norway Luk Warlop, Norwegian School of Management, Norway Bjørn Ove Grønseth, University of South-Eastern Norway

This study concerns with the impact of disgust on the evaluation of social groups and more specifically on the reduction of positive beliefs about increasing diversity in social groups. Three studies provided the test of our prediction that disgust (both chronically and state) reduces positive diversity beliefs.

The Moral Deviant: Norm Violators Are Expected to Communicate Concretely

Afra Koulaei, Innland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Norway

Violation of social norms may signal that the target lacks morality. Two studies suggest that morality have a leading role over other basic dimensions of human social cognition (i.e. sociability and competence) in the impression formation process of norm violators. To signal their morality norm violators are expected to communicate concretely.

Friend or Foe? A Long-term Multi-Country Perspective on Consumer Animosity

Tinka Krüger, Kiel University, Germany Robert Mai, Grenoble Ecole de Management, France Wassili Lasarov, Kiel University, Germany Stefan Hoffmann, Kiel University, Germany

The Brexit or the US-Chinese trade conflict mark the resurgence of deglobalization and consumer animosity. Based on existing data from six countries from 2010 this study lays the foundation to examine whether animosity context changes result in altered individual consumption behaviors and hence evaluate the scope of animosity for practitioners.

Emotionality and Language Norms in Consumer Reviews: The Curious Case of Emoji

Polina Landgraf, IE Business School, IE University, Spain Nicholas Lurie, University of Connecticut, USA Antonios Stamatogiannakis, IE Business School, IE University, Spain Susan Danissa Calderon Urbina, University College Dublin, Ireland

How do emoji impact the persuasiveness of consumer reviews? We argue that effects of emoji in reviews are stronger for utilitarian than hedonic products. Two experiments show that effects of emoji on persuasion are consistent with an account based on emoji as a language rather than as markers of emotionality. 1206 / Working Papers Healthy or Not Healthy ? That’s Not the Main Question

Sarah Lasri, University Paris-Dauphine, PSL, France

Even if researchers tried to understand healthy consumption it was often through a normative lens. They try to figure out triggers and consequences without questioning how healthiness is constructed. We attempt to show that it is a social myth where consumers play a huge part to define constantly new moralisms.

Consumer Perceptions of Floating Signifiers in Spurious Health-related Product Claims

Olga Lavrusheva, Aalto University, Finland Alexei Gloukhovtsev, Aalto University, Finland Tomas Falk, Aalto University, Finland

Our study looks at the use of ambiguous product health claims in food marketing. In particular we focus on consumer interpretations of “floating signifiers”: claims that are ambiguous enough to escape precise definition and regulation while at the same time sufficiently “loaded” with health-related meanings from the consumers’ perspective.

The Truth is in the Tweet: Exploring the Impact of the Linguistic Authenticity of Politician’s Tweets on Their Personal Brands

Andrew Lee, University of Manitoba, Canada Mehmet Yanit, University of Manitoba, Canada Fang Wan, University of Manitoba, Canada

Politicians take to Twitter as a vehicle for connecting with voters and making their opinions known. Donald Trump became infamous for his outrageous tweeting style during the 2016 election. By using LIWC and experiments this research aims to unearth the mechanisms of authenticity with politicians on Twitter through their language style.

Truth Or Dare: Do People Behave Differently In Social Risk Vs. Financial Risk? The Inherent Difference Between Financial And Social Risk

Sunme Lee, University of Iowa, USA Catherine Cole, University of Iowa, USA Dhananjay Nayakankuppam, University of Iowa, USA

This paper examines systematic differences in risk preferences between financial and social contexts. People tend to be loss averse in the financial domain but gain averse in the social domain i.e. more (less) risk-seeking in the gain frame than in the loss (gain) frame in the social (financial) domain.

5th Best Hotel in America Vs . 2nd Best Hotel in New York: When Using Narrower Sets in Rank Claims Improves Consumer Judgments

Wei Li, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China Yaping Chang, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China Jun Yan, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China

This research shows consumers evaluate a product or brand more favorably when it appears front in a narrow ranking list than later in a broad list. This effect arises only when consumers are maximizers. Perceived risk cognitive load and significance of the decision also moderate the effect. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1207 Imperfect Boundaries: The Effects of Boundaries on Perceived Healthiness of Healthy Food

Ruiqin Li, Renmin University of China, China

How do boundaries influence perceived healthiness of healthy food? The present research shows that expressing product information with boundaries fixes attention of consumers on the information which induces motivated reasoning and finally reduces perceived healthiness. In addition the effect of boundaries only exists in healthy (vs. unhealthy) food domain.

Over-Inference in Predicting Others’ Preferences

Xilin Li, University of Chicago, USA Christopher Hsee, University of Chicago, USA

Through five studies we document an “over-inference bias” whereby predictors over-rely on predictees’ preferences in one domain to infer their preferences in another domain. We also explore the underlying mechanism of this bias and articulate boundary conditions under which this bias can be attenuated or reversed.

Recall the Past: How Actors’ and Observers’ Perspective Affect Word of Mouth

Ran Li, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China

This research examines how the visual perspectives that people use to recall their past consumption experience (actor vs. observer) affect their subsequent sharing. Two experiments showed that taking an observer perspective reduces consumers’ sharing of negative word of mouth through the mediating role of attention-seeking motivation.

The Awed Holistic Thinker: The Effect of Awe Experience on Individuals’ Thinking Styles

Ran Li, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China Tao Tao, Hong Kong Baptist University, China

This research examines the effect of awe on people’s thinking styles. Seven studies showed that awe could promote holistic thinking (studies 1 2A-2D) through the mediating role of self-diminishment tendency (study 3). Moreover we demonstrated how the proposed effect influences consumers’ reactions to service failures (study 4).

Beauty Camera Makes You More Emotional!: The Effect of Beauty-filtered Selfies on Consumer Decision Making

Shuyu Liang, Lingnan University, China Tingting Wang, Sun Yat-Sen University, China

This research reveals a positive effect of beauty-filtered (vs. not) selfies on consumers’ reliance on affective considerations in decision making. Drawing on extant research on self-presentation motivation and confidence we propose and demonstrate in two studies that taking beauty-filtered (vs. regular) selfies makes consumers prefer affectively (vs. cognitively) superior options.

Can Gratitude Increase Individuals’ Sustainable Consumption Behavior? — the Mediating Effect of Time Discounting

Jianping Liang, Business School, Sun Yat-sen University, China Leilei Guo, Sun Yat-sen University, China

This research examines the influence of gratitude on individuals’ sustainable consumption behaviors. Results from a longitudinal study and three between-subjects experiments showed positive influences of trait gratitude and priming gratitude on consumers’ willingness to use green products through reduced time discounting. Connectedness to future-self moderated these effects. 1208 / Working Papers Social Media Amplifies Gift-givers’ Conspicuous Consumption Motivation

Shuyu Liang, Lingnan University, China Tingting Wang, Sun Yat-Sen University, China

This research reveals an interesting misalignment between gift giver’s and receiver’s considerations. Specifically we found that facing receivers who are social-media active (vs. inactive) givers prefer conspicuous (vs. not) gifts out of anticipation of receivers’ sharing the gifts on social media; however gift conspicuousness does not affect receivers’ sharing intention.

Consumer Knowledge and the Psychology of Opposition to Scientific Consensus

Nicholas Light, University of Colorado, USA Philip M. Fernbach, University of Colorado, USA

Communicating scientific evidence is a major challenge. We report three studies on the relationships between knowledge type and anti-scientific attitudes across seven scientific issues. We find that as extremity of attitudes increases objective knowledge decreases but subjective knowledge increases. However several issues show inconsistencies worthy of further examination.

The Influence of Fake News on Consumer Spending in Response to COVID-19

Nicholas Light, University of Colorado, USA Justin Pomerance, University of Colorado, USA Lawrence E Williams, University of Colorado, USA

Fake news has entered the global consciousness. While previous work examines interventions and direct consequences we examine how it changes consumer spending intentions during the COVID-19 pandemic. Two studies indicate that fake news induces uncertainty which increases both the desire to save money and the intention to spend it compensatorily.

How Legacy Motivation Influences Financial Risk-Taking

Wang Lin, Sun Yat-Sen University, China Chen Zengxiang, Sun Yat-Sen University, China Yun He, Sun Yat-sen University, China

The creation of legacy is one of the most fundamental motivations human beings possess. The current research investigates the impact of legacy motivation on consumers’ financial decision-making. Results of three experiments revealed that legacy motivation reduced consumers’ financial risk-taking tendency and explored why and when this effect occurred.

#Favoritethings: How Posting Your Favorite Possessions on Social Media Increases Happiness

Jingshi Liu, Business School City, University of London, UK Amy Dalton, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China Anirban Mukhopadhyay, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China

Posting favorite possessions on social media increases people’s happiness. This is because favorite possessions are unique and of personal meanings and thus resistant to the upward social comparisons prominent on social media. The happiness associated with posts of favorite possessions in turn increases liking of the social media platform. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1209 How Consumers React to Culturally Mixed Products: The Effects of Cultural Domain and Mixing Direction

Yingyue Liu, Sun Yat-Sen University, China Zhimin Zou, Sun Yat-Sen University, China Yimin Zhu, Sun Yat-sen University, China

This paper conducts two studies to examine the joint effect of cultural domain and mixing direction on consumers’ attitudes to culturally mixed products as well as the mediating effect of perceived cultural threat and the moderating effect of polycultural mindset which give implications to better understand the cultural mixing phenomenon.

Lonely Heart? Warm it up With Love: The Effect of Loneliness on Singles’ and Non-singles’ Conspicuous Consumption

Wei Liu, Xiamen University, China Zhaoyang Guo, Xiamen University, China Rui Chen, Xiamen University, China

Three studies show that loneliness increases singles’ conspicuous consumption but yields divergent effect for non-singles depending on their sociosexual orientation (SOI). In particularly loneliness has decrease conspicuous consumption among non-single people with low SOI but increase conspicuous consumption among those with high SOI. Mating motive mediates the above effects.

Will Highlighting Low Stock Level Speed Up or Impede Consumers’ Purchase Intention? An Exploratory Study

Mengmeng Liu, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China Jessica Y. Y. Kwong, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China

How would consumers respond when they see an item that they are considering has “only a few left”? Would this highlight of low- stock level speed up or impede their purchase decisions? Our findings suggest that the effect depends on the consumption type (utilitarian vs. hedonic).

The Effect of Cuteness on New Product Adoption: Moderating Role of Thinking Style

Hongyan Liu, Jinan University, China Choong W. Park, University of Southern California, USA

This research examines how exposure to cute product design influences new product adoption. We propose that exposure to cuteness increases perception of hedonic benefit (fun) and new product adoption. While this effect is moderated by thinking style. Three experiments were conducted to test the propositions. The results support our predictions.

Hiding in Plain Sight- Low Self-Concept Clarity and Ironic Consumption

Karan Pratap Singh Lohan, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China

Ironic consumption allows consumers to signal different meanings- one to people who detect the irony and one to those who don’t. Low self-concept clarity consumers are attracted to this dual (ambiguous) signal since it insulates them from the risk of self-instability as well as disapproval from others.

Does It Matter Whose Fault It Is? The Moderating Effects of Similarity and Product Substitution on Consumer Boycotts of Parent and Subsidiary Corporations

Yung-Chien Lou, National Chengchi Uniersity, Taiwan Wei-Chih Tseng, National Chengchi Uniersity, Taiwan

This study demonstrates that consumer boycott behavior (and consumer perceptions) as a response to a conglomerate’s wrongdoing is affected by the similarity between and degrees of product substitution of the parent and subsidiary corporations. 1210 / Working Papers Cultural Difference In Self-Consciousness On Empathy Toward Socially Responsible Consumption

Chi-Cheng Luan, National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan

According to Triandis’s theory people with individualistic cultures tend to use private self-consciousness whereas people with collectiv- istic cultures use public one. A shopping scenario was provided to examine participants’ responses. The result shows that cultural difference is found in the distinct effects of self-consciousness on empathy for socially responsible consumption.

Discussing The Moderating Effect of Construal Level On The Relationship Between Emotional Appeals And Sustainable Consumption

Chi-Cheng Luan, National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan Yun-Hui Wang, National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan

Moral emotions such as pride and empathy are found to relate to sustainable consumption. This research aims for the interaction between these two emotions and construal level based on the construal level theory. The findings can provide another direction of promotional strategies by simulteneously considering emotional appeals and construal level.

Priming Pleasure Through Smells: the Effect of Positive Odors on Categorization of Affectively Congruent Objects

Ramona de Luca, EAESP-FGV, Brazil Delane Botelho, EAESP-FGV, Brazil

Studies demonstrated that pleasant scents induce pleasurable experiences and choices. However the unconscious mechanism through which individuals make mental associations between odors and unrelated objects is unclear. This research explores the effect of odors on mental processes (categorization) when the odor and stimuli in other modalities match on their valence.

The Effect of Ambient Odors on Categorization and Semantically-Congruent Product Choices

Ramona de Luca, EAESP-FGV, Brazil Delane Botelho, EAESP-FGV, Brazil

Research in sensory and scent marketing has prioritized cognitive approaches in which consumer choices result from deliberate decisions. However consumers’ choices are largely regulated by pleasurable experiences that arise automatically. This research explores the unconscious process underlying the effect of ambient scent on consumers’ categorization and semantically congruent choices.

How Hope of Breaking Even Makes People Cling on Losing Stocks

Siria Xiyueyao Luo, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands Femke van Horen, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands Kobe Millet, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands Marcel Zeelenberg, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Four studies found that hope explains the disposition effect: people’s hope predicts the tendency to keep the losing stock; people who hold losing (vs. not-losing) stocks had a stronger hope of breaking even and thus were more likely to keep the losing stock; reducing the hope attenuates the disposition effect.

Closeness and Purchase Strategy Independently Influence Gift Choice

Dong Lyu, University of Nottingham, UK Jia Jin, Ningbo University, China

This research aims to examine whether gift givers process social distance and purchase strategy independently. We plan to adopt drift diffusion model to simulate the decisional dynamics of givers then to check whether the drift rates of the processing of social distance and purchase strategy choice are correlated. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1211 The Experiential Brain of Smartphone Users: How Smartphone Use Reshape Thinking Style

Jingjing Ma, Peking University, China Ying Zhu, University of British Columbia, Canada Jiajia Liu, Peking University, China Jingjing Wang, Peking University, China

Through two large-scale nationwide surveys with 24180 participants and an Implicit Association Test this study identifies an undocu- mented positive correlation between smartphone use/apps and experiential thinking. We revealed that this effect is driven by pleasure and social activities (e.g. watching movies and using social media) people perform on their smartphones.

Exploring the Concept of Sustainable Food Consumption

Natalia Maehle, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Norway

The purpose of this study is to explore how the concept of sustainable food consumption emphasizes the four aspects of sustainability. We conclude that it is a multidimensional concept focusing on the nature the human being the society and the optimal use of economic resources in the food chain.

Collaborative Consumption in a Subsistence Marketplace

Bhupesh Manoharan, Masters Union School of Business, India Krishanu Rakshit, Indian Institute of Management Calcutta, India

The absence of lateral exchange markets (LEM) has impeded researchers from understanding collaborative consumption in subsistence marketplace contexts. This work aims to understand how an interactive LEM shapes interdependent peer-to-peer engagement in a subsistence marketplace.

Contesting Stigma in the Online Space: An Institutional Perspective

Bhupesh Manoharan, Masters Union School of Business, India Krishanu Rakshit, Indian Institute of Management Calcutta, India

We explore how marginalised consumers tackle stigma in the online space by conceptualising the socio-political online consumption space as an institutional field and studying the dynamics between the upper and lower caste members and their efforts to distort the current institutional logic to establish their desired logics respectively.

The Effect of Transparent Packaging on Psychological Ownership and Preference

Eva Marckhgott, Wirtschafts University, Austria Bernadette Kamleitner, Vienna University of Economics and Business, Austria Zachary Estes, Bocconi University, Italy

Transparent packaging removes the visual barrier between the consumers and the product thereby allowing consumers to develop a more intimate relationship with the product. This in turn leads to a preference for products in a transparent packaging over products in an opaque packaging.

(No) Offense Taken: Value Creation vs Value Destruction by Brand-Offended Consumers

Ereni Markos, Suffolk University, USA Lauren I Labrecque, University of Rhode Island, USA Mujde Yuksel, Suffolk University, USA

Consumers often post negative comments on brand social media with intentions to harm (value-destruction). We examine if this action backfires instead strengthening observing consumers’ relationships with the brand. We illustrate that consumers attack brands on social media for different reasons and also investigate why consumers defend brands against others’ attacks. 1212 / Working Papers Patterns of Use, Essence Transfer, and Value: How Patterned Usage Impacts Object Valuation .

Nathanael S. Martin, University of Cincinnati, USA Noah VanBergen, University of Cincinnati, USA

Does how an object is used impact consumers’ valuation of the object itself? The present research seeks to investigate whether objects whose usage is illustrated by a specific pattern are deemed more valuable to consumers due to possessing more of the original user’s essence. Three studies offer initial support.

Are Ingroup Recommendations Always Better? The Role of Outgroup Credibility on Parental Purchases and Attitudes

Fábio Miguel Ferrony Varela Martins, Universidade Europeia, Portugal Márcia Maurer Herter, Universidade Europeia, Portugal Raquel Reis Soares, Universidade Europeia, Portugal Diego Costa Pinto, Nova IMS - Information Management School, Portugal

This paper uncovers how outgroup credibility can reduce ingroup bias. In particular this paper examines how credibility acts as a boundary condition to social influence of parents (ingroups) and pediatricians (outgroups) turning outgroups more influential than ingroups on parental purchase intentions and brand attitudes.

Customer Citizenship Behavior in Customer Networks: An Analysis in the Lens of Network and Consumer Value Theories

Renata Martins, Fundação Getúlio Vargas, Brazil Sofia Batista Ferraz, EAESP-FGV, Brazil Felipe Zambaldi, FGV/EAESP, Brazil

Most studies that investigate customer citizenship behavior (CCB) in customer networks neglect the impact of networks’ structures on it. Our work is the first to fulfill this gap proposing a framework showing the extent to which CCB depends on the network’s structure and on the purposes customers expect to achieve.

Eating More to Save the Planet: Political Ideology, Food Waste, and Overconsumption

Erick M. Mas, Vanderbilt University, USA Kelly Haws, Vanderbilt University, USA Kelly Goldsmith, Vanderbilt University, USA

When facing the tradeoff to waste or overconsume liberals may engage in maladaptive eating behavior by overconsuming to offset food waste because they are motivated to reduce environmental impacts. Conservatives who are less concerned with these issues do not make consumption choices predicated on reducing environmental harm.

The Impact of Indulgent Consumption Images on In-Store Decision Making

Maxine Materne, University of Hamburg, Germany Mark Heitmann, University of Hamburg, Germany Christina Schamp, University of Mannheim, Germany

Marketers assume that displaying indulgent consumption facilitates mental simulation and increases purchase intentions. One field experiment and two simulated shopping experiments suggest that showcasing indulgent consumption is context-dependent such that the positive effect found in laboratory experiments for advertisement related settings does not generalize to images displayed in-store. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1213 When and Why an Entertaining Story Triggers Brand Buzz

Koji Matsushita, Chuo University, Japan

This research proposes that an entertaining story with no brand appearance can boost brand word-of-mouth (WOM). When highly transported consumers are aware that a brand might utilize a story to strengthen the brand image (salient persuasion knowledge) they become motivated to engage in brand WOM activity.

Feeling Hopeful in Response to High/Low Prototypical Identity-linked Appeals: The Distinctive Roles of Affective and Cognitive Social Identity

Miriam McGowan, University of Birmingham, UK Louise May Hassan, Bangor University, UK Edward Shiu, Bangor University, UK

Research shows identity-linked messages need utilize established social group characterizations to be effective. We find priming consumers’ identity using less/more established (low/high prototypical) characterizations has differential effects on purchase intention. The emotion hope mediates this process. Three experimental studies with US MTurk samples using gender/nationality identities supported our hypothesized effects.

The Role of Fluency in Identity-Linked Marketing

Miriam McGowan, University of Birmingham, UK Edward Shiu, Bangor University, UK Louise May Hassan, Bangor University, UK

Across three studies we examine low identifiers in the context of identity-targeted messages. Drawing on fluency literature we explore how low identifiers process identity relevant information differently to high identifiers. Low identifiers process identity-linked messages less fluently than primes depressing their product evaluation. The opposite occurs for high identifiers.

The Effect of Perspectives in Food Pictures on Unhealthy Food Choices

Eva Meersseman, Ghent University, Belgium Iris Vermeir, Ghent University, Belgium Maggie Geuens, Ghent University, Belgium

Consumers choose less unhealthy food when seeing pictures of food shot in a top perspective vs. a diner’s eye perspective. We show that lower familiarity with seeing food in top view decreases product vividness and subsequently lowers the need for instant gratification. Hence less unhealthy food is chosen.

The Impact of Dynamic Advertising With Zoom Lens on Consumers’ Comparative Decision-Making Preferences

Lu Meng, Renmin University, China

This research proposes the impact of merchants ‘zooming and pulling lenses on consumers’ comparative decision-making methods in dynamic advertising on online shopping platforms and the perception distance’s mediator role in this process. 1214 / Working Papers “Show Me Your Basket, I Show You What Drives Your Food Waste” Identifying Drivers of Shoppers’ Food Waste and Ways to Reduce It

Sybilla Merian, University of Zurich, Switzerland Petra Tipaldi, University of Zurich, Switzerland Klaus Fuchs, ETH Zurich, Switzerland Martin Natter, University of Zurich, Switzerland

The increasing debate on food waste puts pressure on consumers and sellers. We propose a scalable approach to identify food waste predictors based on consumers’ automatically logged loyalty card data. Identifying characteristics triggering food waste we propose a non-invasive intervention informing consumers and help them to reduce the problem.

Consumer Experience Of Working From Third Places

Laetitia Mimoun, City University of London, UK Adèle Gruen, Goldsmiths, University of London, UK

This research contributes to the literature on consumer experience in third places. We document the emerging value that a growing body of working consumers derive from third places as work accelerators. We also show how this evolution may generate conflicts and confusion despite sustaining the social ideology of third places.

Any Takers For Male Alex Vs . Female Alexa? The Impact of the Gender of Voice Technology on Consumer Choices

Nirajana Mishra, Boston University, USA Geeta Menon, New York University, USA

In the future consumers’ interactions with voice technology will only increase. Most of these voices are currently female. Through an initial set of studies we find that gender of voice technology brings stereotypes to bear on consumers’ judgments that translates to products.

Masculine Servicescapes? Examining the Intersections Between Men’s Identity Construction and Built Commercial Environments

Risto Moisio, California State University Long Beach, USA Mariam Beruchashvili, California State University Northridge, USA

We examine how servicescapes built commercial environments partake in the process of masculine identity construction. Using men’s recreational training at the Mixed Martial Arts dojos/gyms we demonstrate how a physical space of a dojo/gym contains and constructs a specific identity project the fighter ideal that would be difficult to realize elsewhere.

The “Why” of Spending Matters: The Role of Extrinsic and Intrinsic Goals on Consumer Spending Choices and Hedonic Value Estimations

Olaya Moldes, Cardiff University, UK

Past research suggests that what we buy (experiential vs. material; prosocial vs. proself) impact one’s well-being. We propose that why— the motivation behind—not only determines the spending choices made but also the well-being experienced. Three studies test the influence of dispositional and situational intrinsic and extrinsic goals in consumption. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1215 The Effects of Virtual Compared to Real Eating Companions on Unhealthy Food Intake.

Saar Mollen, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands Sindy Resita Sumter, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands Nadine van der Waal, Tilburg University, The Netherlands Pascale Kwakman, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands Nynke van der Laan, Tilburg University, The Netherlands

In the current experiment we investigated whether social models in VR have a similar influence on eating behavior as real-life models and whether similar processes underlie their influence. Participants’ intake was influenced by that of the social model irrespective of whether this person was present in real-life or VR.

Misperception of Multiple Risks: The Role of Categorical Reasoning

Mehdi Mourali, University of Calgary, Canada Zhiyong Yang, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, USA

How do consumers combine multiple risk items when forming overall risk impressions? Our study shows an intriguing pattern where an option with multiple risks is judged to be less risky than the same option with only one of these risks. We attribute the findings to categorical reasoning about risk.

Is There Room For Social Stimuli in Green Ads?: An Investigation of the Use of Human Face in Green Advertisements

Brishna Nader, Fontys University of Applied Science, The Netherlands Meng-Hsien (Jenny) Lin, California State University Monterey Bay, USA Iris van Hest, Fontys University of Applied Science, The Netherlands

This paper explores the effectiveness of human face (a social cue) used along with green message (an informational cue) in green advertisements. We find that while green ads are generally preferred over non-green ads it is less preferred when a face (vs. no face) is present.

“When First is Best”: Why Brand-First is Superior to Attribute-First During Sequential Presentation of Product Information

Priya Narayanan, Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode, India Arvind Sahay, Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad, India

Four studies including a mall intercept show that consumers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for a product is higher when brand information is presented before attribute information an effect mediated by brand-elicited affect. This research contributes to feelings-as-information ordered presentation of product features and derives implications for marketing communication and packaging.

“Practices As Institutional Fractals: Zooming in on Fika, Zooming Out to Lagom”

Angeline Nariswari, California State University Monterey Bay, USA Kaisa Koskela-Huotari, Karlstad University, Sweden Teea Palo, University of Edinburgh, UK

This paper studies Swedish coffee drinking ritual fika to understand institutional maintenance by looking beyond micro-level practices to examine the role of broader level institutional arrangements. The study identifies how fika is supported by other practices that display self-similarity regardless of scale—fractals—that altogether refract a common societal-level value. 1216 / Working Papers Mouse Tracking in E-Commerce: Assessing Choice Difficulty Via Consumer’s Hand Movement

Patrick Wolfgang Neef, University of Innsbruck, Austria

Pre-decisional information processing is strongly linked to consumer choice. Since consumers increasingly purchase through online channels the question arises whether other computer-based technology can be applied to better understand consumer decision-making. One purpose of the present inquiry is to understand how difficulty of the decision-making process affect hand movements.

I Enjoy Being Mii: How Knowing Yourself Impacts Avatar Enjoyment

Emma Neybert, University of Cincinnati, USA Rashmi Adaval, University of Cincinnati, USA

Often consumers assemble avatars to resemble themselves. However avatars often fail to fully capture all aspects of their creator resulting in “poor copy syndrome” lowering enjoyment. In one provocative study we find that contingent on one’s self-concept clarity perceived personality similarity between the creator and their avatar impacts avatar enjoyment.

The Effects of Harmonics on the Tactile Perceptions of Products

Mayuko Nishii, Waseda University, Japan

Congruence between product elements and sensory cues elicits positive responses from consumers. However we show that when listening to soft-toned music that seems appropriate for products such as soft blankets consumers tend to be less sensitive to their haptic perceptions. Therefore we propose the role of comfort.

Cultures of Product Reviewing

Mikkel Ørholm Nøjgaard, University of Southern Denmark, Denmark Niklas Woermann, University of Southern Denmark, Denmark

How do expert reviews and online user reviews construct product quality information? This paper explores the social processes of product reviewing. It conceptualizes expert reviewing and user reviewing as two distinct ‘epistemic cultures’ and shows that these cultures vary across three epistemic processes: generating evidence evaluating evidence and presenting evidence.

Examining the Structural Relationship Between Socioemotional Comparisons and General Risk Preference

Dallas Novakowski, University of Calgary, Canada Mehdi Mourali, University of Calgary, Canada

Past research suggests that feelings of relative disadvantage (i.e. envy relative deprivation) have a causal role in eliciting domain-general risk-taking behaviours. This study used structural equation modelling in a crowdsourced sample (n=804) and found that feelings of relative disadvantage account for significant variance with a general factor of “risk preference.”

Entitled to Be Served: Does Self-Checkout Make Customers Feel Less Rewarded?

Farhana Nusrat, Drexel University, USA Yanliu Huang, Drexel University, USA

We examine how self-checkout service impacts customer loyalty compared to regular checkout service. In two studies we show that self-checkout service compared to regular check out make customers feel less rewarded less satisfied with their purchases and less likely to return to the store. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1217 The Effects of Similarities- vs Differences-focus on Fake News Processing

Gergely Nyilasy, University of Melbourne, Australia Bernice Plant, Monash University, Australia

The fight against fake news currently lacks working interventions. This study explores individual cognitive differences to pave the way towards such interventions. Relying on comparison theory hypotheses test the effects of similarities- and differences proneness. Findings suggest that these factors indeed influence cognitive processing – if not summative truth and confidence judgments.

Just Teasin’: Why Poking Fun at Consumers Makes Brands Feel More Human

Demi Oba, Duke University, USA Holly S Howe, Duke University, USA

Can consumers handle being teased by a brand? Across three experiments (on three different advertising platforms) brands who tease consumers are consistently shown to be more anthropomorphic than purely funny or serious brands. We demonstrate that this anthropomorphism has positive downstream consequences for brand liking and self-brand connection.

Indulge Every Now and Then: Anticipating Indulgence Increases Indulgent Food Preferences Among Restrained Eaters

Ga-Eun (Grace) Oh, Open University of Hong Kong, China

This research examines the interactive effects of anticipating indulgent consumption and dietary restraint on indulgent food preferences for immediate consumption. Three experiments reveal that anticipating indulgent food consumption increased restrained eaters’ indulgent food preference for immediate consumption whereas it often reduced unrestrained eaters’ indulgent food preference.

The Status Implications of Age Perception and Conspicuous Consumption

Ga-Eun (Grace) Oh, Open University of Hong Kong, China

This research examines how age perception has different implications regarding status among men and women. As a result of the different status implications of age towards men versus women subjective age perceptions have different effects on the conspicuous consumption of men and women.

Impact of Inverted Packaging on Brand Memory

Nur Yazgan Onuklu, Temple University, USA Maureen Morrin, Rutgers University, USA

In this paper we explore the influence of upside down packaging on brand recall and recognition. With two studies we show that unaided recall and recognition memory are improved when there is an upside down bottle presented among regular bottles compared to an all regular bottle presentation.

Paying For Free Products Stops Consumers From Committing to Other Brands: Role of Perceived Control

Maria Ortiz, Concordia University, Canada Arani Roy, McGill University, Canada

Consumers are susceptible to encounter non-zero costs for products which they think should be available for free (e.g. online gaming apps) leading them to a reduced feeling of control. We examine the effect of reduced perceived control on consumers’ commitment to brands they subsequently encounter using predictive control theory. 1218 / Working Papers “Run, Forrest, Run: How Intense Athletic Pursuits Induce Therapeutic Feelings”

Tatsiana Padhaiskaya, Aalto University, Finland

This research aims to uncover how consumers’ understanding of their own bodies informs the production of therapeutic feelings. My ethnographic inquiry in the context of ultra-running illustrates a multi-stage process of in-depth engagement with the body that results in the therapeutic consequences of various magnitudes.

Objectification and the Acceptance of Inequality

Helena Palumbo, Pompeu Fabra University, Spain Gert Cornelissen, Pompeu Fabra University, Spain

Media and marketing communications often represent people in an objectified manner. The systematic exposure to such objectifying messages might affect various types of judgments that people make. In this paper we test whether it increases people’s tolerance towards economic inequality. We hypothesize that the effect is mediated by reduced empathy.

Recipe Ingredients Predict Digital Engagement With Food Media

Ethan Pancer, Saint Mary’s University, Canada Matthew Philp, Ryerson University, Canada Maxwell Poole, Saint Mary’s University, Canada

Two field studies (Buzzfeed’s Tasty & Yummly) demonstrate that food media based on recipes rich in saturated fats receive more reactions comments shares and recipe bookmarks even when controlling for meal complexity and meal occasion (e.g. dessert). Experimental evidence suggests this effect is driven by positive affect.

When the Light Bulb Goes Off, Goal Progress Increases

Mivena Panteqi, Vilanova University, USA

We propose that lighting ambience influences goal completion via perceptions of goal distance. That is the progress towards achieving a goal is perceived through the reduction in distance towards the targeted goal.

Does Anticipated Future Self-Regulation Increase Present Self-Regulation? Counteractive Construal of Intertemporal Choice

Jihye Park, Seoul National University, South Korea Youjae Yi, Seoul National University, South Korea

This research examines how anticipated future behavior can encourage current self-regulation. Findings show that consumers are more likely to engage in self-regulatory behaviors when they anticipate resisting (vs. succumbing to) future temptation. Results also show that this effect is accounted for by counteractive construal and stronger for non-impulsive consumers.

Personal Trainers’ Physical Appearance and Service Registration Intention: Perceived Competence as an Underlying Mechanism

Sangchul Park, Texas A&M University, USA Shinhyoung Lee, Sookmyung Women’s University, South Korea Hyun-Woo Lee, Texas A&M University, USA

This study investigates the effect of personal trainers’ physical appearance on fitness service registration intention via perceived competence. Specifically we hypothesize that consumers perceive muscular (vs. well-shaped) trainers as more competent which in turn boosts their registration intention for personal training services. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1219 The Impact of Natural Versus Attained Beauty on Service Evaluations

Jooyoung Park, Peking University, China Nathasya Pricilia B Kristianto, Peking University HSBC Business School, China

This research examines how women customers differently judge a service provider with natural or attained beauty and in turn evaluate their service. Two field experiments showed that obtained beauty is judged less favorably decreasing overall service evaluations.

Double Anchors in an Online Charitable Giving Platform: The Limitation of Small Suggested Amount Solicitation

Sohyeon Park, Korea University, Korea

This research proposes a two-stage anchoring process model that analyzes the anchoring behavior of consumers in charitable giving when a solicitation message contains double anchors such as suggested amount and target amount. Specifically transition of anchoring behavior under manipulation of amount size in suggested amount and target amount is observed.

“Turning the Other Cheek”: The Role of Face Orientation on Perceived Model Attractiveness and Product Evaluation

Jaewoo Park, Musashi University, Japan Charles Spence, University of Oxford, UK Hiroaki Ishii, Aoyama Gakuin University, Japan Taku Togawa, Sophia University, Japan

The present research demonstrates that people perceive a model showing their left (vs. right) cheek as more attractive even when the images happen to be otherwise identical. We also show that in an advertising context a model apparently showing their left (vs. right) cheek leads to more favorable product evaluation.

The Inescapable Quest of Happiness: Exploring How the Ideology of Happiness Shapes Contemporary Consumer Society

Gabrielle Patry-Beaudoin, Queens University, Canada Jay Handelman, Queens University, Canada

This paper draws attention to the ideology of happiness and examines how it influences a marketplace. We contribute to the literature on happiness in marketing by highlighting two cultural discourses of happiness that consumers and producers constantly negotiate: happiness as a virtuous project and happiness as a momentary pleasure experience.

When Technology Fails: Rage Against the Machine or Self-Control? Investigating Customer’s Negative Emotions and Coping Strategies in AI-Service Failure Scenarios

Giulia Pavone, Toulouse School of Management TSM Research UMR 5303 CNRS, France Lars Meyer-Waarden, Toulouse School of Management TSM Research UMR 5303 CNRS, France Andreas Munzel, University of Montpellier - Montpellier Research in Management (MRM), France

We investigate the impact of service failures on customers’ anger frustration and coping strategies when interacting with an artificial intelligence based chatbot compared to a human. Results show that in the same aversive situation emotional responses differ when customers are aware of interacting with a chatbot rather than a human. 1220 / Working Papers Sounds Healthy: Modelling Healthy Food Choices Through Music-Evoked Eye-movements in Consumers From Denmark and China-Tracking Study in Danish and Chinese Consumers

Danni Peng-Li, Aarhus University, Denmark Derek Byrne, Aarhus University, Denmark Raymond Chan, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China Qian (Janice) Wang, Aarhus University, Denmark

The present study explores how custom-composed soundtracks associated with the notions of “healthiness” and “unhealthiness” can modulate Danish and Chinese consumers’ eye-movement patterns and choice of specific food items. The findings of this study provide a better understand how specific auditory components collectively can nudge consumers in different market segments.

What is Transmedia Narrative Experience For Consumers of Arts and Heritage?

Christine Petr, Université de Bretagne Sud, France Elodie Jarrier, Université d’Angers, France Dominique Bourgeon-Renault, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France Maud Derbaix, Kedge Business School Bordeaux, France

New technologies allow Transmedia Narrative to become a successful strategy to enlarge consumers’ experience with brands. We investigate the impact of transmedia on audience attachment considering arts and heritage. Conclusions offer additional conceptualizations to narrative transportation suggest dimensions for further research on consumers’ engagement and on narrative transportation measurement.

Influence of Childhood Socioeconomic Status on Indulgent Consumption: A Life History Theory Approach

T. Andrew Poehlman, Clemson University, USA Denny Huynh, Duke University, USA Oriana Rachel Aragón, Clemson University, USA Gavan Fitzsimons, Duke University, USA

Why do some people indulge now whereas others delay? The evolutionary framework of life-history theory predicts that preferences for indulgences should be influenced by stress and resource scarcity. The effect of stress depended on whether people grew up in a resource-scarce or resource-plentiful environment.

Model Citizens of The Empire: Mythology, Ethnic Identification, And British Indian Women

Anuja Pradhan, University of Southern Denmark, Denmark Margaret Kathleen Hogg, Lancaster University, UK Hayley Cocker, Lancaster University, UK

This study explores how macro-level identity myths such as the ‘model minority’ manifest and influence the lived experiences of ‘privi- leged’ ethnic migrant consumers such as professional British Indian women. It challenges our accepted norms of ‘dominant’ and ‘dominated’ consumers and shows the transformation of ethnicity across migrant generations.

How Religious Minorities Resolve Cultural, Market, and Religious Ambiguity

Theeranuch Pusaksrikit, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand Amna Khan, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK Andrew Lindridge, Newcastle University, UK

This research aims to explore how British Muslims engage with the religious cultural and market-derived consumption narratives surrounding Christmas festival of the religious dominant group. Utilizing qualitative method the findings identify three interconnected themes explaining how these participants engage (or not) with Christmas. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1221 How to Convince Consumers That “You Do Not Always Get What You Pay For”

Vahid Rahmani, Rowan University, USA Elika Kordrostami, Rowan University, USA

Findings of three studies showed that provoking suspicion could eliminate consumers’ reliance on price to judge quality. Furthermore findings showed that activating persuasion knowledge is likely to result in a schematic thinking style a greater primacy effect of the readily available information and higher price-quality perceptions.

Effects of Visual Attention on Intertemporal Choice

Jairo Ramos, University of Colorado, USA Kellen Mrkva, Columbia University, USA Leaf Van Boven, University of Colorado, USA

Consumers discount delayed outcomes. We hypothesized that this happens partially because people attend primarily to immediate outcomes; and that shifting attention towards future outcomes reduces discounting. Across three experiments participants cued to visually attend to future rewards discounted future rewards less than participants cued towards immediate rewards and control participants.

Managing Multiple Identities: A Case of Meat Consumption

Louise Randers, Department of Management, Aarhus University, Denmark John Thøgersen, Aarhus University, Denmark Alice Grønhøj, Aarhus University, Denmark

The study identifies that consumers can hold multiple hierarchically ordered identities with implications for consumption reduction and avoidance of various protein products. Identities can correspond or conflict. In the latter case strategies of managing identity salience or changing protein consumption are used and these mechanisms can be utilized in practice.

Do as I Say, Not as I Do: Figuring the Child as Digital Native Through Technology Ideology and Caregiver Consumption

Sophie Alexandra Reeves-Morris, Liverpool John Moores University, UK Shona Bettany, University of Huddersfield, UK

This early stage work seeks to add to the qualitative understanding of how children are becoming differentially socialised consumers through their smartphone engagement. To gain a holistic view the nature and dynamism of a carer’s technology ideology is being explored to see how this may create disparities in children’s smartphone socialisation.

The Friday Payday Effect: The Impact of Intraweek Payday Timing on Deserving Justifications and Discretionary Spending

Wendy De La Rosa, Stanford University, USA Broderick Turner, Northwestern University, USA Jennifer Aaker, Stanford University, USA

More than half of Americans are paid on Fridays. However little is known about how intraweek payday timing (e.g. Monday vs. Friday paydays) impacts consumer spending. Across a series of studies and an analysis of real-world spending we demonstrate that Friday paydays increase consumers’ deserving justifications and thus their discretionary spending.

Pain of Philanthropy: When Does Cash Help Charitable Donations?

Spencer Ross, University of Massachusetts Lowell, USA Sommer Kapitan, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand

Businesses have found their costs of accepting cash payments increasing as consumers have shifted toward noncash payments. Given this societal decrease in cash we examine the role of payment mechanisms in donation behaviors. We find while noncash payments are beneficial in certain donation transactions cash remains more beneficial in others. 1222 / Working Papers Digital Resource Scarcity Affects Online Purchase Intent: The Moderating Role of Message Framing

Arani Roy, McGill University, Canada Ashesh Mukherjee, McGill University, Canada

Consumers often face scarcity of digital resources such as low battery-life or low data availability. Two experiments are conducted to examine the effect of digital resource-scarcity on consumers’ online purchase intent. Using regulatory focus theory we propose that the effect of scarcity on purchase intent is moderated by advertisement message-framing.

Algorithmic Decision-Making, Agency and Autonomy in a Financial Decision Making Context: An Experiment

Laszlo Sajtos, University of Auckland, New Zealand Benjamin G. Voyer, ESCP Europe, France Marion Sangle-Ferriere, ESCP Europe, France Billy Sung, Curtin University, Australia

Algorithmic decision making (ADM) plays an increasing role in consumers’ life. ADMs rely on customer information and can contribute to reducing consumers’ perceived autonomy which consumers may be reluctant to accept. Using a financial decision-making scenario we explore how human ADM and joint decision-making affects consumers’ agency and autonomy.

Towards a Better Understanding of Consumer Online Browsing (COB)

Fabio Shimabukuro Sandes, Sao Paulo School of Business Administration FGV-EAESP, Brazil Delane Botelho, EAESP-FGV, Brazil Yuliya Komarova, Fordham University, USA

Through in-depth interviews and four experiments we investigate the Consumer Online Browsing (COB) as a distinct type of search behavior. There are different effects of COB and similar constructs on dependent variables and they are differently moderated by variables that arose from the qualitative phase of the research.

Guilty Pleasures: Consumers Choosing Identity Conflicting Behaviors

Nikkita Sarna, University of Texas at Austin, USA Susan Broniarczyk, University of Texas at Austin, USA

We examine a real-world phenomenon where consumers knowingly and repeatedly act in an identity conflicting way for their own personal pleasure— guilty pleasures. Four experiments (n=~1000) demonstrate how guilty pleasures are behaviors that individuals choose to engage in even though they report identifying with the behaviors less than other behaviors.

Enjoying the Sale: The Case of Itinerant Retailers in Festivals

Prakash Satyavageeswaran, Indian Institute of Management Udaipur, India Sridhar Samu, Great Lakes Institute of Management, India Rajesh Nanarpuzha, Indian Institute of Management Udaipur, India Jossin Shaji, Indian Institute of Management Udaipur, India

Retailers have been seen primarily as commercial entities; itinerant retailers included. We consider itinerant retailer as consumer in the context of temple festivals where they are motivated by the consumption of the festival. We also consider their role as informants and suppliers of products associated with the festival to consumers. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1223 Digital Service Consumption, Blessing or Curse? Exploring the Effect of Persuasive Design Features on Mindfulness and Consumer Well-Being

Dorothea Schaffner, University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Northwestern,Switzerland Uta Jüttner, Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Switzerland Anja Bruggmann, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern, Switzerland Tobias Véron, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern, Switzerland Philipp Wyss, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern, Switzerland Martina Bracher, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern, Switzerland Linda Lingg, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern, Switzerland

This study explores effects of mindfulness in digital service consumption. The findings of a diary research study provide mixed evidence: Consumer mindfulness in the digital service experience is negatively related to stress and positively related to satisfaction and well-being. However persuasive design features are not found to impact consumers’ mindfulness.

You Get What You Ask For: How the Question Asked Shapes Person Perception and Discussion of Controversial Topics

Ann Schlosser, University of Washington, USA Evelyn Olivia Smith, University of Washington, USA

Our research contributes to prior research by demonstrating that more important than comparing “how” to “why” is whether the question directs the respondent’s focus inward. We find that an internal (e.g. “how improve”) versus external (e.g. “how work”) question inflated people’s understanding of a topic and perceptions of disagreement.

I’m Not Too Generous: The Implications of a Novel Moderator of the Better-Than-Average Effect

Shoshana Segal, New York University, USA Yonat Zwebner, The InterDisciplinary Center (IDC Herzliya), Israel Alixandra Barasch, New York University, USA

The finding that people often rate themselves as better than the average (BTA) is widely understood to apply to positive traits such as intelligence and resourcefulness. We show however that the BTA effect is attenuated for the generosity trait: people do not (like to) think of themselves as too generous.

Consumer Experiences of Responsibilization in the Context of Digital Healthcare Services

Henriikka Seittu, Aalto University, Finland Alexei Gloukhovtsev, Aalto University, Finland Henri Weijo, Aalto University, Finland Tomas Falk, Aalto University, Finland

We study consumers’ experiences of increasing responsibilization in the context of online therapy services. We find that responsibilization ushers in a new subjectivity of “empowered consumer” that conflicts with the previously internalized subjectivity of consumer-patient. We detail how our informants engage in various practices of reflexivity to reconcile this conflict.

Sensory Attributes in Brand Extensions: The Role of Attribute Centrality in Evaluations of Fit

Samuel B Sekar, University of South Florida, USA

This paper examines the role of sensory attributes in consumer evaluation of brand extensions. Specifically we investigate how a consumer evaluates brand extensions on touch and smell-related attributes across multiple possible extensions. 1224 / Working Papers Differential Correlates of Pathological and Impulsive Buying

Benjamin G. Serfas, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany Oliver B. Büttner, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany Matthias Brand, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany Astrid Müller, Hannover Medical School, Germany Patrick Trotzke, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany

The present research differentiates pathological from impulsive buying both on a measurement level and on a conceptual level. Firstly we establish discriminant validity between constructs. Secondly we suggest a model explaining the behavioral manifestation of pathological and impulsive buying. Thirdly we analyze the impact on brand loyalty.

From Satisfaction of Consumers to Satisfaction With Consumers: Reverse Rating in the Sharing Economy

Jie(Doreen) Shen, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Aric Rindfleisch, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA

The current research examines consumers’ perceptions of the reverse rating (i.e. consumer are rated by providers). It also investigates the impacts of platform positioning on consumers’ evaluation of a sharing platform that employs reverse rating and their future app usage intention as well as consumers’ star rating to providers.

The Interplay of Variety and Processing Strategy on Calorie Estimates

Liang Shen, University of Cincinnati, USA Fengyan Cai, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China Robert Wyer Jr., University of Cincinnati, USA

Given the inconsistent findings about the relationship between food variety and calorie estimates we propose the effect of variety on calorie estimation and its downstream consequences depend in part on how those items are processed. Three studies confirm the proposed interactive effect and its underlying mechanism.

How Process Ambiguity in Rewards Influences Subsequent Donations: The Role of Mental Accounting

Haijiao Shi, Tsinghua University, China Rong Chen, Tsinghua University, China Xiaobing Xu, Hainan University, China

We find that consumers are more likely to donate rewards earned through an ambiguous process (vs. certain process) because they place these rewards in an independent account whereas rewards obtained from a certain process were booked as deductions from payment accounts. We also test two boundary conditions for the effect.

Arbiters of Controversy: The New Role of Brands in Contemporary Society

Justin Sieow, University of Connecticut, USA Robin A. Coulter, University of Connecticut, USA

Our research investigates the new role of brands as arbiters of social issues. Grounded in institutional theory we identity the various agents present within the brand moral landscape. We highlight the complexity present in the marketplace and explore the dynamic between brands consumers and third-party marketplace agents. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1225 The Counterintuitive Effect of Scarcity on Food Waste

Bonnie Simpson, Western University, Canada Rhiannon MacDonnell Mesler, University of Lethbridge, Canada Katherine White, University of British Columbia, Canada

Across three studies we examine scarcity’s effect on food waste behavior. Study 1 (a field study) examines food waste behavior in control versus scarcity-induced conditions. Study 2 explores scarcity’s effect on food-related behavior in lab. Study 3 tests temporal distance as a moderator of food waste within consumers experiencing scarcity.

The Interplay Between Reminders of Resource Scarcity and Quantity-Quality Trade-offs

Tanya Singh, Concordia University, Canada Laura Goodyear, University of Toronto, Canada Beatriz Pereira, Iowa State University, USA Caroline Roux, Concordia University, Canada

We examine how experiencing scarcity impacts quality-quantity trade-off decisions. Across four studies we find that people experiencing scarcity prefer higher quantity when trade-offs involves larger product quantities. Conversely people experiencing scarcity prefer higher quality when trade-offs involve smaller product quantities. We propose a theoretical framework to explain this counterintuitive result.

Social Influences on the Process of Remaining a Vegetarian

Lucie Sirieix, Montpellier SupAgro, France Gilles Séré de lanauze, Montpellier University, France Margot Dyen, University of West Brittany, France

If the socio-demographic profiles and motivations of vegetarians are well known (Ruby 2012) few studies have looked at the vegetarians’ trajectories (Cherry 2015). The present article redresses this deficiency by examining how social influences can play a role in the ability to maintain a vegetarian diet.

Choosing Randomly Displayed Products For Joint Consumption

Jiaqi (Flora) Song, University of Liverpool, UK Dongjin He, Hong Kong Polytechic University, China Yuwei Jiang, Hong Kong Polytechic University, China

This research investigates the impact of the consumption context on consumers’ product display preference. Two studies demonstrate that consumers have higher purchase intention for products with a randomized display in joint compared to solo consumption contexts an effect driven by the heightened need to belong in joint consumptions.

Environmental Friendliness and Product Design

Jiaqi Flora Song, University of Liverpool, UK Boyoun Grace Chae, Hong Kong Polytechic University, China Yuwei Jiang, Hong Kong Polytechic University, China

Two studies demonstrate that consumers judge products with a glossy rather than matte exterior design as less environmentally friendly. This effect is driven by the belief that glossier products are more processed and less natural and can lead to downstream consequences in regard to disposal behavior.

Mindful Brand: Development and Validation of a Mindful Brand Scale (MBS)

Ellen Campos Sousa, Florida International University, USA Jayati Sinha, Florida International University, USA

This research brings a novelty contribution to the marketing and mindfulness literature proposing a conceptualization and a measurement for a mindful brand from a consumer perspective. A set of characteristics associated with mindful brand was identified and a mindful brand scale (MBS) was developed and validated. 1226 / Working Papers Owning or Sharing? How Feeling Financially Constrained Decreases Participation in Access-Based Services

Emanuela Stagno, BI Norwegian Business School, Norway Klemens Knoferle, BI Norwegian Business School, Norway Luk Warlop, BI Norwegian Business School, Norway

Feeling financially constrained influences consumer attention and behaviors. We propose that this feeling also affects the propensity to engage in alternative consumption modes; namely access-based consumption. Two experiments test whether financially constrained consumers are less willing to participate in access-based services. The preliminary findings seem to not support our hypothesis.

The Role of Consumer Self-identities and Individual Tendencies in Food Waste

Violeta Stancu, Aarhus University, Denmark Liisa Lähteenmäki, Aarhus University, Denmark

There are several well-established negative consequences of food waste for the environment and society. Consumers’ environmental or frugal self-identities are associated with lower self-reported food waste. On the other hand people’s impulsive buying tendency and disgust sensitivity are important factors that associate positively with consumer food waste.

The Role of Multiple Self-Identities in Behaviours Across the Consumption-cycle in Food and Apparel

Catalin Mihai Stancu, Aarhus University, Denmark Alice Grønhøj, Aarhus University, Denmark Liisa Lähteenmäki, Aarhus University, Denmark

Consumers have several self-identities which impact sustainable behaviours. Frugal self-identity was found to have stronger associations with specific categories of behaviours in the consumption-cycle. While sustainable self-identity positively predicted behaviours across the consumption-cycle frugal thrifty or trendy self-identities had both positive and negative relations to behaviours outlining potential clashes.

Embracing and Rejecting “Sparking Joy”—Understanding Japanese Consumer Responses to Marie Kondo’s Original Book

Sumire Stanislawski, Tokyo International University, Japan Shuji Ohira, Chiba University of Commerce, Japan Kosuke Mizukoshi, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan

By examining responses to Marie Kondo’s original book consumer reactions to a taste regime counter to mainstream consumerism are explored. Those who embraced and rejected her message were analyzed using text mining. Some internalized new meanings surrounding consumption while others rejected her legitimacy as an influencer of taste.

The Darkside of Online Social Networks: Measuring the Negative Effects of Social Influence in Online Social Networks

Sabrina Stoeckli, University of Bern, Switzerland Fabian Bartsch, IÉSEG School of Management, Paris, France Henry Shen, IÉSEG School of Management, Paris, France

This research conceptualizes and develops a scale of Susceptibility to Social Influence in the context of Online Social Networks such as Facebook or Instagram. Three studies find support for the conceptualization and for a valid and reliable scale. Next steps for scale development and its future application are discussed. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1227 Table to Farm: Persuasive Messaging Influences Consumers’ Willingness to Compost

Nicolette Sullivan, London School of Economics, UK Rick Larrick, Duke University, USA Gavan Fitzsimons, Duke University, USA

Despite consumers’ concern for the environment one measure that could have a profound impact diverting waste from landfills household composting has had low adoption rates. This study investigates the effectiveness of persuasive messages on willingness to compost amongst different segments of consumers.

To Err Is Human, to Correct Is Algorithmic

Chengyao Sun, Washington University, USA Cynthia Cryder, Washington University, USA

Across three studies and nine scenarios we observe that people believe that algorithmic errors can be corrected however they do not believe that human errors can be similarly corrected. More specifically people trust a previously erring algorithm after correction but lose confidence in an erring human even after correction.

The Effect of Tragic Artist Biography on Consumer Evaluation of Artworks

Yeonjin Sung, University of Michigan, USA Seojin Stacey Lee, Seoul National University, South Korea Kiwan Park, Seoul National University, South Korea

Our research proposes that providing a tragic biography of an artist enhances the perceived quality of the artwork by allowing people to appreciate the depth of expression in the artwork (“tragic artist effect”). We also show that this effect occurs independently of alternative processes—empathy effort and eudaimonic fulfillment.

Choice Overload, Does it Really Exist?: A Neurophysiological Assessment of Consumers’ Responses to “the Paradox of Choice”

Anshu Suri, HEC Montreal, Canada Sylvain Sénécal, HEC Montreal, Canada Pierre-Majorique Léger, HEC Montreal, Canada

We contribute to the debate of choice overload by concluding that the psychophysiological measures collected through an eye-tracker and face-reader indicate that consumers not only experience an increased level in cognitive load when selecting from a large set of options but also experience negative emotions in the decision-making process.

What do You Mean by Love? Understanding Brand Love Experiences

Bruno Sutil, Sao Paulo School of Business Administration FGV-EAESP, Brazil Delane Botelho, EAESP-FGV, Brazil Diógenes Bido, Machenzie, Brazil

Just as there are types of interpersonal love there might be types or experiences of brand love. We add to the literature by developing a multidimensional differentiation scale based on the reasons people love a brand to typify their experiences. Four factors emerged: values identity emotional attachment and functionality. 1228 / Working Papers Packaged or Unpackaged? How Displaying a Product With Vs. Without Packaging Influences Product Evaluations

Courtney Szocs, Louisiana State University, USA Sara Williamson, SUNY Old Westbury, USA Adam Mills, Loyola University New Orleans, USA

Managers display products with and without packaging in stores advertisements and online seemingly arbitrarily. Would displaying a product encapsulated in a package as opposed to unpackaged influence consumers’ product evaluations? If so why? Three experimental studies address these research questions and contribute to the literature on packaging and display effects.

You Are Who You Follow: The Impact Of Fitness Influencers On Food Consumption And Identity

Amandeep Takhar, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK Thomas Magede, De Montfort University, UK Jennifer Walker, De Montfort University, UK

This paper builds on prior consumer research relating to food and identity construction. By looking at how online fitness influencers impact the food consumption and identity of young millennials in the U.K. it is evident that participants were influenced by online fitness influencers in negotiating their self and collective identity.

To Cleanse or to Enjoy? The Effect of Affectively Tagged Windfall Time on Consumption Choice

Arash Talebi, EDHEC Business School, France Easa Sahabeh, University of South-Eastern Norway, Norway

We investigate how consumption changes when people gain a windfall block of time with affective tags (positive vs. negative). We find an asymmetrical effect: negative windfall time encourages hedonic (vs. utilitarian) activities supporting a mood regulation account. However positive windfall time does not seem to influence the consumption pattern.

Eco-friendly Versus Polyester Gucci Handbags: The Effect of Matching Green Claims and Temporal Frame on Product Evaluation of Self-enhancement Brands

Nabanita Talukdar, Hult International Business School, USA Shubin Lance Yu, Peking University, China Esterina Nervino, Universita’ degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Italy

We examine how message-orientations of green claims using temporal construal affects consumers’ evaluation towards self-enhancement brands’ sustainable products. Through a survey experiment we confirm that a high construal level and high temporal distance green message improved the product evaluation through higher processing fluency for high green orientation individuals.

Indulgent Consumption Signals Interpersonal Warmth

Qing Tang, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Kuangjie Zhang, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Xun (Irene) Huang, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

Three studies demonstrated that showcasing indulgent consumption can have a positive signaling function on one’s perceived warmth. Therefore consumers also choose indulgent food items when they have the motivation to appear warm in front of others. These findings add to the literature of indulgent consumption and consumer signaling behavior. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1229 Consumption Opportunity and The Consideration of Consumption-Opportunity Cost

Tao Tao, Hong Kong Baptist University, China Ran Li, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China

For the first time the authors propose the concept of consumption opportunity and identify it as a scarce exclusive and valuable resource to a consumer. We further demonstrated that when making purchase decisions the consideration of the cost of consumption opportunity could induce consumers to choose the higher-quality smaller-amount option.

I Revenge For Others I Do Not Know: The Role Of Intercultural Competence In Moderating Customer Revenge To Service Failure Occurred To Adjacent Customer

Mohamed Sobhy Temerak, Kent Business School, UK Ruby Zhang, University of Reading, UK Cristiana Lages, University of Reading, UK

We examine the service failure from the observers’ perspective and how it influences their patronage and revenge intentions. Results from a 2x2 experiment revealed observer’s interpretation of service failure was largely influenced by their intercultural competence. They are more sensitive to discrimination and courageous to retaliate with higher intercultural intelligence.

Recycled Plastic on the Upswing: The Effect of Packaging Material on Perceived Healthiness and Purchase Intention

Joyce De Temmerman, Ghent University, Belgium Nico Heuvinck, IESEG School of Management, France Hendrik Slabbinck, Ghent University, Belgium Iris Vermeir, Ghent University, Belgium

This research explores the impact of recycled plastic on perceived healthiness and purchase intention. We find that consumers tend to perceive products in recycled (vs. regular) plastic packaging as healthier and thereby are more likely to purchase products in recycled plastic packaging.

The Impact of Logo Typeface Obliqueness on Product Efficacy Perception

Lefa Teng, Jiangnan University, China Jie Wang, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China Yuwei Jiang, Hong Kong Polytechic University, China

This research shows that the obliqueness of logo typefaces influences consumers’ efficacy judgment of products offered by the company. Compared with non-oblique typeface logos oblique typeface logos generate the perception of quicker product effect. This effect is attenuated when the typeface is heavy.

Singled Out For Public Praise: How Scarcity Boosts Demand For Public Recognition

Carina Thuerridl, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands Bernadette Kamleitner, Vienna University of Economics and Business, Austria

Public recognition is more valuable but less popular than private recognition in crowdfunding and charitable giving. We show that limiting availability of recognition increases preferences for public but not for private recognition. Singling consumers out for public raise may thus be a simple cost-effective strategy to increase monetary contributions. 1230 / Working Papers Measuring the Dissemination of a Subculture Through Consumption . Investigating the Geek Culture Case .

Alexandre Tiercelin, Université de Reims, France Marion Garnier, Grenoble Ecole de Management - Univ Grenoble Alpes ComUE, France Arnaud Delannoy, Ecole de Management de Normandie, Laboratoire Métis, France

This research proposes to understand better the dissemination of a subculture within mass culture by measuring belonging and consumption in the geek culture case. Results confirm subcultural traits and practices and progressive dissemination showing the quantifiable reality of a subculture and the possibility of measuring its spreading.

Social Atmospheres: Priming, Aligning and Defining Shared Experiences of Place

Hill Tim, University of Bath, UK Robin Canniford, University of Melbourne, Australia

Atmospheres are the moods associated with places. Current marketing research explains that firms create atmospheres by controlling material features of servicescapes. Through an ethnographic investigation of English Premier League soccer however we show that atmospheres are also social experiences that define the mood of place through consumers’ embodied performances.

When Does Actual Versus Ideal Self-Congruence Matter? Moderating Effects of Construal-Level on Brand Attitudes

Taku Togawa, Sophia University, Japan Kazuyo Ando, Chiba University of Commerce, Japan

Drawing on construal level theory this study found that consumers with low-level construal tended to focus on actual self-congruence (ASC) with a brand and prefer brands with high ASC levels. Contrarily consumers with high-level construal focused on ideal self-congruence (ISC) and indicated positive attitudes toward brands with high ISC.

If I Think I Can I Can . Can’t I? How Social Mobility Beliefs Influence Your Financial Behavior

Patricia Torres, Florida International University, USA Alexandra Aguirre-Rodriguez, Florida International University, USA

This research explores how social mobility expectations influence one’s financial behavior intentions. Across three studies this research reveals that social mobility expectations impacts behavior intentions; financial self-efficacy mediates whereas financial literacy moderates this relationship. Findings are discussed considering their implications for research on expectancy financial goal pursuit and decision making.

Product Consecration and Market Expansion: The Case of Vitamin D

Lez Ecima Trujillo Torres, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA Alev Kuruoglu, University of Southern Denmark, Denmark Hazal Celik, University College Dublin, Ireland

Our study investigates the relationship between product consecration and market creation and expansion. Our findings indicate that the global Vitamin D market has expanded from 1996 to 2019 through a process of contested product consecration that involves the cultural and scientific consecration and commercial innovation of Vitamin D over time. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1231 How Customer Identification Can Lead to Dysfunctional Behavior

Huy Quoc Tran, University of South-Eastern Norway, Norway Marit Engeset, University of South-Eastern Norway Luk Warlop, BI Norwegian Business School, Norway

Recent research explores the role of social identity in consumer contexts. In this study we document the negative effect of customer identification on impoliteness. We found that entitlement mediated this relationship and that this effect was conditional on self-control. We also plan to investigate other mechanisms underlying this phenomenon.

The Relationship Between Self-Construal and Neural Processes Associated With Conforming to Consumer-to-Consumer Recommendations

Arina Tveleneva, University of Wisconsin - Madison, USA Xinyi Wang, University of Wisconsin - Madison, USA Matthew Brook O’Donnell, University of Pennsylvania, USA Emily B Falk, University of Pennsylvania, USA Christopher N. Cascio, University of Wisconsin - Madison, USA

The results suggest that those who have a stronger interdependent view of the self compared to a weaker interdependent view of the self are potentially more likely to conform to social feedback when their opinions misalign with others. Interdependent self is also significantly associated with conflict monitoring and mentalizing.

When Does Diversity Help or Backfire? Impact of Cultural Diversity on Brand Perception

Esther Uduehi, University of Pennsylvania, USA Julian K Saint Clair, Loyola Marymount University, USA Mitchell Hamilton, Loyola Marymount University, USA Americus Reed, University of Pennsylvania, USA

This paper is the first to show how diversity as a brand characteristic influences consumer perceptions of the brand’s authenticity. We find that majority-focused brands embracing diversity increases in authenticity while a minority-focused brand embracing diversity may lose authenticity. This loss of authenticity is particularly felt by minority consumers.

Console War (and Peace?): Analysing Cross-Community Interactions in Gaming Discussion Forums on Reddit

Denis Utochkin, Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration, Norway

In this paper I employ a mix of netnography machine learning and network analysis to examine 12 gaming communities on Reddit. Treating each individual community as inseparable from its immediate context I explore how multiple loyalties and identities are managed by consumers engaging in conversations in a multi-community context.

In Defense of Happy Hedonism: Moving Beyond Materialism and Its Negative Impact on Well-Being

Rita Coelho do Vale, Catolica Lisbon School of Business and Economics, Portugal Rik Pieters, Tilburg University, The Netherlands

This research studies happy hedonism analyzing its relationship with consumer well-being. It explores the idea that pursuing pleasure through the mere consumption of experiences and objects might positively contribute to consumer well-being. Three laboratory studies were conducted to explore the happy hedonism phenomenon and to distinguishing it from consumer materialism. 1232 / Working Papers The Meaning and Transformation of Taste Vocabulary

Rohan Venkatraman, University of Melbourne, Australia Anna E Hartman, University of Melbourne, Australia Ilkka Ojansivu, University of Melbourne, Australia Erica Coslor, University of Melbourne, Australia

We conceptualize the vocabulary used in tasting notes as part of taste regimes. Through qualitative content analysis of whiskey tasting descriptions we found that consumers transformed institutionalised vocabularies to convey variable meanings extending our understanding of adaptation of the language of a taste regime.

“Luxurious and Responsible? Consumer Perceptions of Corporate Social Responsibility Efforts by Luxury Versus Mass-market Brands”

Marlene Vock, Amsterdam Business School, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands

This research contributes to the inconclusive debate in the field of sustainable luxury on whether the adoption of Corporate Social Re- sponsibility practices is beneficial for luxury brands or backfires a dilemma known as the ‘CSR-Luxury paradox’. Different types of CSR practices might help to explain inconsistencies in previous findings.

The Effectiveness Of Online Recommendations For Private Labels Versus National Brands

Barbara Kobuszewski Volles, Ghent University, Belgium Anneleen Van Kerckhove, Ghent University, Belgium Maggie Geuens, Ghent University, Belgium

This research reveals that consumers when recommended with products online are more inclined to switch to private labels compared to national brands. We present two studies demonstrating this effect and propose that it occurs because recommendations serve more as a signal of quality for private labels than for national brands.

Magically Relieved or Taking Control? The Influence of Messages Aimed at Debt Distressed Consumers

Rory Waisman, University of Alberta, Canada Mohammed El Hazzouri, Mount Royal University, Canada Kelley Main, University of Manitoba, Canada Gerald Häubl, University of Alberta, Canada

Marketing messages used by the debt-remedy industry differentially impact consumers’ financial behaviors depending on the nature of the appeal and consumers’ level of debt. Appeals that focus on debt-relief can backfire whereas messages about taking control of debt have distinct marketing and public-policy advantages.

What a Cute Lemon! The Effect of Whimsical Cuteness on Willingness-To-Pay For Imperfect Produce

Darlene Walsh, Concordia University, Canada Camille Darriet, Concordia University, Canada

The goal of our research is to find a way to encourage consumers to purchase imperfect produce. As a first-step in achieving this goal we demonstrate that priming whimsical cuteness (i.e. adding “googly eyes” to imperfect produce) can increase consumers’ willing-to-pay for imperfect produce. Future research ideas are also discussed. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1233 A Discount Added is an Obstacle Created: The Impact of Multiple Discounts on Consumer Decisions

Xin Wang, Nanjing University, China Chunqu Xiao, Nanjing University, China Hong Zhu, Nanjing University, China

Based on numerical cognition we conducted four experiments to explore the effect of multiple discounts and found that consumers preferred a single discount to multiple discounts. Cognitive fluency and perceived sincerity sequentially mediated the effect. Consumers concern for sales moderated the effect.

Don’t Reveal It Yet! How Goal Disclosure on Social Media Impedes Goal Revision and Commitment

Liangyan Wang, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China Zhining Yu, Shanghai Jiaotong University, China

People commonly disclose their personal goals publicly on social media platforms based on the conventional belief that disclosure increases goal commitment and improves performance. Results from two experimental studies suggest that this conventional belief only applies to easy goals but not for difficult goals.

Healthy-Angular, Unhealthy-Circular: The Effect of Shape on Consumers Health Choice

Jie Wang, Renmin University of China, China Jing Jiang, Renmin University of China, China Xiaodan Zhang, Peking University, China

This paper explored the matching effect between food healthiness and shape. We demonstrated that angular (vs. circular) shape increases consumers’ preference for healthy options which is because a “healthy-angular unhealthy-circular” match could enhance consumers ease of processing and subsequently influences consumers choice.

Love or Luck? The Effect of Self-Referencing Narratives on Used Product Consumption Behaviors

Yan Wang, Renmin, University of China, China Jing Jiang, Renmin, University of China, China

This research investigates the impact of selling narratives created by sellers on buyers’ purchase behaviors in the context of second-hand market. Across three experiments we find that self-focused (love-oriented) narratives drive low purchase intention but high willingness-to-pay whereas product-focused (luck-oriented) narrative generates both high purchase intention and willingness-to-pay.

Moderate Product-gift Complementarity Eliminates Devaluation Effect in Free-Gift-With-Purchase Offers

Yusu Wang, Texas A&M University, USA Nicholas J. Olson, Texas A&M University, USA

While past literature demonstrated a devaluation effect of the focal product in free-gift-with-purchase offers this research provides evidence supporting our argument that a moderate (vs. high) complementarity between the focal product and the free gift counters this devaluation tendency. Underlying mechanism is also accessed. 1234 / Working Papers Red in the Environment Increases Preference For Competent Brands

Yansu Wang, Renmin University of China, China Jun Pang, Renmin University of China, China Lingyun Qiu, Peking University, China

Across four studies this research demonstrates that exposure to red cues in the environment increases consumer preference for competent but not warm brands. This effect is mediated by competitive orientation and is attenuated when consumers purchase products for others than for themselves.

Robot Anthropomorphism in the Workplace and Employees’ Job Insecurity

Xue Wang, University of Hong Kong, China Sara Kim, University of Hong Kong, China Minki Kim, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, South Korea

In four studies we show that robot anthropomorphism in the workplace enhances employees’ job insecurity due to an increase in social comparison. The findings contribute to the literature on robot anthropomorphism and job insecurity and provides practical implications to organizations in terms of how to design robots.

Signs Telling Me to Do What Others Do: The Effect of Exposure to Public Rules on Conformity

Xiaoran Wang, Renmin University of China, China Jing Jiang, Renmin University of China, China Yan Wang, Renmin University of China, China

This research takes a novel perspective by proposing an exposure effect of public rules on conformity. Across three experiments we find that in public consumption context exposure to public rules reminds consumers of the presence of others which increases their public self-awareness and hence the preference for majority-endorsed products.

The Dark Side of Precision: Numerical Information and Consumers’ Unhealthy Choices

Jie Wang, Renmin University of China, China Jing Jiang, Renmin University of China, China Xiadan Zhang, Renmin University of China, China

The research explores how numerical precision affects consumers’ health behaviors and how illusory control functions as an underlying mechanism. Across three studies we find that when the numerical information is expressed in a precise (vs. imprecise) format it tends to induce consumers’ illusory control which subsequently increases risky health behaviors.

Visual Simplicity Signals Constructive Brand Authenticity

Yan Wang, Renmin University of China, China Jing Jiang, Renmin University of China, China Xiushuang Gong, Jiangnan University, China

Constructive brand authenticity is subjective and can be contextually determined. This research examines the consumer lay belief about the relationship between aesthetics and constructive brand authenticity. Across three experiments we find that consumers perceive a brand as more authentic when it is with visually simple (vs. complex) designs or displays. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1235 The Case-Gender Congruity Effect: Consumer Choices For Upper Versus Lowercase Brand Names

Na Wen, California State University Northridge, USA

A series of experiments find that the letter case of brand names (upper- vs. lower-case) affects consumer choices but that these effects depend on congruity between brand case and product gender. This research advances understanding of how seemingly subtle brand name characteristics affect gender perceptions and consumer behavior.

The Closer, The Worst: The Impact Of Social Distance to a Dissociative Group And Consumer Choices

Na Wen, California State University Northridge, USA

Two experiments test the idea that consumers are less likely to buy a product if it is associated with a near (vs. distant) dissociative group—which is mediated by construal-level mindsets and moderated by group conformity. This work advances understanding of how different types of dissociative groups affect consumer behavior.

You Are More Patient When You Experienced More: The Impact of Memory Markers on Consumers’ Decisions in the Future

Yingting Wen, ESSEC Business School, France Ayse Onculer, ESSEC Business School, France

This research investigates how retrospective time progression can influence consumers’ decisions in the upcoming future. By using different numbers of memory markers two studies show that people experience different retrospective time progression over the same duration and they have different levels of patience on waiting and intertemporal choice.

The Value of Personal Information - Consumers’ Valuations and Preferences For Personal Data And Privacy

Claudia Wenzel, University of Zurich, Switzerland René Algesheimer, University of Zurich, Switzerland

Data is the oil of our age. Despite its importance research is lacking consistent data value estimations. By combining current valuation methods this research offers a better estimate of the value consumers attribute to their data and by drawing on reference price theory minimiz- es the gap between different valuation methods.

The Unit-Size Effect Revised: A Win-Win Solution For Reducing Both Waist and Waste

Amber Werkman, University of Groningen, The Netherlands Jenny van Doorn, University of Groningen, The Netherlands Koert Van Ittersum, University of Groningen, The Netherlands

People consume less when food is presented in multiple smaller units compared to a few larger units however food waste will increase accordingly. We propose that this so-called unit-size effect is even more impactful during food selection when people select quantities themselves based on unportioned rather than portioned food.

When Do You Want This? How Delivery-scheduling Impacts Motivation Among Online Shoppers

Sara Williamson, SUNY Old Westbury, USA Courtney Szocs, Louisiana State University, USA

Online purchases require consumers to complete multiple sub-tasks such as product selection delivery-scheduling and payment. In this project we investigate how the sequence of these sub tasks can influence motivation in the purchase context. Specifically we investigate how scheduling delivery before making product choices can exhibit motivating effects. 1236 / Working Papers Are Co-branding Products More Attractive? Understanding the Role of Consumer Innovativeness and Self-construal

Sihan Wu, Tsinghua University, China Maggie Wenjing Liu, Tsinghua University, China

In this study we intend to develop and test a model considering that the consumers prefer co-branding product via consumer innovativeness. We further examined the moderation role of self-construal such that positive effect is stronger when individual is in a predominantly interdependent.

Effects of Masculinity and Femininity Incongruence on Consumer Responses to Brands

Xiu Wu, Concordia University, Canada Bianca Grohmann, Concordia University, Canada

This research examines the effect of incongruence between consumers’ gender identity and brand gender. Two studies find a significant main and interaction effect of masculinity and femininity incongruence on consumer-brand boundary—the perceived psychological distance between a consumer and a brand—and affective cognitive and relational brand responses.

Self-Other Differences in the Perceived Efficacy of Self-Enhancement Products

Kaiyang Wu, University of Wisconsin - Madison, USA Evan Polman, University of Wisconsin - Madison, USA

We tested if judgments of self-enhancement products’ efficacy differ according to whether a product user is the self or someone else. In two pre-registered studies we found that people believe that self-enhancement products will be more efficacious for others than for themselves and that usership moderates this self-other difference.

Maximizing What? The Effect of Maximizing Mindset on the Evaluation of Product Bundles

Lan Xia, Bentley University, USA Nada Nasr Bechwati, Bentley University, USA

Do maximizers value product bundles higher than satisficers? We propose that it depends on whether maximizers try to maximize the value of the individual products or that of the entire bundle. The focus of the maximization is influenced by the presence of a discount. Results from three studies are presented.

Robots Don’t Discriminate: Financial Resources, Age, and Preference of AI in Service

Lan Xia, Bentley University, USA

Do consumers prefer robots or humans in service contexts? Our studies show that controlling for self-efficacy and AI performance preferences for AI vary by customer characteristics such that older consumers of lower (vs. higher) financial status tend to prefer robots more due to the expected service they obtain.

Penny Wise and Pound Foolish- The Interaction Between Ease of Comparison and Cognitive Effort And Its’ Impact On Preference And Choice Change

Na Xiao, Laurentian University, Canada

It is proposed that the interaction between ease of comparison and cognitive effort determines the importance of attributes. It is demonstrated that when cognitive effort to process information about choice-options is high (vs. low) consumers will give weight to ease-to-compare attributes in comparison therefore preference and choice change. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1237 The Effect of Handwritten Typefaces on Consumer Evaluation

Chunqu Xiao, Nanjing University, China Xin Wang, Nanjing University, China Hejin Fang, Nanjing University, China Haoyuan Wang, New York Statement University at Buffalo, USA Hong Zhu, Nanjing University, China

Handwritten typefaces strengthen the impact of online reviews. Across three studies the current research found that handwritten typefaces led higher evaluation on the perceived sincerity of reviewers thus benefitted positively reviewed products. This effect diminished when the reviews were negative or consumers had greater domain knowledge.

How Can I Help When I Feel Rejected? The Interplay of Social Exclusion, Social Identity, and Prosocial Behavior

Xuan Xie, University of California Irvine, USA Loraine Lau-Gesk, University of California Irvine, USA Amber Gaffney, Humboldt State University, USA

This research explores prosocial behavior through social exclusion and social identity lens. Results suggested that when feeling rejected prototypical members displayed lower willingness-to-help whereas peripheral members have higher willingness-to-help. When feeling ignored such effect was attenuated for both peripherals and prototypicals. Prosocial behavior alleviates some negative consequences of social exclusion.

Let’s Get Serious About Play: A Hedonic Vs . Eudaimonic Investigation of Goal-Based Mixed Affective Experiences

Xuan Xie, University of California Irvine, USA Sayantani Mukherjee, Central Washington University, USA Loraine Lau-Gesk, University of California Irvine, USA

This research investigates factors of goal-based mixed play experiences. Perceived effort corresponds positively to consumer judgment and perceived fun of the mixed (vs. pure positive) play experiences. Outcome-oriented thinking encourages a eudaimonic lens unaltered by cognitive load while process-oriented thinking shifts to a hedonic lens moderated by cognitive load.

Performance Diversity and Team Performance Expectations

Vivian (Jieru) Xie, Virginia Tech, USA Rajesh Bagchi, Virginia Tech, USA

We investigate the effects of performance diversity on expectations of team performance. We find that perceivers expect less diverse teams to perform better. We demonstrate the underlying process and delineate one approach via which these expectations could be reversed.

The Impact of Corporate Environmental Transgressions on Consumer Negative Reactions: The Role of Political Ideology

Chunyan Xie, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Norway Richard P. Bagozzi, University of Michigan, USA

We experimentally test a psychological mechanism underlying consumer negative reactions toward the firm as a function of perception of corporate environmental transgressions. Results showed that social disgust and attitude mediates the relationship between perceived corporate environmental transgressions and consumer reactions. Further political ideology moderates effects of transgressions on social disgust. 1238 / Working Papers The Impact of Financial Perception on Agent Preference of Intelligent Assistant

Chunya Xie, Renmin University of China, China En-Chung Chang, Renmin University of China, China

Four experiments indicate that financial affluent reduces participants’ preference for AI provider of intelligent assistant. Financial affluent leads to a high sense of entitlement which reduces AI preference. Assistant type moderates the effect. When the intelligent assistant is not instructional the effect of financial perception on agent preference reverses.

Why People Are Crazy For Chewing? An Exploratory Study of the Effect of Chewing on Mental Construal

jialiang xu, University of Manitoba, Canada Fang Wan, University of Manitoba, Canada Norbert Schwarz, University of Southern California, USA Wenqing Wu, University of Manitoba, Canada

Oral-sensory information different from other sensory information can be received by different ways (chewing/ swallowing/ drinking). This perspective has not studied by previous research. Our work examines that chewing (vs swallowing) activates people’s concrete mental construal which may help consumers focus on the current moment and appreciate experience of eating.

Need to Evaluate as a Predictor of Sharing and Seeking Online Recommendations

Mengran Xu, Ohio State University, USA Rebecca Walker Reczek, Ohio State University, USA Richard Petty, Ohio State University, USA

In this research we characterize who is likely to engage in sharing and seeking online word of mouth as a function of their need to evaluate an individual difference measure consisting of two motives the need to express attitudes and the need to acquire information in order to have attitudes.

Swear by My Family: Explore Consumer Attitudes Toward Brands Named After People

Fei (Katie) Xu, Hong Kong Polytechic University, China Yuwei Jiang, Hong Kong Polytechic University, China

Consumers are more interested to purchase from brands which are named after people’s last names than from brands containing people’s first names. This effect is found to be mediated by brand trust and moderated by consumers’ domain-specific knowledge.

No-Modification Allowed! Saying No to a Consumer’s Modification Request Can Increase Product Evaluation

Amanda Pruski Yamim, Grenoble Ecole de Management, France Adilson Borges, NEOMA Business School, France

Through three studies we show that the presence of non-modification policies can increase tastiness evaluation and willingness to pay because they make consumers think the chef put more effort into the food creation. The positive effect of non-compliance is contingent on consumers’ initial beliefs that the chef has high expertise. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1239 Before or After? The Order Effect of Donors’ Personally Identifiable Information on Donation Amount

Li Yan, University of Technology Sydney, Australia Xue Wang, University of Hong Kong, China Minjung Koo, Sungkyunkwan University, South Korea Hean Tat Keh, Monash University, Australia

Across five studies we found that individuals donate a higher amount if their personally identifiable information is requested before they indicate the donation amount. This finding makes important theoretical contributions and offer practical implications for charitable organizations by identifying a simple “nudge” that encourages donors to give higher amounts.

Why Should I Improve Myself? Perceived Economic Mobility and Consumer’s Interest in Self-Improvement Products

Chun-Ming Yang, Ming Chuan University, Taiwan

Across three studies we provide convergent evidence suggesting that the constraints perceived by consumers increased when they had a low perceived economic mobility (PEM) which in turn influenced their interests in self-improvement products. This study contributes to the literature of PEM by extending its downstream consequences.

Contestations of Entrepreneurship and Marketing in Creative Maker Tribes

Amy Yau, Cardiff University, UK

The ethnographic study explores the narratives of becoming and being a creative maker entrepreneur and how the makers imbue themselves as brands to start and develop their business. It explores how makers create offline and online commercial communities and tribes with other makers and consumers in the mass-market dominated marketplace.

Serif For the Conservatives: The Effects of Typeface on The Persuasiveness of Political Campaign

Jiwon Yi, Hongik University, South Korea Nara Youn, Hongik University, South Korea

This research investigated the effect of congruence between serif (vs. sans-serif) typeface and the conservative (vs. liberal) political ideology on the campaign effectiveness. Through two experiments we provided a support for the positive effect of serif typefaces on political campaign evaluation of the conservatives and unveiled underlying psychological process.

Immediate Incentives in Prosocial Contexts

Y. Rin Yoon, Cornell University, USA Kaitlin Woolley, Cornell University, USA

Prior research provides mixed evidence for the effect of financial incentives on prosocial behavior. Three studies (N = 982) fill this gap. We find that immediate (vs. delayed) incentives increase prosocial behavior when prosocial motivation is low but that this effect attenuates when prosocial motivation is high.

Ethnic Identity and Patience in Intertemporal Monetary Decisions

Jiaqi Yu, University of Chicago, USA Oleg Urminsky, University of Chicago, USA Stephanie Chen, London Business School, UK

Ethnic identity importance predicts consumers’ patience in making intertemporal monetary decisions. Two studies based on evidence from Asians and Caucasians in the U.S. and the U.K. conclude that people who consider their ethnic identity more important value the present over the future and make more impatient time discounting choices. 1240 / Working Papers Multiple Social Identities Increase Torelence of Unethical Behaviors

Irina Y. Yu, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China Li Huang, Hofstra University, USA Morgan X. Yang, The Hang Seng University of Hong Kong, China

Consumers possess various social identities and generally show an identity congurent behavior when an identity is momentarily salient. What will happen when multiple identities are salient? We find that the activation of multiple social identities enhances consumers’ moral relativism belief and increases their tolerance of unethical/immoral behaviors.

Refunded Money is More Likely to be Spent

Tianjiao Yu, Washington University in St Louis, USA Cynthia Cryder, Washington University, USA Robyn LeBoeuf, Washington University, USA

We test how consumers’ willingness to spend depends on the transaction history of the money they have available. Specifically we find that money refunded from previous purchases is more likely to be spent than non-refunded money. This research extends prior findings about mental accounting and fungibility.

Sustainability as the Guilt-Relief Pill For Luxury Purchases

Shubin Lance Yu, Peking University, China Nabanita Talukdar, Hult International Business School, USA Sangeeta Trott, ITM-SIA Business School, India

Sustainability claims are not widely used by luxury brands because sustainability is considered incompatible with luxury. The results of two experimental studies suggest that for luxury products with a high price a sustainability claim can reduce the anticipated guilt of purchases which in turn leads to higher purchase intention.

Is First the Worst? Understanding Consumers’ Tendency to Postpone the Better Outcome

Ozge Yucel-Aybat, Pennsylvania State University Harrisburg, USA Marina Carnevale, Fordham University, USA

This research investigates the tendency of consumers to postpone their preferred item to the end. Two studies demonstrate that long-term (vs. short-term) oriented consumers are more likely to save their favorite product for last because they value improvements over time more.

Boosting the Resale Value: Effects of Expired Warranty and Repair Conditions of Secondhand Products

Ulku Yuksel, University of Sydney, Australia Nguyen T Thai, University of Wollongong, Australia Vince Mitchell, University of Sydney, Australia

Secondhand retailers rarely communicate negative information such as manufacturer warranties being expired or secondhand products being repaired. We show that consumers associate secondhand products with expired warranties with higher (lower) resale values than those with no warranties when these products have been repaired (never been repaired) and explain the process. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1241 Repetition Or No Repetition? Effects Of Repetitive Numbers On Bundling Promotion

Jintao Zhang, Drexel University, USA Hongjun Ye, Drexel University, USA Siddharth Bhatt, Pennsylvania State University, Harrisburg, USA Haeyoung Jeong, Drexel University, USA Rajneesh Suri, Drexel University, USA

Consumers are constantly making decisions on numbers along with their journey of consumption. Our study examines the effect of repetitive numbers on bundling price (i.e. 2 for $2.22 vs. 2 for $$2.12) that consumers have higher intentions to purchase bundling products with repetitive number prices.

Save Time For Better Life! The Effect Of Time Saving On Quality Perception

Consumers form their perceptions of quality with different signals. This study examines a novel signal of quality – time – as consumers would associate time saved when shopping with the perceptions of quality of the products the more time consumers save the better quality of the products they perceive.

Food Label Halos and Consumer Perceptions of Food Healthfulness

Yijun Zhao, Renmin University of China, China

This paper demonstrates that label halos bias dieters’ estimates about the healthfulness of vice foods containing such labels. Dieters tend to draw a directional conclusion about food healthfulness to mediate the guilt associated with consuming indulgent food. Providing corrective information to dieters can mitigate these effects.

The Impact of Social Crowding on Cross Sensory Products—— Based on the Brand Alliance Perspective

Yijun Zhao, Renmin University of China, China

This research defines the cross sensory product (CSP) which refers to the product with different sensory attributes provided by two or more co-brands in brand alliance and suggest that feeling crowded makes consumers need more arousal which in turn makes them prefer cross sensory product.

Time, Endowment Effect, and Happiness

Wenxue Zheng, Cornell University, USA Ashley V. Whillans, Harvard Business School, USA

This project demonstrates an endowment effect of time such that people expect higher compensation for time losses than for identical time gains. We also find initial evidence for a link between this endowment effect and happiness.

Where Does My Time Go?! The Trap of Segregated Resources

Wenxue Zheng, Cornell University, USA David R. Just, Cornell University, USA Jura Liaukonyte, Cornell University, USA

This project showed that time follows reversed arithmetic rules of mental accounting. Through hypothetical questionnaires that measured WTP WTA willingness to wait level of irritation we find that aggregated (vs. segregated) time was preferred and participants have a higher WTA and WTP for the aggregated time losses and time gains. 1242 / Working Papers How Crowdedness Enhances Consumers’ Healthy Lifestyle

Wanyi Zheng, University of Hong Kong, China He (Michael) Jia, University of Hong Kong, China Echo Wen Wan, University of Hong Kong, China

Social crowdedness is ubiquitous and has important implications for marketers. This research demonstrates that in a crowded environment consumers are more likely to engage in health-improving consumption which can boost their immune system and thus make themselves less vulnerable to contagious diseases that become more salient under crowdedness.

A Helping Hand: How Online and In-store Shopping Environments Change Information Search For Haptic Products

Lingrui Zhou, Duke University, USA Nicolette Sullivan, London School of Economics, UK Gavan Fitzsimons, Duke University, USA

What information do consumers search for when shopping for haptic products? The current research uses both behavioral data and computer mouse tracking analysis to examine how consumers search for and weigh various attributes across different shopping environments (online in-store or a combination of both).

AI is Better When I’m Sure: The Influence of Certainty Level of Consumer Needs on Their Willingness to Use AI Customer Service

Yimin Zhu, Sun Yat-sen University, China Yingyue Liu, Sun Yat-sen University, China Xiang Fang, Oklahoma State University, USA

This paper explores the effect of certainty level of consumer needs on their willingness to use AI customer service as well as its moderating effect and mediating effect. The findings make important theoretical contributions to AI research in the service context and provide useful guidelines for companies to use AI.

Device, Fast and Slow: How Devices Influence Consumer Decisions

Shuqi Zhu, University of Warwick, UK Sarah Wei, University of Warwick, UK John M. Rudd, University of Warwick, UK Yansong Hu, University of Warwick, UK

How the devices (mobile versus stationary) consumers use influence how they approach a purchase decision? We argue that consumers are less likely to employ deliberative processing when they use mobile devices compared to when they use stationary devices. Evidence from three studies supports this theorizing.

Can Handwritten-appearing Typefaces Boost the Effectiveness of Social Norms? An Experimental Investigation on Sustainable Consumer Behavior

Vita Eva Maria Zimmermann-Janssen, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Germany Carina Sophia Hütte, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Germany Julia Kluger, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Germany

Descriptive normative information (DNI) about a majority’s sustainable behavior proved to be especially persuasive when others are present. As handwriting can evoke human presence perceptions we tested experimentally whether DNI’s influence on sustainable behavior can be increased if presented in a handwritten-appearing (vs. machine-written) typeface under factual social absence. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1243 The More, the Worse – When the Communication of High Majority Sizes Decreases the Impact of Descriptive Normative Information on Consumers’ Willingness to Donate

Vita Eva Maria Zimmermann-Janssen, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Germany

The ability of descriptive normative information (DNI) about majorities’ charitable behavior to motivate donations is currently discussed in reaction to diverging findings. Drawing on altruism models and impact philanthropy we propose to reconsider crowding-out predictions and provide experimental evidence for DNI’s diminishing persuasiveness at high (vs. low) majority sizes communicated.

Time of Day and Construal Level Interact to Influence Engagement With Information

Ozum Zor, Rutgers University, USA Kihyun Hannah Kim, Rutgers University, USA Ashwani Monga, Rutgers University, USA

Social media messages that match with a high-level construal engage consumers more in the morning whereas those that match a low-level construal engage consumers more in the evening. Empirical evidence comes from an experiment and a Twitter dataset. These findings have implications for both theory and practice. 1244 / Working Papers Film Festival 2020

“Coworkers Lifestyle” Máté Bencze, Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary Outside In: When Social Dynamics Infiltrate the Extraordinary Experience of the Fair Baptiste Cleret, University of Rouen, France Boris Collet, University of Rouen Normandy, France Cerise Thorel, University of Rouen Normandy, France Stanislavskij’s Reflexive Videography to Explore the Representational World of the Researcher Michele Corengia, Università della Svizzera italiana, Switzerland Airbnb Butterfly Effect: How Consumption Transformations Reverberate on Social and Cityscapes Marlon Dalmoro, University of Vale do Taquari, Brazil Diego Costa Pinto, Nova IMS - Information Management School, Portugal Celso Zanini, Nova IMS - Information Management School, Portugal The Disruptive ‘Other’? Exploring Human-Animal Relations in Tourism Minni Haanpää, University of Lapland, Finland Tarja Salmela, University of Lapland, Finland José-Carlos García-Rosell, University of Lapland, Finland Mikko Äijälä, University of Lapland, Finland Too Big To Care: Uncovering the Ugly Truth of Brand Relationships in the Video Game Industry Jacob Lee Hiler, Ohio University, USA Elana Harnish, Ohio University, USA Pac-Man & the Pack Mentality: Nostalgia & Socialization Factors in Gaming Choice Avery Kerns, Ohio University, USA Jacob Lee Hiler, Ohio University, USA Impact of Religious Differences on Marketplace Configurations Ameya Mittal, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, India Akshaya Vijayalakshmi, Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad, India Nitisha Tomar, University of Wisconsin - Madison, USA Ankur Kapoor, Indian Institute of Management Udaipur, India Sustainup Dr. Iris Mohr, St. John’s University, USA Dignity as a Gift: an Immersion in the Gastronomic Experience at Refettorio Paris Ophelie Elise Mugel, Ferrandi Paris, France Winter Texans’ Motivations to Temporarily Relocate: Exploring Costs of Living Ross Murray, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, USA Suwakitti Amornpan, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, USA Michael Minor, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, USA

Advances in Consumer Research 1245 Volume 48, ©2020 1246 / Film Festival Lost in an Emodity: Self-Reflexive Ethnographer Portraits Joonas Rokka, Emlyon Business School, France Maira Lopes, Emlyon Business School, France Vincent Dewaguet, Emlyon Business School, France Anissa Pomies, Emlyon Business School, France Lydia Ottlewski, University of St. Gallen, Switzerland Come Come ! Thomas Stenger, University of Poitiers, France Olivier Coussi, University of Poitiers, France Knowledge Forums

Forum Where Consumer Behavior Meets Language: Applying Linguistic Methods to Consumer Research

Chairs: Ann Kronrod, University of Massachusetts Lowell, USA Grant Packard, York University, Canada Sarah G Moore, University of Alberta, Canada Jonah Berger, University of Pennsylvania, USA

Participants: Jeffrey Inman, University of Pittsburgh, USA Robert Meyer, University of Pennsylvania, USA L. J. Shrum, HEC Paris, France Ashlee Humphreys, Northwestern University - Medill, USA Nicholas Lurie, University of Connecticut, USA Andrea Webb Luangrath, University of Iowa, USA Jeff Lee, American University, USA Matthew D Rocklage, University of Massachusetts, USA Charles Zhang, University of California Riverside, USA Ruth Pogacar, University of Calgary, Canada Ivan Gordeliy, Georgetown University, USA Shiri Melumad, University of Pennsylvania, USA Amir Grinstein, Northeastern University, USA Francisco Villarroal Ordenes, University of Massachusetts, USA Guang-Xin Xie, University of Massachusetts Boston, USA Zoey Chen, University of Miami, USA

What can we discover by applying linguistic methods to consumer research? This Knowledge Forum introduces and discusses the multifaceted opportunities of applying linguistic research methods to explore language in the marketplace and employs a hands-on workshop approach to sprout novel research ideas that use multiple methods of linguistic inquiry.

Forum Forum on the Research and Interpersonal Culture of ACR

Chairs: Tiffany White, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA

Presenters: Joel Huber, Duke University, USA Darren Dahl, University of British Columbia, Canada Anirban Mukhopadhyay, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China Laura Peracchio, University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee, USA Sharon Shavitt, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA

The goal of the forum is to explore the factors that have made ACR culturally successful but ultimately vulnerable. Tiffany White will moderate six scholars and an active audience to discuss ACR’s unique research culture and the impact on that culture of publication norms successful collaborations global heterogeneity and the demands from university promotion systems.

Chairs: Gizem Yalcin, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands William Fritz, Oxford University, UK

Discussants: Ana Valenzuela, Baruch College, USA Andrew T. Stephen, Oxford University, UK Bernd Schmitt, Columbia University, USA Christian Hildebrand, University of Geneva, Switzerland Donna L. Hoffman, George Washington University, USA Klaus Wertenbroch, INSEAD, Singapore Markus Giesler, York University, Canada Rebecca Walker Reczek, Ohio State University, USA Rhonda Hadi, Oxford University, UK Robert Meyer, University of Pennsylvania, USA Russell W. Belk, York University, Canada Stefano Puntoni, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands Szu-chi Huang, Stanford University, USA Thomas Novak, George Washington University, USA

This roundtable brings together a diverse group of senior academics to offer guidance to early-career researchers who are interested in studying technology in consumer research. Discussants will talk about theoretical methodological empirical and substantive (e.g. publication process career management) challenges in this research area.

Forum Political “Consumption”: Motivations, Decision-Making and Implications

Chairs: Anastasiya Pocheptsova Ghosh, University of Arizona, USA Jennifer Savary, University of Arizona, USA

Discussants: Adam Duhachek, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA Cait Lamberton, University of Pennsylvania, USA Clayton R Critcher, University of California Berkeley, USA David Crockett, University of South Carolina, USA Erick M. Mas, Vanderbilt University, USA Gita Johar, Columbia University, USA Melanie Wallendorf, University of Arizona, USA Monika Lisjak, Arizona State University, USA Nailya Ordabayeva, Boston College, USA Neeru Paharia, Georgetown University, USA Nooshin Warren, University of Arizona, USA Ronald Paul Hill, American University, USA Sharon Shavitt, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Uzma Khan, University of Miami, USA

Consumer engagement in politics can be direct (e.g. political donations campaign merchandise purchases) or indirect (e.g. politicized consumption policy advocacy). This forum brings together thought leaders from CP CCT and Strategy to identify these behaviors integrate extant knowledge and envision a path forward for this promising but underexplored research domain. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1249 Forum Creating Boundary-Breaking, Marketing-Relevant Consumer Research

Chair: Simona Botti, London Business School, UK

Participants: Fleura Bardhi, City University of London, UK Eileen Fischer, York University, Canada Donna L. Hoffman, George Washington University, USA Robert Kozinets, University of Southern California, USA Donald Lehmann, Columbia University, USA John Lynch, University of Colorado, USA Deborah MacInnis, University of Southern California, USA Christine Moorman, Duke University, USA Page Moreau, University of Wisconsin - Madison, USA Vicki G. Morwitz, Columbia University, USA Connie Pechmann, University of California Irvine, USA Oded Netzer, Columbia University, USA

Consumer research often fails to have broad impact. We propose a framework that identifies potential reasons (implicit boundaries) and solutions (boundary-breaking opportunities); we illustrate this framework with an example; we discuss additional reasons solutions and examples in small groups moderated by the organizers; we summarize these discussions in plenary.

Forum Consumer Health and Medical Decision Making: 2020 and Beyond

Chairs: Dipankar Chakravarti, Virginia Tech, USA Haiyang Yang, Johns Hopkins University, USA Meng Zhu, Johns Hopkins University, USA

Presenters: Angela Y. Lee, Northwestern University, USA Anirban Mukhopadhyay, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China Brent McFerran, Simon Fraser University, Canada Carey K. Morewedge, Boston University, USA Dawn Iacobucci, Vanderbilt University, USA Jeff Inman, University of Pittsburgh, USA Leonard Lee, National University of Singapore, Singapore Peggy Liu, University of Pittsburgh, USA Pierre Chandon, INSEAD, France Priya Raghubir, New York University, USA Punam Keller, Dartmouth College, USA Ronald Paul Hill, American University, USA Stacy Wood, North Carolina State University, USA Vikas Mittal, Rice University, USA

The global health landscape has been changing rapidly. This has created the need for a new integrated perspective on consumer-relevant health topics through the lens of psychology marketing and economics. This roundtable will discuss emerging topics methodological approaches and future directions on consumer health and medical decision-making. 1250 / Forum Summaries Forum Shedding Light on the Invisibles: Extending Consumer Theories, Methods, and Insights to Include Financially Vulnerable Consumers

Chairs: Gergana Y. Nenkov, Boston College, USA Linda Court Salisbury, Boston College, USA

Participants: Simon Blanchard, Georgetown University, USA Fred Feinberg, University of Michigan, USA Ronald Paul Hill, American University, USA Nina Mazar, Boston University, USA Martin Mende, Florida State University, USA Nailya Ordabayeva, Boston College, USA Julie L. Ozanne, University of Melbourne, Australia Maura Scott, Florida State University, USA Abigail Sussman, University of Chicago, USA Remi Trudel, Boston University, USA Nancy Wong, University of Wisconsin - Madison, USA Min Zhao, Boston College, USA

This interactive knowledge forum focuses on financially vulnerable consumer segments frequently excluded from financial decision- making research (e.g. low-income consumers unbanked or underbanked credit invisibles). Participants will discuss how consumer researchers can enhance theories models and participant samples to be more inclusive of financially vulnerable consumers and improve their financial well-being.

Forum Bringing Consumer Culture Theoretics to Policy Debate

Chairs: Eric Arnould, Aalto University, Finland Søren Tollestrup Askegaard, University of Southern Denmark, Denmark Guliz Ger, Bilkent University, Turkey

This roundtable aims at providing a platform for discussing strategies for knowledge dissemination pertaining to consumer research in particular consumer culture theoretics and transformative consumer research for better policy-making concerning governance of consumption-related issues in relation to social and environmental sustainability.

Forum M-Turk is dying . Don’t die with it . An interactive workshop on collecting data from more difficult and interesting sources.

Chair: Broderick Lee Turner, Virginia Tech, USA

Should we all stop collecting data on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk? It is rife with problems including non-naivety bot-panics fraudulent responses and bored workers. This knowledge forum provides some fun exercises to help researchers old and new wean themselves from their M-Turk habit and consider some alternatives data collection methods. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1251 Forum Shining a Light on Maladaptive Consumption: The Journey so Far and the Roads Less Traveled

Chairs: Meryl P. Gardner, University of Delaware, USA Caroline Roux, Concordia University, Canada Shailendra Pratap Jain, University of Washington, USA

Participants: Paul M Connell, Stony Brook University, USA Brennan Davis, California Polytechnic State University, USA Benét DeBerry-Spence, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA Pamela Scholder Ellen, Georgia State University, USA Paula Fitzgerald, West Virginia University, USA Marcia Flicker, Fordham University, USA Michael Kamins, Claremont Graduate University, USA Peggy Liu, University of Pittsburgh, USA Ingrid Martin, California State University Long Beach, USA Marlys Mason, Oklahoma State University, USA Hieu Nguyen, California State University Long Beach, USA Carly Pacanowski, University of Delaware, USA Janis Pappalardo, USA Federal Trade Commission, USA Martin Reimann, University of Arizona, USA Ainslie Schultz, Providence College, USA Christine Skubisz, University of Delaware, USA Jerome Williams, Rutgers University, USA

This interactive session will bring together researchers representing various paradigms methods and approaches to studying maladaptive consumption and ACR attendees interested in investigating the topic. We will assess the main questions studied in the literature in order to identify issues that have received less attention and develop cross-paradigmatic collaborations.

Forum Field Experiments: A Practical Tutorial

Chairs: Rajesh Chandy, London Business School, UK Stephen Anderson, Stanford University, USA Praveen Kumar Kopalle, Dartmouth College, USA

This tutorial will address practical aspects of planning and executing field experiments. We will use examples of successful and failed research projects to illustrate a toolkit for field experiments. We will then engage in a facilitated discussion of ways to apply the toolkit to participants’ research questions. 1252 / Forum Summaries Author Index

Auschaitrakul, Sumitra ...... 1182, 1204 Bhatt, Siddharth ...... 1241, 1241 A Ayala, Edgardo ...... 256 Bhattacharjee, Amit ...... 902, 902 Aaker, Jennifer ...... 1221 Aydinli, Aylin ...... 422 Bhoumik, Kshitij ...... 1185 Abe, Makoto ...... 11 Aydinoglu, Nilufer Z...... 266 Bido, Diógenes ...... 1227 Abi, Gulen Sarial ...... 749 Bigne, Enrique ...... 1201 Abilova, Almira ...... 1181 Bilgin, Baler ...... 216 Aboelenien, Aya . . . . 177, 179, 1181, 1181 B Biller, Miriam ...... 218 Abreu, Luis ...... 181 Babin, Barry J...... 469 Biraglia, Alessandro . . . . 1048, 1182, 1195 Acar, Oguz A...... 183 Badot, Olivier ...... 1027 Bischof, Severin Friedrich . . . . . 220, 648 Achar, Chethana ...... 936 Bae, Hankyul ...... 1182 Biswas, Dipayan ...... 1185 Adaval, Rashmi ...... 1216 Baek, Elisa C...... 891 Bitterly, T. Bradford ...... 930 Adler, Susanne ...... 186 Baek, Eunsoo ...... 1032, 1183 Bittner, Samantha ...... 222 Affinito, Sal ...... 968 Bagchi, Rajesh . . . 486, 576, 661, 788, 1237 Blair, Sean ...... 913, 1000 Agarwal, James ...... 1191 Bagga, Charan K ...... 202 Blanchard, Simon ...... 1250 Agrawal, Nidhi ...... 269, 698, 936 Bagozzi, Richard P...... 1237 Bodur, H. Onur ...... 1194 Aguirre-Rodriguez, Alexandra . . . . . 1230 Bakpayev, Marat ...... 836, 836 Boegershausen, Johannes . . . . .1052, 1086 Äijälä, Mikko ...... 1245 Ballantyne, Anne Gammelgaard . . . . . 134 Boettger, Tim M...... 220, 461 Airoldi, Massimo ...... 635 Banerjee, Pramit ...... 432 Bogard, Jon ...... 943 Aka, Ada ...... 825, 1139 Barasch, Alixandra ...... 902, 994, 1223 Bogard, Jonathan E...... 223 Akaka, Melissa Archpru . . . . . 1069, 1183 Bardhi, Fleura ...... 1249 Boistel, Philippe ...... 488 Akamatsu, Naoki ...... 1181 Barnea, Uri ...... 1091 Boller, Daniel ...... 1185 Akdevelioglu, Duygu ...... 874 Barnes, Aaron J...... 203, 1183 Bolton, Lisa E...... 792 Akponah, Precious O...... 16 Barnhart, Michelle ...... 1106 Bone, Sterling ...... 324 Albuquerque, Paulo ...... 891 Barros, Lucia S. G...... 207 Bonezzi, Andrea ...... 408, 1011, 1165 Algesheimer, René . . . . . 250, 1186, 1235 Bartsch, Fabian ...... 1226 Bonsu, Samuel K...... 227 Alhanouti, Roua ...... 1181 Basil, Debra Z ...... 1189 Borges, Adilson ...... 1238 Alinaghian, Leila ...... 608 Basílio, Roberta Gabriela ...... 205 Botelho, Delane . .207, 1183, 1185, 1210, 1210, Alman, Sophie ...... 949 Baskentli, Sara ...... 1183 1222, 1227 Alves, Catia Carvalheiro ...... 1182 Batista, Juliana M...... 207, 1183 Botti, Simona ...... 1249 Alves, Hans ...... 335 Baudet, Alex Paul ...... 177 Bourgeon-Renault, Dominique . . . . . 1220 Amine, Abdelmajid ...... 81 Baumgartner, Hans ...... 374, 381 Bouwer, Anna ...... 1185 Amir, Ofra ...... 1195 Baxter, Weston ...... 778 Boyd, Eric ...... 293 Amir, On ...... 1155 Bechwati, Nada Nasr ...... 1236 Bracher, Martina ...... 1223 Amornpan, Suwakitti ...... 1245 Becker, Joshua ...... 842 Bradford, Tonya ...... 1069 Anderson, Kelley Cours ...... 188 Becker, Larissa Carine Braz ...... 1183 Bradford, Tonya Williams ...... 1118 Anderson, Stephen ...... 1251 Beisecker, Christopher ...... 402 Brakus, J. Josko ...... 1182 Ando, Kazuyo ...... 1230 Bekk, Magdalena ...... 406 Brakus, J. Joṣko ...... 1048 Andrade, Eduardo B...... 606, 760 Belaid, Ons ...... 1184 Brand, Matthias ...... 1224 Andriuzzi, Andria ...... 190 Belk, Russ ...... 639 Brei, Vinicius Andrade ...... 580 Angle, Justin ...... 954 Belk, Russell ...... 836, 987 Brendl, Miguel ...... 535 Anin, Camille ...... 21, 192 Belk, Russell W...... 173, 209, 506, 1248 Brick, Danielle ...... 847 Anlamlier, Eda ...... 194 Benartzi, Shlomo ...... 1064, 1101 Brick, Danielle J...... 230 Aquino, Karl ...... 101 Bencze, Máté ...... 1245 Briers, Barbara ...... 851 Aragón, Oriana Rachel ...... 1182, 1220 Bendle, Neil ...... 202, 825 Brito, Eliane Zamith ...... 331 Arechar, Antonio A...... 863 Bennett, Delancy ...... 212 Broniarczyk, Susan ...... 1222 Arens, Zachary ...... 434 Bentsen, Kristin ...... 1184 Bruckdorfer, Raphaela Elisabeth . . . . 1186 Argenbright, Keith ...... 1129 Berg, Hanna ...... 1184 Bruggmann, Anja ...... 1223 Argo, Jennifer ...... 1204 Berger, Jonah ...... 930, 981, 1247 Brunk, Katja H...... 47 Ariely, Dan ...... 1194 Berger, Katja ...... 1184 Bruno, Hernán A...... 616 Arnould, Eric ...... 1250 Bergner, Anouk ...... 214 Bryksina, Olya ...... 232, 234 Arnould, Eric J ...... 196 Berman, Jonathan Z...... 1096 Brylla, Daniel Erik ...... 1186 Arora, Sunny ...... 1182 Berman, Jonathan Zev ...... 568, 958 Bublitz, Andrea ...... 1186 Arsel, Zeynep ...... 179, 874 Bermes, Alena ...... 1184, 1185 Bucher, Jan-Hendrik ...... 31 Ashby, Rhys ...... 198 Bernard, Anna ...... 443 Budescu, David ...... 842 Ashkenazi, Amit ...... 1155 Berry, Christopher ...... 1196 Buechel, Eva C...... 236 Asif, Esra ...... 1182 Berry, Emily ...... 1129 Buechner, Bryan ...... 238 Askanius, Tina ...... 753 Beruchashvili, Mariam ...... 1184, 1214 Buechner, Bryan M...... 936 Askegaard, Søren Tollestrup ...... 1250 Besharat, Ali ...... 1160 Bulusu, Padma ...... 314 Atalay, A. Selin ...... 831 Beshears, John ...... 1101 Burghartz, Pia ...... 857 Atanasova, Aleksandrina ...... 200 Bettany, Shona ...... 1221 Burson, Katherine ...... 299 Atasoy, Ozgun ...... 535 Beverland, Michael ...... 368 Busquet, Francesc ...... 831 Atik, Deniz ...... 262 Bhatia, Sudeep ...... 825, 825, 1139 Büttner, Ana Julia ...... 1186 Aufschnaiter, Christiane ...... 26 Büttner, Oliver B...... 1186, 1205, 1224

Byrne, Derek ...... 1220 Chen, Tianqi ...... 280 Dagalp, Ileyha ...... 47 Chen, Wei-Fen ...... 1188, 1188 Dahl, Darren ...... 183, 1006, 1247 Chen, Yifan ...... 1199 Dahl, Darren W...... 1165 C Chen, Yi-Jing ...... 271 Dai, Hengchen ...... 1101 Cabugao, Amanda ...... 1194 Chen, Yunqing ...... 278 Dai, Xianchi ...... 687 Cadario, Romain ...... 1124 Chen, Yu-Shan Athena ...... 1188 Dallolio, Adriana Schneider ...... 331 Cai, Fengyan ...... 1224 Chen, Zoey ...... 1247 Dalmoro, Marlon ...... 1245 Cailluet, Ludovic ...... 610 Cheng, Yin-Hui ...... 1189 Dalton, Amy ...... 1208 Cambier, Fanny ...... 240 Cheng, Yuan ...... 350 Dam, Christian ...... 1191 Campana, Mario ...... 244, 246 Chernev, Alexander ...... 913 Dang, Chu (Ivy) ...... 480 Campbell, Margaret C...... 248 Chernishenko, Jennifer ...... 1189 Danienta, Nadia ...... 295 Candrian, Cindy ...... 250 Chi, Yunjia ...... 1189 Danziger, Shai ...... 1022 Canniff, Miranda ...... 1200 Chien, Yi-Wen ...... 1189 Darke, Peter ...... 1202 Canniford, Robin ...... 1112, 1198, 1230 Chimenti, Paula ...... 66 Darriet, Camille ...... 1232 Cannon, Christopher ...... 252, 254 Cho, Byung Geun ...... 907 Das, Gopal ...... 1017, 1191 Cao, Edita ...... 722 Choi, Incheol ...... 1038 Daskalopoulou, Athanasia ...... 168 Capone, Aline Delmanto ...... 1186 Choi, Jungsil ...... 285 Davidson, Martin ...... 1200 Cappelli, Sonia ...... 1184 Chong, Chooi Ling ...... 38 Davis, Brennan ...... 1251 Cárdenas, Diana M...... 256 Choueiki, Ziad ...... 1189 de Bellis, Emanuel . .393, 651, 851, 857, 1052 Cardoso, Flavia ...... 301, 1186 Chow, Ai Ming ...... 177 De Bondt, Caroline ...... 225 Carnevale, Marina ...... 1240 Christandl, Fabian ...... 287 de Fortuny, Enric Junqué ...... 981 Carroll, William Ryall ...... 362 Christensen, Kate ...... 868 de Hooge, Ilona E...... 348, 720 Carvalho, Lilian ...... 1187 Christenson, Brett ...... 746 de Kerviler, Gwarlann ...... 449 Cascio, Christopher N...... 1231 Chrysochou, Polymeros ...... 1194 De La Rosa, Wendy ...... 1221 Caserotti, Marta ...... 1187 Chu, Charlene K...... 1038 De La Rosa, Wendy J...... 1064 Casey, Katherine ...... 1187 Chuang, Shih-Chieh ...... 1189 de lanauze, Gilles Séré ...... 1225 Casotti, Leticia M...... 126 Chun, Helen ...... 1032 de Luca, Ramona . . . . . 1185, 1210, 1210 Casotti, Leticia Moreira ...... 148 Chung, JungHan ...... 1190 de Maya, Salvador Ruiz ...... 857 Cassinger, Cecilia ...... 1187 Chung, Sorim ...... 289 de Rojas, Isadora Matsuda Sanchez . . . 1027 Castaño, Raquel ...... 256, 1080 Clair, Julian K Saint ...... 1231 de Ruyter, Ko ...... 322 Castelo, Noah ...... 1052, 1165 Clarkson, Joshua J...... 238, 936 De Temmerman, Joyce ...... 1229 Catapano, Rhia ...... 1086 Claus, Bart ...... 291 DeBerry-Spence, Benét . . . 1118, 1191, 1251 Cavusoglu, Lena ...... 262 Clegg, Melanie ...... 1052 DeCelles, Katy ...... 1170 Celik, Hazal ...... 1230 Cleret, Baptiste ...... 1245 Del Bucchia, Céline ...... 1106 Cerio, Eva ...... 264 Clergue, Valentina ...... 1190 Delannoy, Arnaud ...... 1230 Ceylan, Gizem ...... 863, 1017 Cocker, Hayley ...... 1220 Dellaert, Benedict ...... 1196 Ceylan, Melis ...... 266, 1198 Cole, Catherine ...... 1206 Dellande, Stephanie ...... 1200 Chae, Boyoun Grace ...... 1225 Collet, Boris ...... 1245 Demangeot, Catherine ...... 449 Chae, Rebecca ...... 1011 Collins, Hanne ...... 1017 Demirdag, Ipek ...... 297, 868 Chai, Shaowei ...... 1187 Connell, Paul M ...... 1251 Deng, Zhongzhun ...... 1191 Chaker, Fadwa ...... 227 Consiglio, Irene ...... 248, 1182 Derbaix, Maud ...... 1220 Chakravarti, Dipankar . . . . .918, 918, 1249 Conte, Leonardo ...... 1190 Deshpande, Sameer ...... 346 Chan, Cindy ...... 1134 Cordeiro, Rafaela Almeida ...... 205 Desmichel, Perrine ...... 1191 Chan, Elaine ...... 851 Corengia, Michele ...... 1190, 1245 Dewaguet, Vincent ...... 1246 Chan, Eugene ...... 1196, 1197 Cornelissen, Gert ...... 1218 Dewitte, Siegfried ...... 303 Chan, Raymond ...... 1220 Corus, Canan ...... 624 Diamantopoulos, Adamantios ...... 1192 Chandon, Pierre ...... 1124, 1249 Coslor, Erica ...... 1232 Dias, Rodrigo ...... 930 Chandy, Rajesh ...... 1251 Cossu, Martina ...... 1170 Dickinson, Sonia ...... 104 Chaney, Damien ...... 514 Costa-Migeon, Sandrine ...... 305, 316 DiCosola, Blake ...... 1124 Chang, Chia-Chi ...... 1187 Cotte, June ...... 370, 790 Diehl, Kristin ...... 1017 Chang, Chia-Han ...... 271 Coulter, Robin ...... 717 Dietvorst, Berkeley J...... 1091, 1155 Chang, Chun-Tuan ...... 271 Coulter, Robin A...... 1224 Dimofte, Claudiu V...... 190 Chang, En-Chung ...... 1238 Coussi, Olivier ...... 1246 Ding, Yu ...... 863 Chang, Sylvia S...... 269, 974 Cowan, Kirsten ...... 293 Djedidi, Amina ...... 52, 1192 Chang, Yaping ...... 1187, 1206 Critcher, Clayton R ...... 1248 do Vale, Rita Coelho ...... 443, 1231 Chartrand, Tanya ...... 1150, 1150 Crockett, David ...... 1248 Doering, Tim P...... 299 Chartrand, Tanya L...... 1086 Crolic, Cammy ...... 216 Dogra, Unnati ...... 1182 Chatzidakis, Andreas ...... 272 Cruz, Angela Gracia B...... 1186 Dolbec, Pierre-Yann ...... 874 Cheema, Amar ...... 1193 Cryder, Cynthia . . . . 1064, 1198, 1227, 1240 Dolifka, David ...... 1192 Chen, Charlene Y ...... 275 Cui, Nan ...... 790 Dommer, Sara Loughran ...... 963, 1006 Chen, Frances ...... 1017 Czellar, Sandor ...... 86, 90, 1190 Donkers, Bas ...... 1196 Chen, Jia ...... 799, 1191 Donnelly, Grant E...... 913, 968 Chen, Ning ...... 283 Donskoy, Raquel ...... 301 Chen, Rong ...... 1224 D Doré , Bruce P...... 891 Chen, Rui ...... 1209 D’Angelo, Jennifer ...... 1058 Drenten, Jenna ...... 874, 880 Chen, Shiyun ...... 1188 da Costa Tayt-son, Débora Bogéa . . . . .148 du Plessis, Christilene ...... 588 Chen, Siyun ...... 1188 Dach, Ofer Dekel ...... 1190 Du, Jessie ...... 1011 Chen, Stephanie ...... 1239 Dachs, Ofer Dekel ...... 43 Duan, Shen ...... 1192 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1255

Duani, Nofar ...... 902 Feldberg, Alexandra ...... 1170 Gaviria, Pilar Ximena Rojas ...... 1186 Dubois, David ...... 86, 588 Feng, Wenting ...... 1193 Ge, Lin ...... 438, 1194 Duclos, Rod ...... 673, 676 Ferguson, Graham ...... 104 Genevsky, Alexander ...... 891 Duffy, Katherine ...... 246, 683 Fernandes, Daniel ...... 328, 404 Ger, Guliz ...... 1250 Dugue, Tatianna ...... 1200 Fernbach, Philip M...... 1208 Gerhart, Jana-Verena ...... 1195 Duhachek, Adam ...... 936, 1248 Ferraz, Sofia Batista ...... 1212 Gerrath, Maximilian H. E. E...... 1195 Durante, Kristina ...... 1124 Ferreira, Daniela ...... 66 Gershoff, Andrew D...... 299 Durif, Fabien ...... 1196 Ferreira, Marcia Christina ...... 331, 333 Gershon, Rachel ...... 958, 1064, 1096 Durso, Geoffrey R. O...... 994 Ferreira, Maura ...... 1193 Geuens, Maggie . . . . 225, 1189, 1213, 1232 Dyen, Margot ...... 305, 1225 Festjens, Anouk ...... 398, 400 Geyskens, Kelly ...... 667 Figueiredo, Bernardo ...... 331 Ghaffari, Mahsa ...... 1195 Fischer, Arnout R.H...... 348 Ghosh, Anastasiya Pocheptsova .414, 525, 1038, E Fischer, Eileen ...... 1, 1118, 1184, 1249 1248 Eagar, Toni ...... 1192 Fishbach, Ayelet ...... 628, 949 Ghosh, Bikram ...... 1069 Ebrahimi, Mahdi ...... 1192, 1199 Fitzgerald, Paula ...... 1251 Ghoshal, Tanuka ...... 560 Eckhardt, Giana ...... 200, 272 Fitzsimons, Gavan . 847, 930, 1220, 1227, 1242 Gier, Nadine ...... 891 Eckhardt, Giana M...... 482 Fitzsimons, Gavan J...... 1086 Giesler, Markus ...... 1248 Eckles, Dean ...... 863 Fleury, Fernando A...... 1185 Gilad, Zohar ...... 1195 Eckmann, Lisa ...... 308 Flicker, Marcia ...... 1251 Gill, Tripat ...... 1195 Edinger-Schons, Laura-Marie ...... 379 Florack, Arnd ...... 335, 1192 Gillespie, Brian ...... 362 Eelen, Jiska ...... 291 Ford, John B...... 602 Gilovich, Tom ...... 1038 Effron, Daniel A...... 1096 Fotheringham, Darima ...... 337 Gino, Francesca ...... 1017 Egger, Martin ...... 1192 Fox, Craig R...... 943 Giuffredi-Kähr, Andrea ...... 974 Eichinger, Isabel ...... 857 Frank, Darius-Aurel ...... 1194 Giurge, Laura M...... 365 Ein-Gar, Danit ...... 494 Franke, Nikolaus ...... 857 Givi, Julian ...... 367 Ekpo, Akon E...... 1118 Franzen, Léon ...... 1194 Gloukhovtsev, Alexei ...... 1206, 1223 Eksell, Jörgen ...... 1187 Fridman, Ariel ...... 1096 Gneezy, Ayelet ...... 1129 El Hazzouri, Mohammed ...... 1232 Friedmann ...... 339 Godefroit-Winkel, Delphine ...... 1106 El Kihal, Siham ...... 831 Friedrich, Goetz ...... 825 Gohary, Ali ...... 1196 El-Bialy, Rowan ...... 310 Fritz, William ...... 1248 Goksel, Selin ...... 958, 958 Elder, Ryan ...... 471 Fritze, Martin P ...... 1194 Goldsmith, Kelly ...... 1193, 1212 Ellen, Pamela Scholder ...... 1251 Fröberg, Emelie ...... 463 Goldszmidt, Rafael ...... 760 Ellsaesser, Florian ...... 831 Fuchs, Christoph ...... 183, 1052 Golf-Papez, Maja ...... 368 Elmoukhliss, Mehdi ...... 1193 Fuchs, Klaus ...... 1214 Gollnhofer, Johanna ...... 31, 987 Elshiewy, Ossama ...... 312 Fuchs, Matthias ...... 340 Gonçalves, Dilney ...... 814 Emontspool, Julie ...... 57 Fukuda, Reo ...... 1181 Gong, Xiushuang ...... 1234 Emrich, Oliver ...... 1195 Fulmer, Alexander G...... 342, 614 Gonzales, Gabriel E...... 1196 Engeler, Isabelle ...... 740 Fulmer, Alexander Goldklank ...... 1032 González, Pilar Castro ...... 874 Engeset, Marit ...... 1197, 1231 Fulvio-Mason, Olivia ...... 1194 Goode, Miranda R...... 370 Epley, Nicholas ...... 968 Funk, Gabriela ...... 1080 Goodman, Joseph K...... 1038 Epstein, Ziv ...... 863 Fürst, Andreas ...... 522 Goodwin, Geoff ...... 863 Erevelles, Sunil ...... 314 Goodyear, Laura ...... 372, 1225 Errmann, Amy ...... 1193 Goor, Dafna ...... 847, 896, 968, 1006 Eslan, Camille ...... 316 G Gorbaniuk, Oleg ...... 1204 Esteky, Sina ...... 1193 Gaerth, Maximilian ...... 344, 562 Gordeliy, Ivan ...... 1247 Estes, Zachary . . . . . 318, 412, 1170, 1211 Gaertig, Celia ...... 886, 958, 1091 Gorge, Helene ...... 610 Etkin, Jordan ...... 181, 1101 Gaeth, Gary ...... 1188 Gorissen, Karen ...... 374 Euh, Hyun ...... 389, 1197 Gaffney, Amber ...... 1237 Gorji, Paniz ...... 1196 Evangelidis, Ioannis . . . 886, 949, 949, 1022 Gal, David ...... 254, 398 Goss, R Justin ...... 1196 Evans, Sarah ...... 62 Gallage, Samanthika ...... 346 Gottschalk, Sabrina ...... 548 Evers, Ellen R. K...... 902 Gallo, Iñigo ...... 1038 Goukens, Caroline ...... 398, 400, 667 Gamlin, Jessica ...... 230 Gourmelen, Andréa ...... 633 Gao, Cheng ...... 1201 Govind, Rahul ...... 974 F Gao, Fei ...... 350 Grace, Sarah ...... 1196 Gao, Huachao ...... 352 Grant, Annetta ...... 987, 1112 Fajardo, Tatiana M...... 1150 Granulo, Armin ...... 1052 Fajardo, Tatiana Marie ...... 222 Gao, Leilei ...... 278, 816 Gao, Randy Y...... 886 Grappe, Cindy ...... 1196 Falk, Emily B ...... 1231 Graul, Antje ...... 502 Falk, Emily B...... 891 Gao, Xin ...... 348 García-Rosell, José-Carlos ...... 1245 Greenacre, Luke ...... 1197 Falk, Tomas ...... 1206, 1223 Grewal, Dhruv ...... 322, 836 Fan, Linying (Sophie) ...... 320 Gardner, Meryl P...... 1251 Garg, Nitika ...... 974 Grewal, Lauren ...... 1058 Fan, Yafeng ...... 1193 Griffin, Dale ...... 1091 Fang, Hejin ...... 1237 Garnier, Marion ...... 1230 Gaston-Breton, Charlotte ...... 354, 490 Grillo, Tito L. H...... 1032 Fang, Xiang ...... 1242 Grinstein, Amir ...... 836, 896, 1247 Farace, Stefania ...... 322 Gathen, Constanze ...... 72 Gatter, Shirin ...... 357 Grohmann, Bianca ...... 1194, 1236 Faro, David ...... 958 Grønhøj, Alice ...... 600, 1221, 1226 Fehl, Amy Greiner ...... 324 Gaur, Sanjaya Singh ...... 766 Gaustad, Tarje ...... 359 Grønseth, Bjørn Ove ...... 1205 Fei, Lin ...... 326, 1091, 1155 Groth, O. H...... 1074 Feinberg, Fred ...... 1250 Gaviria, Pilar Rojas ...... 1106 1256 / Author Index

Gruen, Adèle ...... 244, 1214 Hedgcock, William ...... 868 Hyodo, Jamie D...... 1058 Guèvremont, Amélie ...... 1196 Heitmann, Mark ...... 831, 1212 Hyun, Hyowon ...... 1199 Guilbeault, Douglas ...... 842 Helme-Guizon, Agnès ...... 192 Hyun, Na Kyong ...... 907 Guillard, Valérie ...... 377 Hemetsberger, Andrea ...... 121 Hӓubl, Gerald ...... 1175 Gullo, Kelley ...... 847 Henkel, Alex ...... 1052 Gunadi, Manissa P...... 1022 Herd, Kelly B...... 614 Güntürkün, Pascal ...... 379 Herrmann, Andreas ...... 393 I Guo, Bingxuan ...... 1197 Hershfield, Hal ...... 1064 Iacobucci, Dawn ...... 1249 Guo, Leilei ...... 1207 Herter, Márcia Maurer ...... 1212 Ibrahim, Nahid ...... 1175 Guo, Yafei ...... 1197 Herziger, Atar ...... 913 Iesue, Joseph ...... 1187 Guo, Zhaoyang ...... 1209 Herzog, Walter ...... 402, 657 Ikonen, Iina ...... 422 Gupta, Samir ...... 1129 Heuvinck, Nico ...... 1229 Inbar, Yoel ...... 902 Gurova, Olga ...... 554 Higgins, Matthew ...... 16 Ince, Elise Chandon ...... 414, 661 Györke, Mariann ...... 324 Hildebrand, Christian . . 214, 831, 1011, 1052, Inman, J. Jeffrey ...... 981 1074, 1185, 1248 Inman, Jeff ...... 1249 Hildebrand, Diogo ...... 404 Inman, Jeffrey ...... 1247 H Hiler, Jacob Lee ...... 1245, 1245 Isaac, Mathew S...... 425, 486, 1017 Ha, Young-Won ...... 1190 Hill, Ronald Paul ...... 1248, 1249, 1250 Isaac, Matthew ...... 851 Haanpää, Minni ...... 1245 Hill, Tim ...... 1198 Ishii, Hiroaki ...... 1199, 1219 Haasova, Simona ...... 335, 1190 Hinze, Tobias ...... 406 Isisag, Anil ...... 1112 Habib, Rishad ...... 101 Hirt, Edward R...... 936 Iyengar, Raghuram ...... 681 Hackley, Chris ...... 1027 Ho, Ming-Shen ...... 786, 936 Izadi, Anoosha ...... 1192, 1199 Hackley, Rungpaka Amy ...... 1027 Hoang, Chi ...... 930 Hadar, Liat ...... 544, 1022 Hoffman, Donna L...... 918, 1248, 1249 Haderdauer, Ann-Kathrin ...... 1195 Hoffmann, Stefan ...... 1205 J Hofmann, Eva ...... 94 Hadi, Rhonda ...... 1074, 1248 Jaakkola, Elina ...... 1183 Hafeez, Ajmal ...... 1197 Hofstetter, Reto ...... 1052, 1080 Hogg, Margaret K...... 1106 Jacob, Jorge Rodrigues ...... 1200 Hagerty, Serena ...... 902 Jacob, Pradeep ...... 427 HaghighiBardineh, SeyedNasir . . . .673, 676 Hogg, Margaret Kathleen ...... 1220 Holmqvist, Jonas ...... 1194 Jagadale, Sujit Raghunathrao ...... 1118 Hair, Michael ...... 570 Jain, Shailendra Pratap . . 738, 851, 974, 1251 Halevy, Nir ...... 847 Holthoewer, Jana ...... 1052 Hong, Jennifer Seokhwa ...... 408, 410 Jang, Eunyoung ...... 432, 434 Halkias, Georgios ...... 381, 1192 Jang, Hyunkyu ...... 430 Hall, Matthew J...... 383, 1134 Hong, Soonkwan ...... 1198 Hong, Ying-yi ...... 1188 Jang, Minkwang ...... 1064 Hall, Matthew James ...... 1058 Jang, Wonseok ...... 769 Hamilton, Mitchell ...... 212, 1231 Hou, Yuansi ...... 1198 Hovy, Dirk ...... 981 Janiszewski, Chris ...... 769, 857, 1022 Hamilton, Rebecca ...... 1144 Jarrier, Elodie ...... 1220 Hammerschmidt, Maik ...... 657 Howard, Chuck ...... 372, 925 Howard, Ray Charles “Chuck” . . . . . 1091 Jasinenko, Anna ...... 287 Hampton, William ...... 1074 Jaufenthaler, Philipp ...... 436 Han, Eunha ...... 1197 Howe, Holly ...... 930, 1150 Howe, Holly S ...... 1217 Jemison, Courtney ...... 1069 Han, Eunjoo ...... 385 Jeon, Seongun ...... 1200 Han, Hyerin ...... 389, 1197 Hoyer, Wayne D...... 974 Hsee, Christopher ...... 1207 Jeong, Haeyoung ...... 1241, 1241 Han, Jerry J...... 907 Jia, He (Michael) ...... 438, 907, 1242 Han, Yegyu ...... 578, 918 Hsee, Christopher K...... 886 Hsu, Jen-Hsien ...... 77 Jiang, Jing . 1193, 1233, 1233, 1234, 1234, 1234 Handelman, Jay ...... 987, 1219 Jiang, Lan ...... 1200 Hang, Haiming ...... 391 Hu, Yansong ...... 1242 Hu, Yu (Jeffrey) ...... 350 Jiang, Yiran ...... 790 Hao, Xianyu ...... 1197 Jiang, Yuwei .320, 500, 1198, 1225, 1225, 1229, Hardisty, David ...... 1091 Huang, Der-Wei ...... 896, 936 Huang, Junhui ...... 1199 1238 Harman, Brian ...... 43 Jin, Fei ...... 440 Harnish, Elana ...... 1245 Huang, Li ...... 1189, 1199, 1240 Huang, Liang ...... 414 Jin, Jia ...... 1210 Hartl, Barbara ...... 94 Jin, Liyin ...... 685 Hartman, Anna E ...... 1232 Huang, Mei ...... 1199 Huang, Szu-chi . . . . 1043, 1129, 1155, 1248 Jin, Yufang ...... 1200 Hartman, Anna E...... 1118 Jinjun, Yu ...... 1200 Hartmann, Benjamin Julien ...... 47 Huang, Xun (Irene) ...... 500, 1228 Huang, Yanliu ...... 1216 Joe, Gladstone ...... 825 Hartmann, Jochen ...... 214, 831 Johar, Gita ...... 1248 Hartmann, Maximilian Alexander . . . . 1184 Huang, Zhihong ...... 1183 Huber, Joel ...... 1247 Johar, Gita V...... 851, 863, 1043, 1043 Hasenmaile-Aspin, Johanna ...... 393 John, Deborah Roedder ...... 631, 1000 Hassan, Louise May ...... 1213, 1213 Huh, Young Eun ...... 418, 851 Humayun, Mariam ...... 987 John, Leslie ...... 1080 Hattat, Ahmet M ...... 570 Johnson, Aaron P...... 1194 Häubl, Gerald . 340, 857, 943, 963, 1165, 1232 Humphreys, Ashlee . . . . . 918, 1017, 1247 Hung, Wei-Ken ...... 1188 Jones, Aziza Caimile ...... 1124 Haumann, Till ...... 379 Jones, Hunter ...... 1201 Hawa, Sarah ...... 1182 Hur, Elina Yewon ...... 1175 Husemann, Katharina ...... 272 Jounaid, Anis ...... 81 Haws, Kelly ...... 644, 1212 Jr., Robert Wyer ...... 1224 Haws, Kelly L...... 994, 1160 Husemann, Katharina C...... 200 Hussein, Mohamed A...... 943, 1129 Juma, Stephen ...... 1201 Hayran, Ceren ...... 1198 Jun, Sunkyu ...... 642 He, Daniel ...... 395 Hussein, Mohamed Ayman ...... 1155 Hütte, Carina Sophia ...... 1242 Jung, Minah ...... 949, 1144 He, Dongjin ...... 1198, 1225 Jung, Minah H...... 886, 1022 He, Yun ...... 1208 Hüttl-Maack, Verena ...... 357, 420 Huynh, Denny ...... 1220 Jung, Suyeon ...... 457 Healey, Patrick Matthew ...... 1198 Jung, Wonsuk ...... 868, 1201 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1257

Just, David R...... 1241 Kim, Yeonjeong ...... 842 Jüttner, Uta ...... 1223 Kim, Youngju ...... 1203 L Kimura, Junko ...... 108 L.Kettle, Keri ...... 963 Kim-Vick, Jihyun ...... 1203 Laamanen, Mikko ...... 482 K King, Dan ...... 1182, 1204 Labrecque, Lauren I ...... 1185, 1211 Labroo, Aparna ...... 1043 Kahn, Barbara E...... 1134 Kinsella, Elaine Louise ...... 749 Labroo, Aparna A ...... 1124 Kaiser, Ulrike ...... 857 Kireyev, Pavel ...... 831 Labroo, Aparna A...... 467, 525, 531 Kakaria, Shobhit ...... 1201 Kirk, Colleen P...... 624 Lages, Cristiana ...... 1229 Kakuda, Nakaya ...... 1200, 1201 Kizgin, Hatice ...... 143 Laghaie, Arash ...... 484 Kallmuenzer, Andreas ...... 618 Kleinlercher, Kristina ...... 461 Lähteenmäki, Liisa ...... 1226, 1226 Kamins, Michael ...... 1251 Klesse, Anne-Kathrin ...... 857 Lai, Ai-Ling ...... 16 Kamiya, Annaysa Salvador Muniz . . . . 1183 Kluger, Julia ...... 1242 Lai, Edward Yuhang ...... 486 Kamleitner, Bernadette ...... 1211, 1229 Knoferle, Klemens ...... 930, 1226 Lamberton, Cait ...... 803, 1248 Kan, Christina ...... 1022, 1204 Knutson, Brian ...... 891 Landgraf, Polina ...... 1205 Kaneko, Mitsuru ...... 11 Ko, Min Jeong ...... 1204 Landwehr, Jan R...... 308 Kang, Christine ...... 1201 Koch, Teresa ...... 335 Lapostolle, Mathilde ...... 659 Kang, In-Hye ...... 445, 1134 Kocher, Bruno ...... 86, 90 Laran, Juliano ...... 769 Kansal, Aparna ...... 447 Kogut, Tehila ...... 494 Laroutis, Dimitri ...... 488 Kapitan, Sommer ...... 1221 Kolanska, Magdalena ...... 1204 Larrick, Rick ...... 1227 Kapoor, Ankur ...... 764, 1245 Kolesova, Svetlana ...... 463 Lasaleta, Jannine ...... 404 Karachi, Hedieh ...... 1202 Koley, Shruti ...... 1204 Lasarov, Wassili ...... 1205 Karampela, Maria ...... 289 Koller, Monika ...... 1204 Lasri, Sarah ...... 1206 Karat, Ella ...... 954 Komarova, Yuliya ...... 1222 Lau-Gesk, Loraine ...... 1237, 1237 Kardas, Michael ...... 968 Konya-Baumbach, Elisa ...... 218 Laurent, Gilles ...... 86 Kardes, Frank ...... 954 Koo, K.B...... 1204 Laurin, Kristin ...... 943 Kassirer, Samantha ...... 958 Koo, Minjung ...... 1239 Lavrusheva, Olga ...... 1206 Katitas, Ayça ...... 618 Kopalle, Praveen Kumar ...... 1251 Leary, R. Bret ...... 1196 Kato, Bianca ...... 1202 Kordrostami, Elika ...... 602, 1221 LeBoeuf, Robyn ...... 1240 Katz, Daniel ...... 925 Koschate-Fischer, Nicole ...... 522, 524 Lee, Andrew ...... 1206 Kay, Aaron C...... 1086 Koskela-Huotari, Kaisa ...... 1215 Lee, Angela Y...... 1249 Kedzior, Richard ...... 880 Kößmeier, Christina ...... 1205 Lee, Chang-Yuan ...... 1101 Keh, Hean Tat ...... 1196, 1239 Kou, Sining ...... 1205 Lee, Christina Kwai Choi ...... 38 Keinan, Anat ...... 280, 847, 1006 Koulaei, Afra ...... 1205, 1205 Lee, Hsiao-Ching ...... 271 Kelleher, Carol ...... 582, 1106 Kousi, Sofia ...... 381 Lee, Hsin-Hsuan Meg ...... 490 Keller, Carolyn Wells ...... 1202 Kozinets, Robert ...... 1249 Lee, Hyun-Woo ...... 1218 Keller, Punam ...... 1249 Krabbe, Mathias Sosnowski ...... 1191 Lee, Jeff ...... 1247 Kenning, Peter ...... 1184, 1185 Krajbich, Ian ...... 693, 1139 Lee, Jeffrey ...... 981 Kermani, Saeid ...... 1202 Kralj, Sonja N...... 465 Lee, Kyoungmi ...... 1204 Kerns, Avery ...... 1245 Kraus, Florian ...... 344, 562 Lee, Leonard ...... 1249 Kerrigan, Finola ...... 797 Krause, Franziska ...... 857 Lee, Saerom ...... 385 Kettle, Keri L...... 963 Krause-Galoni, Rebecca J...... 467 Lee, Seojin Stacey ...... 1227 Khambatta, Poruz ...... 994 Kravets, Olga ...... 1106 Lee, Shinhyoung ...... 1218 Khamitov, Mansur . . . . 825, 974, 974, 1080 Krefeld-Schwalb, Antonia ...... 1139 Lee, Sujin ...... 453 Khan, Amna ...... 1220 Krekels, Goedele ...... 86, 90, 1191 Lee, Sunme ...... 1206 Khan, Jashim ...... 209 Krey, Nina ...... 469 Léger, Pierre-Majorique ...... 1227 Khan, Uzma ...... 913, 1248 Krijnen, Job M. T...... 943 Lehmann, Donald ...... 220, 1185, 1249 Khenfer, Jamel ...... 451 Krishna, Aradhna ...... 471 Lei, Jing ...... 755 Kidwell, Blair ...... 531 Krishnan, Shanker ...... 896 Leliveld, Marijke C...... 492 Kim, B. Kyu ...... 438, 907 Kristianto, Nathasya Pricilia B . . . . . 1219 Levav, Jonathan ...... 949 Kim, Claire Heeryung ...... 1203 Kristofferson, Kirk ...... 337, 690, 1058 Levin, Irwin ...... 1188 Kim, Dongyoup ...... 1199, 1202 Kronrod, Ann ...... 836, 954, 954, 1247 Levine, Emma ...... 958 Kim, Eunice ...... 1203 Krüger, Tinka ...... 1205 Levontin, Liat ...... 494, 1195 Kim, Hyoseok ...... 963 Kuester, Sabine ...... 218 Lewis, Joshua ...... 497 Kim, Junghyun ...... 1203 Kumar, Amit ...... 968 Li, Eric ...... 987 Kim, Junha ...... 453 Kumar, Smriti ...... 474 Li, Ran ...... 1207, 1207, 1229 Kim, Kihyun Hannah ...... 822, 1243 Kumbargeri, Amogh ...... 478, 974 Li, Ruiqin ...... 1207 Kim, Kyeongheui ...... 457, 868 Kunchamboo, Vimala ...... 38 Li, Ruoou ...... 236, 414 Kim, Minki ...... 1234 Kupor, Daniella ...... 943, 1043 Li, Shaobo (Kevin) ...... 500 Kim, Moon-Yong ...... 1202 Kurt, Didem ...... 1000 Li, Stella Yiyan ...... 502 Kim, Myung Joo ...... 1203 Kuruoglu, Alev ...... 1230 Li, Wei ...... 1206 Kim, Nicole ...... 896 Kutsch, Elmar ...... 608 Li, Xi ...... 825 Kim, Pureum ...... 1038 Kwak, Hyokjin ...... 808 Li, Xilin ...... 1207 Kim, Sahoon ...... 1203, 1203 Kwakman, Pascale ...... 1215 Li, Xitong ...... 350 Kim, Sara ...... 1234 Kwan, Canice M. C...... 480 Li, Yang ...... 981 Kim, Soo ...... 847 Kwon, Jaehwan ...... 576 Li, Yi ...... 198 Kim, Tami ...... 1170 Kwon, Junbum ...... 1203 Liang, Jianping ...... 1207 Kim, Yaeeun ...... 459 Kwong, Jessica Y. Y...... 1209 Liang, Shuyu ...... 1207, 1208 Kim, Yenee ...... 455 Liaukonyte, Jura ...... 1241 1258 / Author Index

Lichrou, Maria ...... 1187 MacInnis, Deborah ...... 1032, 1249 Meng, Matthew D...... 535, 1196 Lichtenstein, Donald ...... 1022 Maclaran, Pauline ...... 333, 1106 Menon, Geeta ...... 1129, 1214 Lieberman, Alicea ...... 958, 1129 Madan, Shilpa ...... 851, 1043 Merian, Sybilla ...... 1214 Light, Nicholas ...... 1208, 1208 Maehle, Natalia ...... 1211 Mesler, Rhiannon MacDonnell . . . 1189, 1225 Liljedal, Karina T...... 1184 Mafael, Alexander ...... 548 Messinger, Paul Richard ...... 1058 Lim, Sarah ...... 504, 1155 Magede, Thomas ...... 143, 1228 Meyer, Michael ...... 1155 Lima, Vitor M...... 506 Maheswaran, Durairaj ...... 851 Meyer, Robert ...... 1247, 1248 Lin, Chia Hua ...... 1187 Mai, Christoph ...... 522 Meyer-Waarden, Lars ...... 1219 Lin, Meng-Hsien (Jenny) . . . . . 762, 1215 Mai, Robert ...... 1205 Meynhardt, Timo ...... 287 Lin, Stephanie ...... 1124 Mai, Yixia ...... 518 Meyvis, Tom ...... 400, 1011 Lin, Stephanie C...... 994 Maiberger, Tobias ...... 524 Miao, Jin ...... 395 Lin, Wang ...... 1208 Maimaran, Michal ...... 525 Michał, Wilczewski ...... 1204 Lin, Yu-Wei ...... 799 Main, Kelley ...... 1232 Michel, Géraldine ...... 190 Linares, Claire ...... 1080 Malär, Lucia ...... 974 Micheli, Maria Rita ...... 246 Lindridge, Andrew ...... 1192, 1220 Maleev, Nikita ...... 1185 Mick, David Glen ...... 4 Ling, I-Ling ...... 1129 Malik, Sumit ...... 1074 Milkman, Katherine ...... 1101 Lingg, Linda ...... 1223 Malkoc, Selin ...... 1101 Milkman, Katherine L...... 994 Linzmajer, Marc ...... 648 Malloy-Diniz, Leandro ...... 404 Miller, Elizabeth ...... 474 Lisjak, Monika ...... 337, 1000, 1248 Malter, Maayan ...... 1043 Millet, Kobe ...... 1210 Little, Vicki Janine ...... 38 Mandal, Sudipta ...... 527, 974 Mills, Adam ...... 1228 Liu, Hongyan ...... 1209 Mandel, Naomi ...... 427 Milne, George R...... 474 Liu, Jiajia ...... 1211 Manis, KT ...... 529 Mimoun, Laetitia ...... 1118, 1214 Liu, Jingshi ...... 1208 Manke, Birte ...... 987 Min, Kate E...... 847 Liu, Joyce Jingshi ...... 508 Manoharan, Bhupesh ...... 1211, 1211 Minina, Alisa ...... 537 Liu, Maggie Wenjing ...... 1199, 1236 Mantonakis, Antonia ...... 963 Minor, Michael ...... 1245 Liu, Meng ...... 786 Mao, Huifang ...... 851 Minson, Julia ...... 1017 Liu, Mengmeng ...... 1209 Marckhgott, Eva ...... 1211 Mishra, Nirajana ...... 541, 1214 Liu, Peggy ...... 784, 1249, 1251 Mariadassou, Shwetha ...... 994 Mitchell, Alex ...... 592 Liu, Peggy J...... 847, 994 Markos, Ereni ...... 1211 Mitchell, Vince ...... 1240 Liu, Shian-Ko ...... 1189 Marth, Sarah ...... 94 Mitkidis, Panagiotis ...... 1194 Liu, Wei ...... 1209 Martin, Brett A.S...... 801 Mittal, Ameya ...... 1245 Liu, Wumei ...... 512 Martin, Christian ...... 1190 Mittal, Chiraag ...... 1204 Liu, Xiao ...... 1022 Martin, Diane ...... 1192 Mittal, Vikas ...... 1249 Liu, Yan (Lucy) ...... 1022 Martin, Ingrid ...... 1251 Mizukoshi, Kosuke ...... 1226 Liu, Yingyue ...... 1209, 1242 Martin, Nathanael S...... 1212 Mogilner, Cassie ...... 740 Loewenstein, George ...... 596 Martinez, Luis ...... 1182 Mohan, Bhavya ...... 1170 Lohan, Karan Pratap Singh ...... 1209 Martins, Fábio Miguel Ferrony Varela . . 1212 Mohr, Dr. Iris ...... 1245 Longoni, Chiara ...... 410, 913 Martins, Renata ...... 1212 Moisio, Risto ...... 1214 Lopes, Maira ...... 1246 Mas, Erick M...... 531, 1193, 1212, 1248 Mokarram-Dorri, Sadaf ...... 303 Lopez, Alberto ...... 1080 Masè, Stefania ...... 537 Moldes, Olaya ...... 1214 López, Inés López ...... 857 Mason, Marlys ...... 324, 1251 Moldovan, Sarit ...... 544, 546 López, Rocío Alarcón ...... 857 Mason, Richard ...... 1064 Mollen, Saar ...... 1215 Lou, Yung-Chien ...... 1209 Masuda, Akiko ...... 566 Möller, Jana ...... 548 Lowe, Michael ...... 907, 907, 1000 Materne, Maxine ...... 1212 Monga, Ashwani ...... 822, 1243 Lowe, Michael L...... 1150 Mathur, Pragya ...... 851 Monnier, Arnaud ...... 550, 857 Lowrey, Tina M...... 533, 954 Matos, Geraldo ...... 212 Monnot, Elisa ...... 620 Lu, Shijie ...... 825 Matsumoto, Kohei ...... 1191 Monsurrò, Luigi ...... 552 Luan, Chi-Cheng ...... 1210, 1210 Matsushita, Koji ...... 1213 Moore, Sarah G ...... 1058, 1204, 1247 Luangrath, Andrea Webb . . . . . 868, 1247 Mattila, Anna ...... 896 Moore, Sarah G...... 1017 Luedicke, Marius K...... 918 Matz, Sandra ...... 825 Moorhouse, Michael ...... 370 Lukas, Marcel ...... 372, 925, 1091 Mau, Gunnar ...... 1186 Moorman, Christine ...... 1249 Luna, David ...... 1011, 1074 Mazar, Nina ...... 1250 Moreau, Page ...... 1249 Lunardo, Renaud ...... 514 McCartney, W. Benadict ...... 1006 Moreira, Catia Silva da C...... 126 Luo, Siria Xiyueyao ...... 1210 McCullough, Heath ...... 695 Morewedge, Carey ...... 1101 Luri, Ignacio ...... 1069 McFarland, Richard G...... 455 Morewedge, Carey K...... 1249 Lurie, Nicholas ...... 1205, 1247 McFerran, Brent ...... 1198, 1249 Morgan, Carter ...... 963 Lynch, John ...... 1249 McGowan, Miriam ...... 1213, 1213 Morin-Delerm, Sophie ...... 574 Lynch, John G...... 925 Mead, Nicole L...... 1006 Morozova, Daria ...... 554 Lyu, Dong ...... 1210 Mecit, Alican ...... 533 Morren, Meike H...... 896 Lyu, Jennifer ...... 925 Meersseman, Eva ...... 1213 Morrin, Maureen ...... 1217 Lyu, Wei ...... 773 Mehr, Katie S...... 994 Morris, Joshua I...... 994 Mehta, Ravi ...... 1165 Morris, Michael ...... 851 Meister, Matthew ...... 925 Morwitz, Vicki ...... 1022 M Melumad, Shiri ...... 981, 1247 Morwitz, Vicki G. . . 266, 410, 657, 1011, 1249 Ma, Jingjing ...... 1211 Melzner, Johann ...... 1011, 1165 Mosleh, Mohsen ...... 863 Maalej, Mariem El Euch ...... 604 Memmi, Sarah A...... 181 Mourali, Mehdi ...... 1215, 1216 Macdonald, Emma K...... 582 Mende, Martin ...... 836, 1250 Mourey, James A...... 1011 Maciejovsky, Boris ...... 842 Meng, Lu ...... 1213 Mrkva, Kellen ...... 1221 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1259

Mugel, Ophelie Elise ...... 1245 Olson, Nicholas J...... 1233 Pedersen, Per Egil ...... 1184 Mukherjee, Ashesh ...... 1222 Omar, Suha ...... 77 Peixoto, Fabricia V...... 207 Mukherjee, Sayantani ...... 1237 Onculer, Ayse ...... 112, 724, 726, 1235 Pellandini-Simanyi, Lena ...... 1190 Mukhopadhyay, Anirban .851, 1017, 1208, 1247, Onuklu, Nur Yazgan ...... 1217 Peñaloza, Lisa ...... 582, 1106 1249 Oppewal, Harmen ...... 1197 Pendarvis, Nicholas ...... 212 Mulier, Lana ...... 556 Ordabayeva, Nailya . 896, 936, 1006, 1248, 1250 Pendarvis, Nicholas J...... 918 Müller, Astrid ...... 1224 Ordenes, Francisco Villarroal ...... 1247 Peng-Li, Danni ...... 1220 Müller, Brigitte ...... 90 Ortiz, Maria ...... 1217 Pennycook, Gordon ...... 863 Munz, Kurt P...... 1011 Osborne, Delane ...... 104 Penz, Elfriede ...... 94 Munzel, Andreas ...... 1219 Ostberg, Jacob ...... 680 Peracchio, Laura ...... 1247 Muratore, Isabelle ...... 558 Ostinelli, Massimiliano ...... 1074, 1165 Pereira, Beatriz ...... 1225 Murphy, Stephen ...... 1112, 1198 Otter, Thomas ...... 484 Perkins, Andrew W...... 637 Murray, Ross ...... 1245 Ottlewski, Lydia ...... 1246 Peronard, Jean-Paul ...... 134 Myaeng, Seo Young ...... 418 Otto, Ashley ...... 238 Peschel, Anne Odile ...... 312 Otto, Ashley S...... 936 Pessoa, Luís ...... 506 Otto, Christian ...... 362 Petersen, Francine E...... 283 N Ourahmoune, Nacima ...... 1192 Petr, Christine ...... 1220 Nader, Brishna ...... 1215 Overton, Graham ...... 886, 1096 Petty, Richard ...... 1238 Nanarpuzha, Rajesh . . . . .710, 1027, 1222 Ozanne, Julie L...... 1250 Peverini, Paolo ...... 552 Narayanan, Priya ...... 1215 Ozanne, Marie ...... 896 Pezzuti, Todd ...... 1048 Nariswari, Angeline ...... 1215 Özçaglar-Toulouse, Nil ...... 782 Pfeiffer, Bruce E...... 722 Nasa, Jayant ...... 560 Ozcan, Tim ...... 570 Pham, Michel Tuan ...... 564 Nastasoiu, Alina ...... 202 Ozturk, Cem ...... 1000 Philp, Matthew ...... 586, 1218 Natter, Martin ...... 1214 Picot-Coupey, Karine ...... 469 Nave, Gideon ...... 825, 825 Pieters, Rik ...... 1231 Nayakankuppam, Dhananjay ...... 1206 P Pino, Giovanni ...... 1195 Neef, Patrick Wolfgang ...... 1216 Pacanowski, Carly ...... 1251 Pinto, Diego Costa ...... 1212, 1245 Nelson, Leif D...... 1022 Pachur, Thorsten ...... 1139 Pizzutti, Cristiane ...... 1032 Nenkov, Gergana Y...... 1250 Packard, Grant ...... 981, 1247 Plant, Bernice ...... 1217 Nepomuceno, Marcelo Vinhal ...... 586 Padhaiskaya, Tatsiana ...... 1218 Plassmann, Hilke ...... 891 Nervino, Esterina ...... 1228 Paharia, Neeru . . . . . 280, 344, 1134, 1248 Poehlman, T. Andrew ...... 1220 Netzer, Oded ...... 831, 1249 Pai, Jieun ...... 453 Pogacar, Ruth ...... 954, 1247 Neybert, Emma ...... 1216 Palmeira, Mauricio ...... 868 Pol, Gratiana ...... 1048 Nguyen, Hang ...... 1199 Palo, Teea ...... 1215 Polman, Evan ...... 1236 Nguyen, Hieu ...... 1251 Palumbo, Helena ...... 1218 Polyakova, Alexandra ...... 590 Nguyen, Thanh ...... 874 Pancer, Ethan ...... 1218 Pomerance, Justin ...... 1208 Nian, Tingting ...... 1170 Pandelaere, Mario ...... 1201 Pomies, Anissa ...... 1246 Nindl, Fabian ...... 649 Pandey, Arpita ...... 738 Ponchio, Mateus Canniatti ...... 205 Nishii, Mayuko ...... 1216 Pang, Jun ...... 1234 Poncin, Ingrid ...... 240 Niu, Mengmeng ...... 562 Panteqi, Mivena ...... 1218 Pond, Colton ...... 913 Nøjgaard, Mikkel Ørholm ...... 1216 Paolacci, Gabriele ...... 902 Poole, Maxwell ...... 1218 Nordgren, Loran F...... 981 Pappalardo, Janis ...... 1251 Posten, Ann-Christin ...... 712 Norrgrann, Anu ...... 97 Paquier, Marie-Catherine ...... 574 Pounders, Kathrynn ...... 880 Norton, Michael . . . . 508, 902, 1170, 1195 Parameswaran, M. G...... 1182 Pradhan, Anuja ...... 1220 Norton, Michael I...... 847, 968 Parguel, Béatrice ...... 160 Praxmarer-Carus, Sandra ...... 72 Noseworthy, Theodore J...... 730 Park, Alexander ...... 1064 Preiksaitis, Kimberley ...... 592 Novak, Thomas ...... 918, 1248 Park, Choong W...... 1209 Prelec, Drazen ...... 842 Novakowski, Dallas ...... 1216 Park, Hanyong ...... 576 Price, Linda L ...... 717 Nunan, Daniel ...... 1195 Park, Hyun Young ...... 285 Prinsloo, Emily ...... 596 Nunoo, Jemima ...... 227 Park, Jaewoo ...... 1199, 1219 Prokopec, Sonja ...... 724, 726, 744 Nusrat, Farhana ...... 1216 Park, Jen H...... 1043, 1160 Puntoni, Stefano . 958, 1052, 1155, 1181, 1248 Nyilasy, Gergely ...... 1217 Park, Jihye ...... 1218 Purdie-Greenaway, Valerie ...... 1200 Park, Jooyoung ...... 1219 Pusaksrikit, Theeranuch ...... 1220 Park, Jungkun ...... 1199, 1202 Puzakova, Marina ...... 808, 836 O Park, Kiwan ...... 1227 O’Brien, Ed ...... 968, 1032 Park, Lisa ...... 1144 Q O’Donnell, Matthew Brook ...... 1231 Park, Sang Kyu ...... 578 O’Donnell, Michael ...... 902 Park, Sangchul ...... 1218 Qiu, Lingyun ...... 1234 O’Malley, Lisa ...... 1187 Park, Sohyeon ...... 1219 Quental, Camilla ...... 1106 Oba, Demi ...... 1217 Park, Taehoon ...... 445 Querci, Ilaria ...... 552 Oh, Ga-Eun (Grace) ...... 1217, 1217 Parker, Jeffrey ...... 671 Quintanilla, Claudia ...... 256 Oh, Hyewon ...... 1038 Parmentier, Marie-Agnès ...... 880 Quoidbach, Jordi ...... 1195 Oh, Travis Tae ...... 564 Pasdiora, Maria Alice ...... 580 Ohira, Shuji ...... 566, 1226 Patry-Beaudoin, Gabrielle ...... 1219 Ojansivu, Ilkka ...... 1232 Pavone, Giulia ...... 1219 R Ok, Ekin ...... 101 Pechmann, Connie ...... 1249 Rabino, Rebecca ...... 529, 598 Okutur, Nazli Gurdamar ...... 568 Peck, Joann ...... 868, 868, 1201 Radas, Sonja ...... 842 Olivola, Christopher ...... 825, 842 Pecot, Fabien ...... 574 Ragelienė, Tija ...... 600 1260 / Author Index

Raghubir, Priya ...... 1129, 1249 Sahabeh, Easa ...... 1228 Sepehri, Amir ...... 673, 676 Raghunathan, Raj ...... 560 Sahay, Arvind ...... 1215 Septianto, Felix ...... 1193 Rahmani, Leila ...... 1190 Saintives, Camille ...... 514 Serfas, Benjamin G...... 1224 Rahmani, Vahid ...... 602, 1221 Sajtos, Laszlo ...... 1222 Serin, Nuket ...... 679 Raies, Karine ...... 604 Sakashita, Mototaka ...... 108 Servadio, Luigi ...... 680 Rakshit, Krishanu ...... 447, 1211, 1211 Salisbury, Linda Court ...... 1250 Sevilla, Julio ...... 486, 644, 735 Ramos, Guilherme ...... 606 Salmela, Tarja ...... 1245 Sezer, Ovul ...... 968 Ramos, Jairo ...... 1221 Salvador, Marielle ...... 604 Shaddy, Franklyn ...... 949 Rand, David G...... 863 Samper, Adriana ...... 690 Shah, Anuj K...... 1144 Randers, Louise ...... 1221 Sample, Kevin L...... 644 Shah, Avni ...... 372, 1006 Rank-Christman, Tracy ...... 625, 1183 Samu, Sridhar ...... 1027, 1222 Shaji, Jossin ...... 1027, 1222 Rao, Akshay R...... 389 Sanders, Elisabeth ...... 524 Shamayleh, Ghalia ...... 874 Ravella, Haribabu ...... 918 Sandes, Fabio Shimabukuro ...... 1222 Shankar, Avi ...... 1112 Razmdoost, Kamran ...... 608 Sandrine, Mueller ...... 825 Shanks, Ilana ...... 836 Reczek, Rebecca Walker . . . 913, 1238, 1248 Sangle-Ferriere, Marion ...... 1222 Sharif, Marissa ...... 994 Reed, Americus ...... 963, 1231 Santana, Jannsen ...... 1027 Sharif, Marissa A...... 681 Reeves-Morris, Sophie Alexandra . . . .1221 Sarna, Nikkita ...... 1222 Sharifi, Shahin ...... 198 Regany, Fatima ...... 610 Sarstedt, Marko ...... 186 Shavitt, Sharon . . 203, 1150, 1203, 1247, 1248 Rehman, Varisha ...... 669 Satyavageeswaran, Prakash . .710, 1027, 1222 Shaw, Alex ...... 1086 Reich, Brandon ...... 612 Savani, Krishna ...... 851, 1043 Shaw, Deirdre ...... 683, 782 Reich, Taly ...... 342, 614, 1032, 1150 Savary, Jennifer ...... 1248 Shaw, Steven D...... 891 Reiff, Joseph ...... 1101 Sayin, Eda ...... 1074 Sheinin, Daniel A...... 570 Reimann, Martin ...... 1038, 1080, 1251 Sayman, Serdar ...... 112 Shen, Hao ...... 203, 1194 Reinhard, Julia ...... 616 Scaraboto, Daiane ...... 331, 880 Shen, Henry ...... 1226 Reitsamer, Bernd F...... 618 Schaerer, Michael ...... 588 Shen, Jie(Doreen) ...... 1183, 1224 Reniou, Fanny ...... 620 Schaffner, Dorothea ...... 1223 Shen, Liang ...... 1224 Rentfrow, Jason ...... 825 Schamp, Christina ...... 831, 1184, 1212 Shen, Luxi ...... 326 Richins, Marsha L...... 7 Schau, Hope ...... 1069, 1183 Shen, Ya-Ju ...... 1189 Riehle, Ramona ...... 622 Scheibehenne, Benjamin ...... 1139 Shen, Zhengyu ...... 685 Rifkin, Jacqueline R...... 1134 Scheidegger, Gianluca ...... 648 Shennib, Fuad A...... 949 Rifkin, Laura ...... 624 Scherer, Anne ...... 250, 1186 Shepherd, Steven ...... 1086 Rindfleisch, Aric ...... 295, 1224 Schill, Marie ...... 1106 Shi, Bing ...... 518 Ringberg, Torsten ...... 1074 Schindler, David ...... 524 Shi, Haijiao ...... 1224 Ringler, Christine ...... 625 Schlager, Tobias . . . . . 649, 651, 776, 1170 Shi, Yang ...... 480 Rizvi, Shaheer Ahmed ...... 1058 Schlosser, Ann ...... 653, 1223 Shim, Jisoo ...... 1203 Roberts, Annabelle ...... 628 Schmidt, Kristina ...... 657 Shiu, Edward ...... 1213, 1213 Robinot, Élisabeth ...... 160 Schmitt, Bernd ...... 1052, 1248 Shoham, Meyrav ...... 546 Rocha, Ana Raquel Coelho ...... 148 Schmitt, Julien ...... 659 Shrum, L. J...... 533, 954, 1247 Rocklage, Matthew D ...... 1247 Schneider, Gustavo ...... 661 Shu, Stephen ...... 1064 Rocklage, Matthew D...... 981 Scholz, Christin ...... 891 Shu, Suzanne ...... 297, 868, 868 Rodas, Maria A...... 631 Scholz, Joachim ...... 663 Shu, Suzanne B...... 223, 1038 Rodhain, Angélique ...... 633 Schöps, Jonathan D...... 115 Si, Kao ...... 687 Roese, Neal ...... 1202 Schreier, Martin ...... 183, 857, 857 Sieow, Justin ...... 1224 Rokka, Joonas ...... 1246 Schrift, Rom Y...... 1175 Silva, Lívia Lessa de A...... 126 Romani, Simona ...... 552 Schroeder, Jonathan ...... 874 Silver, Ike ...... 863, 1086, 1096 Romero, Marisabel ...... 1160 Schroeder, Juliana ...... 968 Silverman, Jackie . . . 994, 1091, 1096, 1101 Rose, Randy ...... 695 Schroll, Roland ...... 436 Simard, Caitlin Elizabeth ...... 130 Rosengren, Sara ...... 463 Schultz, Ainslie ...... 1251 Simmons, Joseph P...... 886, 1091 Rosenthal, Benjamin ...... 635, 1027 Schumacher, Anika ...... 667 Simonetti, Aline ...... 1201 Ross, Spencer ...... 1221 Schwarz, Norbert ...... 810, 863, 1238 Simonson, Itamar ...... 949, 949, 1160 Rotman, Jeff D...... 637 Schwarz, Sarah ...... 121 Simpson, Bonnie ...... 1225 Rotman, Jeffrey ...... 1202 Schweitzer, Nicola ...... 851 Singh, Jatinder J...... 974 Roux, Caroline ...... 1181, 1225, 1251 Scopelliti, Irene ...... 418, 596 Singh, Tanya ...... 1225 Roux, Dominique ...... 639 Scornavacca, Eusebio ...... 1187 Sinha, Jayati ...... 679, 1225 Roy, Arani ...... 1217, 1222 Scott, Maura ...... 1250 Sirieix, Lucie ...... 305, 1225 Ruan, Bowen ...... 794, 886 Scott, Maura L...... 836 Skubisz, Christine ...... 1251 Rubaltelli, Enrico ...... 1187 Scott, Rebecca ...... 1118 Slabbinck, Hendrik ...... 556, 1229 Rucker, Derek ...... 320, 467 Scott, Sydney ...... 958, 958, 1198 Slovic, Paul ...... 1187 Rucker, Derek D. . . . . 252, 254, 981, 1000 Sedghi, Tara Madleen ...... 420 Small, Deborah ...... 863 Rudd, John M...... 1242 Segal, Shoshana ...... 1058, 1223 Smaniotto, Cristiano ...... 57, 134 Rudolph, Thomas ...... 220, 461, 648 Seittu, Henriikka ...... 1223 Smaoui, Fatma ...... 173 Russell, Cristel ...... 1069 Sekar, Samuel B ...... 1223 Smeets, Paul ...... 1144 Ryu, Hyerin ...... 642 Sela, Aner ...... 578, 707, 1175 Smith, Evelyn ...... 653 Sellier, Anne-Laure ...... 1080 Smith, Evelyn Olivia ...... 1223 Selvanayagam, Karthik ...... 669 Smith, Jamie ...... 537 S Sénécal, Sylvain ...... 1227 Smith, Leah ...... 695 Sabadie, William ...... 1184 Sengupta, Rumela ...... 671, 1191 Smith, Ned ...... 842 Sadek, Jack ...... 1181 Seo, Yuri ...... 1193 Smith, Rosanna ...... 732, 735 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 48) / 1261

Smith, Stephanie M...... 693, 1139 Tao, Tao ...... 1207, 1229 Utgård, Jakob ...... 359 So, Jane ...... 698 Tari, Anna ...... 728, 913 Utochkin, Denis ...... 1231 Soares, Raquel Reis ...... 1212 Täuber, Susanne ...... 492 Sobolev, Michael ...... 820 Taylor, Charles R...... 808 Södergren, Jonatan ...... 139 Taylor, Nükhet ...... 730 V Sokoll, Cynthia ...... 701 Tellis, Gerard ...... 1048 Valenzuela, Ana ...... 1011, 1074, 1248 Song, Camilla Eunyoung ...... 703, 707 Temerak, Mohamed Sobhy ...... 1229 Vallström, Niklas ...... 139 Song, Jiaqi (Flora) ...... 1225 Teng, Lefa ...... 1229 Valsesia, Francesca ...... 1058, 1134 Song, Jiaqi Flora ...... 1225 Teow, Jasper ...... 1160, 1165 Van Boven, Leaf ...... 1221 Sørensen, Elin Brandi ...... 354 Thai, Nguyen T ...... 1240 Van den Bergh, Bram ...... 744 Sousa, Ellen Campos ...... 1225 Thau, Stefan J ...... 275 van der Heijden, Kimberley . . . . .398, 400 Spangenberg, Katie ...... 425 Thøgersen, John ...... 1221 van der Laan, Nynke ...... 1215 Spence, Charles ...... 1219 Thomas, Manoj ...... 550 van der Sluis, Helen ...... 690 Spence, Mark T ...... 1191 Thomas, Tabitha S ...... 152, 156 van der Waal, Nadine ...... 1215 Spiller, Stephen A ...... 1192 Thomas, Tandy Chalmers ...... 62 van Doorn, Jenny ...... 836, 1052, 1235 Spotswood, Fiona ...... 1112 Thompson, Craig ...... 1112 van Hest, Iris ...... 1215 Springer, Fanny ...... 1204 Thomsen, Thyra Uth ...... 354 van Horen, Femke ...... 412, 1200, 1210 Spruyt, Adriaan ...... 1189 Thorel, Cerise ...... 1245 van Ittersum, Koert ...... 715 Sridhar, Karthik ...... 1074 Thuerridl, Carina ...... 1229 Van Ittersum, Koert ...... 1235 Srivastava, Arti ...... 710 Tiercelin, Alexandre ...... 1230 Van Kerckhove, Anneleen . . . 225, 755, 1232 Srivastava, Joydeep ...... 459 Tim, Hill ...... 1230 van Loo, Ellen J...... 720 Srna, Shalena ...... 1096, 1101 Timoshenko, Artem ...... 831 van Osselaer, Stijn ...... 857, 1155 Staats, Brad ...... 968 Ting, Tin-yuet ...... 1188 van Osselaer, Stijn M. J...... 248 Stagno, Emanuela ...... 1226 Tipaldi, Petra ...... 1214 van Trijp, Hans ...... 720 Stamatogiannakis, Antonios ...... 1205 Tobias, Ebert ...... 825 VanBergen, Noah ...... 1212 Stancu, Catalin Mihai ...... 1226 Togawa, Taku ...... 1199, 1219, 1230 Vandenbosch, Mark ...... 202 Stancu, Violeta ...... 1226 Tomar, Nitisha ...... 764, 1245 Varga, Marton ...... 891 Stanislawski, Sumire ...... 1226 Ton, Lan Anh N...... 732, 735 Velloso, Luciana ...... 244 Steffel, Mary ...... 1150 Tong, Lester ...... 891 Venkatraman, Rohan ...... 1232 Steinhart, Yael ...... 546 Tonietto, Gabriela ...... 1101 Venkatraman, Vinod ...... 891 Steinmetz, Janina ...... 712, 1124 Torelli, Carlos ...... 1183, 1203, 1203 Veresiu, Ela ...... 880, 918 Stenger, Thomas ...... 1246 Torelli, Carlos J...... 631 Verlegh, Peeter ...... 422, 1200 Stephen, Andrew T...... 1248 Tormala, Zakary ...... 943, 1086 Vermeir, Iris . . . . . 556, 1189, 1213, 1229 Stevens, Lorna ...... 1106 Torres, Lez Ecima Trujillo . . . . 1191, 1230 Véron, Tobias ...... 1223 Stoeckli, Sabrina ...... 1226 Torres, Lez Trujillo ...... 1118, 1118 Verstraeten, Julie ...... 755 Stoner, Jennifer L ...... 1183 Torres, Patricia ...... 1230 Vial, Céline ...... 316 Stoop, Jan ...... 1144 Touré-Tillery, Rima ...... 1124 Vicdan, Handan ...... 758 Storch, Julia ...... 715 Tournesac, Yann ...... 488 Vieites, Yan ...... 760 Strehlau, Suzane ...... 1186 Tran, Chi ...... 612 Vijayalakshmi, Akshaya . . . .762, 764, 1245 Strehlau, Vivian Iara ...... 1186 Tran, Huy Quoc ...... 1231 Villarroel, Francisco ...... 322 Streicher, Mathias Clemens ...... 318 Trendel, Olivier ...... 451 Vincent, Racheal Louis ...... 766 Strizhakova, Yuliya ...... 717 Trespeuch, Leo ...... 160 Visconti, Luca M...... 1190 Su, Sarena ...... 1043 Tripathi, Sanjeev ...... 478, 738 Vocino, Andrea ...... 1202 Su, Steve ...... 851 Trott, Sangeeta ...... 1240 Vock, Marlene ...... 1232 Su, Xiaolei ...... 1201 Trotzke, Patrick ...... 1224 Vohs, Kathleen ...... 1182, 1197 Suarez, Maribel Carvalho ...... 130 Trudel, Remi ...... 728, 778, 913, 1250 Volles, Barbara Kobuszewski ...... 1232 Šubrtová, Kristina ...... 720 Trupia, Maria Giulia ...... 740 von Janda, Sergej ...... 218 Sullivan, Nicolette ...... 1227, 1242 Tsai, Claire ...... 907 Vosgerau, Joachim . 596, 886, 1144, 1170, 1170 Sumter, Sindy Resita ...... 1215 Tseng, Wei-Chih ...... 1209 Voyer, Benjamin G...... 1222 Sun, Chengyao ...... 1227 Tsiros, Michael ...... 806 Sundar, Aparna ...... 598, 722 Tu, Yanping ...... 742, 811, 1175 Sung, Billy ...... 1222 Tuk, Mirjam ...... 744 W Sung, Yeonjin ...... 471, 1227 Tully, Stephanie M...... 1064 Suri, Anshu ...... 1227 Turner, Broderick ...... 1221 Waisman, Rory ...... 1232 Suri, Rajneesh ...... 1241, 1241 Turner, Broderick Lee ...... 746, 1250 Waisman, Rory M...... 943, 1139 Sussman, Abigail ...... 1091, 1250 Tusche, Anita ...... 891 Wakeman, Wiley ...... 508 Sussman, Abigail B...... 925, 925 Tveleneva, Arina ...... 1231 Walker, Jennifer ...... 1228 Sutil, Bruno ...... 1227 Wallendorf, Melanie ...... 1248 Suurmets, Seidi ...... 1074 Walsh, Darlene ...... 1232 Syrjälä, Henna ...... 97 U Walsh, Gianfranco ...... 1186 Szocs, Courtney ...... 1228, 1235 Wan, Echo Wen ...... 512, 1242 Ubel, Peter A...... 1129 Wan, Fang ...... 1199, 1206, 1238 Uduehi, Esther ...... 1231 Wan, Jing ...... 715 T Ülkümen, Gülden ...... 943 Wang, Ze ...... 786 Ulqinaku, Aulona ...... 749 Wang, Di ...... 801 Takhar, Amandeep ...... 143, 1190, 1228 Ulu, Sevincgul ...... 194 Wang, Haizhong ...... 512 Talebi, Arash ...... 724, 726, 1228 Ulver, Sofia ...... 753 Wang, Haoyuan ...... 1237 Talukdar, Nabanita ...... 1228, 1240 Urbina, Susan Danissa Calderon . . . . .1205 Wang, Jiaqian (Jane) ...... 771 Tang, Qing ...... 1228 Urminsky, Oleg ...... 949, 1064, 1239 Wang, Jie ...... 1229, 1233, 1234 1262 / Author Index

Wang, Jingjing ...... 1211 Wu, Ruomeng ...... 786, 1150 Yu, Tianjiao ...... 1240 Wang, Juan ...... 1202 Wu, Shuang ...... 469 Yu, Yiqi ...... 771, 805 Wang, Liangyan ...... 1233 Wu, Sihan ...... 1236 Yu, Zhihao ...... 742 Wang, Lili ...... 773 Wu, Wenqing ...... 1238 Yu, Zhining ...... 1233 Wang, Qian (Janice) ...... 1220 Wu, Xiu ...... 1236 Yuan, Hong ...... 612 Wang, Rebecca Jen-Hui ...... 1017 Wu, Yuechen ...... 1134, 1144 Yuan, Jingting ...... 811 Wang, Tingting ...... 1207, 1208 Wyss, Philipp ...... 1223 Yucel-Aybat, Ozge ...... 1240 Wang, Xiang ...... 769, 1175 Yuen, Vincentia ...... 806 Wang, Xiaoran ...... 1234 Yuksel, Mujde ...... 1211 Wang, Xin ...... 1233, 1237 X Yuksel, Ulku ...... 1240 Wang, Xin (Shane) ...... 825 Xia, Lan ...... 1236, 1236 Wang, Xinyi ...... 1231 Xiao, Chunqu ...... 1233, 1237 Wang, Xue ...... 1188, 1197, 1234, 1239 Xiao, Na ...... 234, 1236 Z Wang, Yajin ...... 1000 Xie, Chunya ...... 1238 Zallot, Camilla ...... 902 Wang, Yan ...... 1233, 1234, 1234 Xie, Chunyan ...... 1237 Zambaldi, Felipe ...... 1212 Wang, Yansu ...... 1234 Xie, Guang-Xin ...... 1200, 1247 Zane, Daniel M...... 1134 Wang, Yijie ...... 1200 Xie, Vincent ...... 954 Zanette, Maria Carolina ...... 168 Wang, Yun-Hui ...... 1210 Xie, Vivian (Jieru) ...... 788, 1237 Zanini, Celso ...... 1245 Wang, Yusu ...... 1233 Xie, Xuan ...... 1237, 1237 Zayer, Linda Tuncay ...... 880 Wang-Ly, Nathan ...... 925 Xu, Fei (Katie) ...... 1238 Zeelenberg, Marcel ...... 1210 Ward, Adrian ...... 1032 Xu, Haiyue (Felix) ...... 792 Zeng, Fue ...... 1189 Ward, Morgan ...... 1000, 1150 xu, jialiang ...... 1238 Zengxiang, Chen ...... 1208 Ward, Morgan K ...... 1006 Xu, Jing ...... 811 Zhang, C. Yiwei ...... 925 Warlop, Luk . . . 291, 930, 1205, 1226, 1231 Xu, Lan ...... 790 Zhang, Charles ...... 1247 Warr, Richard ...... 1194 Xu, Mengran ...... 1238 Zhang, Charles Y...... 810 Warren, Caleb ...... 930, 1048 Xu, Minzhe ...... 742, 794, 1160 Zhang, Jintao ...... 1241, 1241 Warren, Nooshin ...... 1248 Xu, Xiaobing ...... 1224 Zhang, Ke ...... 1198 Watson, Jared ...... 896, 1086, 1134 Xu, Yixiang ...... 868 Zhang, Kuangjie ...... 1228 Watson, Jared Joseph ...... 1058 Xue, Haibo ...... 796 Zhang, Ruby ...... 1229 Weber, Bernd ...... 891 Xue, Sherrie Ying Ying Ying ...... 1124 Zhang, Xiadan ...... 1234 Wegerer, Philipp K...... 164 zhang, Xiaodan ...... 440, 1199 Wei, Sarah ...... 1242 Zhang, Xiaodan ...... 1233 Wei, Xinliang ...... 1188 Y Zhang, Xuan ...... 773 Weihrauch, Andrea ...... 776 Zhang, Ying ...... 805 Weijo, Henri ...... 1223 Yalcin, Gizem . . . . 1155, 1165, 1181, 1248 Yalkin, Cagri ...... 797 Zhang, Yinlong ...... 1197 Weijters, Bert ...... 374 Zhang, Yuli ...... 808 Weingarten, Evan ...... 1155 Yamim, Amanda Pruski ...... 1238 Yan, Dengfeng ...... 352 Zhao, Min ...... 907, 1250 Wen, Na ...... 1235, 1235 Zhao, Xin ...... 796 Wen, Yingting ...... 1118, 1235 Yan, Jun ...... 1187, 1206 Yan, Li ...... 1239 Zhao, Ye ...... 755 Wenzel, Claudia ...... 1235 Zhao, Yijun ...... 1241, 1241 Werkman, Amber ...... 1235 Yang, Adelle X...... 1160, 1165 Yang, Cathy ...... 831 Zheng, Wanyi ...... 1242 Wertenbroch, Klaus ...... 1184, 1248 Zheng, Wenxue ...... 1241, 1241 Wheeler, Christian ...... 1124 Yang, Chun-Ming ...... 1239 Yang, Haiyang ...... 1249 Zheng, Xiaoying ...... 811 Wheeler, S. Christian ...... 994 Zheng, Yanmei ...... 769 Whelan, Brian ...... 314 Yang, Morgan X...... 1193, 1240 Yang, Shiyu ...... 799 Zhong, Jing Yang ...... 391 Whillans, Ashley V...... 651, 1241 Zhou, Li ...... 816 White, Katherine ...... 1225 Yang, Shuhan ...... 874 Yang, Yang ...... 703, 1160 Zhou, Lingrui ...... 930, 1150, 1242 White, Tiffany ...... 1247 Zhou, Xiaozhou (Zoe) ...... 814 Whitley, Sarah ...... 541, 778 Yang, Zhiyong ...... 1215 Yanit, Mehmet ...... 1206 Zhu, Donghong ...... 1191 Whitson, Jennifer ...... 453 Zhu, Guowei ...... 816 Wiart, Lucie ...... 782 Yao, Jun ...... 198, 801 Yap, Andy J ...... 275 Zhu, Hong ...... 1233, 1237 Widney, Jennifer ...... 370 Zhu, John Jianjun ...... 502 Wiener, Hillary ...... 1150 Yau, Amy ...... 1239 Ye, Hongjun ...... 1241, 1241 Zhu, Meng ...... 1144, 1170, 1249 Wieseke, Jan ...... 379 Zhu, Shuqi ...... 1242 Wieser, Verena E...... 622 Yeomans, Mike ...... 1017 Yi, Jiwon ...... 1239 Zhu, Yimin ...... 1209, 1242 Wilcox, Keith ...... 1200 Zhu, Ying ...... 1211 Williams, Jerome ...... 1251 Yi, John ...... 930 Yi, Youjae ...... 1218 Zimmermann, Laura ...... 820 Williams, Lawrence E ...... 1006, 1208 Zimmermann-Janssen, Vita Eva Maria . . 1242, Williamson, Sara ...... 1228, 1235 Yin, Eden ...... 1048 Yin, Siyuan ...... 803 1243 Wilson, Hugh N...... 582 Zor, Ozum ...... 822, 1243 Winterich, Karen Page . . 385, 792, 963, 1197 Yin, Yidan ...... 509 Yoo, Hyesung ...... 389 Zou, Zhimin ...... 1209 Wirtz, Jochen ...... 1194 Zouaoui, Hela ...... 173 Woermann, Niklas ...... 31, 622, 1216 Yoon, Carolyn ...... 891, 1011 Yoon, Nari ...... 1080 Zwebner, Yonat ...... 1096, 1175, 1223 Wong, Nancy ...... 1250 Zwick, Ruth ...... 544 Wood, Stacy ...... 1249 Yoon, Y. Rin ...... 1239 Woolley, Kaitlin 365, 504, 784, 994, 1175, 1239 Youn, Nara ...... 1239 Wu, Alisa ...... 1043 Yu, Irina Y...... 1193, 1240 Wu, Kaiyang ...... 1236 Yu, Jiaqi ...... 1239 Yu, Shubin Lance ...... 1228, 1240 ASSOCIATION FOR CONSUMER RESEARCH

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