Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 427 INDO-EUROPEAN COMMUNICATIONS: THE MODEL OF “NOMADIC HOMELAND” Victor A. Novozhenov1 Elina K. Altynbekova2 Aibek Zh. Sydykov3

Abstract: The authors of the article (Europe and Ural-Kazakh steppes) by studied the origin of Indo-European two main ways (north and south) through tribes in the light of ancient Margiana and Transcaucasia. communications and the spread of the tribes according to wheeled transport Keywords: steppeland culture, relics in the steppe zone of Eastern migrations, wheeled transport, cattle- Eurasia. The authors considered some breeding, tin-mettallurgy, clan- modern theories related to Indo- leadership. European (IE) and Indo-Iranian (IIr) origin, defined IE innovations that 1. Introduction. marked the territories as possible Recently, in connection with homelands for IEs, and localized them the publication of the new paleogenetic on the map and. The authors used the results [Allentoft et al, 2015; Haak et al., method of mapping and analysing of IE 2015; Lazaridis et al, 2014; 2017; innovations for localization of possible Damgaard et al, 2018a; 2018b; Goldberg homeland teritories of IE on the maps et al, 2017], there is sharp increase in the and substantiate the polycentric model of interest of Russian-speaking scholars to the ancestral homeland of IE as model of the problems of IE culture and origin “nomadic homeland”. According to this [http://генофонд.рф/?page_id=3949 model, the IE homeland was localized in Novozhenov, 2015e; Klejn et al, the steppe-lands of Eurasian continent, 2017:71-15]. Archaeologists know that and in the course of time changed its some questions of historical place from Assyrian steppes to Eurasia reconstructions and cultural genesis,

1 Republican State Enterprise «State museum «UNESCO Center for the Rapprochement of Cultures 2 Scientific-restoration laboratory “Ostrov Krym” 3 Republican State Enterprise «State museum «UNESCO Center for the Rapprochement of Cultures

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 428 especially questions related to the steppe homeland on the open spaces of Europe. society, can not be solved within the The model suggested by L.S. Klein is the framework of pure autochthonous most consistent, it takes into account development [Anthony, Brown, 2011: archaeological material of the 130-160]. Chemurchek culture (Eastern There are numerous reports of Turkestan), which was discovered and origin and resettlement of IEs; the most studied by Dr. A. A. Kovaliov [2004; notable ones are the reviews by 2011; 2012a;b]. It was noted that the P. Raulwing [2000], C. Renfrew [1998], Chemurchek materials are rather similar and J. Mallory [1997a;b; 2009; 2013; to the Elunino materials localized in the Mallory, Mair, 2000], providing detailed Altai Mountains and to the monuments analysis and critique of existing discovered in the north-east part of hypotheses on the subject. Among the Kazakhstan [Grushin 2012; Merz, 2007; recent studies considering steppe origin 2010]. These materials are considered as of IEs and developing many provisions an early step in the formation of Seima- of the popular “kurgan hypotesys” by Turbino metallurgical tradition, which in Mary Gimbutas [1970; 1978], the book its turn influenced the formation of the by David Anthony is of particular Yin-Shang industry in China [Kovaliov, interest [Anthony, 2007; review by 2012a: 53-55; Novozhenov, 2012a;c]. L. S. Klein – Horses, Chariots…, Dr. Stanislav A. Grigoryev 2010:167-181, critical review of the [2012a: 40] supposed that migration problem by J. Mallory, 2013; directed to the south of the Urals was one Kristiansen, 2012:165-181; Kristiansen of the important components of the et al, 2017:334-347; 2018]. cultural genesis of local tribes [Grigoriev Prof. Leo S. Klein [2012: 25- 2012a: 40-48]. Among the innovations 34] carefully studied the views on the that have emerged in the region as a problem of finding ancestral home of result of migration, he considered IEs, as well as the current state of this megalithic tradition (the 3rd millennium problem. On the basis of two examples BCE) and Sintashta monuments (the of ancient migrations (Hittite-Luwian beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE). and Tocharian), he raised the question of Thus, the megalithic structures of Vera the localization of the ancestral Lake in the Urals are similar to the

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 429 menhirs and dolmens of two other characterized by reliable series of very regions: the Northern Europe and the early calibrated radiocarbon dating eastern Mediterranean [Grigoriev, (withing the period from the end of the 2012b: 30-36,43]. 3rd millennium BCE to 17 BCE). Probably, in this uncertan However, it is still rather problematic to situation, the theorethical model of IE synchronize them and the Middle East communications, based on the recent (Anatolian) findings [Novozhenov, data, could clear the historical process. 2012a: 278-286; 2014a]. The proposed route of migration through the Caucasus 2. Methods and materials. region is questionable due to the fact of development of Caucasus metallurgical The concept of spreading of tradition that at that time had already wheeled transport was already established relationships with the steppe developed. The wheeled transport spread population, but it does not contradict the from west to east (from Mesopotamia), idea of a possible “southern” way of and from south to north (southern route). Sintashta migration from Anatolia along It was spread by the herdsmen the southern shore of the Caspian Sea migrations in the steppes of Central Asia through Turan (West Turkestan-BMAC) and northern Eurasia [Gamgrelidze, and Kazakh steppe (in the South Ural). Ivanov, 1984: 950-951]. The discovered All the new facts provided by geographic locations of rock art archaeology and paleogenetics support monuments (petroglyphs) are prvide the existance of transcontinental unique data on routes of ancient transport corridor in the northern part of migrations [Novozhenov, 1994; Eurasia that was formed in the latitudinal 2012a;c; 2013b; 2014a;b;d; 2015b;d]. direction (the northern route) around the The burials with carriages are steppe zone. In search for new pastures, well-known and represented by a large some groups of herdsmen roamed on series in the Volga region and the Ural- their mobile van-homes after their Kazakh steppes (Figure 1). They were numerous herd, they were gradually found not only in Sintashta, but also in moving in the eastern direction and Petrovo, Alakul, and other local reached Minusinsk Basin, which is archaeological cultures and are natural border of the Eurasian steppe.

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 430 These first settlers brought Eurasia, which was the main prerequisite many unusual skills with them. They had for the development of mobile lifestyle. pictorial tradition and decorated walls of Aridization of climate inevitably led to their van-homes and tombs with ocher. the development of the nomadism, They also built megaliths: stela-menhirs specific cattle-breeding culture in the and tombs in the shape of stone boxes steppe zone of Eurasia. In the cultural that should serve them as dwellings in and historical terms, it was a large the other world. These settlers had their community of shepherds united by a own communication system and specific common way of life (animal husbandry) production skills. In a comfortable and and by similar systems of mythological sufficiently large ecological niche of the concepts. Minusinsk Basin, they established Similarity of the monuments various types of relationships with small that are widespread in the steppe zone of indigenous population (through Eurasia can be explained by early mariages, for example) and got emergence of nomadism, which became acquainted with local traditions and a major cultural and economic factor at customs (Figure 2, 3). Further migration the beginning of the 3rd millennium of these groups was only possible in the BCE [Merpert, 1974; Shilov, 1975: 5- southern direction. The vector of this 15]. A. Toynbee [1934: 404] supported movement was oriented to the south-east the thought that nomadism originated to the steppe areas of Mongolia and between the end of 4th and the beginning Xinjiang. It passed through the Altai of the 3rd millennium BCE. It is difficult Mountains [Cernykh, 2009], through the to agree with the idea that the transition “Jungar Gates” and led to the fertile to a nomadic way of life occurred only at valleys of Central Asia in the south and the end of 2nd millennium BCE to endless Kazakh steppes. [Khazanov, 1973: 5-10; Griaznov,1955; 1957; Markov, 1976: 109]; at that time 3. Results. steppe societies obviously already lived by nomadic pastoralism [Kradin, 2007]; In the 3rd millennium BCE, according to the point of view expressed there was a global climate change; it by Nurbulat Masanov [2000:116-130; became more continental and dry in

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 431 2011], during that era it became metallurgical centers that generate universal. innovations in bronze casting and Animal husbandry is the main consequently provide the ability to activity for the vast majority of “post- produce innovative weapons; the social neolithic”societies of Central and changes [Bochkarev, 2012:13-24]. Eastern Europe, Anatolia, and northern Animal husbandry and horse Mesopotamia. It was the main domestication. Archeobotanical studies production innovation after the conducted in recent years show “Neolithic Revolution”. On rich grass “extremely weak development of pastures of plain and steppe regions of agriculture in the Bronze Age at the Eurasia, this type of economy, compared entire space of the steppe and forest- to agriculture, provided the alleged steppe territories between the Dnieper “Proto-Indo-Europeans” with a River and the Trans-Ural region” [ibid: guaranteed and substantial surplus 14-15]. The nature of the economy was product, therefore enabling their mobile at that time. Presumably, it sustainable and progressive determined the mobility of numerous development. archeological cultures of steppe and In a number of his works, Prof. shifting of their areas, which led to V. S. Bochkarev [2010; 2012:13-24] “mixture and blurring of distinct analyzed in detail the processes that boundaries between them”. This process occured in the Bronze Age on the vast resulted in a cultural continuity that territory stretching from Eastern Europe E. N. Chernykh called “the steppe to the western part of the continent. As syndrome”. Archeologically it is the determining factors behind the reflected by the fact that typological cultural genesis of steppe societies, the difference between the neighboring author defined innovation in the cultures sometimes is so small that it is following areas of economic activity: the almost impossible to determine precisely development of animal husbandry in its where one culture ends and another one various forms, which was directly begins [Chernykh, 2009]. dependent on climatic conditions of the Metallurgy. Metalworking in habitat; the development of Eastern Europe during some periods of metalworking and forming of the Bronze Age proved to be one of the

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 432 most advanced in the Northern Eurasia. them remained tribal (segmented) In the 4th millennium BCE, the societies. Only the cultures of charioteers technology of using wax model for (Sintashta, Potapovo, Petrovo, and arsenic and antimony bronze casting Alacul) advanced little further. appeared in the Caucasus; then it was According to some researchers, these spread to the steppes. This technology cultures were represented by complex was used in production of axes, adzes, societies (chiefdoms)” [Bochkerev, chisels, knives, jewelry, etc. Of course, 2012:19]. while the leading role belonged to the Wheeled transport. The Caucasus Center, the subsequent pragmatic idea of using wheels and development of the steppe metallurgical mobile homes originated from practical traditions was associated with the need for development of mobile cattle- formation of the Volga-Ural center of breeding societies. The mobile nature of cultural genesis. The folloving production of nomadic pastoralism and innovations can be noted among the the need for innovative vehicles required results of such development: the use of the development of skills that were tin bronze (instead of arsenic and necessary for production of the most antimony), stone molds (instead of clay), modern bronze tools that could not only invention of molding with a blind plug. enhance the production process, but also The progress in metalworking greatly give advantage in battle [Novozhenov, influenced the combat tactics and 2012, 2014a]. weaponry. Instead of swordsmen or Megalithic (Anatolian tradition spearmen, the main role in the weapon with megalithic menhirs, according to system of the South Eastern Europe and S. A. Grigoriev) and pictorial traditions in the Kazakh steppes was played by played a key role in the system of archers (especially mounted archers) internal communications of the [ibid: 17-18; Novozhenov, 2013a; production groups and began to define Grigoriev, 2013]. their identity [Grigoriev, 2013]. It was Social changes. In social terms, the most volatile and complex steppe cultures “were complex social innovation. Initially, there were few organisms well-structured both different shapes of megaliths, later the vertically and horizontally... most of

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 433 tradition became stable |Novozhenov, millennium BCE. It is the steppes of 2014a]. Northern Mesopotamia and Anatolia The model of “nomadic (the so-called “Assyrian steppes”), ancestral homeland”. The model was where the “excess” population of the proposed by V. A. Safronov [1989] as a city-states of Mesopotamia was “dinamic ancestral homeland”. The late concentrated [Adams, 1981]. Perhaps, writings of IE sources of “Aryan space” the above-mentioned “proto-Indo- describe endless rich pastures and tell European” innovations were formed in numerous stories about repeating change this area. However, such localization of of the ancestral homeland. It is the clear the ancestral homeland [Gamkrelidze, evidence of the fact that the “homeland” Ivanov, 1984] is controversial in terms of of the nomadic people was located in the archaeology and linguistics. The authors steppe landscapes, in the steppe expanses of the article developed a new scheme of the continent were; localization of the that does not contradict known “homeland” was changing in accordance archeological and linguistic facts and with independent and self-sufficient gives a model of “nomadic homeland” development of mobile production based on the features of the pastoral way groups of proto-IEs and their of economy and the laws of its descendants. development as a cultural-economy type Only the combination of all of society. above-mentioned innovations The essence of the model is represented at one time and in one place polycentric localization of “homeland”; can indicate the center of their origin. it takes into account the possibility of Obviously, this region had steppe “fast” migrations of “proto-cattles” over landscape, it also had a contact zone for long distances in search for new pastures interaction with the earliest agricultural and inevitability of their return to the imperial civilizations of the Ancient initial area, or to put it simply, the natural World, which could generate the development of catle-breeding on rich minimal required innovations in pasture grass in comfortable metalworking and in wheeled transport. environmental landscapes (Figure 6). There is only one such place on the map The nature and direction of of Eurasia at the end of the 4th these migrations were not totally random

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 434 like in “Brownian (random) motion” and crafting knowledge. E. N. Chernykh [Robb, 1991]; it was quite conscious [2009] called this phenomenon “the search for new pastures for their cattle. steppe syndrome” or “the phenomenon This model also correlates with the of nomadic cultures”; other researchers formation of known major metalurgical dealing with steppe monuments also centers in Eurasia at that time: in the considered this phenomenon [Gay, Caucasus, Transcaucasia, and Anatolia, 2000]. Cyclical actions wtithin the model then in the Urals, and then in the Ural- are conditioned by the nature of Kazakh steppes and the Altai. nomadism and cattle-breading. It is important to understand the mechanism of operation of the proposed 4. Discussion. model: the people from young As this model is related to the generation departed from their relatives earliest possible IE migrations (that took in search for new pastures, they formed place in the period from the end of 4th to their own cattle-breading production the beginning of 3rd millennium BCE, groups, mastered new territories and the first of such migrations could contact niches; at the same time their communicate with the Maikop culture parents and other children stayed in the and contribute to formation of the new source areas and formed there their own ancestral homeland in the steppe regions line of cultural development. Most often, of Transcaucasia and Maikop by the groups originated from separated establishing the Novosvobodnaya young generation having their own line community [Korenevsky, 2011]. The of development, if such random factors above-mentioned innovations enabled it as epidemics, natural disasters, battles, to become independent basis for the and other events did not lead to their further development of local cattle- extinction, eventually returned back to breeding production groups in the steppe the original territory of their ancestors. ecological niche. Moreover, all these However, in the archeological sense, innovations were actively developing descendants of different generations and improving, which gave impetus for became representatives of completely migration to new spaces of steppe- different archeological cultures due to meadows in the eastern and western accumulated differences in engineering directions.

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 435 According to L. S. Klein, established in Central Europe. In other Hittite-Luwian migration could words, the vector of Hittite-Luwian correspond to the suggested model, his migration could be oriented from south opinion supported by archaeological to north, or in the opposite direction. materials. However, the means of The authors of this work tend to migration remains unclear, as there is no consider Anatolia to be the main region, clear evidence relating to invention or in which the formation of the “proto- early stage of development of wheeled innovations” took place, but do not transport in primitive Europe. The four- exclude the possibility of autochthonous wheel carts of Funnelbeaker (TRB) and development of these innovations on the Baden (Pechel) cultures are the earliest territory of Central Europe by of such evidence. But even in this case, representatives of the Baden culture and they prove only the fact that these people TRB. In any case, no matter how the knew about wheeled transport, but it problem of independent invention of the does not mean that they were able to wheeled transport is solved (it could be make it themselves or used it in everyday invented in Central Europe or on the life. There is no evidence that can prove Danube), there was formed a major it, or it is unknown yet. center of advanced innovation, closely However, let us assume that the related to Anatolia and Northern representatives of Funnelbeaker and Mesopotamia. Baden (Pechel) cultures independently As a result of migration of invented the wheeled carriages and we “proto-IE” groups, three IE “homelands” just do not know about it, or even that appeared on the map of Eurasia at the they came to Anatolia on foot. In any end of 4th or the beginning of the 3rd case, according to the findings in the millennium BCE. The contact zone, cultural layer of Troy I and their study by where autochthonous and further N. Kalicz [1963], the date of this development of IE cattle-breeding migration can be determined as the groups took place, and all three cultural beginning of the 3rd millennium BCE, centers (Anatolia and northern later than L. S. Klein supposed. Through Mesopotamia, Central Europe, and the the considered cultural innovations, the steppe regions of Transcaucasia) were Balkan communication channel was linked by circular migration of

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 436 production groups; these groups formed homelands is described as communication channels between autochthonous development of IE themselves and the cultural centers. societies in these areas and further This relationship is clearly migration of young generation mainly in evidenced by the archeological data the east and partially in the west related to the cultures of Anatolia and directions (according to the movement of Mesopotamia, the western bloc of Pit- the sun in the sky). During this period, Grave culture, and the Maikop culture, as probably in the first half and the middle well as by similarity of ceramic ware of the 3rd millennium BCE, two complexes of earliest layers of Troy and transcontinental communication of the above-mentioned European channels were formed: the northern and cultures of the Early Bronze Age. It is the southern (Figures 2, 3, 5). also evidenced by linguistic data, by the European homeland. The system phenomenon described as the development of the European Late-Indo-European linguistic unity “homeland” was reflected by the [Gamkrelidze, Ivanov, 1984: 895-959]. development of lowland areas of Europe Thus, at the beginning of the in the west. It is evidenced by bright and 3rd millennium BCE in the grass-rich distinctive European archaeological plains and steppe regions of Eurasia, cultures of the Bronze Age, localized in there was a unique period of social a convenient and fertile local ecological formation, which can be called “late niches. These cultures became self- primitive formation” or even “steppe sufficient due to the development of leaderism”. At this period, the military- agriculture and were not prone to bureaucratic understanding of the significant movements. The relatively countries and territories in the mild and humid European climate agricultural sedentary imperial significantly contributed to this process. civilizations contrasted with nomadic Migration to the east was held pastoralism, mobility, and freedom of by other environmental landscapes: arid the vast steppes. and sharply continental regions that were Communications in the less rich with grass. Living here required ancestral homeland. Further territorial development of much larger development of these three ancestral spaces, new large territories and resulted

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 437 in migration of the representatives of specific line of development, and “northern” megalithic tradition (henges) became completely separated from their on the Urals (according to historic homeland. However, despite S. A. Grigoriev) and in spreading of considerable distance from the source Chemurchek culture far to the East area of migration, the representatives of Turkestan. this culture preserved their languages Steppe homeland. According to (dialects) and identity due to archaeological data, the development of communications provided by nomadic the Steppe “homeland” was expressed by cattle-breeders. formation of Pit-Grave culture and its For eastern IE clans, there was numerous variants and derivatives. only one way to survive in the Representatives of derived cultures wilderness: they had to “mix” moved in waves to the west towards themselves with indigenous population. traditional European “homeland” and to Consequently, they generated new the east to new pastures up to Eastern specific lines of development. Thus, the Turkestan. The northern settlers hypotetical parallel migration of several probably moved to the south at the genetically related production groups in second half of the 3rd millennium BCE. one direction resulted in emergence of They passed through the Kazakh steppe different dialects and even branches of (Karagash cemetery, Grigorievka 2 the IE “proto-language”: Tocharian, [Mertz, 2008; 2010]) and the valley of Indo-Aryan, Indo-Iranian, etc. Most Zarafshan, as evidenced by Zamanbaba likely, the separation of these branches group of monuments [Kuzmina, 1958]. occurred as a result of the different Thus, they formed Turanian channel, routes taken by these groups during their which connected southern and northern migration to east. branches of IE communications. At the early stages of these At the same time, the authors of migrations, such production groups this work consider Pit-Grave culture as a could move quite independently for a community of autonomous and self- long time, having no contact with other sufficient production groups of IEs. They related groups. They could “preserve” settled in contact zones, “mixed” with and keep their own dialects and the local population, formed their own

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 438 traditions, as well as production skills and the beginning of 2nd millennium and innovations. BCE, there were cases of Sintashta Ancestral homeland in Anatolia migration from Anatolia to the Ural- and North Mesopotamia. The Kazakh steppe (according to development of the Anatolian- S. A. Grigoriev). This migration route Mesopotamian ancestral homeland took passed through the steppe ancestral place in the southern part of the homeland along the long-established communication channel and had a channels of communication or through number of features associated with the BMCK along Turanian communication interaction of mobile production teams channel. with sedentary civilizations, which Since the carriers of this resulted in initially “confrontational” migration had a number of new nature of such interactions and enabled innovations in building and much greater “speed” of all cultural and metalworking (and even chariots, historical processes in the area. Hittites, presumably), they determined the as well as other allied kingdoms peculiarity of local cultural genesis, its developed in Anatolia, regularly fought further development on the basis of these with Egyptian pharaohs. Migration in the innovations. The first wave of migrating western direction, which possibly even cattle-breeders (through their individual reached savanna expanses of North production groups) brought BMAC Africa, resulted in the emergence of the cultural media directly to northern Hyksos dynasty in Egypt. In the eastern steppes. direction, the migration contributed to Ural-Kazakhstan late formation of the general context of homeland. The “southern” and cultural interaction of all synchronous “northern” branches of IE civilizations of the Middle and Near communications joined together is in the East, and it is represented by unique Ural-Kazakhstan steppes. That could monuments of BMAC, Marakhshi state, lead to the formation of the new steppe and some others known in writing ancestral homeland in this territory at the tradition [Frankfort, 2006]. time between the end of the 3rd and the Presumably, at the time beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE between the end of the 3rd millennium (Figures 4, 5, 6). The late steppe

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 439 homeland provided connection between adjusted for chariot tactics. At the end of the descendants of the “first wave” the 3rd millennium BCE, chariots migrants of the northern and southern became a powerful “communicator” of branches of migration, which apparently Early Andronovo clans in the Ural- had common source areas in the North Kazakhstan steppes, which contributed Mesopotamia and Anatolia and in greatly to their substantial territorial Central Europe at the beginning of 3rd expansion (Figure 4). millennium BCE. Since that time, the The problem of cultural genesis cultural characteristics of migrants and ethnic attribution of numerous undoubtedly changed as they were archaeological cultures existing at the influenced by traditions, customs, and end of the 3rd and the beginning of the languages of indigenous societies. 2nd millunium BCE on the territory of In the course of time, this area the steppe Eurasia and Central Asia is, in became the new homeland, where some fact, one of the key problems. However, “cutting-edge” innovations were it appeared that the formation of some developed; namely: synchronous “Asian” steppe • success in domestication and archaeological cultures occurred not breeding of horses [Gaunitz at al, 2018; only on the basis of “Volga-Urals” Outram et al, 2009; Outram, 2014:719- metallurgical center, which defined the 766]; process of cultural genesis in the west. • progress in development of Some of these cultures were formed on horse bridle systems [Chechushkov et al, the basis of redevelopment of 2018]; metalworking innovations in this period • development of casting and perhaps even before in the “Ural- technology with the use of tin additives Kazakhstan” metallurgical center. This for production of bronze socketed cener was focused exclusively on the weapons; it enhanced capabilities of innovative technology of the bronze mobile metal smelting that did not socketed casting in molds, which was require stationary furnaces [Rusanov, conditioned by presence of rich tin 2011: 314-320]; deposits in the Urals and Altai • advancement in crafting true Mountains, in the steppes of Kazakhstan, chariots and producing weaponry and, possibly, in the adjacent southern

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 440 areas. Thus, cultural genesis in the Asian other authors [2005: 39-45; 2007: 353- steppe occurred under conditions of 367; 2008: 93-96; 2010: 182-229]. dialectic interaction of old dying ways of “Karasuk society”. This term life and emergence of the new refers to the entire set of “retinue” metallurgical center. cultures similar to Karasuk culture: The localization of Elovka-Irmen, Begazy-Dandybay, and metallurgical center determined others, as well as to the actual Karasuk geographical distribution of culture itself (1440-1130 (1450-1050) archaeological sites of steppe groups and BCE). It was well-developed tribal group of entire Asian chariot complex (Figure in Central Asia and adjoining regions. 4). The materials of this complex contain The main monuments of the group, striking examples of the mentioned mostly represented by hereksurs and metallurgical tradition. On these deer stones were located mainly in territories, a complex of innovations in Southern Siberia, Mongolia, and animal breeding (domestication of the northern China (Ordos). In recent years, horse) and metallurgy (Seima-Turbino the graves with radial-ray structure were metallurgical tradition and production of found among the Karasuk antiquities at bronze vessels) were formed and chariot- the sites of Begazy-Dandybay culture riding tradition was developed. It is [Epimakhov, 2008: 93-95]. obvious that a number of horsemen According to radiocarbon societies in these areas reached the stage dating, the Karasuk sites are of leaderism and developed synchronized with the Chinese Shang communication channels (pictorial and Dinasty in traditional Chinese decorative traditions). chronology. On the basis of the analysis The “chronological of C14 and the results of comparing boundaries” for the Andronovo culture dendrochronological scales with the and synchronous steppe cultures was radiocarbon data, the sites date back to determined on the basis of a series of 1700-1050 BCE or 1600-1046 BCE. calibrated radiocarbon dates given in Probably, with the accumulation of the several papers written by Prof. series, the interval would be narrowed A. V. Epimakhov in collaboration with and the two systems would be “harmonized” better [ibid: 92-96].

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 441 Seima-Turbino phenomenon spoken by the dwellers of the Hindu and Tocharian migration. As well as Kush mountain range [Jettmar, 1975], or N. L. Chlenova and L. S. Vasiliev, the the Indo-Aryan and Iranian (the authors of the article believe that Yin- languages of the Rigveda and Avesta). It Shang and Karasuk cultures can be is noteworthy that the language of the “genetically traced back to another still Avesta is not IIr substrate [Deaconov, insufficiently known bronze culture” 1989: 21]. [Vasiliev, 1961:55]. Certainly, ancient The Tocharians are one of the “Seima-Turbino transcultural oldest ethnic group of IEs, which is phenomenon” can be considered as such known primarily by the written tradition. cultural foundation. For Seima-Turbino Their identification and geographical transcultural phenomenon, one localization is rather problematic task. calibrated date for the West Siberian According to the findings of the burial ground Satyga is available, 2125- linguist A. Lubotzky, there are borrowed 1955 (2140-1940) BCE. Three dates are terms associated with the construction of available for Ust-Vetluzhsky cemetery, chariots in Chinese. Some of them were 1910-1620 (2020-1600) BCE borrowed from the Tocharian language, [Chechushkov, Epimakhov, 2010: 182- including one that means “chariot with 229]. Z. Samashev [2010] synchronizes four horses” [Lubotsky, 1998]. This the calibrated date according to new implies that the hypothetical Tocharians Mycenaean dating by had strong chariot-riding traditions and dendrochronological scale within the 18- advanced crafting skills: they were able 17 centuries BCE and focuses on the new to make a wheeled carriages, knew dates for the Erlitou culture in China (the technology for production wheels with 17-16 centuries BCE) and Zardchahalifa spokes, rim, tire, and hub; perfectly in Tajikistan (the 21-17 centuries BCE) master the skills of horse training and [Bobomulloev, 1993: 56-63; Kuznetsov, driving to be able to harness not just pair, 2002: 81-82]. but four horses simultaneously; they also On the other hand, linguists had to adjust the reins and design of recorded the existence of several carriage accordingly. The borrowing of branches of IIr languages. There are this term (presumably, together with Kafir and Dardic languages, which are skills that were required for producing

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 442 and driving quadriga) could occur in East appearing chariots, at least two-horse Turkestan at the time between the second chariots (bigae, not quadrigae), in quarter amd the middle of the 2nd ancient China through the line of millennium BCE. In other words, the Chemurchek culture of Altai, which is Tocharians were the first people, who evidenced by antiquities of Odinovsko- invented this innovation, quadriga. Elunino [Grushin, 2012: 224-228]. This However, it is just a hypothesis. cultural contact obviously led to the In the steppe, there are no formation of monuments of “Seima- known burials of Early Andronovo with Turbino phenomenon” in the area quadrigae relics, but there are sacrificial between the Altai Mountains and the burials containing remains of several rivers Ob and Irtysh. Thus, ancient horses (two, three or more). In China, the Chinese could borrow chariot terms from early chemakyns indicate that the earliest the speech of Seima-Turbino people. paired sledding and quadriga appeared This “mechanism” is supported by exclusively in the Late Shang-Yin archaeological materials (by borrowed monuments. In Central Asia, there are spears, for example). However, the three known petroglyphs depicting influence of Seima-Turbino quadrigae: one in “Chu-Ili” and two in phenomenon requires serious study. The “Gobi”. All of them surrounded by most important issue: it is necessary to iconography representing animals and prove that Seima-Turbino people really can be attributed to Karasuk time could not use a four-horse chariots, chariots (or even earlier, in case of quadrigae. Current data related to this “Gobi” petroglyphs). Trigas of East problem is insufficient for making such Kazakhstan (Moinak, Pokrovka) conclusion. appeared very early; they are connected At the same time, the role of with adopted “Indo-Aryan” (Tocharian, Seima-Turbino production groups and of or Karasuk) tradition [Novozhenov their brightest representatives (especially 2012a: 305-308; 2014a]. blacksmiths, who carried original and The concept of Chemyrchek- innovative metallurgical tradition) in the Tocharian migration, proposed by processes of cultural genesis of the A. A. Kovaliov and supported by above-mentioned societies was L. S. Klein explains the mechanism of undoubtedly very high [Novozhenov,

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 443 2013a:321-329]. Actually, Ural- some production groups could break Kazakhstan (Altai) metalurgical away from the “core” of their culture at innovation center (later ancestral the very early period of its development. homeland, as we called it) was formed on Such groups moved independently by the basis of this tradition and its parallel routes on wheeled dwellings development. They are considered to be (vans) and autonomously reached areas mediators connecting all major societies, of Minusinsk Basin and Eastern although the early stages of such Turkestan. At the same time, they could “intermediary” operations imply military keep the elements of their identity, conflicts and clashes [Bochkarev, including language, almost intact for a 2010:57-58]. If the Tocharians, alleged very long time. During rather long descendants of the Chemurcheks were so migration, despite the possble contacts advanced and militant, why they did not with other related languages and dialects, use chariots? There is only one answer: the language of the “parent” production neither they, nor their ancestors had group, its traditions and customs were skills required for producing chariots. preserved and kept unchanged in verbal Perhaps, they used vans drawn by oxen, form in response to strange and “alien” but what chariot-related terms could environment. ancient Chinese borrow from them in this case? Or they used chariots after all, 5. Conclusions. and archeologists just did not find evidence to prove it? The above said is indirectly On the other hand, the authors confirmed by the existence on the of the article suggested credible archaeological map of Central Asia of “mechanism” of Tocharian migration as the monuments left by the alleged IE relocation of the ancestral homeland and “settlers”: Lop Nor culture in the Tarim the concept of this ancestral homeland as Basin; Chemurchek culture located at the autonomous, self-sufficient community distance of a thousand kilometers to with its own identity. Its production north from it; in the east direction, there groups moved within the natural are Karakol culture in the Altai expansion to the east from Pit-Grave and Mountains and Sayan cultural bloc of later Catacomb communities. It seems

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 444 related cultures in Minusinsk Basin and Central Plains of China borrowed terms Tuva. related to chariot-riding from the Thus, on the basis of available Tocharians through the contacts with one data on ancient wheeled transport of of the two groups mentioned above (this Eurasia, according to the above- hypothetical scenario implies that they proposed concept of “nomadic IE obtained knowledge about prodicing and homeland”, the authors of this work riding quadriga through contact with assumed that alleged “Tocharian Early Andronovo clans). The cultural groups” moved to the east identity of the “Seima-Turbino simultaneously with other IE ethnic Tocharians” existed for a very long time groups composed of tribes and clans as part of the cultural association, which belonging to Pit-Grave culture and its consisted of many related groups. It variants. The midgration was a result of seems that they managed to preserve the natural process: cattle-breeding their identity due to technological groups moved in search for unexploited advancement and sacred status of pasturing areas. During the migration, blacksmithing actities. autonomous and self-sustaining The descendants of other production groups kept and preserved production groups exploited other their cultural identity. ecological niches and developed their The offspring of the first own lines, keeping their potential “Indo- “settlers” founded new line of Iranian” or “Indo-Aryan” identity. As a development in the north of Central result of these processes, a new center of Asia. In the area between the rivers Ob cultural genesis emerged in the Ural- and Irtysh, this line of development is Kazakh steppes. This center became the represented by the materials of Elunino- core of the new culture, which developed Odinovsk type and Seima-Turbino innovations in social structure, animal circle. Cultural heritage of this line husbandry, weaponry, and wheeled together with its outstanding transport (chariot riding) and formed its metallurgical traditions were later own means both for internal and external incorporated into the new societies of communications. Andronovo and Karasuk that emerged While the basis of the Volga- there. Presumably, the population of Don chariot complex was formed from

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 445 Abashevo substrate and some elements development of new territories, was of the local cultures of Post-Catakomb essential for formation of their cultural period, the Ural-Kazakhstan chariot identity. complex developed at the local post-Pit- However, with the expansion of Grave basis under the strong Anatolian the range of new pastures, the natural influence coming from the south (via spreading of cattle-breading groups BMAC). It was also influenced by inevitably met resistance from the Seima-Turbino phenomenon from the indigenous population. The most notable northern forest-steppe zone (their of the conflicts happened when these alleged descendants moved there before grops faced forest-steppe clans on the Tocharians). At the course of time, Seima-Turbino territory. It was conflict the vector of development of these two between two communication systems; chariot complexes began to shift. In the intense phase of communication where the case of the Volga-Don complex, it one side used chariots and the other was moved to the west. In the case of the armed with socketed weapons. Very Ural-Kazakhstan complex, it moved to soon the nature of these relationships the east to the Altai Mountains and to became synthetic, which was clearly adjacent territories in the southern manifested by mutual borrowing of direction. This “shifting” was advanced technological skills. Anyway, conditioned by the search for new chariots, socketed weapons of Seima- pastures and tin deposits, which were Turbino type, and tin casting technology vital for development at that time. were actively used by representatives of Later this territory located in the Early Andronovo and later Karasuk vast Saryarka peneplain, the Tarbagatay societies. These set of innovations Mountains, Ob-Irtysh interfluve, and rapidly spread to all contact areas, where plain areas of the Southern Urals became steppe clans interacted with ancient the ancestral homeland of IEs; the sedentary civilizations, and contributed identities of IIrs, Indo-Aryans, and of the to formation of Turanian, Chinese, Tocharian were formed there. The Balkanian, and Iranian channels of whidespread cross-breeding of IEs, communication [see: Novozhenov, which occurred through female line as a 2012b:114-145; 2012d: 44-67; 2013: result of contacts in the process of 100-117; 2013a; 2014a:18-267].

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Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 454 RSH – Reports of the State Hermitage. – Afanasievo communication channel; Leningrad. yellow – Hittite-Mitannian

SA/RA – Soviet archaeology/ Russian communication channel; black – archeology. – Moscow: Nauka. Turanian communication channel; red – Harappan communication channel; blue SAPAR – Siberian Association of – Maicop migration; green – Hittite- Prehistoric Art Researchers. Luwian migration; dotted black arrow – Chemurchek migration List of figures Figure 4. Localization of the Figure 1. Urals-Kazakh steppes. petroglyphs of Central Asia, containing Reconstruction of true chariot drawn by images of chariots and carts. 1 – two horses, according to the evidence of Akdzhilga; 2 – Tekke-Tash; 3 – Ohna; 4 Early Andronovo chariot burials. – Karakiyasay; 5 – Thor; 6 – Reconstructed by Viktor Novozhenov Chibbarnala; 7 – Dharampuri; 8 – Chatur and Krym Altynbekov [2014] Bhu Nash; 9 – Eda Kalkave; 10 – Figure 2. The channels of Zhaltyryk-Tash; 11 – Ters; 12-18 – communication in the 3rd millennium Koibagar, Arpauzen, Koshkar Ata, BCE: Era of vans and battle wagons. Gabaevka, Kokbulak, Ran-Ozen, Xan; Colored arrows on the map: white – Pit- 19 – Saimaly-Tash; 20 – Tamgaly; 21 – Grave and Afanasievo communication Chumysh; 22 – Jambul; 23 – Kesteletas; channel; yellow – Sumerian 24 – Baikonur 3, “N”; 25 – Sayak; 26 – communication channel; black – Eshkiolmes; 27 – Akbaur; 28 – Turanian communication channel; red – Kurchum; 29 – Moinak; 30 – Tulkune; Harappan communication channel 31 – Saur Tarbagatai; 32-35 – Kalbak- Figure 3. The alleged localization of Tash, Zhalgyz Tepe, Elangash, Indo-European homelands in the 3rd Adyrkhayev; 36 – Yamany-Us; 37 – millennium BCE. I – Anatolia and Tsagaan Gol; 38 – Bichigty Am; 39 – Northern Mesopotamia; II – Central Hobd Somon; 40 – Beger Somon; 41 – Europe; III – Transcaucasia (foothills Chuluut; 42 – Darvi Somon; 43 – and steppe); IV – Late Ural-Kazakh Manlan Somon; 44 – Havtsgayt; 45 – “Indo-Iranian homeland”. Colored Urad (the Lang Mountains); 46 – Jiangsu arrows on the map: white – Pit Grave and (Kanguan); 47 – Syin Churek; 48 –

Periódico do Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Gênero e Direito Centro de Ciências Jurídicas - Universidade Federal da Paraíba V. 9 - Nº 04 - Ano 2020 ISSN | 2179-7137 | http://periodicos.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/ged/index 455 Mugur Sargol-Ching; 49 – “The Way of Genghis Khan”; 50 – Ortaa Sargol; 51 – Ust Tuba; 52 – “Shaman Stone” (Oglakhty); 53 – Suhaniha; 54 – Mount Tunchuh; 55 – Oshkol; 56 – Mount Sedlovina; 57 – Mount Shishka; 58 – Mount Polosataia; 59 – Transbaikalia; 60 – Sulek; 61 – Tabangut Obo Figure 5. The channels of communication in the 2nd millennium BCE: The era of Chariots. Colored arrows on the map: white – Seima- Turbino communication channel (the Tin Road); yellow – Turanian communication channel; black – Hittite- Mitannian communication channel; red – Egyptian communication channel; blue – Indian communication channel Figure 6. Estimated localization of the ancestral homeland of the late Indo- Europeans at the end of the 3rd and the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE. Colored arrows on the map: white – Seima-Turbino communication channel (the Tin Road); yellow – Turanian communication channel; black – Hittite- Mitannian communication channel; red – Egyptian communication channel; blue – Indian communication channel