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The Fragmentation and Everydayness of Diasporic Citizenship: Experiences Of The Fragmentation and Everydayness of Diasporic Citizenship: Experiences of Zimbabweans in South Africa and the United Kingdom (Year 2000 and Beyond) by Langton Miriyoga A Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Royal Holloway, University of London September 2017 1 | P a g e Declaration of Authorship I, Langton Miriyoga, do hereby declare that this thesis and the work presented in it is entirely my own. Where I have consulted the work of others, this is always clearly stated. Signed: ______________________ Date: ________________________ 2 | P a g e Acknowledgements This study would not have been possible without the support of a number of people and institutions, most of whom I cannot mention by name due to space limitations. Firstly, I am grateful to Royal Holloway, University of London for the generous financial support through the Reid Scholarship, without which I would never have made it into the UK to complete this programme. I would also like to thank PASSOP which acted as an intermediary organisation during my fieldwork in Cape Town. They graciously allowed me access to their organisational infrastructure which made the whole fieldwork experience much easier than it would have been without their support. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Professor Sandra Halperin who, together with fellow PhD students, provided constructive and critical feedback on my research design in our PhD research workshops (PR9000), during the preliminary stages of this project. I am also thankful to Dr Lara Nettlefield for her useful advice on the direction of this study. Lastly, and more crucially, I am hugely indebted to my supervisors -Dr Julia Gallagher and Professor David Simon – for guiding me intellectually through this whole study. Their critical and constructive critical feedback, and other forms of intellectual support, was instrumental in the development of this thesis right from conception to writing up. 3 | P a g e Thesis Abstract This thesis draws on a range of theoretical lenses from different disciplines, to understand the implications of transnational migration and citizenship. It largely uses different strands of citizenship theory to guide thinking on the displacement and flight of Zimbabweans since the year 2000, conceptualising it as a product of a deep-rooted ‘citizenship crisis’ within Zimbabwe. This thesis focusses on Zimbabwean emigration since year 2000 and beyond because this period is considered the height of the socioeconomic and political crisis in Zimbabwe; but it also traces the historical roots of this crisis. This thesis therefore acknowledges how a focus on post-2000 developments and experiences, leaves out fragments of the Zimbabwean nation who left earlier in the nation’s history.1 Experiences of these older fragments of the Zimbabwean diaspora fall outside the scope of this thesis, but causes of their departure will be examined in Chapter three to reveal the link between citizenship and emigration. This thesis also demonstrates how this crisis-driven emigration reconfigures the practice of citizenship profoundly, but it is not clear how. This makes it fascinating to explore the modes by which these emigrants negotiate citizenship both in the host country and country of origin, while hosted outside Zimbabwe. This multi-sited qualitative study examines experiences of a sample of 145 Zimbabweans living in selected locations in the UK and South Africa. This thesis also contains a stand-alone methodology chapter in which I critically reflect on my own unique fieldwork experiences, highlighting useful methodological and practical insights on researching diaspora citizenship in South Africa (in contradistinction to the UK). 1 These include the imperial diaspora who escaped repressive, discriminatory and violent colonial rule, those who left the Matabeleland and Midlands regions during the civil strife in the early 1980s, and those who left in response to the devastating neoliberal economic policies in the late 1980s-earlry 1990s. 4 | P a g e Results of this study confirm that Zimbabwean migrants indeed constitute a fractured diaspora, but their fragmentation manifests not only materially but also in their modes of citizenship (Pasura, 2010; 2008). They imagine and enact citizenship in multiple ways, beyond universal, state-centric, modes of politico-legal citizenship. In terms of findings, with a small proportion of participants engaging in overt political activism aimed at directly influencing homeland political processes, discursive political activity (everyday political talk) emerged as a dominant way of indirectly engaging and contesting authoritarian state back in their homeland. This thesis shows how formal legal status, rights and claims-making directed at the state, also tend to be supplanted by diasporas’ everyday social practices. Lastly, this study shows how this fragmented and everyday diasporic citizenship is mediated by an interplay of historical, geographical and contextual factors. And comparing experiences of Zimbabweans in the South African and UK illustrates the role of context in shaping emerging modes of diaspora citizenship in those two places. 5 | P a g e Table of Contents 1. Chapter One: Transnational Migration and the Reconfiguration of Citizenship ……………………………………………………………………………………….10 1.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………........10 1.2 Key Concepts…………………………………………………………………………………………………….15 1.3 Thesis Outline…...………………………………………………………………………………………………17 1.4 Fragmented and Everyday Diasporic Citizenship: A Survey of Literature…….….……………………………………………………………………….……19 1.4.1 Diasporas and Different Ways of Becoming Citizens……………………….….….22 1.4.1.1 Diasporic Citizenship as Legal Status…………………………………….………….29 1.4.1.2 Diasporic Citizenship as Political Participation…..………………………….…33 1.4.1.3 Diasporic Citizenship as Everyday Social Practice…………………….……….38 1.4.1.4 Diasporic Citizenship as Senses of Belonging……………………….…………..43 1.4.2 Multiple Arenas of Diasporic Citizenship………………………….……………………44 1.5 Chapter Concluding Discussion…………………………………………………….……………………49 2. Chapter Two: Researching Diasporic Citizenship: Methods, Experiences and Lessons…………………………………………………………………….51 2.1 Chapter Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..51 2.2 Methodological Assumptions……………………………………………………………………………52 2.3 Why Zimbabweans in South Africa and the UK?.................................................. 53 2.4 Who Was Included in the Study: Sampling Techniques and Issues…………………… 55 2.4.1 Negotiating Access to Participants: Methodological and Practical Considerations………………………………………………………………………..58 2.5 Methods of Data Collection and Analysis………………………………………………………… 63 2.5.1 Semi-Structured Interviewing………………………………………………………………..63 2.5.2 Focus Groups…………………………………………………………………………………………64 2.5.3 Being Immersed in the Community……………………………………………………….66 2.5.4 Being Immersed in an Intermediary Organisation………………………………….67 2.5.5 Being a Researcher on the Move…………………………………………………………..68 2.5.6 How Data Was Analysed………………………………………………………………………..69 2.6 The Researcher-Researched: Reflections on Fieldwork Experiences..………………..70 2.6.1 Subjectivities and Biases………………………………………………………………………..72 2.6.2 Power Dynamics in the Field: The Researcher and the Researched……………………………………………………………………………………………75 2.6.3 Researching Historically Repressed Participants……………………….……………76 2.6.4 Reflections on Power Dynamics During Encounters……………………………….77 6 | P a g e 2.6.5 Whose Voice was Heard?..........................................................................80 2.6.6 Being an Insider/Outsider: Issues of Positionality………………………………….83 2.7 Ethical Considerations…………………………………………….………………………………………..84 2.7.1 Anonymity and Confidentiality………………………………………………………….…..86 2.7.2 Reducing/Avoiding Psychological Harm……………………………….………………..87 2.7.3 Managing Expectations of Participants…………………………………….……………88 2.8 Chapter Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………….……………89 3. Chapter Three: Emigration as a Response to the Crisis of Citizenship in Zimbabwe ……………………………………………………………………….91 3.1 Chapter Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..91 3.2 Citizenship Crisis: Conceptualising its Manifestations and Responses in Africa…………………………………………………………...93 3.2.1 Emigration as a Response to Crisis of Citizenship: …………………..……………97 3.3 Crisis of Citizenship and its Colonial Roots in Sub-Saharan Africa.…………………....100 3.4 Crisis of Citizenship, Flight and Zimbabwe’s Post-Independence Zimbabwean Diaspora…………………..……………..........102 3.4.1 Economic Structural Adjustment Programme and its Citizenship Consequences in Zimbabwe……………..…………………....107 3.4.1.1 The Neoliberal Turn and Impact on Citizenship………..…………………....110 3.4.2 State Citizen Relationship in Post-2000 Zimbabwe: Dynamics and Consequences……………………..……………….………………………116 3.4.2.1 Third Chimurenga and its Impact on Citizenship in Zimbabwe……………………………………………………………………..………………..118 3.4.2.2 Understanding Contemporary Emigration from Zimbabwe…..............................................................................122 3.5 Concluding Discussion: Patterns of Exclusion and Inclusion in Post-Independence Zimbabwe………………………………………………………..…………125 4. Chapter Four: Being Political in Multiple Ways: Experiences of the Zimbabwean Diaspora…………..……………….……………………….……132 4.1 Chapter Introduction…………………………………………………….…………………………………132 4.1.1 Transnational Migration and the Relocation of Politics……..………………….133 4.1.2 Different Ways of Being Political………………………….……………………………….134 4.2 Being Political
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