Matriarchy and Nation: Mothering English Ballet 1920-1939 By Carol A. Martin Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Dance, Theatre and Film Studies Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences University of Surrey April 2009 © Carol A. Martin ProQuest Number: 27557452 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 27557452 Published by ProQuest LLO (2019). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLO. ProQuest LLO. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.Q. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 Abstract This thesis is presented in three parts. In the first, I offer a detailed theoretical and methodological framework for a historical analysis of English ballet, from 1920-1939, framed within the metaphoric landscape of the ‘mother’ and ‘mothering’. Whilst embracing the impact of cultural studies, the research is underpinned by a philosophical enquiry into the nature of history as a narrative in which events never tell their own story. From this perspective, the ‘birth of English ballet’ emerges as a discourse on ballet, gender and nation in which women are central. In Part Two, 1 present an analytical model informed by Pierre Bourdieu’s (1993) cultural ‘field’, but developed in relation to specific, historically situated examples of ballet practice. The model represents a radical shift in locating dance teaching and the woman teacher at the centre of ballet practice. At the same time, the social, cultural and economic context of England between two world wars provides a new critical lens for rethinking a firmly established and largely unchallenged ballet history Part Three comprises a series of historical narratives on identity, representation and meaning in the metaphoric ‘mother of English ballet’. The studies include the matriarchal structure of the newly created Royal Academy of Dancing, the discourse of mother nation and its embodiment in the émigré ballet teacher, family and patriotism in the British Ballet Organization, and reflections of the maternal muse in Noel Streatfeild’s novel Ballet Shoes (1936). The research demonstrates the opportunities and challenges of a dance history informed by cultural theory but equally mindful of the politics of historical representation. Whilst adding to the existing body of knowledge on early twentieth century English ballet, the thesis reveals the wider potential of Bourdieu’s work in the study of dancing pasts and explores the the rich borderspace between feminist and narrative history. Ill Table o f Contents Acknowledgements v PART ONE: Preface 1 Chapter 1: From Bourdieu to the Maternal Imaginary 1.1 Bourdieu, Gender and the Mother 7 1.2 Mythic Mothers 14 1.3 Mothers, Daughters, Modernity 19 1.4 Notes 23 Chapter 2; Dance, History and Culture: Interdisciplinary Positions and Paradigms 2.1 Introduction 26 2.2 Dance History: Challenging Positivist Models 30 2.3 Dance History and Cultural Studies: Integration & Autonomy 36 2.4 English Ballet: A Historical Tradition 45 2.5 Notes 49 PART TWO Chapter 3: The Field of English Ballet 3.1 Introduction 53 3.2 Reconstructing the Field: A Topology 59 3.3 Representing the Field: Culture, History, Narrative 71 3.4 Notes 77 Chapter 4: Ballet, Class and Capital 4.1 Introduction 80 4.2 Ballet Class 82 4.3 Declassification/Reclassification: The ‘Dance Boom’ 92 4.4 Gender, Profession and Yiahitus 98 4.5 Notes 104 IV PART THREE Chapter 5: “Madam President”: Women in the Academy 5.1 Introduction 108 5.2 The Male ‘Expert’: Philip Richardson and Cyril Beaumont 119 5.3 Ballet Masters? Edouard Espinosa and Adeline Genée 127 5.4 Matriarchies; Adeline Genée and Ninette de Valois 135 5.5 Notes 142 Chapter 6: Mother Nation 6.1 Introduction 145 6.2 Mother Russia 151 6.3 Rocking the Cradle 160 6.4 Modem Matriarch 166 6.5 Notes 176 Chapter 7: Patriot Games: The British Ballet Organization 7.1 Introduction 181 7.2 ‘At Your Service’: The Editress 183 7.3 The Dilettante: The British Ballet Company 1928 192 7.4 Pro Patria 199 7.5 Notes 205 Chapter 8: Fairies and Fossils: Noel Streatfeild’s Ballet Shoes (1936) 8.1 Introduction 208 8.2 Sisters and Fairy Godmothers: The House in Cromwell Road 213 8.3 Training and Transition: The Children’s Academy 217 8.4 In Fairyland: Wings, Work and Wages 224 8.5 Notes 230 Conclusions 234 Appendices Appendix A: Selected Chronology of English Ballet: 1892-1939 246 Appendix B: Dolin’s Letter (Kay 1928a) 256 Appendix C: Kay’s Letter (Kay 1928b) 257 Appendix D: Narrative Summary of Ballet Shoes (1936) 258 Bibliography 263 Acknowledgements My thanks go to the Royal Academy of Dance for making it possible for me to undertake this research, and for granting permission to reproduce materials from the Genée Archive. A special thank you goes also to Eleanor Jack and Rebecca Lacey at the RAD Library. I am indebted to the following people for their help and support throughout the process: Kathrina Farrugia and Shelly Saint-Smith, for technical advice and moral support; Katherine Partridge for proof reading and help in dealing with the eccentricities of Microsoft Word formatting and graphics. Completing the thesis was made easier by the support, encouragement and sympathetic shoulders of my colleagues in the Faculty of Education at the RAD. 1 consider myself extremely fortunate to have worked with several wonderful teachers who have been on my mind throughout the writing of this thesis. Miss Day, Bridget Espinosa, Deborah Wayne, Gillian Anthony and Rachel Cameron were nothing short of fairy godmothers during my dance training and teacher training. Good luck seems to have followed me in my academic career. Professor Joan White, Director of Education at the RAD, has been a friend and inspirational mentor whose kindness has helped me through some very difficult times. Without her efforts to negotiate a sabbatical on my behalf, this thesis would never have got off the ground. I have been guided and nurtured through the doctoral process by Professor Janet Lansdale. Her incredible ability to facilitate learning, sharpen critical thinking and nurture original thought, are precious gifts. I thank her for all of this and for keeping me grounded. Most of all, 1 thank her for bringing me into contact with my own past as a point of departure. Finally, I am eternally grateful to my mother for ignoring all advice and letting her little girl go to ballet school - and to my sister for always believing in me. Preface Preface Its 5.30pm on a weekday in winter and I have just finished my ballet lesson. Vm getting dressed in the changing room and I can hear the tap class starting — Vm not allowed to do tap because Miss Day says it will weaken my ankles. Coat on, out the door and down the steps into the dark - I walk down to the end o f the road until I reach the ‘Legion ’ where my dad is waiting inside. I ring the bell and someone lets me in. Dad is sitting at one o f the tables wearing his work clothes and a knitted green hat. I sit on his lap and drink my bottle o f Coca-cola, smothered by the smell o f brick dust, cigarettes and stale beer, surrounded by grown up faces. Sometimes there are other children but not today - just the old woman with an eye patch playing the fruit machines. Dad walks me home for tea — mum is waiting for us and I show her the new steps that I have learned, pointing to their names in my little grey theory book. Dad goes out again - as he always did. I started ballet at four or five but 1 don’t remember why. My mother tells me that the idea came from Aunty Eunice, a family friend (and a great fan of Elvis) who used to look after me and thought that I should take lessons. My first teacher was a young charismatic woman called Miss Day - the first woman I ever saw with a geometric haircut (this was the mid sixties), short over the ear on one side and a jaw-length curtain on the other. She taught us in her ordinary clothes and heeled shoes, wore glasses, carried a battered briefcase and drank coffee from a thermos between classes. That swishing hair, well cut suit and educated voice marked her as different from any other woman I knew. Ballet was special. Miss Day was special and if 1 worked hard, I could be part of it too. At the age of eleven Miss Day sent me to audition at Elmhurst Ballet School. The school offered an annual scholarship and she insisted that I try for it. My mother and I took the train to Camberley (on the other side of Surrey) which was the furthest either of us had ever been from home. Mum paid ten shillings to have my hair done at a local hair salon so that I looked the part. We arrived at the school and 1 remember feeling overawed but also excited by this completely different world. 1 was shown into the audition room whilst my mother was instructed to ‘go away’ until the audition finished. I didn’t know then but she had spent all her money on train fares and my ‘hair do’ and had to sit on a bench in the town without enough money for a cup of tea or a sandwich.