The Muslims of Algiers in Antonio De Sosa's Topographia, E Historia

CEU eTD Collection

TOPOGRAPH THE MUSLIMS OF ALGIERS IN ANTONIO DE SOSA’S MA Thesis i IA in Interdisciplinaryin MedievalStudies. ,

E HISTORIA GENERALE DE ARGEL n Comparative History,with a Central European Un Johanna Tóth Johanna May 201 Budapest

iversity

specialization

(1612)

CEU eTD Collection

THE THE Central European University,Budapest, par in of theMasterArts degree of MUSLIMS OF ALGIERS DESOSA’S INANTONIO Accepted inconformancewiththe standards CEU. of the totheDepartmentThesis submitted Studies, ofMedieval ______HISTORIA GENERAL HISTORIA DE ARGEL Interdisciplinary MedievalStudies. Ch air, Examination Committeeair, Examination in Comparative History,in Comparativewitha Thesis Supervisor Johanna Tóth Johanna (Hungary May 201 Examiner Examiner Budapest by

3 )

tial fulfillment oftherequirements tial

(1612)

TOPOGRAPHIA specialization in

E CEU eTD Collection

THE THE Central European University,fulfillmentBudapest, oftherequirements partial in of theMasterArts degr of MUSLIMS OF ALGIERS INANTONIO Accepted inconformancewiththe standards CEU. of the totheDepartmentThesis submitted Studies, ofMedieval ______HISTORIA GENERAL HISTORIA DE ARGEL Interdisciplinary MedievalStudies ee in Comparative History,in Comparativewitha External Johanna Tóth Johanna (Hungary Budapest May 201 May by

Reader

3 )

DE SOSA’S DE SOSA’S

(1612)

TOPOGRAPHIA specialization in

E CEU eTD Collection

THE THE Central European University,fulfillmentBudapest, oftherequirements partial in of theMaster o MUSLIMS OF ALGIERS Accepted inconformancewiththe standards CEU of the totheDepartmentThesis submitted Studies, ofMedieval ______f Arts degree HISTORIA GENERAL HISTORIA DE ARGEL Interdisciplinary MedievalStudies. ______External Supervisor in Comparative History,in Comparativewitha IN ANTONIO DE SOSA’S IN ANTONIO DESOSA’S Johanna Tóth Johanna Supervisor (Hungary Budapest May201 by

)

______

(1612)

TOPOGRAPHIA specialization in

E CEU eTD Collection Budapest to anyofhigher institution education foracademic an other degree. or person’s any on infringes thesis the institut of part no and others, of work the of made was use illegitimate and unidentified no that declare I bibliography. and notes in credited properly as w own my exclusively is thesis a with undersigned, the I,

ion’s copyright. I also declare that no part of the thesis has been submitted in this form this in submitted been has thesis the of part no that declarealso Icopyright.ion’s specialization in Interdisciplinary Medieval Studies declare herewith that the present the that herewith declare Studies Medieval Interdisciplinary in specialization , 20

May 2013 May oan Tóth Johanna

ork, based on my research and only such external information external such only and research my on based ork, cniae o te A degree MA the for candidate , Signature ______

n oprtv History, Comparative in

CEU eTD Collection the message: bear! we the killed my my definitely writings,In but Iwant anddid bringjoy days. end, loveinto send to him the in to bringstructure tried who supervisor,Incze, János mystrictest say to thank bigto a like would I least, not but Last visitations. of lack my forgave hopefully and understood they that m loving still and me enduring Ithe moments at cheerful CEU spent andmemorable. making for and waycompanion hard inthis colleagues for my all mybeing I study. this thank i translations the of elegance the for merit the owns who one, the is he sweeter; language Spanish the with struggle sweet my making for Aceves y Fernández Hervin for thankful am richer. and nicer work this made also who and help, immediate of alwayswas who FerencCsirkés, thank to need also I study. this to birth giving in help their all for and patience, instructions, ideas, I need to express my thanks to my family for their everlasting support and for for and support everlasting their for family my to thanks my express to need I I all, of First I wi I s h to thank to h

would like to thank Ti thank to like would

to ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Judith Rasson for her assistance with style and orthography. I orthography. and style with assistance her for Rasson Judith e even after these two years. I also wish to thank to my friends my to thank to wish also Iyears. two these after even e

jana Krstić and Marcell Sebők for their inspiring inspiring their for Sebők Marcell and Krstić jana

to n CEU eTD Collection APPENDIX BIBLIOGRAPHY Conclusio 4.2. The Themes indeSosa’s of Classification 4.1. “Ethnicity” and “Religio ChapterLate Describing Four andofthe Classifying Sixteenth theMuslims 3.2. Perceptions Europe in ofMuslims and theSixteenth Spain in Centu CaptivityNarratives 3.1. New NewKnowledge: GenresKnowledge,Literature for and Ethnographic Travel Ethnographic Knowledge about Muslims forChapter de Sosa’s Three Context Account: The New Cultural Genres Renaissance for 2.3. Slavery inAlgiers Government,2.2. Population, andSociety Algiers of 2.1. Barbary North African Slavery Chapter Two Chapter andSosa One his Antonio de INTRODUCTION LISTFIGURES OF ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS n

......

...... Corsairs, Spain,and theOttoman Empire Corsairs, Historical Context: The of Clash Empires Context: Historical intheWestern Mediterraneanand

......

...... –

“Un

...... n” as Categories of Identityn” asindeSosa’s of Categories

Cuerpo Muerto”? ...... TABLE OFTABLE CONTENTS Topographia ......

...... 1

Topographia

......

...... Topographia ...... ry ......

...... - Century Algiers ......

......

111 103

98 77 61 52 41 41 33 29 23 23 11

vi 61

3 2

CEU eTD Collection Fi Fig. c. aGerman 1550. Algiers, from a 2.print manuscript Fig.The Western Mediterranean 1. 1480 g.Hayreddin Barbarossa 3.

...... LISTFIGURES OF - 1580 2

......

112 112 111

CEU eTD Collection Medieval and Early Modern Europe, Perception of Oth of Perception Europe, Modern Early and Medieval era modern early the 3 c2004), Press, ofPennsylvania University 2 R his of Occasion the in 1 variedemphasized this image inEurope. ofthe Muslims th along goes argumentation My picture. complex more somewhat a present could and Muslims the of view nuanced more a had that accounts were There exist. did exceptions “barbarous,” “sodomite,” “cruel,” “infidel,” being homo a as “Saracens”) even and “Moors” was term used (interchangeably “Turks” the of conceived writings the of most that true is it While all at encounter an was there (if “Turk” the informati conveying of aims different with education, different the Christendom of to knowledge arrived the other” which “religious through channels many these of Because travelers. and information the helped who spies” “unofficial were many There territory. Ottoman to spies and diplomats sent and borders their threatening “enemy” the on information of kinds all gathered which polities, European to interest great civilization. of enemy the barbarians,” “new the them calling by “Turks” the blamed and learning classical the of loss great the on lamenting newssh pamphlets, writers, 500 and editions 2463 listed Göllner Carl number; great in increased Oriental Despotism," in Despotism," Oriental Bisaha, Sixteenth in 11 1999), Press: Martin’s St. York:

Jeremy Lawrence, “Europe and the Turks in Spanish literature of the Renaissance and Early Modern Period,” Period,” Modern Early and Renaissance the of literature Spanish in Turks the and “Europe Lawrence, Jeremy S Nancy Bisaha, Bisaha, Nancy Culture and and Culture cho larly works larly Creating East and West and East Creating eets, memoirs, accounts, etc., which dealt with them. with dealt which etc., accounts, memoirs, eets, fe te oqet f osatnpe te ubr f raie aot h “Turks” the about treatises of number the Constantinople, of conquest the After -

n Seventeenth and S ociety in Habsburg Spain Habsburg in ociety raig at n Ws, easac Hmnss n te toa Turks Ottoman the and Humanists Renaissance West, and East Creating that etirement, RW etirement, Truman

argue for the presence of a more nuanced image of the ”Turk” in European literature of of literature European in ”Turk” the of image nuanced more a of presence the for argue include The Transmission of Culture in Early Modern Europe Modern Early in Culture of Transmission The

- ai R Bak, Wsen iw o Ilm” in Islam,” of Views “Western Blanks, R. David century Europe,” in Blanks and Frassetto, Frassetto, and Blanks in Europe,” century ; Lucette Valensi, 'The Making of a Political Paradigm: The Ottoman State and and State Ottoman The Paradigm: Political a of Making 'The Valensi, Lucette ; -

53.; Daniel J. Vitkus, “Early Modern Orientalism, Representations of Islam Islam of Representations Orientalism, Modern “Early Vitkus, DanielJ. 53.; INTRODUCTION . Studies Presented to R.W. Truman by his P his by Truman R.W. to Presented Studies . 43. , ed. by Nigel Griffin, et al. (London: Tamesis, 2001), 17. 2001), Tamesis, by(London: al. et ed. Nigel Griffin, ,

3 e lines of a recent scholarly debate that has has that debate scholarly recent a of lines e – )

er – through people from different regions, of of regions, different from people through , ed. by David R. Blanks and Michael Frassetto (New (New Frassetto Michael and Blanks R. David by ed. , 2 information on the “Turks” greatly varied. greatly “Turks” the on information

On the other hand, the new e new the hand, other the On - genous group, with characteristics of of characteristics with group, genous ahrn of gathering 3

The humanists of the era were were era the of humanists The Western Views of Is of Views Western on and mode of encountering of mode and on , edited by edited ,

h state the Western Views of Islam in in Islam of Views Western upi

Anthony Grafton and and Grafton Anthony ls and Colleagues and ls –

mpire was of of was mpire ie captives like lam (Pennsylvania: (Pennsylvania: , 207 ,

- 231.; 231.;

CEU eTD Collection 4 Coexistence 19 (Philadelphia, Blair Ann his in daily wrote and people of kinds different with conversations had books, various read escape. to managed he when well, as there a and four for slave service. Ottoman in corsairs Muslim by 1577 in captured was He monarchy. Spanish the of hierarchy ecclesiastical the in position high considerably Algiers]. Sosa’s de Antonio thesis: Master’s this in analyze I source the is Such depth. and methods focus, c be can writings These societies. Muslim inhabiting groups cultural and “ethnic” different discuss and Muslims, of groups different among distinguish to able were some details, in themselves lose to “observers” uphol to continuing besides experience on importance more placed which methods “scientific” even systematic, more With society. Muslim a of picture colorfuland detailed surprisinglyadepicted accounts that for conditions liter travel lands, distant for curiosity in rise pronounced a was there knowledge, empirical on put was emphasis more blended, perceptions secular and religious methods; new ideas, new perceptions, new of development of period a was sev to according time this at changed culture another about talking of and George Camamis’ Camamis’ George and s Sosa to introduction account this of author

The information about about information The ee also her book book her also ee The early modern era was also a transformation period in the sense that the methods the that sense the in period transformation a also was era modern early The noi d Ss w Sosa de Antonio Topographia

the Early Modern Mediterranean Mediterranean Modern Early the Topography of Algiers, of Topography which , Estudios sobre el cautiverio en el Siglo de Oro de Siglo el en cautiverio el sobre Estudios Cervantes in Algiers: A Captive’s Tale Captive’s A Algiers: in Cervantes de de ,

half years (1577 years half

hsoi gnrl e Argel de general historia e 90), 173 90), Sosa is scarce. María Antonia Garcés’ impo Garcés’ Antonia María scarce. is Sosa

was as a Spanish subject of Portuguese origin, who held a a held who origin, Portuguese of subject Spanish a as - previously 203.; Eric R. Dursteler, Dursteler, R. Eric 203.;

onsidered as early “anthropological” accounts in their their in accounts “anthropological” early as onsidered Early Modern Dialogue with Islam with Dialogue Modern Early - 1581), at the same time as Miguel as time same the at 1581),

srbd o ig d Heo acbso o Plro Se her See Palermo. of archbishop Haedo, de Diego to ascribed (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, c2006). Press, University JohnsHopkins The (Baltimore:

te oin of notions the d De 4

Sosa was very productive in his captivity: he he captivity: his in productive very was Sosa Venetians in Constantinople, Nation, Identity, and Identity, Nation, Constantinople, in Venetians

(Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2002), Press, University Vanderbilt (Nashville: [Topography and General History of of History General and [Topography 4

(Madrid

Then he was kept in Algiers as a as Algiers in kept was he Then ature, etc., all of which created created which of all etc., ature, rtant research identified identified research rtant auctoritas

: Editorial Gredos, 1977 Gredos, : Editorial . For other background work on work background other For eral factors. This era era This factors. eral ad hc urged which and , de Cervantes was was Cervantes de de Sosa as the the as Sosa

) .

CEU eTD Collection “Romania;” the “Moors” consist of the citizens (baldi), the Kabyles, the Zwawa, and and Zwawa, the Kabyles, the (baldi), citizens the of consist “Moors” the “Romania;” subcategories further into of of thecriteria different that ofcategorization heemploys. identities and society, Muslim a in groups “ethnic” the of depiction nuanced and detailed its them. da every in groups religious and “ethnic” different the of account gives He etc. rites, religious an city the of an with Muslims the about written i sensibility ethnographic century sixteenth the of accounts of series the in piece significant a is it that is thesis the in study goingto am I which book the importanceof abou centre trading important an society, multi complex a with city Mediterranean a was It government. its regarding independence of amount certain a reached and sought which Empire, Ottoman the the of c the also was Algiersperiod. seas this in Mediterranean Western the controlled that force strong a was which corsairs,” the of “capital the as known was that city a about written was it because all of First reasons. several for important Th etc. organization, governmental and military religions, different their the customs, and people of groups different inhabitants, architecture, geography, its Algiers, of first the 1612 inValladolidthename under ofPalermo. de Diego Haedo, theArchbishopof priso the period, I am going to discuss in in am I discuss goingto theperiod, 5

The circumstances and space of mobility of the c the of mobility of space and circumstances The y contact with each other, the nature of their relationships and the boundaries between between boundaries the and relationships their of nature the other, each with contact y cell. n De Sosa’s work Sosa’s De De Sosa’s work consists of five books, but in my thesis I am going to focus only on on only focus to going am I thesis my in but books, five of consists work Sosa’s De nhs con o Trs”“or, eeae, n Jw, eSs iie them divides Sosa de “Jews,” and renegades, “Moors,” “Turks,” of account his In one, 5

De Topography of Algiers of Topography is urudns ter every their surroundings, its d oas work Sosa’s

is exceptional among early modern accounts on Muslims because of because Muslims on accounts modern early among exceptional is n the sense that the author is mainly concerned with the inhabitants the with concerned mainly is author the that sense the n –

the “Turks” are divided into those from Anatolia and those fro those and Anatolia from those into divided are “Turks” the C

Topograph hapter 2. hapter , which gives a colorful and detailed account of the city the of account detailed and colorful a gives which ,

t which not many accounts had been written. The The written. been had accounts many not which t aptives in the Ottoman Empire, which Algiers belonged to in in to Algiersbelonged which Empire, Ottoman the in aptives a e h e ia, 5

a lf, lte, utm, characteristics, customs, clothes, life, day soi gnrl e Argel de general istoria apital of one of the provinces of of provinces the of one of apital - cultural and multi andcultural

a pbihd in published was

e book is is book e

because because - lingual m CEU eTD Collection into contact with an alien culture, wanted to observe, understand and give account of it by by it of account give and understand observe, to wanted culture, alien an with contact into who, writers modern early those of series the in Sosa de place uses he classification Iberian and socio what peninsula; the conceives he how him; for mean etc., “Moor,” profession,” by “Turk “Turk” like categories what Sosa; de of account particular this in function categories these how see to text the study to like would I but today, of identity” “religious or “ethnicity” of category the nor etc., Turks, Moors, of understanding modern the project to want not do I text. the in present also are identity of category“regional” or identity” “professional categor “ethno “cultural” rather “ethnic,” these Furthermore, itself. era the in clear not were they as clear, “identity” of boundaries the are Neither “ethnic.” clearly are they say cannot with blackface. seventeenth of stages the on while brown,” dark “very other the tan,” partly white “partly as group one describing dif of appearance the in diversity the of account gives He new. fundamentally and nuanced exceptionally were categories Sosa’s de Spain, and/or Africa gene in Muslims to North of Muslim to “only” refer also could “Moor” when applied and “Moor,” with interchangeably typically “Turk” the of category the detects he account his customs, their in people between differences In customs). day every and rites religious (their characteristics the as well as from came they where or live they where to according groups these divides basically Sosa De etc. Africa, from Spain, from be could Jews Spain; from “Moors” 6

The problem of the different categories of categories problemdifferent ofthe The The analysis of the culture of the people of Algiers and the categories of of categories the and Algiers of people the of culture the of analysis The th however, noted, be to has It

ies are not the same as today; and such early modern categories as as categories modern early such and today; as same the not are ies

- century England Shakespeare’s Othello was still played by an actor actor an by played still was Othello Shakespeare’s England century

- cultural hechooseswhy. themes and torelate

identity will be discussed in C in willdiscussed be identity at the categories he uses are of a mixed nature; one one nature; mixed a of are uses he categories the at 6

behavior, clothes and language and clothes behavior, hapter 4 ofthis 4 thesis. hapter ferent groups of “Moors,” of groups ferent a ad a used was and ral

. In an era when when era an In . ulm o the of Muslims -

eiiu” or religious”

ir cultural ir 6

Hence, getting

CEU eTD Collection Ethnol J 2.; 2009), 1250 Pilgrimage, and Ethnology, Genre, 8 understood be to order in translated be to have culture alien thein experiences he/she phenomena the permeable; not is border c1994), Press: University Era Modern Early the in Peoples Other and Europeans Sc B. Stuart to introduction the in (Cited his.” sees He mountains. the of trees or colors islander’s the see not does beach a used histori The analysis. of points as themes cultural certain of setting a in things culture his to compared diversities and similarities 7 accounts in the second captives’Then, created. which andconditions were in deother Sosa’s s to Algiers in and Empire Ottoman the in slavery of notion the upon touch also will I Mediterranean. specificallyintellectuals “Turkish Western ofthe from age threat,” this inthe a to look will I attention Algiers particular With context. historical a in account his with along himself Sosa de place to going am I first, new, and different is categorization his much how see to and and those within languages, assumptions and changes ofand languages.” the inemphasis genres different in expressed categories, analytical of set basic a of emergence the of history in ethnography of history “The it, puts Rubiés put they Sosa, account. ethnographical de an towards tended they thus, people, as the on emphasis diversity; human of study the mainly was writings modern early meth The lands. foreign of observation the for pattern ( travel of methodology the and literature travel of genre the of development the to contributed etc. cultures, and lands foreign for curiosity great d navigation, European Humanism, work. anthropologist’s the do to inquiry of themes certain up setting through comprehensible things observed the making 9 c1986). Press, California of University (Berkeley: Marcus E. Resea American of School a ethnography: of Politic Century,” Sixteenth

“Travel writing and ethnography,” in Rubiés, Rubiés, in writingethnography,” and “Travel See: Palmira Brummett, “Genre, Witness, and Time in the ‘Book’ the in Time and Witness, “Genre, Brummett, Palmira See: n h poes f nesadn o aohr cu another of understanding of process the In hwartz, hwartz, ogy ogy In order to place de Sosa’s wo Sosa’s de place to order In (Aldershot: Ashgate Variorum, c2007); John Howland Rowe, “Ethnography and Ethnology in the the in Ethnology and “Ethnography Rowe, Howland John c2007); Variorum, Ashgate (Aldershot: oan mlct nesadn: O Understanding: Implicit – island metaphor where the “observer” reaches the island of the “observed” and as he put it “he “he it put he as and “observed” the of island the reaches “observer” the where metaphor island – - Pau Rubiés, Rubiés, Pau

ifit ispossible. Kroeber Anthropoligical Society Papers Society Anthropoligical Kroeber t the events that determined political processes, and the writings of the of writings the and processes, political determined that events the t

. Te bevr a nvr comprehe never can observer The 2.) Travellers and Cosmographers, Studies in the History the in Studies Cosmographers, and Travellers

bserving, Reporting, and Reflecting on the Encounters between between Encounters the on Reflecting and Reporting, bserving, - 1700 rk among other early modern anthropological treatises treatises anthropological modern early other among rk Travellers and cosmographers and Travellers , ed. Palmira Brummet and Andrew Colin Gow (Leiden, Brill: Brill: (Leiden, Gow Colin Andrew and Brummet Palmira ed. , lture (which cannot be done entirely) the “observer” draws draws “observer” the entirely) done be cannot (which lture –

7 contributing to a self a to contributing rch Advance seminar Advance rch

d y tatB cwrz(e Yr: Cambridge York: (New Schwartz B. Stuart by ed. , rvl rtn cn hs e rte a the as written be thus can writing travel

30 (1964): 1 (1964): 30 d h osre clue opeey a this as completely, culture observed the nd odology and focus of some of these these of some of focus and odology

of Travels, of r apodemica ars - - 19.; 19.; the represent and too, understanding, , ed. by James Clifford and George George and Clifford James by ed. , , Part 1., IV, IV, 1., 21. , Part WritingCulture an of ethnography Greg Dening Dening Greg ethnography of an ” o

iscovery of new lands, lands, new of iscovery

in in f Early Modern Travel and and Travel Modern Early f The “Book” of Travels: Travels: of “Book” The , hc st the set which ),

8 ,

the Poetics and and Poetics the As Joan As ee the ee - 9 Pau

–

CEU eTD Collection 10 the 1990: in published was book Espa Bibliófilos Argel and analysis what categories his were. of Isla perceived Sosa de how see rather but analysis comparative thorough a make to want not do I Nonetheless, Muslims. among distinguished that works exceptional those age modern early the in Africa on writings to account his compare travel will I modern Furthermore, anthropology. early early and identity, literature modern early about Muslims, of perception Western the classi the and produced era this writings the all to Sosa’s de compare to feasible not is it As etc. strategies, narrative the use, political and religious its used, were that sources the audience, the writing, work. this in anthropology about talk can we sense what in and extent what to and experience, his on relies he much how age, the of knowledge” “ethnographic emerging the of productions Sosa’s de where is here question My Muslims. of perceptions “Iberian” particularly and general the among as well as accounts, travel captivity of and literature genres the among work the place will I knowledge.” “ethnographic emerging presenta of methods ideas, contemporary of application his author, the on influences possible the and work the for background cultural a give will I chapter (1870): 364 (1870): 1870 “ in Africaine Revue 192 Españoles, Bibliófilos de Topographie et histoire générale d’Alger,” trad. Dr. Monnereau and A. Berbrugger, Berbrugger, A. and Monnereau Dr. trad. d’Alger,” générale histoire et Topographie

Diego de Haedo, Haedo, de Diego ws ulse i 1927 in published was )

h frt oen dto o te hl wr ( work whole the of edition modern first The to questions other several are There - 375, 414 375, cs that he could have read, I will greatly rely on the secondary literature about literature secondary the on rely greatly will I read, have could he that cs ñ Topografía e historia general historia e Topografía oles. - 443, 490 443,

10 - 1871 by Dr. Monnereau and Luois Adrien Berbrugger Berbrugger Adrien Luois and Monnereau Dr. by 1871

The next edition ca edition next The 7 - - 519.) and the and 519.) 1929) 3 vols. 3 1929)

– -

1929 by Ignacio Bauer y Landauer by the Sociedad de de Sociedad the by Landauer y Bauer Ignacio by 1929 mainly by Leo Africanus and Cervantes and AfricanusLeo by mainly Diálogo de los Mártires los de Diálogo Epítome de los reyes los de Epítome Before that, and parts of the the of parts and that, Before

de Argel de 8 me very late, and instead of the whole only one only whole the of instead and late, very me

be taken into account, such as the purpose of of purpose the as such account, into taken be , ed. Ignaicio Lauer y Landauer (Madrid: Sociedad (Madrid: Landauer y Lauer Ignaicio ed. , was translated to French by H.D. Grammont Grammont H.D. by French to translated was oorpi e Topographia

by Emilio Sola and José María María José and Sola Emilio by

account stands in the series of series the in stands account Topography tion, genres, and the the and genres, tion, historia historia –

was published in the the in published was Revue Africcaine Africcaine Revue and also some of some also and Deo e Haedo, de (Diego mic culture mic general de de general 14

CEU eTD Collection 14 de FelipeII época la en secretos 13 12 11 1881.) Jourdan, 1881. in intra of representation Sosa’s de concerning especially inexplicable, is aspects diferencia “ of moments the the of manifestation the examined of Rodríguez “other.” description the influenced and circumstance changed a in “self” the transformed id own their as well as captors’ their defined they how work, their in identities created Sosa) de (and captives how at look mainlyThey captivity. of experience the for source a as work the of importancethe emphasized who Rodríguez, Rodríguez María an Voigt Lisa by written were mention to studies two other The importance. its and work. the in Algiers sixteenth and Barbary Mediterranean, Western the in actors main the and context entitled book their in source Topographia book her in author the of life the on information indispensable offering Sosa, de on research extensive made who i even Haedo, de Diego the of author the that confirming step, important his in work the about wrote Garcés. Antonia María the book, first the of edition critical a 2001, In Parreno. University ofWisconsin University Argel de general hispano relaciones las de representación Worlds

George Camamis, Camamis, George Garcés, Lisa Voigt, Voigt, Lisa Emilio Sola, José F. de la Pe la de F. José Sola, Emilio 13

(Chape

Th (Diego de Haedo, Haedo, de (Diego An Early Modern Dialogue Modern Early An

.” century; and their work is also important as a witness of Cervantes’ life and and life Cervantes’ of witness a as important also is work their and century; e 14 i Writing Captivity in the Early Modern Atlantic, Authority in the Iberian and English Imperial English and Iberian the in Authority Atlantic, Modern Early the in Captivity Writing l Hill: The University of North Carollina Press, c2009); Ana María Rodríguez Rodríguez, “La “La Rodríguez, Rodríguez María Ana c2009); Press, Carollina North of University The Hill: l r introduction to the text is a thorough analysis of the author, his work, the text the work, his author, the of analysis thorough a is text the to introduction r

E .

The neglect of the secondary literature literature secondary the of neglect The , m Cautiverio y trabajos de Diego Galán Galán Diego de trabajos y Cautiverio Estudios sobre el cautiverio en el siglo siglo el de oro en cautiverio el sobre Estudios lo oa n Js F d l Pe la de F. José and Sola ilio -

Madison, 2007). Madison, 11 f it was published in 1612 under de Haedo’s name. Haedo’s de under 1612 in published was it f itie e ri d rois des Histoire

pr fro Apart evne i Algiers in Cervantes

ñ (Spain. Fondo de Cultura Económica, c1995.) Cultura de Económica, Fondo (Spain. a, a, Estudios sobre el cautiverio en el siglo de oro de siglo el en cautiverio el sobre Estudios evne y a Berbería la y Cervantes evne y la y Cervantes .

- musulmanas en tres obras del siglo XVII: XVII: siglo del obras tres en musulmanas te nrdcin t tee dtos Gog Camamis George editions, these to introductions the m ’Alger

9 ebra Crats mno turco mundo Cervantes, Berbería,

ta. Henri trad. , ñ and later, in the critical edition of the the of edition critical the in later, and as work also a Topography e Hi

(Madrid: Editorial Gredos, 1977.) Gredos, Editorial (Madrid: tra e idno Joló, y Mindanao de storia o te eieto o te historical the of delineation the for eadn te oks ethnographic work’s the regarding - Delmas de Grammont (Argel: Adolphe Adolphe (Argel: Grammont de Delmas Topographia ed

is Antonio de Sosa and not and Sosa de Antonio is

ih the with entity, and how captivity how and entity, la confrontación con la la con confrontación la Topographia e historia historia e Topographia ws ulse by published was , - berberisco y servicios servicios y berberisco Topography , and he made an an made he and , 12

It was Garcés was It (h diss., (PhD ”

- Muslim Muslim d Ana Ana d

as a a as

CEU eTD Collection divisions of the Algerian society, which was an outstanding phenomenon among the the among phenomenon outstanding contemporary theworks Muslims. about an was which society, Algerian the of divisions

CEU eTD Collection December 1562. 58 Ibid., 1562. December 20 Garcés, jurisdiction: ordinary exercise to allowed 19 students. by Portuguese favored was as it Salamanca, 18 17 isofbirth unknown. place exact and his date scarce, 16 Garcés, in translated 15 on travelling family his with Sosa de with Malta, Valletta, to Barcelona from of sailed Order Malta the of ships three 1577 April In captured. was he Sicily to way his on because deanship, the for him nominated II Philip 1576, October in Agrigento of cathedral the of general vicar and dean of position the for asking II Philip to wrote He Rome. to went he and mentor, and support his lost Sosa de 1576, March 28 on Catania, of Siracusa of bishopric the of general vicar of position the received he because so, did Sosa that seems It court. the with contact close in keep to had one hierarchy ecclesiastical the in position distinguished a gain state. the of bureaucracy Portugal,” and Spain modern ( 1576. before time some citizenship Spanish De L Sosa’s regarded as a highly qualified and highly as a qualified regarded the of secretary the was of Sosa de [studies]”), letters notes and person Sosa’s de Antonio marginal of report good very a have the (“We Italy of Council to according and Sosa) de to (according him for recommendation 21 Doctor in utroque iure utroque in Doctor

Garcés, Garcés, It is sure that Bishop Juan Orozco de Arce, who appointed de Sosa as vicar, was elevated to the bishopric in in bishopric the to elevated was vicar, as Sosa de appointed who Arce, de Orozco Juan Bishop that sure is It Garcés, Garcés, A vicar general was appointed by the bishop as his deputy. If the bishop was absent, the vicar general was general vicar the absent, was bishop the If deputy. his as bishop the by appointed was general vicar A Garcés ( Garcés bd, 0 Acrig o h fc ta te ue f ernv, rsdn o te igo o Scl, wro Sicily, of kingdom the of president Terranova, of duke the that fact the to According 60. Ibid., and Cited day.” by day completely, down it take even I and Algiers, in occurs that everything know “I Antonio de Sosa was Portuguese by birth, but it is supposed that he had taken taken had he that supposed is it but birth, by Portuguese was Sosa de Antonio Cervantes in Algiers in Cervantes An Early Moder Early An Cervantes in Algiers in Cervantes ife

Sicily, which was regarded as an outstanding post with a great income. On 26 On income. great a with post outstanding an as regarded was which Sicily,

Cervantes in Algiers in Cervantes Antoniode and his Sosa

- 59. n Dialogue, n ) and a doctor of theology, which meant “a rare distinction in early in distinction rare “a meant which theology, of doctor a and )

, 68. , “...cuánto pasa en“...cuánto pasa día...” Argel díapor sé,y aunloescribo todo, , 68) assumes that de Sosa studied either in Coimbr in either studied Sosa de that assumes 68) ,

osdrn h tog com strong the Considering

(Syracuse) and Catania in Sicily. in Catania and (Syracuse) honorable person. Ibid., 59. Ibid., person. honorable

60. As I have said in the Introduction, information on de Sosa’s life is is life Sosa’s de on information Introduction, the in said have I As 60. n tu a od hne o big mlyd n h high the in employed being for chance good a thus and , 77. , Chapter

An Early Modern Modern Early An 11

e a a doc a was He One

Topographia

Dialogue petition for these posts, in order to order in posts, these for petition 21

but he could not take up his job his up take not could he but 20

With the death of the bishop the of death the With , , 59. o o cnn n cvl law civil and canon of tor

a or at the University of of University the at or a

te a a te 19 15

CEU eTD Collection citrs S. al S. eoe S. Augus others. and SebastianMünster, St. LeoAfricanus, Valla, Lorenzo Jerome, St. Paul, St. Scriptures, Holy the Tacitus, Thucydides, Virgil, Suetonius, Macrobius, Polybius, Strabo, Cicero, Lucan, Justinian, Pliny, Algiers Garcés, See: 24 text. Sosa’s de Algiers in Cervantes in Jews of depiction negative in him about writes he and Algiers of account his in times more him mentions Sosa De again. Islam to then Christianity, 23 69. Garcés, Cervantes: captured who one the also was Mamí Arnaut that note to interesting Algiers in [Life reyes, los de Epítome 22 books ransom, been which have must because high of d his pay to king Spanish the to letters begging more write him make to order in supposedly p humid dark, renegade. Jewish a mast his Mohammad, by badly treated of was he writes, house he what the to According in prison small a in 1581, and 1577 between Algiers, yearsin half and four spent Sosa De slaves. as sold he whom of all people, hi with along captive a as capital,” “corsair the Algiers, to Sosa Mamí. Arnaut corsair famous the of leadership the under Algiers from galiots 12 of squadron a by 1577 April 1 on captured and attacked were they where Sardinia) (near of island the on refuge took They ships. other the from them separated storm the Mártires de Argel de Mártires buenos?” y santos libros los leer que ocupación mejor ¿qué tiene, me patrón mi de bárbaro este que en yconversación plática toda de apartado tan encerramiento un yen ésta como soledad 25

Ka’id Muhammad was in charge of the mint in Algiers mint in the of charge wasin Muhammad Ka’id According to the research of Garcés (and also according to some mentions by de Sosa himself) he read (in read he himself) Sosa de by mentions some to according also (and Garcés of research the to According “Ramirez: De manera que ¿siempre que acá vengo le he de hallar ocupado en los libros? libros? los en ocupado hallar de he le vengo acá que ¿siempre que manera De “Ramirez: Garcés, Garcés,

San Pablo San 24 and/ or before) and used for his whole work Aristotle, Arrian, Galen, Herodotus, Hesiod, Plato, Ovid, Ovid, Plato, Hesiod, Herodotus, Galen, Arrian, Aristotle, work whole his for used and before) or and/ In captivity de Sosa used his time reading and writing. He surrounded himself with himself surrounded He writing. and reading time his used Sosa de captivity In

Ramírez: So, every time I come, must I find you occupied with books? Sosa: books? with occupied you find I must come, I time every So, Ramírez: n sltd lk ti, n i a rsn o is so is there than prison a in and conversation this, like solitude a In

in his prisoncell:in his n al Mdr Dialogue Modern Early An ], which relates it through the discussion of the characters Zahara and Silvia. It is also also is It Silvia. and Zahara characters the of discussion the through it relates which ], rison cell with chains on his on chains with cell rison . The ships were crossing the channel between Malta and Sicily when a great great a when Sicily and Malta between channel the crossing were ships The . , eds. by eds. Emilio , , 77. , mentions the capture of the ship, and so does Cervantes in his drama drama his in Cervantes does so and ship, the of capture the mentions

reading saintly and goodreading and saintly books?

that my master, this barbarian, keeps me, what better occupation occupation better me,what keeps barbarian, this master, that my

Sola y José María Parreño (Madrid: Hiperión, c1990), 54. c1990), Hiperión, (Madrid: Parreño yMaría José Sola

41 , ilg d l captividad la de Diálogo - 42.; Garcés, Garcés, 42.; ie Fais lnu, al Goi, occi, er Mexía, Pedro Boccaccio, Giovio, Paolo Blondus, Flavius tine,

legs. Sometimes he was sent out to public works, works, public to out sent was he Sometimes legs. 12

; he had converted first from Judaism to Islam, then to to then Islam, to Judaism from first converted had he ; e Sosa’s highe position. evne i Algiers in Cervantes Garcés, Garcés, 25 n al Mdr Dialogue Modern Early An

bt certainly but , olated from every talk and and talk every from olated An Early Modern Dialogue Modern Early An er, and was kept alone in a a in alone kept was and er, Antonio de Sosa, Sosa, de Antonio , 69. One of de Sosa’ works, works, Sosa’ de of One 69. ,

fml ad 9 other 290 and family s he –

a model was

he lists among the the among lists he Cervantes in Algiers in Cervantes

42 , El trato de Argel Argel de trato El 22 Diálogo de los de Diálogo

oa En Sosa: He took de de took He o te much the for , , 73. - San Pedro Pedro San 0; Garcés, 50.;

ka’ids

una una 23 ,

CEU eTD Collection Ahmud, envoy of Mercederian m Mercederian of envoy Ahmud, son Muhammed’s slave, and John St. of Knight a Torrez, de González Antonio Fray renegade, his Morisco in present are otherwise him with conversed or cell prison his visit who people The society. Algerian the on vision rich a have could Sosa de so people, various 26 their in phenomena works. certain regarding descriptions similar and topics common in texts business.” said the ti many communicated Cervantes de Miguel said the whom Argel… en captive estando hecho ha que los de y c in still in found be can testimony was Sosa de while redeemed being his after Cervantes of part the on testimony a gave Sosa de addition, In part. Cervantes’ from trust great of sign them join to him invited and Sosa, de with plans the shared had who Cervantes, books, his of one In 1580. and 1575 between Sosa, de as time same the around Algiers in captivity poetry andalso written literatureincaptivi theirliterary and productions church. the of man a was he as problems their with him visited Christians and household, master’s o people the with contact in was Sosa De people. of kinds different but books, only not were sources his incarceration his of spite In Algiers. in captives Christian of circumstances la its with Algiers of city the him, surrounded which people the and things the all about wrote Sosa De 28 Argel… en captivo negocio.” dicho 27

Some of them will be indicated in the analysis of de Sosa’s work in this thesis. workthis Sosa’s in de inof the analysis indicated will be Someofthem “yo fuy uno de los con que el dicho Miguel de Ceruantes comunicó muchas vezes y en mucho secreto el el secreto mucho en y vezes muchas comunicó Ceruantes de Miguel dicho el que con los de uno fuy “yo As his master Muhammad was a municipal officer of Algiers, his household was frequently visited by by visited frequently was household his Algiers, of officer municipal a was Muhammad master his As 28 26 Diálogo de los Mártires los de Diálogo evne ws atrd n h sa y h sm prt, rat aí ad a in was and Mamí, Arnaut pirate, same the by sea the on captured was Cervantes

ih iul e evne, h bcm hs et red hr, hy discussed they there, friend best his became who Cervantes, de Miguel With dcp ad itr, h pol lvn i te iy n aon i, n the and it, around and city the in living people the history, and ndscape Información transcription by Pedro Torres Lanzas (Madrid: José Estaban D.L., 1981), 157. D.L.,1981), Estaban José Lanzas (Madrid: Torres Pedro by transcription 27

hi en n oc n icsigi tercpiiy peri their in appear captivity their in discussing and touch in being Their

de Miguel de Cervantes de lo que ha servido á S.M. y de lo que lo de y S.M. á servido ha que lo de Cervantes de Miguel de Información de Miguel de Cervantes de lo que ha servido á S.M. S.M. á servido ha que lo de Cervantes de Miguel de Información onk Fray Jorge Olivar, etc.). etc.). Olivar, FrayJorge onk

de Sosa gives account on the second attempt of esca of attempt second the on account gives Sosa de 13

). De Sosa writes: “I was one of those with those of one was “I writes: Sosa De ). Garcés, Garcés, Diálogos Cervantes in Algiers in Cervantes mes and in much secrecy about about secrecy much in and mes

(Jerónimo Ramírez, a slave of a of slave a Ramírez, (Jerónimo

aptivity in 1580 (the (the 1580 in aptivity ty.

, 82. ,

ha hecho estando hecho ha

– ed de Sosa in in Sosa de ed

which is a a is which - in pe of of pe f his f - law law CEU eTD Collection 30 Accordin 62 see: Ibid., escape, his issues around sister. more the about in Algiers. For died nephew his memorandum, his his ransomed had he that before but ship, merchant a on escaped he that assumes Garcés Garcés, see: Cervantes, for than 29 second the inhabitants; and government, topography, its city, the of description colorful the is first the books; three contains Algiers] of History De W Sosa’s and attempts continuous these of accusations death deremained assigned his Sosa inhis 1587. until in post Despite Algiers. in stay his during Turk becoming him accusing and letters his in apostate king. the and pope Agrigent of cathedral the of general vicar and dean of office his from Sosa de remove not did pope lands. Christian in safe in stay could Sosa de so there, travel to conduct safe a him Hasan because known not is the punishment his on accomplished have report would Sosa and de If there. Algiers Christians of to conditions back go to had he that punishment the along eventually, order The 1582. November in convicted and Felipe San of Convent Augustinian the in incarcerated was He son. his was “nephew” his presumablyand lover his but sister his not was board on him with woman positi prominent a obtained thus (and priest lay a be to pretended and order his from fled had who friar Augustinian an being of money. 33 32 31 66. Ibid., apostate.

Ibid., 71. Ibid., Ibid lands. Spanish in jurisdiction papal of the question over alreadyconfrontation been a had There 67 Ibid., According to Garcés, the ransom for de Sosa and his family his and Sosa de for ransom the Garcés, to According An ordained friar cannot leave his order except with the pope’s confirmation otherwise he becomes an an becomes he otherwise confirmation pope’s the with except order his leave cannot friar ordained An In July 1581 de Sosa managed to escape, w escape, to managed Sosa de 1581 July In De Sosa’s work Sosa’s De 29 o, which made Philip II angryand furtherbetween poisoned therelationship the this o, which Philip made -

69. He went first to Madrid, where a scandal broke out in 1582. First, he was accused was he First, 1582. in out broke scandal a where Madrid, to first went He

ork

hlp I nitd n eoig e oa rm h ps, aln him calling post, the from Sosa de removing on insisted II Philip Pasha Veneziano, the governor of Algiers at the time, did not give not did time, the at Algiers of governor the Veneziano, Pasha Topographia, e Historia general de Argel de general Historia e Topographia, An Early Modern Dialogue Modern Early An

sent him to Rome to the pope to ask for pardon, which he got got he which pardon, for ask to pope the to Rome to him sent

on as vicar general). vicar as on

f h wrt osbe charge possible worst the of 14

, 61. There is not much information on his escape; escape; his on information much not is There 61. , hich cost his master a huge amount of amount huge a master his cost hich was fifteen hundred ducats, three times more times three ducats, hundred fifteen was Topograpy of Algiers of Topograpy 30

Moreover, it turned out that the that out turned it Moreover, [Topography and Genera and [Topography 33 –

h intention the , which gives a a gives which , . , 70. , 31 - 66.

The

g to to g

of l CEU eTD Collection published much later, in 1614, long after Haedo and Philip II’s death. It was published by Haedo’s nephew, the the nephew, Haedo’s by published was It II’sdeath. Philip and Haedo after long 1614, in later, much published was work the But years. two least at there together worked Haedo and Sosa De 1584. October in Agrigento of H as Sicily, in Haedo de Diego with work his left have must He name. his under book his publish the to possible not was Haedo, it name Sosa’s de de surrounded scandal Diego the of because that of is Garcés name the under who published was Palermo, it of why archbishop of explanation detailed a here give not will Garcés, Garcés, in: more see issue, this on of edition their to introduction their Dialogue 35 hispano las relaciones de representación reyes los the contains volume first the division: of possibility another provides 1927 in published 34 ( king Customs Its and Inhabitants, ( appraisal the in like places, others various reflected is This culture. its and inhabitants its on account an to present intended was it sense: broader a in but, mapping city only not city, the of description goa Curious and Doctrine Copious Elegance with Understand: to Needs Christianity that Tortures among the name archbishopof ofPalermo. de Diego Haedo, entitled Marabouts]. discourse theological a and Martyrs], Algerian captivity, on dialogues called book, third the Algiers; of rulers the book, satss y omno eqiio, u cnin s etedn n a hitaia: co Christianidad: la en curiosa. entiendan elegancia se conviene que exquisitos, tormentos y espantosas, 36 yo

Topographia e historia general de Argel, repartida en cinco tratados, do se veran casos estraños, muertes muertes estraños, casos veran se do tratados, cinco en repartida Argel, de general historia e Topographia unger Diego de Haedo. Haedo. de ungerDiego George Camamis and later María Antonia Garcés (in (in Garcés Antonia María later and Camamis George ee I m sn Gré’ iiin f h wr. h frt oen dto o the of edition modern first The work. the of division Garcés’ using am I Here, ls as well. First of all, the usage of terms “topography” and “history” refer to a holistic holistic a to refer “history” and “topography” terms of usage the all, of First well. as ls Topography and Description of the Things of Algiers, the Things of of Description and Topography Epítome de los reyes de Argel de reyes los de Epítome Cervantes in Algiers in Cervantes The whole title of the work is work the of title whole The , the second the the second the , Extraordinary and Deaths, Horrific Cases, Strange Exhibit will which Books, Five ) confirmed that the author of the work was Antonio was work the of author the that confirmed ) . 36

This heading not only sets the topic of the account, but its main concerns and concerns main its but account, the of topic the sets only not heading This 34

- The work was published in 1612, after de Sosa’s death, in Valladolid under Valladolid in death, Sosa’s de after 1612, in published was work The

29 by the Soc the by 29 One has to take into account that the work could have undergone some editing by the Diego Diego the by editing some undergone have could work the that account into take to has One

Garcés, Diálogo de la captividad captividad la de Diálogo De la captividad la De , 33.; Rodríguez, “La representación de las relaciones hispano relaciones las de representación “La Rodríguez, 33.; , m de Sosa knew and had worked with after his captivity. One assumption of of assumption One captivity. his after with worked had and knew Sosa de m iedad de Bibliófilos Españoles, with the preface of Ignacio Bauer y Landauer Landauer y Bauer Ignacio of preface the with Españoles, Bibliófilos de iedad An Early Modern Dialogue Modern Early An An Early Modern Dialogue Modern Early An ) and in the approval of the court’s designated censor and the the and censor designated court’s the of approval the in and )

Diálogo de los Mártires de Argel de Mártires los de Diálogo - musulmanas,” 12. musulmanas,” [The History of the King of Algie of King the of History [The Topography and General History of Algiers of History General and Topography

[On Captivity] and Captivity] [On 15 n te hr the third the and

oorpy r ecito o Ages Its Algiers, of Description or Topography Cervantes in Algiers in Cervantes

Topographia , 72 ,

, 72 , de Sosa; José María Parreño and Emilio Sola in in Sola Emilio and Parreño María José Sosa; de 35 -

76. - 78.; Camamis, Camamis, 78.;

also attest to this. About the assumptions assumptions the About this. to attest also Topografía de Argel Argel de Topografía

De los mártires de Argel de mártires los De Its Events, and the Successionof andthe ItsEvents, other two dialogues. Rodríguez, “La “La Rodríguez, dialogues. two other

aedo was nominated to the bishopric bishopric the to nominated was aedo

e o morabutos los De [Topography], contains two two contains [Topography],

and later in in later and Estudios sobre Estudios Topographia rs], is a chronicle of of chronicle a is rs], o i i nmd in named is it how mca otia y doctrina, mucha n - musulmanas,” 14. I I 14. musulmanas,” the and An Early Modern Modern Early An

el cautiverio el wih was which ,

– Epítome de Epítome

O the [Of Divided Divided

[Of the the [Of ; CEU eTD Collection not worthy of admittance there … could enter with them by hanging on to their skirts without without skirts back.” their to on hanging by them with enter could … there admittance were of who worthy those not Paradise, into enter they when that respond they robes, long wear they why asked When die. ca will angels the that respond they this, of cause the Diálogos mimicking especially 40 43. Ibid., demonio” y del naturales propias unasherrerías 39 38 2. Chapter in more indetail discussed 37 was it who g that Sosa, not de plausible also is it way this in work, the published who name same the of nephew his or Haedo de Sade.” la a treatise a to dialogues three his compare to tempted be might and executions, tortures, with filled universe apocalyptic an was world Barbary the however, Sosa, “For writes: Garcés that devil.” the of smithies ships its and marina the countryside, its streets, houses, plazas, its and Algiers of “All city: whole the about picture gloomy very a depicts the and slaves, recaptured of deaths and tortures the captives, other and slaves about relates he this Beyond examples. positive mention to forget not the to similar and slaves, their treat which anticipateda “sensati “horrific,” or “extraordinary,” as such words included he audience, possible a attracting Algiers.” in especially Turks suffered martyrdoms and sufferings, torments, miseries, “great about know world the let to order in place: some in claimed Its Kings 41 Dialogue,” Renaissance “The Burke, Peter c2004); Heitsch, B. the is

Garcés, Garcés, in Cited Garcés, “Todo Argel y todas sus plazas, las plazas, sus todas y Argel “Todo The titles of “ethnological” works produced in the sixteenth century and what they imply is going to be be to going is imply they what and century sixteenth the in produced works “ethnological” of titles The h daou ws wide a was dialogue The Viaje de Turquía Turquía de Viaje Topographia In his work, mostly in its its in mostly work, his In , but it also left its imprints in the other books as well, which can be seen in places like: “When asked asked “When like: places in seen be can which well, as books other the in imprints its left also it but , Cervantes in Algiers in Cervantes ). 37 rne Vo Printed

On the other hand, the title offers a description on the miseries of captives,as onthemiseriesOn thehe offers otherthetitle aof hand, description ave this title for his work.hisfor title this ave Cervantes in Algiers in Cervantes , 218. A nice example of another captivity narrative, which was written in form of dialogue dialogue of formin written was which narrative, captivity another of example niceA 218. , the Socratic (or Platonic) dialogue. This form is followed obviously by de Sosa in his his in Sosa de by obviously followed is form This dialogue. Platonic) (or Socratic the (1557). More on dialogue in the Renaissance see: Jean see: Renaissance the in dialogue on More (1557). cs te easac Clue f Dialogue of Culture Renaissance the ices:

The The - spread form of writing in the Renaissance following classical sources, more more sources, classical following Renaissance the in writing of form spread , 44. , onal” report. Diálogos

38 casas, las calles, los campos, las marinas y sus bajeles no son menos que que menos son no bajeles sus y marinas las campos, los calles, las casas, , 2. ,

Diálogos utemr, codn t te otmoay as of ways contemporary the to according Furthermore,

by the Christian captives in the hands of the Moors and Moors the of hands the in captives Christian the by bloodshed, torments portrayed with such detail that one one that detail such with portrayed torments bloodshed, Topographia

are so full of exaggerations or experienced torments experienced or exaggerations of full so are

Renaissance Studies Renaissance 16

de Sosa aimed at showing how Muslim captors captors Muslim how showing at aimed Sosa de rry them to Heaven through these locks of hair when they they when hair of locks these through Heaven to them rry

(the part I am going to analyze), he does does he analyze), to going am I part (the are nothing less than natural and proper proper and natural than less nothing are

Trno Uiest o Trno Press, Toronto of University (Toronto:

3, no. 1 (1989): 1 1 no. (1989): 3,

- François Vallée and Dorothea Dorothea and Vallée François

the misery of galley of misery the 41

- In the In 12.

being repelled repelled being Diálogo de Diálogo baños

. He .

CEU eTD Collection festivities, marriageburialetc.and ceremonies, their clothing, languages, occupations, customs, people, on author the of can emphasis the one see clearly text the of organization the from Thus, chapters. 27 through customs their and in part the Algiers of government beauty natural topography, the on account gives which chapters, three last the from Apart chapters. six only takes also city the of description topographical the section, next o foundation modern early the of topics “required” other upon touches Sosa de and details, in depicted is antiquity the humanist concernsof main the of oforigin one is city,as the issue thepast, the It with the historyof startsmain focus is. and sources his both confronting them. using Algiers, of reality and history the the than tone Argel de Reyes los de Epítome d more in explained as Barbarossa,of yokelordship and the to themselves subject and consent to forced were … Moors the “... other: each to references are there as books contai which writings, those are they religion), correct” “the religion, Christian and incorrect,” (the religion the While Mártires los traveler, see Chapter 3 of this thesis.ofthis 3 Chapter see traveler, 44 43 42

Topographia secon Cervantes’ which depicts istheone, It bu the About ns the most information about the author. There is a connection between the different different the between connection a is There author. the about information most the ns Focusing on the on Focusing Diá r apodemica ars

, , 103. f the city, etc.). city, the f he depicts 33 stories and only one does not end with the death of the captive. the of death the with end not does one only and stories 33 depicts he Diálogos logos ilgs e o morabutos los de Diálogos r apodemica ars

are mainly characterized by a condemnation of the Muslim culture and and culture Muslim the of condemnation a by characterized mainly are

; here, de Sosa inclines rather toward giving an accurate picture about about picture accurate an giving toward rather inclines Sosa de here, ;

Topographia and the topics a narrative of a foreign land should have been recorded by the the by recorded been have should land foreign a of narrative a topics the and thinkers and writers. But even though the history of the city from cityfrom the of historythe thougheven But writers.and thinkers 44

o “r o taeln” nw n od ae f h place, the of name old and (new travelling” of “art or , The history occupies only four chapters from the 41, and the and 41, the from chapters four only occupies history The .” 43 - between discusses people of the city and its surroundings, its and city the of people discusses between

The ,

d escape. Ibid., 45. Ibid., escape. d first, one has to look at its structure and see what its its what see and structure its at look to has one first, Topographia 17

is a continuous debate between Islam, “the “the Islam, between debate continuous a is

and the and

Epítome

i osrain, and observations, his

have a very different very a have

religious rites and and rites religious etail in our our in etail

and 42

CEU eTD Collection 47 46 45 mártires In Christianity. is religion one true the that proving for tool another as and redemption the for impetus an corsairs, by taken captives of memento Muslims; by tortured and murdered Christians of “martyrology” of kind a as served them about remembrance the and Algiers in captives of miseries the on emphasis de title the in mentioned, been has it As composition. his for reasons various week, andcame.” and inwhathowthey hour, day Moriscos] [of number the things, other among 1582). in countries Catholic (in introduced was calendar Gregorian the before written supposedly t uses he calendar, Muslim and Christian between differences been have theyprettilybecause veryFrench andItalian, Spanish, speak who Jews of number great another … France; and Italy Spain, in captives Mo and Turks many also are “There writes: he place information. one In detailed escape. very his after some and Algiers, in written were much parts some that hints contains some are there account Furthermore, the as captivity his during m he least, At escape. his after it edited and completed and Algiers, in Argel 48 Algiers vinieron.” cómo y vinieron, hora y día qué en semana, qué en es, qué en aun y vinieron

See other “martyrol other See Garcés, Topographia “... desde el primer día que entré en Argel, tengo escrito con otras cosas, el número de cuantos [moriscos] [moriscos] cuantos de número el cosas, otras con escrito tengo Argel, en entré que día primer el desde “... , 13. , , 34. , 46 De Sosa’s purpose(s) of writing cannot be stated with certainty, as there could be be could there as certainty, with stated be cannot writing of purpose(s) Sosa’s De It is unknown when de Sosa wrote the treatise, but it seems he had already started it it started already had he seems it but treatise, the wrote Sosa de when unknown is It blessed deaths; and we and deaths; blessed and him take shall we place this from out that mercy His for Lord the in trust We

An Early Modern Dialogue Modern Early An Furthermore, he writes: “from the first day that I entered Algiers, I have written, have I Algiers, entered I that day first the “from writes: he Furthermore, he writes:

someday, together with the other bodies bodies other the with together someday, Martyrs , 185. Italics mine. Italics , 185. ogies” ogies”

of Christ, who sanctified that land with their blood and their their and blood their with land that sanctified who Christ, of

at the end of the sixteenth century in in century sixteenth ofthe end the at

shall put them in another, more comfortable and more more and comfortable more another, in them put shall , 3 39.

that arrive, and even in what month, in what in month, what in even and arrive, that 47

Sola and Parreño, Parreño, and Sola here of many other Saints Saints other many of …” he Julian calendar, so it was was it so calendar, Julian he 45

When he is discussing the discussinghe is When Diálogo de los Mártires de de Mártires los de Diálogo ust have made notes notes made have ust

ors who have been been have who ors of those still alive; still those of Garcés, Garcés, Diálogo de los de Diálogo

Sosa put an an put Sosa Cervantes in in Cervantes – 48

so it it so as a as CEU eTD Collection descriptions of the place where they were kept. See: Daniel Vitkus and Nabil I. Matar, Matar, I. Nabil and Vitkus Daniel See: kept. were they where place the of descriptions information 53 52 51 50 cautivos.” los a nosdexó exemplo tal de y santos tales que Señor, del gloria para lugar, honroso más y cómodo más otro en pondremos s con que Cristo, de mártires y santos muchos 49 IIPhilip from afterhisrelease captivity: city.” the from ha right this on mountain defect…” great a has castle artillery.” of force no absolutely having importance, small of are towers two these is chapters port the the to closest island of the “On obvious: function strategical the where examples, two cite me Let Algiers”). of Streets the and Houses “The Algiers,” outside Forts and Castles “The Algiers,” of Moat “T Algiers,” of Gates “The Algiers,” of Ramparts “The descriptions: topographical to devotes he chapters separate the of titles the from directly seen be can accuracy (the matters strategical served certainly houses and streets, bastions, it with city the of description detailed very The text. whole the characterizes inAlgiers.destruction ofdominion theMuslim sacri and land the consecrated that heroes the about registry precise a of need the for reason the also is it and Christian) say rather would bewill partSpanish (I Camamis arguesconfidence reveals day land thatone this the thatthis atvro taao d Deo Galán Diego de trabajos y cautiverio Empire] Ottoman the about England Tardy, Lajos Modern c2001); Press, Early from Narratives Captivity Barbary Redemption:

Ibid., 113. Ibid., Topographia 119. Ibid., “Deste lugar confiamos en el Señor por su piedad, que algún día le sacaremos, y con otros cuerpos de otros de cuerpos otros con y sacaremos, le día algún que piedad, su por Señor el en confiamos lugar “Deste bd, 1. hs ucin f h cpiiy artvs s well is narratives captivity the of function This 116. Ibid., hs eakbe cuay wih a as a etr o cran uait writings) humanist certain of feature a also was (which accuracy remarkable This he example left to such and saint such that glory, Lord's the for place, honourable -

ahrn o te tt i ovos t es fo te omn hnmnn f mu of phenomenon common the from least at obvious is state the of gathering , , 111. us, the captives. 53

e oa lo etos i rl a a id f sy i a etr rte to written letter a in “spy” of kind a as role his mentions also Sosa De

Cited in Camamis, in Camamis, Cited

(Budapest: Gondolat Kiadó, 1977); the account of Diego Galán ( Galán Diego of account the 1977); Kiadó, Gondolat (Budapest: Rabok, köv Rabok, nd … where an enemy with artillery could disturb all help coming help all disturb could artillery with enemy an where … nd 52

“This whole fortification is dominated by and vulnerable to a to vulnerable and by dominated is fortification whole “This

etek, kalmárok az Oszmán Birodalomról Oszmán az kalmárok etek, e. y aís acio Cec: dcoe de Ediciones (Cuenca: Barchino Matías by ed. , Estudios sobre el cautiverio en el sigl el en cautiverio el sobre Estudios u sangre y bienaventuradas muertes consagraron aquella tierra, le le tierra, aquella consagraron muertes ybienaventuradas sangre u

there are, in addition, two small towers. … But … towers. small two addition, in are, there

ficed themselves for their religion and for the the for and religion their for themselves ficed 50

- known and that they also took part of the the of part took also they that and known he Fortifications of Algiers,” “The Algiers,” of Fortifications he

(New York: Columbia University University Columbia York: (New

[Captives, envoys, merchants merchants envoys, [Captives, o de de oro o Piracy, Slavery, and and Slavery, Piracy, , 118. ,

la Universidad de de Universidad la s fortifications, s Edición crítica de crítica Edición

ch detailed detailed ch 51

“This CEU eTD Collection xuso o Jw ad ulm fo te eisl. h fre cneso poue t produced conversion forced “crypto The peninsula. the from Muslims and Jews of heresy expulsion of forms all diminish to was throughou monarchy century, fifteenth the of end the In state. Catholic homogenous a it make to and heretics, all from Peninsula Iberian the clear to 1481 in 55 54 matters.Camamis, military and ofstrategical information Castilla say women “black where wonderful hi things,” “witchcraft” the tattoos, the (e.g. descriptions his in visible life of way alien an of discovery the certainly was that curiosity out leave not should one Moreover, world. outside the off closed alone, room his in spent he that hours identity, his preserving of and survive to means a as cell prison or his in writing Pliny article, her in (like discussed Colley Linda as text hand, other the his On Münster). in cited he that writers classical or humanists such could of colleague he which with knowledge, and view broad his attested which work, great a creating of ambitions his instance, For process. writing the in present also be could Inquisition, heyday its whichwas andseventeenth in inthe sixteenth c the for helpful was others” “religious the on information accurate the as matters, strategical The (2000): 170 (2000): 56 Sosa’ de how issue the discuss to going am I them. find to source of kind every used meansand of kind every with “heretics” these

Garcés, Garcés, The Inquisition was established by the Catholic monarchs (Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile) Castile) of I Isabella and Aragon of II (Ferdinand monarchs Catholic the by established was Inquisition The Linda Colley, “Going Native, Telling Tales: Captivity, Collaborations and Empire” Empire” and Collaborations Captivity, Tales: Telling Native, “Going Colley, Linda – precise description continues with the account of the inhabitants, which could also serve also could which inhabitants, the of account the with continues description precise

- away from his familiar environment, in a humiliated st humiliated a in environment, familiar his from away - Muslim” Muslim” La Mancha, 2001); etc.; Camamis suggests that a military man helped de Sosa in the writing of of writing the in Sosa de helped man military a that suggests Camamis etc.; 2001); Mancha, La

pr fo te osbe ups o wiig icse aoe ohr considerations other above, discussed writing of purpose possible the from Apart Algiers.” have I house… king’s the of from me Iwith that broughtsome memoranda in papersandthis of all written renegades and janissaries from … ago some Algiers days in out found I as Fès, of way king the the on war and make to armada, have would this with Turk the of intention “the

An Early Modern Dialogue Modern Early An - 193.

n “crypto and s text or others’ serve the institution of the Inquisition more in Chapter 4. moreChapter in Inquisition ofthe institution servethe others’ or stext 54

s inquiry behindcertain matters, thereasons etc.). todetermine - e” s suspicion a as Jew” t the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the politics of the Spanish Spanish the of politics the centuries seventeenth and sixteenth the t , 66. ,

–

the fascination towards certain phenomena, which is which phenomena, certain towards fascination the

– present in the author’s aims, that is the intention of intention the is that aims, author’s the in present

and was to do it through the forced conversion, then the the then conversion, forced the through it do to was and 20 and as a reality, hence the Inquisition was searching for for searching was Inquisition the hence reality, a as and

Estudios sobre el cautiverio el sobre Estudios 56

and it also helped to fill the empty the fill to helped also it and atus as a captive captive a as atus

ht Uuj ‘Ali ‘Uludj that enturies. , 70. , Past and Present and Past he phenomena of the the of phenomena he

55 –

become the the become could serve could

168 168

CEU eTD Collection (1562 for conveying judgementcertain hisnegative towardsphenomena: randomi just or happened, it as saw they things about wrote or travels of followed methodology the who mostly diplomats), or geographers, (captives, time his of writers most surpasses to frame a gave Algiers of beauties natural the among him/herself finds and government through inhabitants the pastime the through childbirth and marriage from span: lifetime a to according details these tells He lives. everyday and city the of inhabitants Afte them. in living people the is, that houses, the and streets its into right Algiers of inside to arrives reader the moat the through side), hand left the on wall the (being walks reader the and author the which along wall outer the cityse the from into walks day.heThen present the antiquitysince to latitude” degrees “37 the at Africa” of province “the in his step by step approaches He work. his up built he consciously how ways the point to all of first 57 “histor a Meneses, y Céspedes de Gonzalo

Topographia - 65, h ue crnce ad itr bos o hs ieay rtns Barroco writings. literary his for books history and chronicles used who 1635), Lastly, I would l would I Lastly, One of the writers of the Siglo de Oro, which used the used which Oro, de Siglo the of writers the of One and ofSpain…almost evenall gallants refined they and lovely these that save women, their heads their on something about said be can same i brown dark very or tan ill ugly, are women their and Bedouins these All – zed. Secondly, another typical characteristic of his writing is the elegant use of irony elegant ofirony the use ofhiswritingis characteristic another typical Secondly,zed. topic, slowly introducing it to the reader: he first shows a bigger picture of Algiers of picture bigger a shows first he reader: the to it introducing slowly topic,

now on the other side of the city than the sea. Thus, one can see how nicely he he nicely how see can one Thus, sea. the than city the of side other the on now , , 93.

Italics mine. Italics

i mi tpc ta ae h pol o Ages Wt ti srcue he structure, this With Algiers. of people the are that topic, main his

–

ike to call the attention to some to attention the call to ike where they live and come from, their professions, their ceremonies their professions, their from, come and live they where

activities and festivals to the death. After, the reader leaves reader the After, death. the to festivals and activities n color, and, above all, extremely dirty pigs… The The pigs… dirty extremely all, above and, color, n , any old rag of linen out of the rubbish dump. rubbish the of out linen of rag old any , 58

are the same people who co who people same the are 21 a” n nvls (11585? novelist and ian”

r all, he starts the introduction of the the of introduction the starts he all, r 57

- characteristics of de Sosa’s writing, Sosa’s de of characteristics

featured, of skin and bones, and skin of featured, providing an account of its history its of account an providing Topographia miraculously wear wear miraculously

nquered Africa Africa nquered - 1638) also adapted adapted also 1638) a through the gates, throughthe a

is Lope de Vega deLope is And CEU eTD Collection parts of parts some as same the word by word almost are which Menes, y Céspedes of passages some shows even Camamis ( ( Vega’s 59 58 from history,mental political the anglehistory ofcultural and of alike. captivity studying for importance their recognize not did they as Algiers, of historians tr were books, two first The Spain. outside successful Algiers. of historiography the concerning a Monnerreau in appeared passages its of some of translation The the towards scholars French the of interest great brought it). word by word places published Morgan Frenc and English among popular became it However, aspect. this from known mainly was and Cervantes, on information the that discovered was it when 1752, “forerunners the of motive of thecaptives intheliterature ofseventeenth centurySpain.” works two these of importance Quijote capti the of topic the characters and the from passages with nauseous Cant, and in many Cases, insufferably par insufferably Cases, manyin and Cant, nauseous with concerning particular, in 61 60 om táio e epñl ead y de y Gerardo español del trágico Poema

Ibid., 173. Ibid., Topographia “But excepting a excepting “But Camamis in his his in Camamis 61

But it was the ninete the was it But Diálogo de la captividad de Diálogo En La mayor desgracia de Carlos V y hechicerías de Argel de hechicerías y V Carlos de desgracia mayor La En n itrorpia wrs and works historiographical In nltd y h Fec, hl the while French, the by anslated as a model a as

, Ita , 122. nd Berbrugger. These scholars acknowledged the importance of this work work this of importance the acknowledged scholars These Berbrugger. nd few good Passages and remarks, which I occasionally pick out, his three tedious tedious three his out, pick occasionally I which remarks, and Passages good few suis or e cautiverio el sobre Estudios Topographia A Complete History of Algiers of History Complete A lics mine. lics –

Captivity

– was becoming po becoming was

of de enth century and the French expedition to Algiers (1830), which (1830), Algiers to expedition French the and century enth

of de Sosa. Ibid., Ibid., 159 Sosa. ofde

, Sosa’s work (although Morgan commented quite negatively on negatively quite commented Morgan (although work Sosa’s Martyrs . 59 h historians, and not because of Cervantes. In 1731, John 1731, In Cervantes. of because not and historians, h

Camamis also shows that in Céspedes y Menes’ stories Menes’ y Céspedes in that shows also Camamis d Ss ad Cervantes’) and Sosa (de , and and , ve egñ dl mr lascivo amor del sengaño

Diálogo de los mártires los de Diálogo references the the references the shows it Thus, century. seventeenth the in pular –

Morabboths (151

62 taking the “The Captive’s T Captive’s “The the taking 22

So it is visible, that the work was much more much was work the that visible, is it So -

Diálogos 163.) makes a comparative analysis between Lope de de Lope between analysis comparative a makes 163.) - 160. tial.” Cited Ibid., 90. Ibid., Cited tial.” Topographia

, or or , in London and used many parts parts many used and London in Revue Africaine Revue Mohametan Topographia

ee idie b ams al the all almost by disdained were , Zaragoza, 1633) and Céspedes y Menes’ Menes’ y Céspedes and 1633) Zaragoza, , Topographia

11) ok ad the and works 1615) , and

contains some biographical some contains Santons Epítome n ter uhr a the as authors their and

had been neglected till till neglected been had

in 1870 and 1871 by by 1871 and 1870 in , , are silly enough, replete replete enough, sillyare , ale” inserted in inserted ale”

e historia de Argel de historia e , were those which those were , Topographia

Dialogues –

some Don 60

– . , .

CEU eTD Collection Mármol Carvajal gives various reasons for the name Berbería; he explains that the Arabs believed the name to to name the believed Arabs the that explains he Berbería; name the for reasons various gives Carvajal Mármol Contained Therein Things Africanus: Leo see name the of explanation provides Africa. North Sp to the immigrated about speaking when used Spain in expression an was ( Algiers of city the from controlled territory Tunisia, Libya, today’s of regions the covered west, the in Morocco in coast Atlantic the to east the in Tripoli from lived, Berbers the where area the indicated name the Maghrib; the of territory the to refer to “Barbary” name the used Europeans 64 53. 2010), Co., & Taurius (New I.B. York: eds., Toksöz, Meltem and Kolluğlu Biray 63 cautiverio el sobre Estudios 62 also an and with struggled and Habsburg) neighbors, be to came Empire) Ottoman and (the empire Muslim expanding (Spanish Christian expanding an where Mediterranean, book the in it put Arnold F. Thomas as 2.1. Barbary a century.sixteenth society Algerian introduce briefly will discussion the Algiers, to Africa North from focus the narrowing Finally, Corsairs. Barbary the of activities the ove brief a provide Western Mediterraneanthe and in Ottoman Empires the and Spanish will the encountersbetween discussion following the mind, in purpose this With society. Algerian of characterization and description his particular century,in sixteenth Antoni thesis, this of center (New 65 infieles... los entre a audio que guerras de successos los todos Romans. the by given been have

Thomas F. Arnold, “War in Sixteenth in “War Arnold, F. Thomas H.D. de Grammont was the other French scholar, who translated the whole the translated who scholar, French other the was Grammont de H.D. Description of Algiers by Antonio Salamanca on his printed map of Algiers of map printed his on Salamanca Antonio by Algiers of Description n h sxenh etr, h nm “abr” en dfeet hns o ifrn pol i Euro in people different to things different meant “Barbary” name the century, sixteenth the In Hi York : St. Martin's Press, 1999), 30. 1999), Martin'sPress, : St. York In this chapter I discuss the geographical and historical context for the source at th at source the for context historical and geographical the discuss I chapter this In One of the scenes for the “clash of two civilizations” or “clash of two ways of war,” war,” of ways two of “clash or civilizations” two of “clash the for scenes the of One storical Context: Clash The EmpiresWestern of the in 64

Mediterranean Slavery African North and Corsairs, Spain, and the OttomanSpain, EmpireCorsairs,

“Algiers, a most powerful ofSpain” amost “Algiers, city infront Ottoman right situated Algeria, and Morocco. But for the Spanish in the sixteenth century Barbary meant the the meant Barbary century sixteenth the in Spanish the for But Morocco. and Algeria,

, ed. by Robert Brown (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), Vol. 1., 129. 1., Vol. 2010), Press, University Cambridge York: (New Brown Robert by ed. , , 92. , e Sl ad e a Peña, la De and Sola See

Mármol Car Mármol o

e oas the Sosa’s de - Century Europe,” in in Europe,” Century

Cities of the Mediterranean. From the Ottomans to the Present Day Day Present the to Ottomans the From Mediterranean. the of Cities

Chapter Two Berbería central argelina central Berbería vajal, vajal, European Warfare, 1453 Warfare, European

23 The History and Description of Africa, and of the Notable the of and Africa, of Description and History The Primera parte de la descripcion general de Affrica, con con Affrica, de general descripcion la de parte Primera

oorpy f Algiers of Topography

evne y a Berbería la y Cervantes (Granada, 1573) (Granada, European warfare, 1453 warfare, European anish Muslims who abandoned Andalusia and and Andalusia abandoned who Muslims anish

). ).

Pasar a Berbería a Pasar

lib. 1. fol. 5.fol.6. lib.1. cap. reyes. lor de Epítome -

1815 from 1541. 1541. from 11 , nd government in the the in government nd

rm h ed f the of end the from - - , 12. 12. 1815 65

(“to go to Barbary”) Barbary”) to go (“to was the was Leo Africanus also also Africanus Leo , ed ,

For th For ve o the of rview . Jeremy Black Black Jeremy

e map, see see map, e

Camamis, Camamis, Western pe. Most Most pe. 63 e

CEU eTD Collection dynasty. In the western area, in Morocco, the Wattasids of Fez in the second half of the fifteenth century and and century fifteenth the of half second the in Fez of Wattasids the Morocco, in area, western the In dynasty. th Beyond 69 maintain. Wolf, to hard isolated were garrisons These Maghrib. the to Muslims of line a built Spanish the surren cities other 68 146. Abun Ibero Century Sixteenth Hess, C. Andrew by Revolution” Military “A chapter the in Muslims 67 I, in 1472. Isabella and II Ferdinand monarchs respective 66 agriculture. by living or life pastoral a leading tribes Berber and Arabic herdsme nomadic by mostly inhabited was Maghrib the sultans; the to loyalty and unity dec and the (where city the afortress,Spanish built Pe El of front in islands four the of one Spanish the gave and tribute pay there. foot set and Africa North to advanced troops Spanish Maghrib. the Hispano of flow great a in resulted policy 1492). in Granada ( standi a forming kingdom (bureaucratization, Spanish tendencies the century fifteenth the of end the At scale, universal for rule. a on and region, the in supremacy political and economic, military, for other each territory became an important area for the Granadan nobility. nobility. Granadan the Berbería for The coast. area the important along enclaves an in became settled who territory Granada, from Muslims the of thousands of received half which territory first the from dynasty Sa’idian the reconquista

Spanish troops conquered Melilla (1497), Mers el Mers (1497), Melilla conquered troops Spanish marriage the by united Castile, and Aragon of kingdoms the of consisted crown Spanish The e mr aot h Nsi King Nasrid the about more See The Ziyanid dynasty ruled the middle section, with Tlemcen at the centre and Constantine in the east. east. the in Constantine and centre the at Tlemcen with section, middle the ruled dynasty Ziyanid The

- Nasr, Nasr, , 13. , The second half of the sixteenth century inherited the rivalry of the fifteenth century. fifteenth the of rivalry the inherited century sixteenth the of half second The The success of the Spanish Spanish the of success The entralized nature of the Muslim the of nature entralized at the Hafsid dynasty controlled the coastal regions and caused border disputes with the Ziyanid Ziyanid the with disputes border caused and regions coastal the controlled dynasty Hafsid the at A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period Period Islamic the in Maghrib the of History A

) at the expense of the Muslims on the Iberian Peninsula (the conquest of of conquest (the Peninsula Iberian the on Muslims the of expense the at ) dered (1518 dered 67 The Barbary Coast Barbary The -

African frontier frontier African h epnin n te nrae f noeac i Saih religious Spanish in intolerance of increase the and expansion The presidios

- 1511) to the new captain general, Pedro Navarro, a former corsair. In addition, addition, In corsair. former a Navarro, Pedro general, captain new the to 1511) ñ

o o Gaaa n te afr bten h Saih n te Hispano the and Spanish the between warfare the and Granada of dom

o (garrisons) in the Maghrib shifting the frontier between the Spanish and and Spanish the between frontier the shifting Maghrib the in (garrisons) n).

, 5.; Abun 5.; , ( reconquista hcg: nvriy f hcg Pes 19 Press, Chicago of University Chicago:

kingdoms in North Africa. There was no political no was There Africa. North in kingdoms sixteenth century dominated the region. Morocco was the the was Morocco region. the dominated century sixteenth - 24 Musli - - Kebir (1505), Oran, Bougie, Valez, and Tripoli and many and Tripoli and Valez, Bougie, Oran, (1505), Kebir Nasr, Nasr,

, surrounded by hostile Muslim tribes, thus they were were they thus tribes, Muslim hostile by surrounded ,

m immigrants resentful towards Spain into into Spain towards resentful immigrants m a b epand any y h weakness the by mainly explained be can A History of the Maghrib the of History A (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987) 1987) Press, University Cambridge York: (New g ry, n trioil expansion territorial and army), ng See Sola and and Sola See The Forgotten Frontier: a History of the the of History a Frontier: Forgotten The 66

otne is centralizing its continued D l Pñ, Peña, la e , 147. , 69 68 8, 11 78),

The city dwellers dwellers city The

Algiers agreed toagreed Algiers

Cervant - (1469) 26.; Jamil M. M. Jamil 26.;

broader broader

es of their their of

y la la y n, n, - CEU eTD Collection 75 74 Wolf, Ibid., Spain. southern of shores the along sailing by Granada in Muslims the with encounters first the initiated and leaders African North with relations established (1481 Hispano the from letter a to answer In century. fifteenth 73 44. North the on policy defensive a to led World New the from those with compete 72 71 Co Barbary Wolf, see: areas, rural and urban the between observed be can division cultural a sense this in tribesmen; 70 According of Emrah totheGürkan, definition Safa putsSosa it: de As expansion. of stage first a as region the in presence Ottoman indirect an inaugurating region. the Archduke and Emperor Holy Roman Saharan archers. and Africa, Turkish troops elite th of core The armies. standing large establish thus and them over powers tribesmen the by oppressed were peasants and Senj or from the Habsburg Empire, Naples, Messina and Trapani. Ibid., 126. Ibid., Trapani. and Messina Naples, Empire, from Habsburg or Senj the Christian also were There converts. were some and birth, by Muslims 76 Century,” theSixteenth

Topographia 22. Ibid., Emrah Safa Gürkan, “The Centre and the Frontier: Ottoman Cooperation with the No the with Cooperation Ottoman Frontier: the and Centre “The Gürkan, Safa Emrah The first attempt to control the Western part of the Mediterranean occurred as early as the very end of the the of end very the as early as occurred Mediterranean the of part Western the control to attempt first The the of attacks the against help their ensure to dynasties ruling the with connections keep to tried cities The Aside from these political issues, the realization that the revenues from the North African trade could not could trade African North the from revenues the that realization the issues, political these from Aside They did not all have the same background; some came from the Levant, some from Spain, some were were some Spain, from some Levant, the from came some background; same the have all not did They

- The Barbary Coast Barbary The 151 At thebeginning of ships, at undertook sailors African North the anybody to had immigrated corsairs the … islands Aragón, surrounding with been familiar being had and and they raised, and where born Spain, Valencia across wars from the in versed others well Being Barbary. as well as Granada, harm greater even causing King, practice, Catholic the After robberies. this intensified their corsairs the … Granada of kingdom the forconquered Ferdinand, oars with ships using sea, at inhabit The 2), sent the privateer Kemal Reis to collect information on the Western Mediterranean. He He Mediterranean. Western the on information collect to Reis Kemal privateer the sent 2),

ast,

greaterbetter occasionequipment andcause robgreat to and … harm 73 , , 102.

– 76 3

rvtes salse ter ae o te hrs f h Mgrb thus Maghrib, the of shores the on bases their established Privateers 4.; Hess, 4.; encouraged and financed at times and protected always by a political a by always protected and times at financed and encouraged sub from slaves black mercenaries, Christian Andalusia, from Muslims

who went on a a on went who

ants of Algiers have for ages been occupied with corsair activities activities corsair with occupied been ages for have Algiers of ants Turkish Historical Review Historical Turkish

; John Francis Guilmartin, Guilmartin, Francis ; John

The Forgotten Frontier, Frontier, Forgotten The

Charles I’s reign (Charles I,I’s k reign Charles (Charles

corso 71

of Austria 1519 Austria of

by participating in the in participating by

1 (2010): 125. (2010): 1 25 46 Galleons & Galleys Galleons 58 - o hitas bcue ay or of Moors many because Christians, to

52. - 60.; Abun 60.; - the expense of Christian shores and and shores Christian of expense the

Muslims of Granada in 1487, the sultan, Bayezid II II Bayezid sultan, the 1487, in Granada of Muslims 70

75 hl te ues ol nt moe their impose not could rulers the while

a was: corsair - 1556)

- Nasr, Nasr, ing Spain 1516 of 72 corsairs, mainly from Malta, Livorno, Livorno, Malta, from mainly corsairs, (London: Cassell, 2002), 128. 2002), Cassell, (London: razzia

A history of the Maghrib, the of history A the Ottoman Empire crept into crept Empire Ottoman the

, regular raids that that raids regular , African African rth African Corsairs in in Corsairs African rth frontier. See i See frontier. - e army was alien alien was army e 1556, Charles V, Charles V, 1556, 74

147

bid., 43 bid., - 148.; The The - -

CEU eTD Collection and the Ottoman Mediterranean with Emrah Safa Gürkan, October 26, 2012. 2012. Wolf, Abun inhabitants. influential most and richest the and ruler 26, the executed Pe the from Spanish the dislodge October 80 Gürkan, 79 Safa (Cambridge Goffman Emrah Ottoman of Context the in Strategy Grand Ottoman Policy: Imperial of Limits and Ideology, “Information, Ágoston, Gábor with ranks. their among renegades many were there Mediterranean that given especially enemy, the on spy easily could they and Europe Southern and Western with relationships Ottoman 78 the http://www.ottomanhistorypodcast.com/2012/10/ottoman and case the always not was this reality in if even “serving,” was he state the with, relationship good a in was he state a of ship a attack not would privateer a Thus, regulations. under institution, or state a of 77 Arabs). governor appointed was Hayreddin (1512 I Selim overlordship. his accepting for return in sultan Ottoman the from help for asked Hayreddin ne the After city. the of leader the became Barbarossa.” of lordship and yoke the to themselves subject and consent to forced were … Moors the Algiers, of lord as city the throughout him Algiers. over control his extended Algerians, the of invitation the at Oruç, Mediterranean. Western the in pirates the of base the it making 1516, Algiers”) of east miles 180 seaport (“a Djijelli to base their moved century, the Oruçof the Barbarossa and brothers, Hayreddin. enterprise private a of consequence a was region the in Empire Ottoman the of stature rising is century sixteenth the of half first The mention of the events related to Algiers and North Africa in the Ottoman chronicles until the year 1533, he 1533, year the until chronicles Ottoman the in Africa North and Algiers to related events of lack the the of of mention Because Hayreddin. of appointment the and Empire Ottoman the into Algeria of incorporation 82 81

Topographia Topographia Ibid., 126. He distinguishes between a privateer or corsair and a pirate. Corsairs operated in the framework framework the in operated Corsairs pirate. a and corsair or privateer a between distinguishes He 126. Ibid., In 1516, when Ferdinand II died, the Algerians considered their oath to him as invalid and wanted to to wanted and invalid as him to oath their considered Algerians the died, II Ferdinand when 1516, In The corsairs corsairs The Hess, The Barbary Coast Barbary The 82 The Barbarossa brothers, who had been engaged in piracy from th from piracy in engaged been had who brothers, Barbarossa The rules, and customs. laws, of set universal a under operated who privateer a was corsair A body. h Frotn Frontier Forgotten The

- Habsburg Rivalry. In Rivalry. Habsburg , , 103. , 103. lo a get motne for importance great had also - 1520) accepted this offer and sent 2000 Janissary troops and artillery. artillery. and troops Janissary 2000 sent and offer this accepted 1520)

: Cambridge : Cambridge

, 8. ,

77 the protection of a political authority. They were bound by certain rules and and rules certain by bound were They authority. political a of protection the

ñ University Press, 2007), Press, University 6. ma Sf Gra pss h qeto o te xc dt o date exact the of question the poses Gürkan Safa Emrah 65. ,

The Early Modern Ottomans. Remapping the Empire the Remapping Ottomans. Modern Early The on. But when Oru when But on.

- eea ( general

bu te su o te motne f unoffic of importance the of issue the About considered the considered information 26 ç ws of Spanish preparations for an expedition, expedition, an for preparations Spanish of ws

arrived, Al arrived, beylerbey -

empire

75 . Ottoman History Broadcast: Episode 76. Corsairs 76. Episode Broadcast: History Ottoman . - - 103. gathering for the state. They were in a close close a in were They state. the for gathering 80 81 - pirates

of ) Thumi sought help from the Spanish. O Spanish. the from help sought Thumi After the death of Oruç, Hayreddin Oruç, of death the After Te uk hvn lul declared loudly having Turks “The period of the rise of corsairs. of rise the of period - - Cezayir barbary Nasr, Nasr, A History of the Maghrib the of History A - history.html - Arab i , ed. , e first decade of of decade first e

(Algeria of the the of (Algeria

V. H. Aksan, D. D. Aksan, H. V. ial “spies,” see see “spies,” ial 79

around 78 , 149.; 149.; ,

f the the f The ru ç

CEU eTD Collection Galleons & Galleys Galleons 85 84 83 symbolic. wereonly appointment into incorporated was it that argues cannons, of use greater the and armies, of size increasing the fortifications, in improvements Maghr the in position Ottoman the improving of goal the with 1565 in Malta on attack Ottoman unsuccessful the was reign his during events main the of One problems. financial great with troubled was empire his if even Threat” “Turkish wit concerned wasHe sea.the eyeon one with alwaysNetherlands, but 1580 the Spanishin of enemies main the of one thus and Maghrib, the of coast the on strongest the not if base, beylerbey disaster. a in ended which 1541, d 1544, in retreated Barbarossa in Algiers against campaign a launched Charles Hayreddin, and V Charles between negotiations unsuccessful After Tunis. conquer to back ( admiral appointed was Hayreddin Peñon Constantine. to Mitidja of plain the from Cherchell, to Djijelli from province the of coastline the from territory the h strengthened Africa.and extended North in authority Ottoman of center principal successful naval campaign on the strait of Gibraltar (Pe Gibraltar theof strait on campaign naval successful appointed 87 86

Hess, Hess, Abun The Spanish attack on Tunisia and their defeat at Djerba in 1560, the unsuccessful campaign of the newly newly the of campaign unsuccessful the 1560, in Djerba at defeat their and Tunisia on attack Spanish The The emperor’s fleet fleet emperor’s The - 98), Spain’s attention was divided mostly between the Mediterranean and the the and Mediterranean the between mostly divided was attention Spain’s 98), - The Forgotten Frontier Forgotten The Frontier Forgotten The Nasr, Nasr, from the Spaniards in 1529 and transforming Algiers into a naval base. In 1533, 1533, In base. naval a into Algiers transforming and 1529 in Spaniards the from Hayreddin governed Algiers for eight years, during which period Algiers became the the became Algiers period which during years, eight for Algiers governed Hayreddin After Philip Philip After

governor, Hayreddin’s son, Hasan Paşa, which aimed at conquering Oran in 1563, and Philip II’s Philip and 1563, in Oran conquering at aimed which Paşa, Hasan son, Hayreddin’s governor,

of Algiers. During Hayreddin Barbarossa’s rule Algiers became a strong a became Algiers rule Barbarossa’s Hayreddin During Algiers. of A History of the Maghrib the of History A

the Mediterranean. , 132. , a dmgd y som Abun storm. a by damaged was II’s abdication of the throne (king of Spain, 1556 Spain, of (king throne the of abdication II’s

Hayreddin succeeded in subjugating the local leaders, taking the taking leaders, local the subjugating in succeeded Hayreddin , 84. , 68. ,

See Gürkan, “The Centre and the Frontier,” 133. the and Frontier,” Centre “The Gürkan, See is authority in the area. In 1528, Barbarossa already controlled controlled already Barbarossa 1528, In area. the in authority is

ied two years later, and was followed by his son Hasan as the as Hasan son byhis followed was and years later, two ied the empire only in that year. Until that time, the incorporation and the the and incorporation the time, that Until year. that in only empire the , 151. ,

kapudan paşa kapudan

ñ on de Velez) in 1564. Velez) de on - Nasr, Nasr, ) of the Ottoman fleet in Istanbul and sent sent and Istanbul in fleet Ottoman the of ) Hsoy f h Maghrib the of History A ib. 86

83 The events of the decade the of events The

uig i gvrosi he governorship his During

- h the repulsion of the the of repulsion the h 98, k 98, , 154.; Guilmartin, Guilmartin, 154.; , ing of Portugal, of ing

87 naval naval

saw 85

CEU eTD Collection 90 89 & Galleys Galleons 88 impo less Mediterranean Western the made which Empire, Safavid the east, towards directed also was Ottomans the of policy foreign The Empire. Ottoman the with peace sought king Spanish the bankruptcy),II’s (Philip 1575 From decreased. war of theater Tunis, take to campaigns Habsburg Africa. North in Ottomans the of acquisitions the affect not did battle The 1571. in Lepanto at Ottomans the defeated Pope. the and Spain Venice, by formed was League Holy the Cyprus, taking by routes between position toits AlgiersIstanbul.essential and tocontroldue it i Tunis captured and Spain in revolt the of advantage the took agents naval Ottoman the Moreover, rebels. the to arms and men sent 1568, in Algiers of governorship (1566 II o Selim the Sultan with accordance In Africa. North of provinces the and centre Ottoman the brought assimilation, full their at greatly by wassupported Alpujarras (1568to1570) of The revolt turbulence thekingdom. to aimed and customs Islamic their of many exercise the let forgotten. not be did frontier Mediterranean problems internal frontier, European the on resources of concentration bigger, slower,andcostly. more became galleys The campaigns. longer and military expensive more much a meant all which Uluç Ali (with the new name Kılıç Ali Paşa) was appointed admiral in 1571. These ships constituted the the constituted ships These 1571. in admiral 91 appointed was Paşa) Ali Hess, armada. newOttoman ofthe nucleus Kılıç name new the (with Ali Uluç se send to able were they thus, destroyed, not were provinces

In 1573, capture of Tunis by Don Juan de Austria; Juande Don ofbyTunis capture In1573, Hess, About the advantages, disadvantages, and developments of the galley in the Medi the in galley the of developments and disadvantages, advantages, the About The sailors under the command of Ulu of command the under sailors The The Forgotten Frontier Forgotten The Alth Partly as an answer to the Ottoman plan that aimed at defending the eastern trade eastern the defending at aimed that plan Ottoman the to answer an as Partly ough at the court of Philip II the faction of the duke of Alba won, arguing for a a for arguing won, Alba of duke the of faction the II Philip of court the at ough .

- 74), the naval captain Uluç Ali Paşa, who was appointed to the the to appointed was who Paşa, Ali Uluç captain naval the 74), , 86 , 90

87. lhuh rm 53 o 54 hr wr bt Otmn and Ottoman both were there 1574 to 1573 from Although 88

The Forgotten Frontier, Frontier, Forgotten The Ali performed well in the battle and the ships of the North African African North the of ships the and battle the in well performed Ali 91 89

h iprac o te etr Mediterranean Western the of importance the hlps 57 dc, hc fra te oics to Moriscos the forbad which edict, 1567 Philip’s 28 in 1574, recapture of Tunis by Ulu ofbyTunis recapture 1574, in

veral ships and m and ships veral 92

en to the armada in Istanbul as as Istanbul in armada the to en

terranean, see: Guilmartin, Guilmartin, see: terranean, ç

Ali. n 1569, as it was it as 1569, n rtant. The peace peace The rtant.

rder of of rder

s a as

CEU eTD Collection 95 94 World Islamic the of 93 prosperity. brought it 92 but hinterland, the of tribesmen Kabylie the among nor city) w corsairs the of government The Algiers.as such cities, its of class ruling the form andrule their establish to Maghrib the authority thedividednature ofpolitical settlingthen the used Ottomaninthe soldiers area, “ne The interdependent. as characterized be can groups these among relationship The city. the of inhabitants local the and Algeria, of tribes the centre, ( Ottoman the were actors key The groups. social and factions societythe composition ofits changed completely. polit and economically but demographically only not Maghrib, central the of capitals the among place central a taking city’s the in resulted city. port the to coming Christians and Jews merchants, and a renegades corsairs, and janissaries incoming the to related Hispano of immigration the to due partially was growth This reign. Barbarossa’s Hayreddin during peak reached and century 2.2. Population, Government, S and was in1581. recalledAlgiers from navy Ottoman the and 1580 in realized was Empire Ottoman the and Spain between treaty oenrhp a te neto o idpnec i te ot Arcn rvne Se . A. H. See province, African North the in independence of intention the was Abun governorship years. three of period 96 Abun different group, beylerbey

Cresti, Abun For more about the population of the city, see Federico Cresti, “Algiers in the Ottoman Period,” in Period,” Ottoman the in “Algiers Cresti, Federico see city, the of population the about more For Wolf, Wolf, First the the First - Nasr, Nasr, The Barbary Coast Barbary The The population of Algiers increased to a great extent towards th towards extent great a to increased Algiers of population The The political situation in the regency was characterized by infighting among hostile hostile among infighting by characterized was regency the in situation political The “ Algiers in the Ottoman Period theAlgiers Ottoman in taifa ), the community ( communitythe ), A History of the Maghrib the of History A

of the corsairs was part of the Ocak, the army, but in the seventeenth century they formed a a formed they century seventeenth the in but army, the Ocak, the of part was corsairs the of .

- Nasr, Nasr,

, 56. The The 56. , A History of the Maghrib the of History A - Nasr, Nasr, taifa

as popular neither among the the among neither popular as Hsoy f h Maghrib the of History A bey , 153.; Hess, 153.; , ) of the corsairs, the Ottoman troops ( troops Ottoman the corsairs, the of ) , ” 92 lerbeys

437. -

Mulsims from Spain. The growing numbers were also were numbers growing The Spain. from Mulsims ociety Algiers of

first governed for unlimited terms, but after 1587 for a fixed a for 1587 after but terms, unlimited for governed first 29 The Forgotten Frontier Forgotten The , 159. ,

clya well. as ically

, 153. The reason for the change of the the of change the for reason The 153. , rriving, not to mention captives captives mention to not rriving, baldi wcomers,” like the corsairs and and corsairs the like wcomers,” , 98 , - 93 pone govern appointed 94

(native inhabitants of the the of inhabitants (native 99. hs eorpi boom demographic This ntesxenh century, sixteenth the In

Ocak e end of the fifteenth fifteenth the of end e ), 95

R. Gibb, J. H. H. J. Gibb, R. the Ottomanthe or general general or The City City The 96

CEU eTD Collection 101 100 99 98 97 368. Lévi E. Kramers, as between theythe were the janissaries, of sons the was disorder of source Another hostility. the eliminating not although decreasing thus versa, Pa Mohamed 1568, In sea. at won booty the of share a get to able not were thus and ships corsair the join to allowed corsa the harsh. and common were which janissaries, the by abuses prevent to tried government Ottoman The execution. public face to have they f and respect to had everyone Algiers; of “lords” the as acted Janissaries privilege. great a was janissary a Being wereorigin, many renegades. but if notmost origin. in foreign the of leader the to loyal but province. local not “Levantine,” Muslim was Algiers of general Hayreddin. and I Selim between agreement weapons,recruitment. and we they militarily politicallyOttomanEmpire; and the on onlydependent were not provinces Furthermore,the towards preventing janissaries from robbing local inhabitants. local from robbing janissaries preventing towards had they Tripolitania in 1595, In affairs. local in intercede to Tunis in janissaries the ordered they 102 withcu the familiar was

Ibid., 143. Ibid., menof Twothousand 141. Frontier,” the and Centre “The Gürkan,

Wolf, Wolf, Being a renegade was a great advantage for a mariner as he knew the Christian the knew he as mariner a for advantage great a was renegade a Being In 1582, the Ottoman government expelled the expelled government Ottoman the 1582, In

A great portion of the recruited soldiers came from Anatolia according to an an to according Anatolia from came soldiers recruited the of portion great A The other group that held great importance in the city was the corps of janissaries. janissaries. of corps the was city the in importance great held that group other The The Barbary Coast Barbary The 99 irs and the janissaries that stemmed from the fact that the janissaries were not not were janissaries the that fact the from stemmed that janissaries the and irs

h crs i nt lo lcl t ji te ry tu rmiig completely remaining thus army, the join to locals allow not did corps The - Provencal, J. Schacht, eds., eds., Schacht, J. Provencal, 100 re supported against the Christians with munition, supply for shipbuilding, for supply munition, with Christians the against supported re lture and customs much better than a janissary. a than muchbetter customs ltureand

ear them. They could only be arrested by their officers and neither did did neither and officers their by arrested be only could They them. ear devşirme

h sae wr as rcutd aty mn Msis of Muslims among partly recruited also were seamen The , 58. , baldi 97 kulo

şa origins probably came from the Balkans and four thousand from Anatolia. Anatolia. from fourthousand and Balkans from the came probably origins

ere ta te aisre cud on h sae ad v and seamen the join could janissaries the that decreed and the janissaries, but they were e butthey were janissaries, and the ğ l u ,

marrying Moorish women Moorish marrying Islam of Encyclopaedia

30 troublesome 98 101 102

Thus, the basis for the rule of th of rule the for basis the Thus,

There was an adverse relationship between relationship adverse an was There

Gürkan, “The Centre and the Frontier,” 159. Frontier,” the and Centre “The Gürkan,

janissaries because of their abuses. In 1587, 1587, In abuses. their of because janissaries , Vol. 1 (Leiden: Brill, 1986), “Algeria,” 1986), Brill, (Leiden: 1 Vol. ,

Their status was problematic problematic was status Their ager to attain their fathers’ their fathers’ toattain ager - European languages, and and languages, European e governor e to take steps steps take to Levantine

ice ice

CEU eTD Collection Coast 106 105 104 103 beylerbeys the times several governor The office. the to appointed were then, province, the controlled regions. the over control direct exercise captives, the sothecorsairs activitybroughtcity. of prosperity tothe and goods the shared also Algiers of inhabitants The himself. sultan the to and governors the the of the time, m state a was activity as they contributedfirearms. theuse tospreading of greatthe Andalusian were hastobementioned: Muslims fromalso help thearmy of in Spain immi of presence The military. the in cavalrymen as served also Arabs and Berbers over were who (cavalrymen), sons andled tostricter over control them. a to led kulo which ranks, their into them incorporate to want not did janissaries The status. ed., ed., Sultan the complex of theservice denoted It Sultan. Ottoman the of Household 107

Abun 64. Ibid., Wolf, Encyclopaedi

“The term term “The Encyclopaedia of Islam of Encyclopaedia profits shared among the sailors. A defined amount of the share had to be given to the the to given be to had share the of amount defined A sailors. the among shared profits ğ , 63 , l u reis - te top as cud e on i Ages lk te e ls important less few the like Algiers, in found be could also troops Other Ott or corporation a into themselves organized corsairs The Nasr, Nasr, The Barbary Coast Barbary The - rebellion in the seventeenth century that ended with the defeat of the janissaries’ janissaries’ the of defeat the with ended that century seventeenth the in rebellion 64. belyerbeys

oman control over the provinces was rather loose as it was hard for Istanbul to to Istanbul for hard was it as loose rather was provinces the over control oman were in correspondence with the governors. The booty they seized was sold and and sold was seized they booty The governors. the with correspondence in were

sometimes were only puppets in the hands of the of hands the in puppets only were sometimes A History of the Maghrib the of History A enderūn a of Islam of a beylerbey –

included therein was the system of Palace Schools.” B. Lewis, Ch. Pellat, J. Schacht, Schacht, J. Pellat, Ch. Lewis, B. Schools.” Palace of system the was therein included

themselves were elected from corsair captains, so usually the operations operations the usually so captains,corsair from elected were themselves

in Ottoman Turkish was used to designate the ‘Inside’ Service of the Imperial Imperial the of Service ‘Inside’ the designate to used was Turkish Ottoman in onopoly, which was supervised by a minister ( minister a by supervised was which onopoly, , “Algeria,” 368.; Abun 368.; “Algeria,” , , vol. , 2. , 59 , -

61. acted on his own without following the orders of the center. The The center. the of orders the following without own his on acted -

(Leiden: Brill, 1991), (Leiden: Brill, towards the end of the century, persons with persons century, the of end the towards

age janissaries or recruits from the Levant. Additionally, some some Additionally, Levant. the from recruits or janissaries age , 165.; Wolf, 165.; ,

103 - 31 Nasr, Nasr, - ni 1587, Until

general governed in the name of the sultan, but sultan, the of name the in governed general The Barbary Coast Barbary The

“Enderūn,”697. A History of the Maghrib the of History A

of officials engaged in the personal and private private and personal the in engaged officials of 104

beylerbeys , 63. , Ocak

, and , taife

106 wakil al wakil of corsair background background corsair of , 165; Wolf, Wolf, 165; ,

it also happened that that happened also it (community). Their Their (community). enderun - kharj The Barbary Barbary The ).

105 origi sipahis grants

For a For n 107

CEU eTD Collection 110 109 108 Ottoman and Algerian the for value great of was that Europe about information necessary b slaves grea the was Mediterranean the along complexity and diversity this of sources civilizations.” of “crossroads a called be frontier can mixed that a society world, frontier hybrid a caused groups various these of intermingling slaves. or men free merchants, artisans, were who there lived Christians and Jews of population Muslim from him. marabouts their made they these cities, principalities. certain of founders became they that so much so regions, some in lineage their drew who persons the of agriculture. majority from living the a made population east the in and Algeria of parts southern and western the inhabited from the city. pa caliphate The captains. corsair of appointments of process the in interfered they 112 kadı own his/her of underthe jurisdiction 111 habus

Abun Wolf, Garcés, Garcés, “The Ottoman Turks Turks Ottoman “The Ibid., 162. In order to gain their goodwill, the Ottoman authorities gave them tax exemptions or created created or exemptions tax them gave authorities Ottoman the goodwill, their gain to order In 162. Ibid., 111

property from them. See Abun propertyfromSee them. different regions and different religious and cultural backgrounds. Apart from the the from Apart backgrounds. cultural and religious different and regions different

- lein oit hd aial a tr a basically had society Algerian In conclusion, Algerian society was colorful, comprised of different groups coming groups different of comprised colorful, was society Algerian conclusion, In Nasr, Nasr, The Barbary Barbary The r An Early Modern Dialogue with Islam, Islam, with Dialogue Modern Early An ought into the city who were an indispensable labor force and also provided provided also and force labor indispensable an were who city the into ought

supported the Ottoman sultan because their appointment and living depended on on depended living and appointment their because sultan Ottoman the supported marabouts A history of the Maghrib the of history A 108

living from the pious foundations ( foundations pious the from living Coast – were Hanafite and the indigenous Algerians were Malikite were Algerians indigenous the and Hanafite were

Moors, Ottoman Turks, renegades, corsairs, Moriscos renegades,corsairs,Moriscos Turks, Moors,Ottoman

and the and , 65. ,

- s from holy persons. These persons. holy from s ulema Nasr, Nasr, , 161. , .” Ibid., 161 Ibid., .” sh rpeetd the represented a A History of the Maghrib the of History A

supplied 2. 32 109

- 162. bl hrce. rbs edn a atrl life pastoral a leading Tribes character. ibal

The leaders of the tribes were often religious often were tribes the of leaders The

the

beylerbey muftis habus beylerbey , , 163. , ) they belonged to. Therefore the Therefore to. belonged they ) kad

instead of the previously favored previously the of instead marabouts 112 ı

, and , n o te ot important most the of One

when the latter was away away was latter the when s, but each person belonged belonged person each but s, imams

had a great influence influence great a had –

of the mosques; the of

a greata number t number of of number t 110

In the In

The The CEU eTD Collection 115 Garcés, muer cuerpo 114 Voigt, hi of part 113 Christians, began. piracy” of age “golden the and warfare naval of nature the in change a experienced it phase; modes of gathering his and move, could he where space the had, captive a opportunities the on light shed can which Empire, Ottoman the in andAlgiers in slavery of notion the consider to has onewrite, c the captivity, in Sosa de of conditions the understand To there? happening was what about know and city the of see he could much the as work great a such compile Sosa de could entity an a body, notingdead or him than more declaring and him calling in consists slave the to assigns law the that existence (juridical) 2.3 Europe. Muslims, the “other,” the on information provided also and governments History of the M the of History 116 221. 2007), Fodor (Leiden: Brill, Pál and Dávid Géza ed. in Mediterranean”

“Pues la honra, el título y el ser que el derecho da a un esclavo es que le llamó y declaró por no más que un un que más no por declaró y llamó le que es esclavo un a da derecho el que ser el y título el honra, la “Pues notable and great a such in missing so maimed, so captivity his through becomes thus captive unhappy “An See more about the Christian pirates: Molly Green, Green, Molly pirates: Christian the about more See . Slavery in Algiers. Slavery in á Fdr “ats prts Otmn atvs n French and captives Ottoman pirates, “Maltese Fodor, Pál Writing Captivity Writing 115 Cervantes in Algiers in Cervantes

At the end of the sixteenth century, the history of the Mediterranean entered a new new a entered Mediterranean the of history the century, sixteenth the of end the At De s being and value, and being similar and so equal to a brute and vile animal…” cited and translated in in translated and cited animal…” vile and brute a to equal so and similar being and value, and being s

tts erae fo te es n gv pae o osis b corsairs, to place gave and seas the from retreated States to o sin ser, mas antes es el mismo nada y como si no fuera en el mundo” mundo” el en fuera no si como y nada mismo el es antes mas ser, sin o to 116 Sosa writesSosa in

editerranean editerranean to operate on the Mediterranean to an extent that had never been experienced been never had that extent an to Mediterranean the on operate to Ransom knowledge. , 56. ,

Slavery along the Ottoman Borders (Early Fifteenth (Early Borders Ottoman the along Slavery , 149. ,

– (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010). Press, University Princeton (Princeton:

Diálogo de laCaptividad Diálogo “Un Cuerpo M

yun bruto vil animal...” seryproprio semejantecon valor,emparejado y siendo y tan manco, de unatangrande,notableparte tanfalto de su infelice“Un cautivodestacautiverio tan suerte queda con el

ircumstances that affected his ability to observe and and observe to ability his affected that ircumstances uerto”? 33

without being…” without Catholic Pirates and Greek Merchants: A Maritime Maritime A Merchants: Greek and Pirates Catholic

: “For the honor (moral dignity), title, and : “Forthe honorand title, dignity), (moral Topographia 113

rdr i te al Sixteenth Early the in traders

Te usin rss How arises: question The ? 114

- With a “deadWith how body” Early Eighteenth Centuries) Eighteenth Early –

translated and cited in in cited and translated t Msis and Muslims oth for the readers in in readers the for - C entury entury

CEU eTD Collection puse tanta puntualidad y diligencia que me cobraron tal amor y afición mi amo y sus hijos con toda la demás demás la toda con hijos sus y amo mi afición y amor tal cobraron me que diligencia y puntualidad tanta puse 119 16. 2011), Michigan, University diss., of (PhD. Knowledge,” and Commerce, 118 Frontier captives take to and ships Christian disturb 117 non from manpower as slaves import to started rulers Muslim demand, the for enough not was supply internal the when child to according and beings, human considered are slaves these, In it. mention speeches) and deeds Muhammad’s o jurisdiction the under belonged Empire Ottoman the in Slaves World. New the the of that or worlds of ancient that than phenomenon different a was world Islamic the in slavery of notion The familyrelationshipmaster’ his with kindof treatment, relationship, their instance, For forth. master, so and the gender, occupation, slave, the of background other) and (social con The everyone. for same the being from far was prominent parts theinformation oftheeconomy ofboth policyand activi corsair in taken were captives more many Algiers; before. 121 effect. brought into be could ifprinciples these factors severalon depended but it 120 quisiese...” donde casa fuera ir de de libertad tenía que familia,

See: If a master did not treat his slave well, he was obliged to sell him/her. These regulations worked in theory, theory, in worked regulations These him/her. sell to obliged was he well, slave his treat not did master a If di me dueño mi casa, nuestra a hubimos que “Llegado Ottoman sultans in this period dispatched messages to the corsairs before every campaign with orders to to orders with campaign every before corsairs the to messages dispatched period this in sultans Ottoman Daniel Bernardo Hershenzon, “Early Modern Spain and the Creation of the Mediterranean: Captivity, Captivity, Mediterranean: the of Creation the and Spain Modern “Early Hershenzon, Bernardo Daniel

f sae ol bcm a slave. a become could slave a of Enyclopaedia of Islam of Enyclopaedia 117 . Although there were stages that each slave went through without exception, slavery slavery exception, without through went slave each that stages were there Although go. that me foraffection and love such developed family, the of rest the all with together the children his of care take to me ordered and master my that diligent and punctuality owner much so Iput whichlaundry…on my house, our to arrived we When

The increase in pirate activity brought along an increase in the number of slaves inslaves of number the in increase an along brought activity pirate in increaseThe 119

the f sharia sharia

, masters should treat their slaves well. slaves their treat should masters , , vol.“ 1.

rlgos a) ee te ua ad the and Quran the even law), (religious I was free to go out of the house to wherever I wanted to Iwanted wherever to house the of goout to free was I

- Muslim lands. There were three modes of acquiring slaves: slaves: acquiring of modes three were There lands. Muslim ‘Abd. – ”

H see: possible, as goods) (and men many as 121

34 s family: hi nme ad motne rw n ie so time, in grew importance and number Their

o por cargo el cuidado de lavar la ropa … en lo cual cual lo en … ropa la lavar de cuidado el cargo por o ig Gln ie acut n n almost an on account gives Galán Diego

Cautiverio y trabajos de Die de trabajos y Cautiverio ditions could differ according to the the to according differ could ditions yta n battles. in than ty 120

gathering state. ofthe Only a non a Only hadith go Galán go ess, 118 -

Muslim or a or Muslim lvs were Slaves The Forgotten Forgotten The (records of of (records ,191.

- CEU eTD Collection 126 its Demise, Empire and Ottoman the in Slavery 125 Slavery Ransom 124 1500 Italy, and Coast, Barbary 1800 the Mediterranean, the in Slavery White masters: Muslim Slaves, Christian 123 1800 its Demise, and devşirme 15 1982), Press, 122 sex, origin, of place age, to according set were prices their furthermore, countries, home dist were captives group individuals, private of slaves the slaves, (governor’s) slaves.”) ex the of both uses also Sosa sources. the in interchangeably used are “captive,” and “slave” terms, two these that saying distinction, a Davis C. Robert time. over changed and neither inactuality in lawan nor was gulam, called ( ransom for captives and war of prisoners that stating two, these between distinction a makes Fodor Pál “slave.” and “captive” expressions the of interchangeability important slaves first. the choose could they sultan, the and governors the to given was captives) (including booty cap bookdirectory.com 409 128 127

Topog Only a minority could afford to keep slaves. slaves. keep to afford minoritycould Onlya He states further that the that further states He Davis, Davis, Ehud Toledano, Toledano, Ehud Miguel de Cervantes, Cervantes, de Miguel n lir i i dbtd hte i ws n i fv, r n i egt r one or eight in one or five, in one was it whether debated is it Algiers In - ture in war, raiding and kidnapping, and purchase. and kidnapping, and raiding war, in ture 410. 410.

(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 11. 2003), Macmillan, (New Palgrave York: esir/tutsak ee te rbe o triooy a t b discussed, be to has terminology of problem the Here, “king’s” the sale: their after Algiers in named be can captives of types Three etc. for the men and and men the for etc. ra and the question of the case of the the of case the of question the and 126 Christian I used the translation of John Ormsby of of Ormsby John of translation the used I phia,

125 , XIV. , , , 119. -

6 Hr oe a as ra aot h dfeet aue f nlvmn by enslavement of nature different the about read also can one Here 16. a uig oh em add o mk itnto btente, s de as them, between distinction a make not do and terms both using am I ) ; Hershenzon, “Early Modern Spain,” 32. Spain,” “Early Modern ; Hershenzon,

The Ottoman Slave Trade and its Suppression, 1840 Suppression, its and Trade Slave Ottoman The Slaves wie h sae hd eea ohr name other several had slaves the while , - 1909

123 Don Quijote de la Mancha la de Quijote Don

, xxv.; Hershenzon, “Early Modern Spain,” 25 Spain,” Modern “Early Hershenzon, xxv.; , (place: MacMillan, 1996), 2. 1996), (place: MacMillan, esir

iue t dpne o ter oil tts hy ed ak n their in back held they status social their on depended to ributed

was the one who made the first step to s to step first the made who one the was cariye, karava cariye,

pressions (“they ordinarily arrive here as captives and and captives as here arrive ordinarily (“they pressions zimmis esir Fodor, Fodor, xx.;

a slave. nd Daniel Bernardo Hershenzon argue against the the against argue Hershenzon Bernardo Daniel nd , see also: Y Hakan Erdem, Erdem, Hakan Y also: see , ş 35 Encyclopaedia Islam of Encyclopaedia , eme, memluke, rakike, memluke, eme, , , ed. Francisco Rico (Madrid: Punto de Lectura, 2012), 2012), Lectura, de Punto (Madrid: Rico Francisco ed. , RansomSlavery

124 o Quixote Don

These overlapped, sometimes categories 122 127

A certain portion of the acquired the of portion certain A

, xvii. , n pbi prisoners. public and , like s, lavery, see: Pál Fodor, Introduction to to Introduction Fodor, Pál see: lavery, - -

26.; See more on the terms: Erdem, Erdem, terms: the on more See 26.; 90 , on

“ ‘Abd. (Princeton: Princeton University University Princeton (Princeton:

Slavery in the Ottoman Empire Empire Ottoman the in Slavery

E u, b, adb abd, kul, in ten. See Robert C. Davis, Davis, C. Robert See ten. in - etc. for the women, and women, the for etc. ok Directory Books ”

fiye, baha fiye, primarily the the primarily devşirme - 128 memluk, i

( http://e ) were were ) . About About . Which - - CEU eTD Collection 130 129 for Captives great meant ransom labor. skilled of need in was city the moreover, manpower, needed which well. as them for doctor ba them.” employ not do janissaries and agha the as long as please, they “as go works.” public makhzen the of Christians secure.the most was next The rey del grande corrals houses the are which King, the of Bagnios the called buildings theconstituted part ruling of manywere viziers the grand class; origin. ofslave (“military admin the in numbers great in them used it slaves; of “employer” main the wasstate The time. courseof in the business own their theystarted that many times happened it and shop a in work also could They work. agricultural or projects), construction (min works public for used were they or liberated slaves, galley not them), for need were the of they because mostly but better, treated were (they workers skilled slavery), per be could captives occupations, their to According etc. beauty, abilities, appearance, physical 133 132 131 Absent and if Silent

ñ About the debate over the need to distinguish distinguish to need the over thedebate About Erdem, Ibid., 257. Ibid., (galley),see: “bastarda” it iscalled why account givesan also Sosa 257. Ibid., Topographia sonal bodyguards, eunuchs, concubines, domestic servants (the most typical form of of form typical most (the servants domestic concubines, eunuchs, bodyguards, sonal os

there were religiou were there – There were three were There

Slavery in the Ottoman Empire Ottoman the in Slavery where they keep their Christian captives and slaves.” and captives Christian their keep they where – - oenetl slavery.”) governmental

essentially the city the essentially , , 256. 132 ), where the most valuable and importan and valuable most the where ), , 18. ,

makhzen

amount of money, however; their ransom was paid by their family, the the family, their by paid was ransom their however; money, of amount

Sosa says that these prisoners had more freedom; they could come and come could they freedom; more had prisoners these that says Sosa 134 baños s services regularly in the churches; there were a pharmacy and and pharmacy a were there churches; the in regularly services s , as they call the garrison places in a stronghold, because the the because stronghold, a in places garrison the call they as ,

These captives were essential parts of the economy of Algiers, of economy the of parts essential were captives These

Bagnio de laBastarda –

n lir, as Algiers, in is th is

129 and its Demise and eir patron and master;” “they send the captives here to to here captives the send “they master;” and patron eir

hrfr, n h Otmn mie lvs gradually slaves Empire Ottoman the in Therefore, kul/harem kul/harem 36

de , 1. , slaves fr slaves

oarlts “Wort relates: Sosa : “This building houses inparticular the om other kinds of slaves, see: Toledano, see: Toledano, slaves, of kinds omother t slaves were incarcerated, was the the was incarcerated, were slaves t 131

The “Great Bagnio” ( Bagnio” “Great The –

istration and in the army army the in and istration i or, more accurately, the the accurately, more or, bid., 256. bid., h noting, too, are the the are too, noting, h

130 133

n these In Ba ers, ñ As o CEU eTD Collection 140 139 138 137 people. 000) 15 rather (but Davis, 000 25 maximum only were there Tripoli in and Algiers, in slaves of number the less much were numbers their Tripoli and Tunis in that 136 the of theissue about more 135 Studies Historical African Journal of International 134 the into themselves integrate to tried society. They captivity. their of beginning the at were were positions nece and not did they elements; status several by shaped dynamic, Their opportunities. their and circumstances their defining in factors decisive all were given were they job the master, the of status the masters, their of kind knowledge was valuable. Every etc. corsairs, the of plans and activities, events, the and etc.) inhabitants, observation and experiences their relating home returned they after treatises wrote or/and regularly), reports Mediterranean.” pro the “revolutionized and Morocco” Algiers, Spain, in institutions between information circulated who “mediators information the of parts slaves at 20000to40 (“economy slavery”). redemptionists state, or of Early Modern Spain Modern Early 141 London: 1661 ( times seven

See more on this issue in Chapter 4 Chapter morein issuethis on See 16. Ibid., 2. Spain,” “EarlyModern Hershenzon, De Sosa estimates the number of Christian slaves to more than 25 than more to slaves Christian of number the estimates Sosa De Captives “Christian Friedman, G. Ellen see: more, For A more elaborate argument against the definition of definition the against argument elaborate more A It was not always the case; Bertolomew Georgievic relates about his being sold (or he fled) and purchased purchased and fled) he (or sold being his about relates Georgievic Bertolomew case; the always not was It Taxes had to be paid on each slave upon his/her arrival to the city, see: Fodor, Fodor, see: city, the to arrival his/her upon slave each on paid be to had Taxes Christian Slaves Christian Captives were also of great u great of also were Captives The life of a captive was determined to a great extent by his firs his by extent great a to determined was captive a of life The 141

The Rarities of Turkey gathered by one that was sold seven times a Slave in the Turkish Empire… Turkish the in Slave a times wasseven that sold one by gathered Turkey of Rarities The According to several factors, like their abilities and skills, slaves could improve could slaves skills, and abilities their like factors, several to According ) He enumerates a great variety of jobs he did in he did captivity. jobs great varietya of enumerates He ) 138 s about the city (maps, urban plan, descriptions of the fortifications, fortifications, the of descriptions plan, urban (maps, city the about s .

, 35. , hysn rprsfo ter atvt ( captivity their from reports sent They

000 persons inAlgiers between 1586

economic value of slaves in Davis, Davis, in slaves valueof economic

139 - gathering of the state, as Hershenzon puts it, captives were were captives it, puts Hershenzon as state, the of gathering

duction and transmission for strategic knowledge in the the in knowledge strategic for transmission and duction - 5 ofHershenz 5

se for the state they belonged to. They were prominent were They to. belonged they state the for se

16 (1980), 625. 16 37 on, “Early Modern Spain.” Modern “Early on,

slavery as “social death” see C see death” “social as slavery – 135

at ‘Hard Labor’ in Algiers, 16 Algiers, in Labor’ ‘Hard at in Tunis it was about the one third third one the about was it Tunis in

Robert C. Davis estimates the numbers of thenumbers estimates Robert C.Davis Christian Slaves Christian

ssarily stay at the level where they they where level the at stay ssarily

000 ( 000 -

1680. de Topographia

Sosa also states that he sent he that states also Sosa 136 .

Ransom Slavery Ransom t sale. t hapter 2 of Hershenzon, Hershenzon, of 2 hapter , 119.); Davis also says says also Davis 119.); , th - 18th Centuries,” Centuries,” 18th 140 or one fourth of of fourth one or

Their price, Their

, xx. See See xx. , The The 137 ,

CEU eTD Collection captive had not become Muslim but preserved his faith. his but preserved Muslim not become had captive t serving narratives, captivity of part important an was suffered captives efficiency.” great with “persuaded were 145 144 ofthe Mediterranean. parts with home go to able was he fled, he after 143 have to judged were Aintab they if it taking life, to Peirce, Leslie see: right servitude,” of bond their their violated controlled sultan “the slaves; legally still Peirce were Leslie and other). or (African ethnicity and slaves, eunuch) “elite that or argues male (female, gender habitat nomad), area), peripheral or or village (core location (urban, merchant), or nature, rural elite, (urban owner slave the of stratum East Toledano, R. Ehud see: slaves,” of kind “other 142 accordingly.” treat and sons their call they who renegades, these of more or twenty fifteen, twelve, ten, have who renegades and Turks are “There master: their of family the into married often and janissaries. the join can he that and food,” their from get would he money and gift the and master former dead his from inherit to ability the as account,such arrived. they when commonly sources captivity Algiers, For easier. much it made conversion mobility, social Regarding family. master’s well,” you treat will I and loyal, sho Galán a Diego of slave, case domestic the examples, main the of one as family master’s their of part almost become networks. social widespread established and helpers, had friends, made positions. and circumstances their measure of mutuality and exchange that posits a complex web of reciprocity.” Ibid., 8. Ibid., ofreciprocity.” web complex a posits that exchange mutualityand of measure of form a is … “Enslavement 147 146

“Sed vos vueno y fiel que yo os trataré bien.” bien.” trataré os yo yfielque vueno “Sedvos Topographia About the classification of the positions of enslaved people in people enslaved of positions the of classification the About Ibid. Diego Galán gives an account an gives Galán Diego Like Jerónimo de Pasamonte, who traveled through the Mediterranean with his master, made friends and and friends made master, his with Mediterranean the through traveled who Pasamonte, de Jerónimo Like

(New Haven: Yale University Press, c2007), 20 c2007), Press, University Yale Haven: (New

(Berkeley: University of California, 2012), 315. 2012), ofCalifornia, (Berkeley: University , 126. About the “master the About 126. , , 126 147

h gvro/utn pn i cneso, wo lo upis h css of costs the supplies also “who conversion, his upon governor/sultan the - 127. 145 ” just as like “common slaves” could not transmit their property to their descendants, descendants, their to property their transmit not could slaves” “common like as just ”

Hershenzon, “Early Modern Spain,” 55. Spain,” “EarlyModern Hershenzon, h get datgs f trig uk ae eae in related are Turk” “turning of advantages great The patronage relationship, formed and often maintained by coercion but requiring a a requiring but coercion by maintained often and formed relationship, patronage - slave paradigm,” see: Ehud Toledano, Toledano, Ehud see: paradigm,” slave

on a successful conversion of two men from Granada and Fuencarral, who Fuencarral, and Granada from men two of conversion successful a on force by flattery with convert to urged were they that relate 144 Cautiverio y trabajo de Diego Galán Diego de trabajo y Cautiverio 142 ws. He was promised upon his purchase: “be good and and good “be purchase: his upon promised was He ws.

the help of the acquaintances he had in the Greek islands and other other and islands Greek the in had he acquaintances the of help the

and according to him, he became almost a part of his of part a almost became he him, to according and Ove As if Silent and Absent: Bonds of Enslavement in the Islamic Islamic the in Enslavement of Bonds Absent: and Silent if As Cautiverio y trabajos de Diego Galán Diego de trabajos y Cautiverio r time they changed masters and occupations; they occupations; and masters changed they time r 38 - M 21. He classifies the positions of slaves according slaves of positions the classifies He 21.

orality Tales: Law and Gender in the Ottoman Court of Court Ottoman the in Gender and Law Tales: orality

146

Above all they got much better treatment better much got they all Above the debated categories of of categories debated the

he purpose of proving that the returned returned the that proving of purpose he As if Silent and Absent and Silent if As , 88. The pressure to convert that that convert to pressure The 88. ,

, , 186. 143

They could even could They kul/harem kul/harem

. He argues that that argues He . de slaves as as slaves

Sosa’s to task, task, to

CEU eTD Collection February 20, 2013); 20, February 153 Algiers in Cervantes 152 151 43. 150 149 Dialogue Modern As him. give not did and resisted who one was Muhmammad masters. their from values ransom 148 which marginality and humiliation continuous experiencing environment, hostile a in time his wasting isolated, Cervant on report the for testimony a writing even and king the to letters sending Spain, with contact in was He him. around people from news gathering conversations, having and reading active, quite prison. in him visited who master’s his of diversity the mention to not visitors, officials, origins, different of people of kinds to according Algiers in prominent most and largest the of one was house Muhammad’s ransom. his pay to king Spanish the beg him make to order in time to time from work public hard do to out sent was him to according and Muhammad, money…” through rummaging in nights and days his kaids Algiers, of mint the of charge in official municipal rich a Muhammad, Hispano the of member ranking humiliating experience of the slave market, where they were exhibited naked and observed by hundreds of of hundreds by 155 observed and naked exhibited were eyes. they where market, slave the of experience humiliating 154

Ibid., 47. Ibid., 43. Ibid., Col

Sosa depicted his master like this in in this like master his depicted Sosa The slave market has to be mentioned here. Most of the captivity narratives give a detailed account of the the of account detailed a give narratives captivity the of Most here. mentioned be to has market slave The See: Emilio Sola, “La Información de Argel de 1580” (2007) (2007) 1580” de Argel de Información “La Sola, Emilio See: When Hasan Paşa arrived in Algiers to start his governorship in 1577, he confiscated captives with high high with captives confiscated he 1577, in governorship his start to Algiers in arrived Paşa Hasan When Garcés in in Garcés

ley, “Going Native, Telling Tales,” 178. Tales,” Telling “GoingNative, ley, of Algiers before 1581 in 1581 before Algiers of

mi Antonio de Sosa was a captive for ransom, a highly valued one as he was a high a was he as one valued highly a ransom, for captive a was Sosa de Antonio Muhammad household household ght have been his mode of retaining his identity, as Linda Colley puts it “reaction “reaction it puts Colley Linda as identity, his retaining of mode his been have ght

154 evne i Algiers in Cervantes

, , 44. n te eprec o vulnerability.” of “experience the and

, 82. , Garcés, Garcés,

s pn i manumission. his upon es

a a ulm Hsn aa could Paşa Hasan Muslim, a was (wives, children, relatives, servants, and slaves) and the Christian slaves slaves Christian the and slaves) and servants, relatives, children, (wives,

Cervantes in Algiers in Cervantes 152

Thus, h Thus, itd oe o some listed de - Diálogo de la captividad captividad la de Diálogo tla Church. Italian Sosa’s account, and who “does nothing else but occupy occupy but else nothing “does who and account, Sosa’s is captivity was not like death in the sense that he was he that sense the in death like not was captivity is

f his visitors and people people and visitors his f 39 153

However, 148 not appropriate his slaves, see: Garcés, Garcés, see: slaves, his appropriate not

e a buh b a Jew a by bought was He 150 155 cited in Garcés, Garcés, in cited http://archivodefrontera.com

He was inc was He d e oa a raig n writing, and reading was Sosa De e

ie ot atvs de captives, most like Sosa, e Sosa de 151 arcerated in the house of house the in arcerated

thus An Early Modern Dialogue Modern Early An

encountered, see: Garcés, Garcés, see: encountered, 149

de listed in the list of list the in listed de de Sosa met many met Sosa Sosa and others to to others and Sosa s renegade, ish

(Last accessed accessed (Last oa felt Sosa, n Early An - , CEU eTD Collection known world.from the home and from c status, circumstances, different completely in world, hostile, moreover, alien, markedly” differ could … captivity of “anchors of identity.” Ibid., 180. Ibid., “anchorsofidentity.” 156

Ibid., 176. She discusses the strategies of captives to retain their identity from clothing to writing as being being as writing to clothing from identity their retain to captives of strategies the discusses She 176. Ibid.,

156

just as the modes of retaining one’s identity in an in identity one’s retaining of modes the as just 40

iae far limate, CEU eTD Collection 157 and outlook humanistic His (Sicily). Agrigento of general vicar and dean the as serving century, sixteenth the in monarchy Spanish the of hierarchy ecclesiastical the of member a became NarrativesCaptivity 3.1. genre narratives. the of characteristics the for account Sosa’s o influences literary and age, the of trends ideological the in, educated was he tradition the written, was it which in context cultural his the by in account Sosa’s de situate to attempt will chapter This experiences. developed and circumstances presentation of methods contribution original an and constitutes also it but perceptions contemporaries, the uses it that sense the in era this of th product a is was account Sosa’s De threat” genres. various of “Turkish literature contemporary The fate. a such of fear in lived Europe in people common and merchants kings, scholars, the when age the was This Empire. Ottoman or in Coimbra. Garcés, Garcés, in Coimbra. or University the at studied either he Garcés, of research 158 Romanticism to New Renaissance Genres for NewEthnographic Renaissance Knowledge Genresfor about

William of Rubruck cited in Anthony Pagden, Pagden, Anthony in cited Rubruck of William s mnind n C in mentioned I As his literary arebeginning influences signaled inthevery ofhis New GeNew Antonio de Sosa was captured in 1571 by corsairs, who were in the service of the of service the in were who corsairs, by 1571 in captured was Sosa de Antonio De Sosa Sosa De

nres for New Knowledge: nres New for

(

New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), 3. 1994), Press, University Yale New Haven: The Culturalde Context for Sosa’s Account: “When I came among them, it seemed indeed to me as if I were stepping into a “Whenme itseemedI came Iwere indeed asif amongthem, steppinginto to a euae a a rmnn uiest o te bra Peninsula, Iberian the on university prominent a at educated was Cervantes in Algiers in Cervantes

hapter 1, it is not known precisely which university he attended. According to the the to According attended. he university which precisely known not is it 1, hapter

Chapter Three , 68. , Muslims

Ethnographic Knowledge,Travel L European encounters encounters European 41 n the author. Furthermore, it will examine de de examine will it Furthermore, author. the n

of Salamanca, as it was favored by Portuguese students, students, Portuguese by favored was it as Salamanca, of

f rvl ieaue n captivity and literature travel of with the New World: from Renaissance Renaissance from World: New the with stemming from his specific specific his from stemming Topographia di fferent universe.” e main concern in in concern main e iterature

158

and and and

157

CEU eTD Collection ht ae o e consi be to have that could have exposed. been Sosa de which to others religious and Muslims about as well as presented, and gathered in manner the about ideas the Renaissance examine to Italian important therefore is It Peninsula. Iberian the of life intellectual the in influential were ideas humanist Italian century, fifteenth the in versa vice and there study to Italy, and Spain between relationship close a was there As them. follows or from diverges Sosa de how see to order Renaissance,in age the the of in others”“religious about ideas the Iberian and Peninsula, the an Christendom in present Muslims of perceptions different the with starting written, was knowledge. sodomites and people, vilest the tyrants, an “lechery by characterized as (Turks age his of tropes existing and the contains stereotypes text the while Thus, chapters. following the in demonstrate will I author classical of writings the on based less is itself account Sosa’s de However, claim. his prove to sources using not and accurate politically (Spanish i (Spanish politically 160 159

Tophographia Spain and Italy were not only close geographically (active shipping routes linked the two peninsulas) and and peninsulas) two the linked routes shipping (active geographically close only not were Italy and Spain

It is essential to begin with an overview of the developments of the era when the text text the when era the of developments the of overview an with begin to essential is It being not of Africanus Leo accuses and authors ancient cites he humanist a As There were at least two determining features of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries centuries sixteenth and fifteenth the of features determining two least at were There peoples or city calledMesgrana. Because claim. the nor his Ptolemy, of Tables confirm the in nor to Polybius, nor Pliny, authorities nor Strabo, in any neither cite he does his nor in however, claims Mesg the Africanus called people LeoAfrican author Moorish Africa of Description curious and learned The Itinerarium

,93. nfluence in the region was considerable), but they also had active cultural connections. activecultural had but they also considerable), was regionin the nfluence

ee i odr o nesad h dvlpet n tasomto of transformation and development the understand to order in dered

of the Emperor Antoninus … can there be found any found be there can … Antoninus Emperor the of 160

and many Italian thinkers, professors, and professors, thinkers, Italian many and d gluttony,” etc.), it is rather a detailed compilation of empirical of compilation detailed a rather is it etc.), gluttony,” d that it [Algiers] was constructed in ancient times by an an by times ancient in constructed was [Algiers] it that

159 s than on his own observations as an eye an as observations own his on than s aa H nvr as hn hs occurred, this when says never He … rana

hc eprcl nweg sol be should knowledge empirical which

artists went to Spain to went artists

nation, nation, - witness, as as witness,

d CEU eTD Collection 1550 Stagl, Justin See pilgrimage.” corruptive morally and expensive 1466 (c. Rotterdam of Erasmus neede was legitimation new that and legitimacy” its losing “was pilgrimage Visions and and Voyages elite, religious specialized a ra to observation just direct than upon rather rested all, which to accessible was which and nature and century men fourteenth about truth the in belief” of “crisis truth.” a for response a narrative of source “alternative an offering genre literary a as literature were travel of the development to contributed empiricism of emergence the and 163 Islam and Ris the in Islam 162 travel, Tyana). of 161 Ages. Middle late the of romances chivalric the and Ages Middle the (start of crusades times and peregrinations ancient the through from Odysseus) observed be can continuity a century; fifteenth the than earlier began process This humans. to attention particular paying vision secular more travel is, that genre, new literature. a of popularity the and experience, of kind new becoming a travel as the popular to led lands, new of discovery the and men of mobility increasing natur homogenous the of idea the is, that concept, new a and man” of “dignity the Contemplating self observatio on emphasis more was there that is transformations and changes these among important is What ones. classical the revived and medieval existing already the transformed also but early anthropolo constitute modern to came that knowledge” “ethnographic of production the to led which others, Muslim the about particularly more Europe, beyond world the about perceptions customs is reflected in their writings. The most popular book in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries also also centuries fourteenth and thirteenth the in the is, that mentioned, be book to needs popular most The writings. their in reflected is customs (1130 Tyre of William of works the like century, 164

This notion of the travel for the “extent of wisdom” can even be found in antiquity (Odysseus, Apollonius Apollonius (Odysseus, antiquity in found be even can wisdom” of “extent the for travel the of notion This As Rubiés and Elsner put it in the introduction to their book, book, their to introduction the in it put Elsner and Rubiés As lu Hfr, Te re o Tig ad h Dsore f h Trih het h Cnetaiain of Conceptualisation The Threat. Turkish the of Discourse the and Things of Order “The Höfert, Almut Here one also has to mention the missionaries to pagans in the twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth thirteenth the of beginning and twelfth the in pagans to missionaries the mention to has also one Here - - mrvmn rgre tae ad wneig ie a oe a o learning. of way one as life” “wandering and travel regarded improvement 1800 e of human beings, human of e

ed. by and Elsner ed. Jas Thus, “what the Renaissance inherited from this period was, above all, the idea that there was a kind of kind a was there that idea the all, above was, period this from inherited Renaissance the “what Thus, , ed. by Almut Höfert and Armando Salvatore (New York: Peter Lang, 2000), 42. 2000), Lang, (New Peter York: Salvatore Armando and ed.by , Almut Höfert . (C . Jas Elsner and Elsner Jas 163 n and empiricism, and the urge of the humanists for continuous self continuous for humanists the of urge the and empiricism, and n hur, Switzerland: Harwood Academic Publishers, c. 1995), 47. 1995), c. Academic Publishers, Harwood hur,Switzerland:

The religious contemplation of pilgrimage of the Middle Ages gave way to a to way gave Ages Middle the of pilgrimage of contemplation religious The e of Occidental Anthropology in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries,” in Centuries,” Sixteenth and Fifteenth the in Anthropology Occidental of e , 29 , gy. The Renaissance brought new ideas, new perceptions and attitudes, and perceptions new ideas, new brought Renaissance The gy. -

30. Justin Stagl, in his book book his in Stagl, Justin 30.

Joan

Joan 162 - Pau

- - implied the observation of humans “globally,” which, with the with which, “globally,” humans of observation the implied Pau Description of the World World the of Description 56 pasd h “iu wr o self of work “pious the praised 1536)

Rubiés

Rubiés ( ther than upon written authority,” Rubiés and Elsner, Introduction to to Introduction Elsner, and Rubiés authority,” written upon than ther 164 , Introduction to to Introduction ,

Therefore, as the word “transformation” implies, travel implies, “transformation” word the as Therefore, London : Reaktion Books, 1999), 11 1999), Books, Reaktion London: - 86) and Gerald of Wales (1145 Wales of Gerald and 86) 43 A History of Curiosity of History A

by Marco Polo (c. 1298), which contains numerous numerous whichcontains 1298), (c. Polo Marco by Voyages and visions: towards a cultural history of of history cultural a towards visions: and Voyages A History of Curiosity: The Theory of Travel Travel of Theory The Curiosity: of History A Voyages and Vi and Voyages - , also notes that the phenomenon of of phenomenon the that notes also , improvement against the useless, useless, the against improvement

d, which was found in education. education. in found was which d, - 1223), whos 1223), sions - 13.

these new perceptions perceptions new these

- education and and education e curiosity about about curiosity e Between Europe Europe Between ing from from ing 161

CEU eTD Collection ethnographic data data ethnographic anthrop The account. Howland Rowe argues that: Sosa’s de in already present are characteristics and KnowledgeEthnographic Travel and L ma to order in “ethnographic knowledge” comprehensible. developed be to had methodology a and organized be tohad it that amounts such knowledgein of production the to led that factors wereimportant lands new of discoveries the with together Ottomans) the of expansion the and Renaissance diplomatic and negotiations.missions for information necessary the provide to or expansion, territorial encounter, knowl of kind every information the of part formed It side. political the genre, number large a The was them, about threat. knowledge accurate cultural an of and necessity the religious of also and political, anxiety, and a fear the asof consequence seen be to came they as increased abo curiosity Constantinople, of partlychanged form. a in them of grewout it rather but chivalry), and pilgrimage, crusades, the (of ideologies and writings the against develop not did era modern early the in writing pamphlets, newssheets, memoirs, travel accounts, captivity narratives, and so on which are concerned with the the with concerned are which on so and narratives, captivity accounts, travel memoirs, newssheets, pamphlets, 166 165 well. to Introduction as medievallore by influenced

As it has been mentioned in the introduction of this t this of introduction the in mentioned been has As it Visions and Voyages h ecutr f hs to lmns te hnig da i te age the in ideas changing (the elements two these of encounter The conquest the and Empire Ottoman the of expansion the with century, fifteenth the In Although anthropology became a discipline in the nineteenth century, its methods methods its century, nineteenth the in discipline a became anthropology Although Turcica and is mostly based on observations and experience, although it contained fanciful sections sections fanciful contained it although experience, and observations on based mostly is and . 166 , 31. , edge from every kind of source in order to prepare itself for a military military a for itself prepare to order in source of kind every from edge 165

o n re o “icvrn” n gteig nweg as hd a had also knowledge gathering and “discovering” for urge an So

of treatises on the “Turks,” producing a specific kind of of kind specific a producing “Turks,” the on treatises of ut the Muslims, especially the Ottomans or “Turks,” “Turks,” or Ottomans the especially Muslims, the ut iterature

44 Voyages and Visions and Voyages

hesis, Carl Göllner listed 2463 editions and 500 writers, writers, 500 and editions 2463 listed Göllner Carl hesis, -

gathering of state intelligence, which used used which intelligence, state of gathering , , 25

- 37.

of medieval practices practices medieval of e h gathered the ke lgs John ologist

of the the of

CEU eTD Collection just behind them. behind just Dutc (English, “Northerners” the and the Portuguese, and Spanish, China the weretheItalians, gathering” of Kingdom Great the of Ethiopians Circassians the of Location and Life Iteriano, Giorgio numbers. growing in appeared title the in words these with works century, sixteenth the “mora 169 c.2004) DeCorse. R. Christopher 168 Papers Society 167 Lawrence greater. literature,” in Turks Spanish much is number this that argued been recently has it However, “Turks.” life, everyday appearance, physical clothes, their speak, they languages names, living, of place their with concerned is He Algiers. of people the about pages of hundreds writes Sosa the that undisputable is history.” “moral expression the was “ethnology” to equivalent closest the and title, the in customs” ethnographic labeled now are which subjects the but century, nineteenth the before mentioned not were “ethnology” and “ethnography” words The Elder. called book a of title the in 1501, modern era can observed. be nineteenth the from different certainly emerge an to that contributed arein differences factors observation, ofthese among men and some interest of importance the empiricism, on emphasis the Renaissance, the of concepts cultural The relations and characteristics” while ethnography is “the systematic recording of human cultures.” Palmira Palmira cultures.” Pilgrimage, and human of recording in Travels, systematic of ‘Book’ the in Time “the and Witness, “Genre, Brummett, is ethnography while characteristics” and relations 170

The word “history” has the original meaning of “research” in this context or “a report on research” while while research” on report “a or context this in “research” of meaning original the has “history” word The tnlg i a ufed f nhoooy n i as cle clua ant cultural called also is and anthropology of subfield a is Ethnology John Howland Rowe, “Ethnography and Ethnology in the Sixteenth Century,” Century,” Sixteenth the in Ethnology and “Ethnography Rowe, Howland John tnlg i “h suy f h dvsos epcal rca, f human of racial, especially divisions, the of study “the is Ethnology l” is derived from the Latin the from derived is l”

h od atrplg”oiiae n h itet cnuy and century sixteenth the in originated “anthropology” word The Renaissance the firs in the attempts toclassifyanddata. interpret anthropological find we and sought observation, anthropological of expansion be great there a century was sixteenth to the In … century are fifteenth the in Italy anthropology in movement of beginnings the 169 (1540), Juan Gonzalez de Mendoza, Mendoza, de Gonzalez Juan (1540),

As ethnology deals with the divisions of human kind and its characteristics, its and kind human of divisions the with deals ethnology As 30 (1964): 1 (1964): 30 nce of a kind of ethnological sense. ethnological of kind a of nce

1250

See Rowe, “Ethnography and Ethnology,” 2. Ethnology,” and “Ethnography Rowe, See - 1700

Anthropology. A Global perspective perspective Global A Anthropology. , ed. Palmira Brummet and Andrew Colin Gow (Leiden, Brill: 2009), 2. 2009), Brill: (Leiden, ColinGow Andrew ed.and Palmira , Brummet - 19. 17. Topographia

mos 18) ec Oe a se ht h poer o ti kn o “knowl of kind this of pioneers the that see can One etc. (1585), , 10) D (1502), moris Antropologium

, meaning “custom.” Rowe, “Ethnography and Ethnology,” 1. In In 1. Ethnology,” and “Ethnography Rowe, “custom.” meaning , a b pla be can - The etr oe u sm cniute fo te early the from continuities some but one century amião de Goes, Goes, de amião

Story of the Most Remarkable Matters, Rites and Customs Customs and Rites Matters, Remarkable Most the of Story

, “discourse on man” by Magnus Hundt the Hundt Magnus by man” on “discourse , ced among the ethnographic treatises. treatises. ethnographic the among ced 168

(Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education, Education, Pearson N.J.: River, Saddle (Upper Sixteenth h Bles Rlgo ad utm o the of Customs and Religion Beliefs, The The “Book” of Travels: Genre, Ethnology, Ethnology, Genre, Travels: of “Book” The 167

- century “anthropology” was “anthropology” century

hropology. Raymond Scupin and and Scupin Raymond hropology. -

kind, kind, were termed as “life and and “life as termed were their origins, distribution, distribution, origins, their Kroeber Anthropoligical Anthropoligical Kroeber was first used in used first was , “Europe and the and “Europe , h, etc.) were h,etc.)

t edge 170 The The De De

it -

CEU eTD Collection Thomas Wilson’s Wilson’s Thomas 174 173 Stagl, knowing),” seeingand worthcurious, 172 171 travel for methodology a offers he which cu peregrinari genere vitae tandem quocunque in fructu cum organizing qui gratiam an as popular very became apparatus. which Questionnaire, Ramus the as known entitled book were knowledge British. the organizing by produced for handbooks first The knowledge. empirical expanding apodemica ars arrangement. trave of methodology a of mode the and observation of categories the defined which developed, pattern, hierarchical later but chronologically, mainly data the down etc.). him, from expected him, was what for state, interesting the for was useful things, (what extraordinary down writing worth was thought he what recorded He observed. he genreof the with classified werereports travel of number the education, accou of mode a becoming travel mentioned, have I as and, describing them one by one. r he and religions, and customs, expanding empirical knowledge that was produced and spread widely because of the printing press. They They press. printing the of because widely spread and produced was that knowledge empirical expanding 176 175 Stagl,See (1553).

Stagl, see ofnarratives travel periods the transition Concerning On this see Ina Baghdiantz McGabe, McGabe, Baghdiantz InaOnsee this The book was a result of Zwinger and Hugo Blotius meeting and discussing how to find a solution for the the for solution a find to how discussing and meeting Blotius Hugo and Zwinger of result a was book The Facts and events called called events and Facts For instance, Andrew Boorde’s Boorde’s Andrew instance, For nts grew to great numbers and a methodology was developed. The early modern travel modern early The developed. was methodology a and numbers great to grew nts With the changing interest in “other” people and increase in the mobility of men, men, of mobility the in increase and people “other” in interest changing the With A History of Curios of History A 175

171 173 Dialecticae Institutiones Institutiones Dialecticae te r o tae, a dvlpd rud 50 f 1570 around developed was travel, of art the ,

n 57 hoo Zigr ulse his published Zwinger Theodor 1577 In A History of Curiosity of History A

h at o Reoiu, o te s o al uh s r suiu o eloquence….. of studious are as such all of use the for Rhetorique, of arte The First, the observer did not select his observation on a methodo a on observation his select not did observer the First, What is called the method for writing about travels, about writing for method the called is What

“ ity memorabilia, insignia, curiosa, visu ac scit ac visu curiosa, insignia, memorabilia, 174 ; Almut Höfert, “The Order of Things.” ofThings.” Order “The ; Almut Höfert,

However, the humanist Pierre de la Ramé (1515 Ramé la de Pierre humanist the However,

h frt oe f h Itouto o knowl of Introduction the of boke fyrst The Orientalism in Early Modern France Modern Early in Orientalism ecords these by looking at different “ethnic” groups and and groups “ethnic” different at looking by these ecords , 49. , A History of Curiosity, of History A

(1543) developed a que a developed (1543) historia - 46 writing.

, in which the author described various facts facts various described author the which in , Voyages and Vision and Voyages 176

e fes oes o dsrpin of descriptions for models offers He

50.

ehds pdmc i eorum in apodemica Methodus

u digna u stionnaire format that became that format stionnaire , (New , Yor or the organization of the the of organization the or s, ed. Rubiés Elsner. and ed. s,

(things memorable, striking, striking, memorable, (things methodus apodemica methodus edge k: Berg, 2008), 45. 2008), Berg, k: , London (1542) and and (1542) London , piunt - logical basis. logical 172 l writing, a a writing, l

1572) in his in 1572) in Basel, in in Basel, in

He wrote He London ,

or CEU eTD Collection of notes that were classified according to subjects. Stagl, Stagl, subjects. to according wereclassified ofnotes that hu great the of one followed Nathan in appeared one popular Chytraeus’ a appeared; methodologies more Zwinger, of time of occupations the and sights, principal constitution, history, territory, its city, the of new) and (ancient name the discussing people, and cities 179 ratione vera peregrinandi seu apodemica arte 178 177

Höfert, “The Order of Things,” 59. ofThings,” Order “The Höfert, 58. Ibid., Ibid., 62. This schema was partly based on Hilarius Pyrckmair’s met Pyrckmair’s Hilarius on based partly was schema This 62. Ibid.,

Variorum in Europae itinerumDeliciae in Variorum Figure inthework 1.Synopsis ofNathan Chytracus.

manists of Spain, Juan Luis Vives (1492 Vives Luis Juan Spain, of manists

(Ingolstadt, 1577). (Ingolstadt,

A History of Curiosity of History A (1594). the inhabitants. the

- 1540), who had already set up collections collections up set already had who 1540), 178 hod, written in his his in written hod,

, 57 ,

177 - 58. 58.

179 After and around the around and After

Commentariolus de de Commentariolus

CEU eTD Collection the many “subgenres” or overlapping genres, like diplomatic and ambassadorial reports, reports, ambassadorial and diplomatic like genres, overlapping or “subgenres” many the Thus, captivity. of experience the through “other” the with encounter unplanned and unwanted an or spies) (ambassadors, profession a (merchantmen), living a making of matter a rather was it some, Captivity N human of facts “establishing and diversity.” men among difference the with concerned mainly makes emphasis This one. by one “ethniciti different people, of groups different the examines the from see can One account. of the organization of section main the constitutes and longer much p the with dealspart middle the writingwhile forframe giveachapter last the and first The government. its and city the of beauty natural the and again, buildings e hold. they occupations various the and the “ethnicities” neighbors, different its and city the of inhabitants the with continues He buildings. and gates he and times, of name the explains ancient form history its Algiers, of foundation the with starts He people. describing on emphasis more much puts he additionally However, patterns. of kinds these Levisi, “Las aventuras de Diego Galán,” Diego de “Las aventuras Levisi, 181 180 very day life and customs in the following chapters, and closes his account by describing describing by account his closes and chapters, following the in customs and life day very

Rowe, “Ethnography and Ethnology,” 5. Ethnology,” “Ethnographyand Rowe, For captivity accounts as narratives, as writings which are part history a history part are which writings as narratives, as accounts captivity For f n los t h conte the at looks one If Not for everyone was tr was everyone for Not 180 arratives

when one is talking about the genre of travel literature one has to consider to has one literature travel of genre the about talking is one when de 181 oas ok ht i picpl neet is ih h ihbtns He inhabitants. the with lies interest principal his that work Sosa’s

the city (its new and its old name). Then he describes the city, its walls, city, its the name).describes heThen old its andnew the city(its

avel a “mode of education” and a voluntary enterprise. For For enterprise. voluntary a and education” of “mode a avel nt of of nt Boletín de la Biblioteca de Menéndez Pelayo Pelayo Menéndez de Biblioteca la de Boletín

de de oas ok tn coe t atrplg a i is it as anthropology to closer stand work Sosa’s Sosa’s Sosa’s 48

Topographia es,” separately, discussing them discussing separately, es,” , it is visible that he follows follows he that visible is it , nd part imagination, see Margarita Margarita see imagination, part nd De Sosa puts emphasis on on emphasis puts Sosa eople of Algiersis andofeople 65

(1989): 109 (1989): - 177.

CEU eTD Collection iecaa e l éoa e Cervantes de época la en silenciadas and merchantmen while 183 intelligence, state the of part exper and writing in ofpurpose different kind a had captives was it as objective more be and information accurate its to, belonged 182 ask often were captives home returning after as state, information the of part been have may they mentioned, have I As account. while of aware read be should reader the that problems same the share knowledge. also gathered they Moreover, the systematizing of pattern same the following often narratives, seven in captivity of topic the on accounts passionate other numerous to rise gave 1615) in second in (inserted Tale” and representative key Cervantes, with popular became narratives captivity Spain, In etc. people, the of religion the customs, the events the on knowledge transmitted They information the of part important an were and culture, different a on information provided that sources as value great had afterwards or captivity in written “subgenr (or “genre” this what and Coast) Barbary the on up ended who those of (especially accounts captivity of characteristics the at look to essential even capti letters, handbooks, navigational and merchant maps, itineraries, pilgrim memoirs, V Argel de general historia e Topografía 184 Publicac ega in the beginning of the seventeenth century. seventeenth the of the beginning egain

Emilio Sola, “Espionaje, información y cultura. Literatura de avisos en la época de Cervantes,” Cervantes,” de época la en avisos de Literatura cultura. y información “Espionaje, Sola, Emilio e mr: rmet “er, ins, n Tm, 1 Acrig o h “ugne a ic o writing of piece a “subgenre” the to According 1. Time,” and Witness, “Genre, Brummett, more: See See Miguel de Cervantes, Cervantes, de Miguel See ing these kinds of accounts. theseing of kinds vity accounts, etc. teenth iones, 2006): 19 2006): iones, As First, one has to think about the purpose of the writing and the function of the the of function the and writing the of purpose the about think to has one First, de - etr Spain. century

contents also varied. For example, an ambassadorial report is supposed to contain more more contain to supposed is report ambassadorial an example, For varied. also contents Sosa was taken as a captive to Algiers and wrote his account there, it is is it there, account his wrote and Algiers to captive a as taken was Sosa de o Quij Don Sosa’s fellow captive in Algiers. Modern literary scholars consider him a him consider scholars literary Modern Algiers. in captive fellow Sosa’s -

37; Hershenzon, “Early Modern Spain.” “EarlyModern 37; Hershenzon,

182 symbol of the of symbol

Los baños de Argel Argel de baños Los 184 ote,

atvt acut sae ay hrceitc wt travel with characteristics many share accounts Captivity

of which the first volume was volume first the which of

, ed. ed. , 11) h wrs of works the (1612); cautiverio Emilio Sola, et al. al. et Sola, Emilio

in the Mediterranean, Muslim society, the society, Muslim Mediterranean, the in (1615)

(captivity) genre (captivity) ienced a different kindofencounter. different a ienced

and Gonzalo de Céspedes y Meneses and Lope de de Lope and Meneses y Céspedes de Gonzalo

a rn sultana gran La (Alcalá de Henares, Spain, Servicio de de Servicio Spain, Henares, de (Alcalá ed about what they had seen seen had they what about ed e”) implies. This kind of texts of kind This implies. e”)

published in 1605 and the the and 1605 in published - , ahrn fr h state. the for gathering

since his “ his since

(1615); Antonio de Sosa: Sosa: de Antonio (1615); - gathering for the the for gathering The

Captive’s Captive’s Escrituras Escrituras

land, land, 183 –

CEU eTD Collection Algiers, probably hoping to advance in his career. He mainly referred to some letters he had written to the kin the writtento had he letters some to referred mainly He career. his in advance to hoping probably Algiers, 186 Hershenz See in.” engaged was 117. Spain,” “EarlyModern Mediterranean the in captive every almost that task a was Mediterranean 185 witness had he things the of meaning the and significance the comprehend to able not was author the Often observations. own his (only) necessarily not and him from expected were that Muslims the about stereotypes and tropes include might author own the way, their on based descriptions well incorporated and others cited also but detailed observations gave authors be to the order In trustworthy, well. as considered authentication of strategy a was This him. from expect would reader the thought he that things incorporate to willing was writer the that namely, accounts, been notbeallowed beforeshould Christian and tobewasted inthe future. h which land the of beauty the out pointing by or there captives Christian the of misery infidels. the against fighter real seriousl more taken were issues religious II, Philip of era the In captives. redeeming for money collect to was aim whose Redemptionists, the for tool a being or mission” “apostolic an fulfilling by either aims religious buildings, main and fortifications Furthermore,pointing could weak narratives serve city. outthe strong and these ofthe points its about Algiers, about provides he is information chap first the at look a takes only one casewith the was theyastheirsaw, what experiencesofand tell dutytheir to it etc.government, affairs, geography,maritime en el enfrentamiento hispano enfrentamiento enel 188 187 Garcés, captivity. his during

Voigt, For more on this issue, see Miguel Angel de Bunes Ibarra, “Las crónicas de cautivos y las vidas ejemplares ejemplares vidas las y cautivos de crónicas “Las Ibarra, Bunes de Angel Miguel see issue, this on more For De Sosa, after his flight, wrote a letter to the king claiming that he was a valuable source of intelligence on on intelligence of source valuable a was he that claiming king the to letter a wrote flight, his after Sosa, De Matar, “Introduction,” in “Introduction,” Matar, The strategy of writing also has to be taken into account in the case of captivity captivity of case the in account into taken be to has also writing of strategy The

Writing Captivity Writing y, as the king intended to portray himself as the defender of Catholicism, and a and Catholicism, of defender the as himself portray to intended king the as y,

, 54. ,

An Early Modern Anthropology Modern Early An - Piracy, Slavery, Slavery, Piracy, musulmán en la edad edad la en musulmán

eoiig h rlgos nm ad meil rival imperial and enemy religious the demonizing

188

hy ol as ug fr cnus b soig the showing by conquest a for urge also could They 32 ters of his account, one can see how detailed the the detailed how see can one account, his of ters - 33. “The recovery and transmission of knowledge about the the about knowledge of transmission and recovery “The 33. moderna,” 50 185

Even if they were not, some might have felthavemight some not, were theyif Even , 66. ,

Hispania sacra Hispania

- known tropes and events. and tropes known

45 (1993): 45

ed, so his writing his so ed, - 82. de

187 Sosa.

189 n thus and

In th In 186 on, on, ad

is If g

CEU eTD Collection 191 190 at thattime. produced Algiers account on t about 189 ne likely author the which stereotypes and tropes contained also they observations, relating accounts these of spite in Thus, converted. not Christian, a being still writer’s the of proof and “plea” of kind a censorship of because writings. down everything the in traced be can and differed also circumstances new the and happenings the to reacted someone How fear. and humiliation shockin was that experience an about wrote they that also but memory, from accounts their composed thus and experiences, their after etc. occupation, c frompeopletheir with socializing by orordeals, their down writing clothing, like strategies, different using identity their preserve to way, this in and “others,” the from distance a keep and differences their keep to wanted mostly captives But Mu of perceptions Western for sources great the of one therefore are and culture alien travel literature. the what and realexperience or between “truth” differencethe of think to has onesense, In this interesting.regarded ashe what and experienced he that those with him from expected were that issues the mix to had cityand agglomer a its (like patria country, hissmaller self selective. considered be should 193 prestigio de afán el por silenciada 192 oral literature la Galán, literario,” “Diego Ibarra, Bunes also see further writings;

Colley, Ibid., 176 Ibid., Colley,See The other characteristics of the writing that consequently come from this is that the authors often wrote wrote often authors the that is this from come consequently that writing the of characteristics other The orge an Rodríguez - portraits of the author, which could have further concerns, like the portrait of his his of portrait the like concerns, further have could which author, the of portraits he same events, like the death of Uluç Ali in Algiers in 1587, which was an event mentioned in every every in mentioned event an was which 1587, in Algiers in Ali Uluç of death the like events, same he Captivity writings are accounts that were informed by the author’s experience of an an of experience author’s the by informed were that accounts are writings Captivity Escrituras silenciadas en la época de Cervantes época la en silenciadas Escrituras

“ Going Native” Going - 177. Writing Captivity Writing Lna oly ae nae wt te self the with engaged have Colley Linda d

192 e eprecd ti ws re of true was (this experienced ver

It has to be kept in mind not only that captives wrote their works long works their wrote captives that only not mind in kept be to has It

; Rodríguez, “La representación de las relaciones hispano las relaciones de “La representación Rodríguez, ; , 179 , writer wanted to convey, just as in the case of other genres,like other caseof the in asconvey, just to writerwanted - 190 180.

Next, one has to keep in mind that these narratives were narratives these that mind in keep to has one Next,

nd the Inquisition. Moreover, some accounts are a a are accounts some Moreover, Inquisition. the nd

g for its protagonist; it was an experience of of experience an was it protagonist; its for g

( Place: publisher, 2006), 44. 2006), publisher, Place:

de 193 -

ation), his church, etc. ation), his

representation and psychology of captivity captivity of psychology and representation Sosa as well). Considering all these these all Considering well). as Sosa utemr, hy ol nt write not could they Furthermore, ountry, or others of similar age, similar of othersountry, or

- musulmana,” 128. musulmana,”

191

So thewriterSo

slims.

CEU eTD Collection 194 these of characteristic significant a is world Christian the of superiority the and education, …” Religion Holy on … and arts, “stupid”), them calls simply Sosa (de “barbarians” and “beasts” were They “Turks.” the with was humanists the Plato.” of destruction (1405 classical from Piccolomini Sylvius and Aeneas arrived, Constantinople of fall the Ages of news the When literature. Middle the from inherited etc.), Crusades, the of “Saracens” (non “other” the traditional for from categories coming prejudices and ideas by influenced were classifications These accounts. the in used commonly were categorizations and tropes some but etc., author, the education the context, cultural and political the space, and time to according Perceptions Europe ofMuslims in Muslims3.2. Perceptions of wherespecific was context it written. the at also but for, written was it audiencethe and text, his author, the at looking onlyby not of accounts culture. alien an for admiration and of rejection simultaneous from stemming ambivalence by marked writings ambiguous are accounts captivity angles, 198 197 196 195

Rodríguez, “La representación de las relaciones hispano las relaciones de “Larepresentación Rodríguez, Marcilio Ficino(1433 Marcilio Topographia Bisaha, Colley, - 1464; the later Pius II) called the event “the second second “the event the called II) Pius later the 1464; Talking about the Ottomans, the perceptions of them found in these writings varied varied writings these in found them of perceptions the Ottomans, the about Talking Writing captivity Writing Creating East and West and East Creating a cross a , , 124.

- cultural encounter and as such they should be handled with great caution great with handled be should they such as and encounter cultural 197 -

196 1499) in Bisaha, cited 1499) , 175. ,

who “trample with filthy fee filthy with “trample who

From this reaction one can see what the fundamental “problem” of “problem” fundamental the what see can one reaction this From

, 2. ,

in Europ in

hita) i sm css specifi cases some in Christian), in Sixteenth the Century 198 195 e and Spaine the and Sixteenth in Century

Creating East and West and East Creating hs mhss n h ifroiy f hi culture, their of inferiority the on emphasis This 52

- musulmana,” 126. musulmana,” t on the discipline of all laws and liberaland laws all of discipline the on t , 75.. ,

death of Homer and a second second a and Homer of death

194

hy ee one were They al Msis (the Muslims cally

and origin of origin and - sided CEU eTD Collection 201 Muslim Thought other with ally to sought authors) (and states poli European “Turks” political the to against according fight Muslims” “bad the and For Muslims” interests. “good were there that cases some in observed be can it “Turks.” the 200 of faith strong the and tactics Bisaha, battle organization, military the praises He appear. could picture Sa Coluccio republic Florentine the for chancellor the like writers, humanist 199 as described be to topics important as became government and society the and writings, the emph were different elements on, related be to importantissues most the of one still governme their important place which thefunctioning even intheofit. accounts, praised of descriptions and gradually disappeared and government, law proper without people indicating (“savage”) man,” “wild the of topos the way, same the In faith. their indicating appeared, “law” or “sect” as such terms alternative new heretical being (Muslims) “Turks” the of characterization the of instead gradually, and to Next kinds. different of categorizations use to started authors the as one religious distinguishing featur a on emphasis the putting Turk/Christian, the by replaced was gradually devil. the to talking and liar, a angry, greedy, This “them.” and “us” be implied also expression between distinction important an marked thus and Christians) (non “gentiles” the denoted Bible) the (in originally sam the quite had “Barbarian” it. replaced gradually and crusade, for urge the alongside appeared “backwardness,” against argumentation. and view secular more a towards transformation writings. its society. Baghdianz McGabe, “The Ambassadors,” Ambassadors,” “The McGabe, Baghdianz itssociety. discip great the and empire, the of administration power, the approves he and one legitimate a monarchy République 202

Rowe, “Ethnography and Ethnology,” 6. Ethnology,” “Ethnographyand Rowe, Margaret Meserve emphasizes even more the political considerations considerations political the more even emphasizes Meserve Margaret The government of the Ottoman Empire was discussed positivel discussed was Empire Ottoman the of government The As I have argued in the Introduction, the perception of the “Turks” varied, thus even among the early early the among even thus varied, “Turks” the of perception the Introduction, the in argued have I As ties in spite of their “religious otherness,” Margaret Meserve, Meserve, Margaret otherness,” “religious their of spite in ties o a oe eua ntr. h mono The nature. secular more a of e Creating East and West and East Creating

hl h ulm wr tl h aneeyo hitaiyadterlgo was religion the and Christianity of enemy main the still were Muslims the While (Cambridge University Press, 2008), 5. 2008), Press, University (Cambridge 199

(1576), in which he looked at different forms of monarchy in the worlds. He considers the Ottoman Ottoman the considers He worlds. the in monarchy of forms different at looked he which in (1576),

vn f h expression the if Even

, 54 , ing idolatrous, occupied with divination, witchcraft, being lustful, lustful, being witchcraft, divination, with occupied idolatrous, ing -

57. e meaning as the other widely other the as meaning e

wr ihrtd rm h Mdl Ae, hr ws a was there Ages, Middle the from inherited were s

53 Orientalism in Early Modern, Modern, Early in Orientalism

201 - eiiu wrdiw rnfre t a multi a to transformed worldview religious

But the opposition of the heathen/Christian the of opposition the But - Jews, and in the New Testament non Testament New the in and Jews, Empires of Islam in Renaissance Historical Historical Renaissance in Islam of Empires y by Jean Bodin in his his in Bodin Jean by y of the humanist writings, arguing that that arguing writings, humanist the of - used term, “heathen,” which which “heathen,” term, used lutati (1331 lutati 200 60

h fgt primarily fight, The - 202 61. - 1406), a more positive positive more a 1406),

Les six livres de la la de livres six Les t and an gained nt or pagan, or asized in asized line in in line - - CEU eTD Collection 204 Islam of Empires relying mainly were sources) classical using of necessity the claiming are Bisaha, Herodotos). Westby introduced (first origin Greek of basically were writings, modern origin Scythian the and barbarians, as Turks the representing 203 humanistic and Renaissance the about talking When articulated. were Muslims the about ideas which within frameworks conceptual cultural and background intellectual the on also but aims, and interest political and contact, of level the “enemy,” Perceptions Spain ofMuslims in astronomy, archeology, botany,etc. medicine, mathematics, zoology, co their With collected. they objects and manuscripts, books, Europe to brought but organization, political and military religion, customs, Ottoman on observations their offer only not did diplomats and travelers “othe the of perception the on influence great wide became which writings, travel and reports ambassadorial The reality. to closer much was which “Turks,” the on information Empire, Ottoman the of with establishment ties the economic diplomatic, with and Constantinople, of conquest the With sources. classical and rumors predominantly were “Turks” the about writings the for sources the so Empire, early The education. much not which in therewas a context in writingswere born of lack mainly meaning barbarism a the into religion, transformed without accusation people indicated primarily which “barbarians” being for “Turks” writings. the in found be can topics new attitude, religion. the 205 in Despotism,” Europe Oriental and State Ottoman The Paradigm: Otto

Baghdianz McGabe, “The Ambassador,” 45. Ambassador,” “The McGabe, Baghdianz About Venetian Venetian About It is argued by both Meserve and Bisaha that the conceptions of the division of the East and West, West, and East the of division the of conceptions the that Bisaha and Meserve both by argued is It man sultan to a representation of the sultan as tyrant) see Lucette Valensi, “The Making of a Political Political a of Making “The Valensi, Lucette see tyrant) as sultan the of representation a to sultan man , 2 , - , ed. Anthony Grafton and Ann Blair (Philadelp Blair Ann and ed.Anthony , Grafton 6; Meserve, Meserve, 6; Perceptions also depended on factors like the proximity to the frontier a frontier the to proximity the like factors on depended also Perceptions

It is visible that besides the perceptions rooted in the Middle Ages, a new new a Ages, Middle the in rooted perceptions the besides that visible is It , 16. 16. , relazioni Empires of Islam of Empires

and its changing rhetoric (from a rather positive picture of the “despotism” of the the of “despotism” the of picture positive rather a (from rhetoric changing its and

, 16. Meserve also argues that it can be traced that humanist autho humanist that traced be can it that argues also Meserve 16. , llections and writings they contributed to the fields of of fields the to contributed they writings and llections

in thein Sixteenth Century

- spread in Europe because of the printing, had a a had printing, the of because Europe in spread 54 hia, University of Pennsylvania Press, c1990): 173 c1990): Press, ofPennsylvania hia,University

r.” 204 203 h Tasiso o Clue n al Modern Early in Culture of Transmission The

of the Turks which can be found in the early early the in found be can which Turks the of ntemdl ftesxenh century sixteenth the of middle the In While the ea the While

it gradually changed, and brought brought and changed, gradually it

direct contact with the Ottoman Ottoman the contact with direct on on medieval sources. See Meserve, Meserve, See sources. medieval rly humanists accused the accused humanists rly 205 da ad ehd of methods and ideas

Creating East and East Creating nd thus the thus nd rs (who (who rs - 203. 203.

CEU eTD Collection Salma Khadra Jayyusi (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994.): 501994.): Brill, J. E. Jayyusi (Leiden: SalmaKhadra 206 threat a were They peninsula. the of populations Jewish and Muslim the others,” “religious under united been Peninsula, Iberian the of Ages Middle kingdoms, Spanish the of the origins Visigoth the particularly of revival a was There past. the towards (the Renaissance Spanish Inquisition. the and censorship the of help the used government the which in building empire for factor cohering character religious more a on took also humanism Spanish empire, homogenous a building of process the in but peninsula, the the on as well as outside empire peninsula andtoac tothe attempt an building of intention the to opposed itself found cultures. Jewish) (and Islamic of heritage the with supplemented Spanish the on imprint deep a left Ages Middle the during others” “religious the with interaction and coexistence the as ambiguous empire of process the and state the of consolidation the centuries the variations the framework within ofRenaissance informed the life. that intellectual be not should period this manifestations, their and developments intellectual the in seen be can pattern common a if Even areas. geographical different ofcoming haslearning from between people writing,todifferentiate one works and 208 idem, and Identities European 1; 2009), Press: Pennsylvania of university 207

The Inq The ue López Luce abr Fuchs, Barbara In Spain, the humanist discourse and the perception of Muslims were influenced by by influenced were Muslims of perception the and discourse humanist the Spain, In As I have mentioned, Italian humanist ideas were influential in the intellectual life of of life intellectual the in influential were ideas humanist Italian mentioned, I have As uisition was established in 1481. established uisitionwas - - aat “h Lgc o Ilm n pns ltrtr, in literature,” Spanish in Islam of Legacy “The Baralt, old presence of Muslims on the peninsula a peninsula the on Muslims of presence old xtc ain Muohla n te osrcin f al Mdr Spain Modern Early of Construction the and Maurophilia Nation: Exotic (New York: Cambridge Univer (New Cambridge York:

one king and one religion. The homogeneity of the state was disturbed by disturbed was state the of homogeneity The religion. one and king one 208

h ohr itntv caatrsi o te ieay rdcs f the of products literary the of characteristic distinctive other The

so - called Golden Age literature) was a different kind of attitude of kind different a was literature) Age Golden called

quire and a ethnic religious homogeneity.

and Christian humanism developed. Religion was a a was Religion developed. humanism Christian and sity Press, 2003), 3. 2003), Press, sity 55 5 utr, ih h Graeco the with culture, -

552. iei ad mie Te e Wrd Ilm and Islam, World, New The Empire: and Mimesis

considered homogenous. There were were There homogenous. considered - building. The situation was rather rather was situation The building. nd by the by nd 209

h lgc o Msi Spain Muslim of legacy The when the whole peninsula had peninsula whole the when 206

This heritage, however, heritage, This reconquista - Latin heritage being being heritage Latin 207

(Philadelphia: (Philadelphia:

along with with along e. by ed. , CEU eTD Collection Europe of parts other from coming Moorishness of accusation to answer an as also but considerations political internal 212 Present the to Ages Middle 211 210 19 Press, Pennsylvania of University (Philadelphia: 2 vol. Jr., Albertby Rabil, edited 209 of lives quotidian the of part were housing, to clothes and language through festivities book her In present was which culture, Iberian the the that culture. Spanish the of part alsowas past Moorish argued was It war. as well as love with concerned were they and Ages, Middle t from remained etc.) dreams, erotic of objects as them depicted and beautiful, being their pomp,” “chivalric Moors’ the praised which the was genre favored (the Moors the towards attitudes sympathetic “mauro the Muslims, and Jews the against attitude culture. of field the in also but peninsula, the of a led only not who Isabella, Queen of reign the in mainly impetus remained“suspicious inthe society they elements” until all forced were toleave in1609. Moriscos) (the converted who Those rapidly. quite diminished laws and religion their to the on based brethren.” “religious their with alliance for and invasion, or attack Ottoman possible a for tool the being by threat a as seen also were they hand, other the on And identity.” “Spanish Christian primary intentionally an to 214 213 Milhou, Semitic things all with identification its renounce loudly

Fuchs, Fuchs, Fuchs, See Ottavio di Camilllo, “Renaissance in Spain,” in in Spain,” in “Renaissance Camilllo, di Ottavio uh soe ta te adve the that showed Fuchs López Luce see Maurophobia and Maurophilia the About

(see the so the (see Exotic Nation Exotic hs “maurophobia” This Mimesis and Empire. and Mimesis Empire and Mimesis Exotic Nation Exotic Exotic Nation Exotic capitulaciones - called “Black Legend”) “Black called , 20. ,

(Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1992.), 209; Fuchs,1992.), 209; Brill, (Leiden: E.J. , 80 , , 8. ,

, - rse provisions against the Muslims and Jews sprang up not only because of of because only not up sprang Jews and Muslims the against provisions rse

87. Barbara Fuchs shows how Moorish practices, from customs and and customs from practices, Moorish how shows Fuchs Barbara

211 according to which the Muslim inhabitants cou inhabitants Muslim the which to according

eetd n h hsoigah ad legi and historiography the in detected . “In order for Spain to beco to Spain for order “In .

in various degrees differing from region to region. to region from differing degrees various in 210

So after the conquest of Granada the “tolerance” the Granada of conquest the after So Renaissance Humanism. Humanism. Renaissance 56

– 212

he both Jewish and Moorish.” Fuchs referring to Alain Alain to referring Fuchs Moorish.” and Jewish both 213

In spite of the repressive legislation and legislation repressive the of spite In romances

- Moorishness was a habitual presencein habitual awas Moorishness Baralt, Baralt, hla as cniud o xs. The exist. to continued also philia” Exotic Nation Exotic me part of Europe in this period, it must it period, this in Europe of mepart Islam in Spanish Literature. From the the From Literature. Spanish in Islam

and Foundations, Forms, and Legacy and Forms, Foundations, . atrs e gesta de canteres

reconquista 88), 6588), oacr morisco romancero lto gt great a got slation ld live according live ld - 66.

on the lands the on

f the of

214 ,

CEU eTD Collection de Oro: las bases de una hostilidad,” in una hostilidad,” de bases las Oro: de tierra el da que ventaja aquella toda con tratar podrá se guerra, la y paz la para conosida, particularmente una Áffrica siendo “Porque it therefore and hostile, and Spain to next is Africa because important is work latter’s 216 215 some in appeared Muslims other and (“Moors”) Peninsula Iberian the of Muslims between works. previous of copy a mostly of part first the Galán, Diego captive, Spanish a of work the to refer also can Tyre’s William U de as Europe of well. parts other in custom in was as texts, contemporary and medieval known stereo and assumptions European general of full are writings the accounts. of most that states Spanish even Ibarra Bunes the occupied perceptions European and disappeared gradually it but of conquest the before that seems It questions. important are Europe of rest the the as tropes same the and used or “Turks” Moriscos) (or Moors” “their between differentiated they whether and writings, influen World. coexistence New the Whether the with than Morocco) and Algiers (mainly Africa North with dealing produced were writings importance.More greatstrategic had them about Knowledge Africa. enemy great the became and Iberiakind of“otherness”appeared than states. ainother offered European different uncons mostly Christians 219 218 Siglo enel 217

Fuchs, Bunes Ibarra, “Diego Galán,” 45 Galán,” “Diego Bunes Ibarra, literature,”21. thein and Turks Spanish “Europe Lawrence, Lawrence, “Europe and the Turks in Spanish literature,” 24 literature,” Spanish in Turks the and “Europe Lawrence, The historian Ambrosio Morales (1513 Morales Ambrosio historian The

ltramar y sus particularidades.” yparticularidades.” sus 217

With the expansion of the Ottoman Empire Muslims of a different “kind” appeared “kind” different a of Muslims Empire Ottoman the of expansion the With One theearliest of Ex de Oro,” 65. Oro,” de ye. pns wiig wr as fl o ctn ad oyn fo ohr well other from copying and citing of full also were writings Spanish types. otic Nation. otic , is actually a translation of a French work by Geoffrey Buillion, itself a copy of of copya itself Buillion, Geoffrey by work French a of translation a actually is , itra eu i priu tasaii gestarum transmarinis partibus in rerum Historia

Granada, familiarity with Muslim culture can be traced in accounts, in traced be can culture Muslim with familiarity Granada, provinzia tan vezina de Espa de vezina tan provinzia Cited in Miguel Angel de Bunes de Angel in Cited Miguel ciously. Turcica -

46. f h Saih oacy n h Mdtraen n North and Mediterranean the in monarchy Spanish the of Torre de los Lujanes los de Torre

e te ecpin aot h Msis n hs Spanish these in Muslims the about perceptions the ced 215

published (Salamanca,published in Spain 1503), 219 -

1591) wrote in the preface to Mármol Carvajal’s account that the the that account Carvajal’s Mármol to preface the in wrote 1591) h sometimes The

t a t b ntd hwvr ta a differentiation a that however, noted, be to has It 57

ñ a, y tan enemiga: es cosa de gran provecho tenerla tenerla provecho gran de cosa es enemiga: tan y a, , 47 (Madrid, 2002), 64. (Madrid, 2002), 47 ,

- Ibarra, “La visión de los musulmanes en el Siglo Siglo musulmanesen el los “Lade visión Ibarra, 26. 26. - daie dpcin f h Msis of Muslims the of depiction idealized Bunes Ibarra, “La visión de los musulmanes musulmanes los de “Lavisión Ibarra, Bunes cra 1184). (circa

is is La granconquistaLa needed to be known. known. be to needed

whose text is text whose 218 conoscer la conoscer

r one Or 216 -

CEU eTD Collection and Moriscos mentioning city, the in living groups Muslim different about account an gives another.” yet in Blacks the and another, in Sahara the of Moors the part, Lisbonthe and Seville in as groupsrace, separated by just todance, insmall get“Thechildren Algiers, together he notes: the is, that Iberia, an well, as Spain in played was which game a to waists.” their on swords their carry Galicians Spanish our way same left the on possible however them, from knives damascene ornate beautifully Lisbon;” or Toledo, Granada, of streets narrowest the than so more even narrow, are Algiers of streets the “All Iberia: of customs and places with comparison through reader the to familiar places and things making of strategy the uses He site to references many makes he that sense the in so did it writing, his on marks its left Spain in educated and Peninsula Iberian the from was he that fact the If narratives. still one least, at parts some in account emotion) expressing and comments without (recording “dry” a way a in is it if even and detected, be can “objectivity” towards effort an account his in if Even not capable suchfeat. a of considered mainly were Muslims the of rest the while centuries previous in culture refined a creating of capable as seen were They land. Christian previously a in Christians to close le cultural higher a on be to considered were Moors writings. Spanish 223 222 221 220

Ibid., 211 Ibid., Ibid Topographia 68. Oro,” de musulmanesSiglo en el los “La de visión Bunes Ibarra, ., 169. o ws e oa influen Sosa de was How -

212. , , 117.

encounters the topoi and the stereotypes of his age existing in other European European other in existing age his of stereotypes the and topoi the encounters

ug d cañas de juego

220 y separate the Blacks of Guinea, because the Kabyles stay in one one in stay Kabyles the because Guinea, of Blacks the yseparate

e b te at ht e a fo te bra Peninsula? Iberian the from was he that fact the by ced

(a jousting game). Speaking about Islamic festivals in in festivals Islamic about Speaking game). jousting (a 58

inheritance from the Hispano the from inheritance 221

or “ or

…almost everyone hangs some hangs everyone …almost 222

vel since they lived lived they since vel There is a reference a is There 223

Furthermore, he Furthermore, - hand side, the the side, hand - Muslims in Muslims s in Iberia. in s CEU eTD Collection 225 224 Even way. objectified completely a in only conditions these caused which society the about treatment bad the sees who and state, this in humiliated feels and culture hostile him, for and,alien an in live to compelled is who captive a as circumstances His literature. captivity the of writer a of strategies the uses the of patterns the follows and centurysixteenth the of literature travel the of characteristics has also which whom theagha “Grand orthe Tu Sosa differencethat the with Busbecq,court, Ottoman the emissaryto Habsburg the accountof militar Christian to contrast stark in admirable, self typical the with text Sosa’s de in appears assumption general This etc. loyalty, and bravery their Janissariess, the of discipline T the of characteristics positive relate also accounts European The tyrannical. villainous,” and stupid people, of vilest “the them calling and backward as topoi other it.” for vitals their in thirst and hunger great the lose animals,” brute fami topoi same the uses he references chapter. ingreaternext be detail will discussed the in pointing 228 227 226 Islam of Empires

Ibid Ibid 124. Ibid., Topographia Ibid

also adds that janissaries do not always advance according to merit but depending on depending but merit to according advance always not do janissaries that adds also . . ., , , 123. , , 135.

Otherwise, when de Sosa uses stereotypical characterizations for Muslims in general, general, in Muslims for characterizations stereotypical uses Sosa de when Otherwise, Thus it can be stated that the that stated be can it Thus 124. Also see in the writing the in see Also 124. hm u a “h culs eeis f s hitas n Barabary.” in Christians us of enemies cruelest “the as out them

of the sources that occur in occur that sources the of , , 123. .

ars apodemica ars 225

while Moriscos “can never get enough Christian blood, nor do they ever they do nor blood, Christian enough get never “can Moriscos while

liar from European accounts. He says that the “Turks” are “like “like are “Turks” the that says He accounts. European from liar

. Apart from the characteristics o characteristics the from Apart . s

of Quirini, Piccolomini, etc. in Bisaha, “New Barbarians,” or Meserve, Meserve, or Barbarians,” “New Bisaha, in etc. Piccolomini, Quirini, of

rk” favors. rk” f i flo Crsin cno (o i alwd o speak to) allowed is (nor cannot Christians fellow his of - critique (“the respect and obedience they tender him is him tender they obedience and respect (“the critique Topographia de Sosa’s text as well, just like describing the Turks Turks the describing like just well, as text Sosa’s 59 229

usage”), y

can be considered a captivity narrative narrative captivity a considered be can

226

228 Being lustful and sodomites are sodomites and lustful Being

also seen, for instance, in the in instance, for seen, also f travel writing, de Sosa also also Sosa de writing, travel f

227

whose reign is reign whose urks, like the like urks, 224

l these All de de CEU eTD Collection groups aswe Muslims, see will chapter. of inthe next differenti him makes which sense, ethnographic great its with age its in forerunner a is which work a inhabitants, its and city the of picture nuanced and detailed a is gets reader the what Moreover, all. at stereotypes with overwhelmed not is writing the etc., to, return to wants he which monarchy Spanish the of politics the and Church the age, his of tradition intellectual the education, his to thanks text the in present are classifications a not is by writing characterized his culture, other this on comments negative contains writing his though 229

Ibid . , , 128.

eaie oe n h woe Atog te cmusr” rps and tropes “compulsory” the Although whole. the on tone negative

ate among different different among ate

CEU eTD Collection separate chapters devoted to each group, but I am not going to discuss these in detail because I am focusing focusing am I because detail in these intra mainlyon discuss to going not am I but group, each to devoted chapters separate the in ja like of professions, case their but in, live they region the religion, origin, their to according not people defines 231 230 e the of characteristic a also is which and overlap, concepts religious ethnic account Sosa’s de in that see can One Islam). to convert to (i.e. Moor” or Turk turn “to expression the consider instance, For oversimplification. an be would this that religion to according not and features cultural shared of kind some to according labeled be to appear they sum, p current or and/ origin their to according grouped are people that sense the in categories “ethnic” to refer seemingly terms other category, religious a is “Christian” though Even “Christians.” groups finds one account the In sensibilities. modern our with analysis of terms his approaching when understand to easy so fact in not is Algiers of inhabitants the classifying in employing is and he logic the “religion” of categories the of usage his “ethnicity.” especially account, his in using is he 4.1. collectivity of people who believe they share a common history or/ and culture.” Scupin and DeCorse, DeCorse, and Scupin culture.” and group or/ ethnic history “An common heritage. a share cultural they and Anthropology, believe historical who shared people upon of or collectivity origins in differences perceived 232 Describing and Classifying and Describing Late theMuslims of the Sixteenth

“…that new wonew “…that De Sosa also indicates the existence of a “professional identity,” which is an early modern phenomenon that that phenomenon modern early an iswhich identity,” “professional a of existence the indicates also Sosa De I am using the term “ethnicity” according to the anthropological usage whereby ethnicity is based upon upon based is ethnicity whereby usage anthropological the to according “ethnicity” term the using am I “Ethnicity” and “Religion” and asCatego“Ethnicity” The key questions for analyzing de Sosa’s account are the categories of distinction distinction of categories the are account Sosa’s de analyzing for questions key The nissaries or or nissaries lace of living, the clothes they are wearing, their complexion, language, etc. language, complexion, their wearing, are they clothes the living, of lace 231

225. - Muslim distinctions ofidentit distinctions Muslim

Although at first sight his mai his sight first at Although rld so different and strange.” De Sosa De strange.” and different so rld

sipahis

–

according to our modern reading. However, a closer reading closer a However, reading. modern our to according

in the Ottoman Empire. De Sosa writes about about writes Sosa De Empire. Ottoman the in ne te ae o “lein, “or, “uk, “es” and “Jews,” “Turks,” “Moors,” “Algerians,” of label the under

Century Algiers C y and of the other ethno other yofthe and hapterFour

“… aquelnuevotan diferente“… y mundo extraño” 61 ries of Identity in Identity in de Sosa’s ries of

n criteria of categorization appear transparent, appear categorization of criteria n

cited in Voigt, in cited

religious group, the Jews. the group, religious Wri ting Captivity ting arly modern writings about about writings modern arly kadis , spahis Topographia , 55. , , janissaries, etc. in in etc. janissaries, ,

suggests

232 s a is

230 In -

CEU eTD Collection others Regino of Prüm (d. 915) who says “the various nations differ in descent, customs, language and law.” law.” and language customs, descent, in differ nations various “the says who 915) (d. Prüm of Regino others manifested and bydefined 234 “Introduction.” Renaissance modern Dursteler, early the in in professional) regional, context ethnic, (religious, identity of discussion the about more See 15). the showing Valle della (C identity. “national” Pietro or “ethnic” writes and religious a of world,” mixture the of nations and religions, all almost of [people] words, few ci all almost from Italians 233 a was “Turk” term The writings. modern early the in loaded ideologically and ambiguous, were renegades) Turks, (Moors, terms These nature.” by “Turks and(renegades) profession” by “Turks between distinguishes further he Jews. “Turk” the and of category Turks, the Within “Moors, about: talk to going is he groups main the establishes Sosa some religious althoughof theterms custom, notsystematic. is theusage rite or etc., festivals religious about relating is he when mainly activities, uses he which “Muslims,” than rather life everyday marriage, dress, discussing is he when cases the in mostly to “Algerians” concepts these if even Algiers, term the uses He writing. his in overlap identity) in “regional” perhaps and “ethnic,” (religious, living groups different of classification Sosa’s de of identity. elements important most the of one became customs food, hair, dress, languages, by reinforced provenance) (regional living of place and period the in transformed also implied “nation” living of place shared a with community” “cultural of kind a “other.” 235 56. Ethnicity,” and Race of concepts Modern in place central a having customs and language finds Barlett

Dursteler, Dursteler,

oet alt age ta as i te ide gs fr h mjrt o mdea wies ehiiy was ethnicity writers, medieval of majority the “for Ages Middle the in also that argues Barlett Robert “There were Catholic Christians, heretics of various sects, Greeks, Armenians, Turks, Persians, Jews, Jews, Persians, Turks, Armenians, Greeks, sects, various of heretics Christians, Catholic were “There In Chapter 11, which deals with the inhabitants of Algiers and its surroundings, de de surroundings, its and Algiers of inhabitants the with deals which 11, Chapter In 233 235 –

(New York: Columbia University Press, c1999); Vitkus, “Early Modern Orientalism;” Meserve, Meserve, Orientalism;” Modern “Early Vitkus, c1999); Press, University Columbia York: (New began to be emphasized more in th in more emphasized be to began While religion was still a fundamental categorization, the concept of “ethnicity,” of concept the categorization, fundamental a still was religion While Venetians in Constantinople in Venetians However, I will argue will I However,

refer to the “Moors, Turks, and renegades” (discussing the Jews separately) Jews the (discussing renegades” and Turks, “Moors, the to refer eein i Constantinople in Venetians

ties, French, Spanish, Portuguese, English, Germans, Flemings, and to conclude in a a in conclude to and Flemings, Germans, English, Portuguese, Spanish, French, ties,

in culture as much as, or more than, descent.” For his argumentation he cites besides cites besides he argumentation his For moredescent.” than, or muchas, as culture in

, , 13

Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies Modern Early and Medieval of Journal that “ethnicity” appears more important than religion in religion than important more appears “ethnicity” that - 14.

62 ; Nabil Matar, Matar, Nabil ;

is era. is ited in Dursteler, Dursteler, in ited defining ethnicity. Robert Barlett, “Medieval and and “Medieval Barlett, Robert ethnicity. defining 234

The concept of “nation” and what it what and “nation” of concept The uk, or, n Egihe i Englishmen and Moors, Turks, –

expressed rather by the term term the by rather expressed Venetians in Constantinople in Venetians

31 no. 1. (2001): 39 (2001): 1. no. 31

mbiguous in in mbiguous the n , 13 , , or , ” - - CEU eTD Collection us [Christians]… Then there are the Arabs and Moors, who claim they alone preserve the true, uncorrupted uncorrupted true, the preserve alone they claim who Moors, and Arabs the are there Then [Christians]… us heretic [Protestant] the like Turks the among are Persians The them. of three but religion, single a not have Turks the now but religion… single a to held Turks “all 1592: in relazioni his inwrites Bernardo Lorenzo Medievalisms Zone, Contact “Turc nativi,” “Turchi ”Turchi,” “Barbareschi,” “Africani,” like groups ethnic names he Furthermore, terms. the conflates he times many course, Of reports. Venetian the of history the in differentiation fundamental this makes who first “Ottoman” “Turk”and between distinction a making thus grandeur,” “Ottoman about writes he Moreover, Turks. of groups Anatolian those and Turks, Anatolian between distinguishes 239 Encounters Moors?” “The Brann, Ross in context historical changing with Moor of meaning changing the about more See seen. be can Muslims for term general a into Berber a from Moor the of transformation a kingdoms al of history early the in that pre of people the to fol “Maurus/Moro”) 238 Renaissance 237 World Two 7 (2007), Rum” of “Lands the of Heritage Architectural Ideology: and History Cul on Reflections Own: One’s Rome of “A Kafadar, Cemal See simple. that not was picture the that argues also Kafadar although rustic, a and prefer cultural and “Rumi” and between dichotomy a education, existed institutions, professions, social environment their acquired and … 236 examples. few the of some just mention to Africanus, Leo and ambassador, Venetian a Bernardo, Lorenzo Istanbul, in born B Giovanni were authors Such well. as Spain in living Muslims for used also was but Mauritania, of particularly or Africa, North equally Itcould problematic. similarly is “Moor” else. or living, no of place the to according Muslims among was made distinction there cases the of most in and “Saracen,” term medieval the or “Mahommetan” inter was It Islam. of practice describe to rites” “Turkish like expressions such andIslam), to (convert Turk” turn “to expression the by indicated is which context. Ottoman its and European its both Way,” in in Way,” bastard [i.e., religion. Turks Muslim the understand bastard not did who are renegades Constantinople) religious in corrupted these a call with they (as Muslims] Turks” “Greek the that and religion

As Cemal Kafadar points out, in the Ottoman c Ottoman in the out, points Kafadar As Cemal avg ws et o dpoai msin o ot Arc, n i his in and Africa, North to mission diplomatic a to sent was Salvago See more: Vitkus, “Early Modern Orientalism;” Nabil Matar, Matar, Nabil Orientalism;” Modern “Early Vitkus, more: See Isidore of Seville in the sixth century speaks about northwest Africa as Mauritania (derived from from (derived Mauritania as Africa northwest about speaks century sixth the in Seville of Isidore 238

It has to be added that there were authors who made distinctions among these terms. these among distinctions made who authors were there that added be to has It Pursuit of Power: Venetian Ambassadors' Reports on Spain, Turkey and France in France and Turkey Spain, on Reports Ambassadors' Venetian Power: of Pursuit s 15 (2009): 307 (2009): 15 : the Construction of the Ottoman Ottoman the of Construction the : .

, ed. by Konrad Eisenbichler (Toronto: Centre for Re for Centre (Toronto: Eisenbichler Konrad by ed. , codes.” cultural and ways “tribal with associated were who “Turks,” to opposed as hi asiatici,” “Mori,” “Arabi,” etc. See E. Natalie Rothman, “Self Rothman, Natalie E. See etc. “Arabi,” “Mori,” asiatici,” hi Giovanni Battista Salvago and his his and Salvago Battista Giovanni - lowing the Roman usage; his contemporary, John of Biclaro, a Visigothic chronicler, refers refers chronicler, Visigothic a Biclaro, of John contemporary, his usage; Roman the lowing Islamic North Africans as Moors. From the so the From Moors. as Africans North Islamic –

Ottoman as the state, which has different ethnicities. In this sense, sense, this In ethnicities. different has which state, the as Ottoman

- 318. Leo Africanus uses the term “Spanish Moor” for Hispanofor Moor” “Spanish the uses term LeoAfricanus 318. - Andalus “Moor” meant Ber meant “Moor” Andalus tural Geography and Identity in the Lands of Rum,” Rum,” of Lands the in Identity and Geography tural

attista Salvago, a descendent of Venetian dragomans who was was who dragomans Venetian of descendenta Salvago,attista , which they blame on their being mostly descended from Christian Christian from descended mostly being their on blame they which , 239

“Turk” that roughly paralleled paralleled roughly that “Turk” eas o ter oiin ( dsedn o Venetian of descendent (a positions their of Because State (Berkeley: University of Calif of (Berkeley: State University ontext the term “Rumi was used for those who spoke Turkish Turkish spoke who those usedfor was “Rumi term the ontext of Europe, then “Barbary Turks,” who are mainly from the the from mainly are who Turks,” “Barbary then Europe, of 63 236

” In Europe, “Turk” meant Muslim in general, in Muslim meant “Turk” Europe, In

fia vr Barbaria Overo Africa Bernardo Lorenzo, “Its Decline May Now be Under Under be Now May Decline “Its Lorenzo, Bernardo ber, a man of African origin. Later in the Christian Christian the in Later origin. African of man a ber, indicate a Muslim in general, a Muslim of of Muslim general,a in Muslim a indicate - called called formation and Renaissance Studies), 132. 132. Studies), Renaissance and formation uk, or, n Egihe i the in Englishmen and Moors, Turks, changeable with the expression expression the with changeable Mozarabic Chronicle of 754 of Chronicle Mozarabic the distinction between a bourgeois bourgeois a between distinction the relazione - f ashioning in the Mediterranean Mediterranean the in ashioning - 25.; Cemal Kafadar, Kafadar, Cemal 25.; ornia Press, c1995), 19 Press,c1995), ornia

12)” In (1625),”

sbitd n 64 he 1624) in (submitted 237 - ences” in an urban urban an in ences” Muqarnas Muslims. he is unique and the the and unique heis

The case of the of case The

the Age of Philip of Age the Renaissance Renaissance

, Vol. 24., 24., Vol. ,

So there there So s among among s Between Between it seems seems it edieval edieval - 28.

CEU eTD Collection 241 thesente escape and society the Christian to topic a was Chri to converts conversion The identity.” of aspect this even frequ of malleability traversed who the many suggests so of belief presence of the boundaries then world, premodern the in identity of parts constituent important out points Dursteler contemporaries. 240 (reprint London,1968) 1585). Press, Capo De North in Nicolay travels de his Nicolas during See saw “Turkey.” he and others”) Mediterranean, “Eastern the Africa, of mainly depictions further the on impact great a had not does he but H furtherdistinctions. applyAlgiers, in “Jews” and “Turks,” “Moors,” the among distinguishes also Nikolay de Nicholas 1500 II, part. most the for fixed was society the in place everybody’s where Europe Christian easier was for reasons ladder social the The climbing that attractive enemy. certainly was it the but various, be to could converting manpower their and knowledge, skills, their offered of traitors as perceived writings. European modern early the in nature” theyappear some tobe aspects in culture. different oftheir are they Moreover, etc. Mediterranean, fur and language appearance, living, of place their to according Sosa de by distinguished Western the of parts different from coming ( Algiers Muslims of groups conflicting even different, with society diverse a as it represent and recognize s be can Sosa de of uniqueness the Thus, Muslims. with familiar was who Peninsula Iberian the of society, Granada) aall like claimed de familiarity they just Sosa withMuslim Ista in born dragomans man living in the Algerian society Algerian the in living man a defined descent than rather merit that writes He mobility. social seeking and marriage contracting in kinship t about accounts the in including appears society, possibilities Muslim of phenomenon This Europe. in known well was career great

The success of certain men coming from low social strata who went to the Ottoman Empire and made a a made and Empire Ottoman the to went who strata social low from coming men certain of success The h nme o ad h es wt wih eeae cosd eiiu fotes a srkn for striking was frontiers religious crossed renegades which with ease the and of number The ently discussed in writings of the early modern era, and it was also fed by the writings of returned returned of writings the by fed also was it and era, modern early the of writings in discussed ently - 1600 rqety te eeae wr ee mr ngtvl dpce ta Msis “by Muslims than depicted negatively more even were renegades the Frequently, e hr i hs aig ep nlss f Msi scey ad i big be to able being his and society, Muslim a of analysis deep making his in here een – baldi

in the Muslim world, which violated social rules in the eyes of the inhabitant of inhabitant the of eyes the in rules social violated which world, Muslim the in such as “Turks” from Anatolia, “Turks from Romania,” “Moors” from the city the from “Moors” Romania,” from “Turks Anatolia, from “Turks” as such , ed. by James Cushman Davis Cushman James by ed. , stian lands who wrote on their “ wrotetheir on who lands stian , Mos fo te onan (h Kbls n te ww) Moriscos Zwawa), the and Kabyles (the mountains the from “Moors” ),

de Sosa’s account when he is speaking about the lack of importance of origin and and origin of importance of lack the about speaking is he when account Sosa’s de

nbul, a Venetian ambassador, and a converted Hispano converted a and ambassador, Venetian a nbul, e published his writing with pictures about inhabitants of the Mediterranean (which (which Mediterranean the of inhabitants about withpictures writing his published e their church and their state. Moreover, they were seen as those who who those as seen were they Moreover, state. their and church their — the concept to which someE which to concept the ( Venetians in Constantinople in Venetians nce of the Inquisition. nceofthe

(New York: Harper & Row, 1970), 157.; The French geographer geographer French The 157.; 1970), Row, & Harper York: (New

involuntary” and only nominal conversion to find the way back wayback the find to conversion nominal only and involuntary”

240

Christians who converted to Islam were Islam to converted who Christians uropean authors weresympathetic authors uropean

, 113.) , , The Nauigations into Turkie into Nauigations The

at “If religion was one of the most most the of one was religion “If at – -

Muslim from from Muslim an inhabitant an inhabitant

(New York: York: (New .

(However, (However, 241

This ther ther of of he he

CEU eTD Collection Early Modern Mediterranean Modern Early siécles Bennassar, Lucile and Bertolomé involuntary Constantinople their using of hope a in engin (military converted careers their advancing for men knowledge and skills learned many but classes lower the from only not were converts But identification same the see Seas…” the at pilling & spoyles, routings, of onely lyuing vices, detestable most other all and Constantinople (Dursteler, atheists” and “villanes people,” of skumme “roagues, called are they where writings, many in appears renegades against hatred The bribe.) by advance mancould merit, from aside that adds healso names he Plus, author. “Moorish” a Granada) from was (who Africanus Leo calls also he those to refers he and Peninsula, Iberian the and Africa conquered who “Arabs” the about talks He city. the of history the about speaking is he where chapters early the in already established is which “Moors,” the S De Bedouine. the finally and Zwawa; the tribe, another defines Sosa de Kabyles the among and Algiers, surrounding mountains the from language their in called sub defines Sosa de people, of groups different analyzing in precise be to Striving history. in earlier Algiers [their to “return[s] land.” but city the in stay not do who merchants and are captives they as or here slaves,” “arrive either they since Algiers of inhabitants as counted not are rel their and “African,” “Arab,” terms the of meaning the about arises theyexpression profession.” renegades:for usethe by “Turks illus as well, as writing Sosa’s de in and reports Venetian the in appears attitude 243 well. as bySosa de them against accusation main be expected the of because converted only they as “atheists” being of accused Muslims, good 242

Topographia This is connected with “professional identity;” renegades as “Turks by profession” are considered not to be be to not considered are profession” by “Turks as renegades identity;” “professional with connected is This 243 (Paris Other categories used in de Sosa’s account are similarly problematic similarly are account Sosa’s de in used categories Other De Sosa starts the description with the local people, the “Moors,” those who were in were who those “Moors,” the people, local the with description the starts Sosa De ationship to each other. He says he is not going to discuss Christians because they they because Christians discuss to going not is he says He other. each to ationship

–

: Perrin, 2006) Perrin, : it will be only discussed in the light of what de Sosa wrote about the question. On this this On question. the about wrote Sosa de what of light the in discussed only be will it 113 , 118 , , , 119. - - - 19). Nicholas de Nikolay writes that they are “given all to whoredome, sodometrie, theft, theft, sodometrie, whoredome, to all “given are they that writes Nikolay de Nicholas 19). categories of the “Moor”: “natives of the cit the of “natives “Moor”: the of categories 5 I m o gig o ics te aiu cue o cneso here conversion of causes various the discuss to going not am I 15.

of the renegades with corsairs (Nicolas de Nicolay, Nicolay, de (Nicolas corsairs with renegades the of

and Eric R. Dursteler, Dursteler, R. Eric and

baldi (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011). Press, University JohnsHopkins The (Baltimore: Les Chrétiens d’Allah: L’histoire extraordinaire de renégats, XVIe et XVIIe et XVIe renégats, de extraordinaire L’histoire d’Allah: Chrétiens Les , which means something like »citizen«;” the Kabyles, a tribe a Kabyles, the »citizen«;” like something means which ,

who defended Orán in 1505 as “Moors.” as 1505 in Orán defended who

Renegade Women Renegade 65

osa also classifies the Hispano the classifies also osa eers, lawyers, etc.). See Dursteler, Dursteler, See etc.). lawyers, eers, : Gender, Identity, and Boundaries in the the in Boundaries and Identity, Gender, : 242 y of Algiers itself, commonly itself, Algiers of y

“ Berber, Navigations to Turkie to Navigations

”

244 s el s about as well as —

nefits. This is the the is This nefits. Furthermore, – trated by the bythe trated – the question the -

Muslims as Muslims

here one can can one here voluntary or or voluntary Venet Venetians in in Venetians

issue see see issue , fol. 8.). 8.). fol. , own ] ians in in ians

CEU eTD Collection case. Leo Africanus also regarded important to indicate the numbers of the inhabitants. It conveyed a message message a conveyed It inhabitants. the of numbers the indicate to important regarded also Africanus Leo case. 248 247 the countryside. livingas thetribes in “Berbers” to refers also and “African,” a 120 women Moorish wealthier of homes the in kinds all of services providing and of majority the But … men. their than whiter are Zwawa “ the from tribute collecting 246 245 244 tattoos), mar special body, the of build (complexion, appearance their then living, of place Islands;the Balearic from North“Turkey.”Jews Jews Africa; and Spai from Jews groups: three into origins their to according Jews the divides and group this of diversity and complexitythe to attention pays also Sosa de But, Turks. and yetas another pointofdifferentiation. “Turk” the of category larger a within provenance geographical the adding Romania, from Turks and Anatolia from Turks the between distinguishes also He mix. the to profession adds and categories, the religious blurs and also ethnic “Turk” modern the of definition his Thus, “renegades”). became and converted who (those profession” by “Turks and Turks) (born nature” by “Turks “kinds”: two into “Arabs,” encompasses also “Moor” “Africans”and “Berbers” the account Sosa’s de In Africa. North and Iberia d Sosa’s de that conclude can one “Moors.” the Barbary to Aragón and Valencia Granada, from immigrated who those topic of the h the of topic 249 accurate. were numbers the if importance, wri the about

Salvago also speaks about these sub these speaks about also Salvago 122. Ibid., 100. Ibid., De Sosa writes that writes Sosa De It has to be remarked that he leaves out the question of “origin” from his discussion, which was a favored favored a was which discussion, his from “origin” of question the out leaves he that remarked be to has It Sometimes - 21. (Italics mine) When he is talking about North Africa, Leo Africanus uses mostly the terms “Arab” and and “Arab” terms the mostly uses Africanus Leo Africa, North about talking is he When mine) (Italics 21. As it has been mentioned, in a separate chapter separate a in mentioned, been has it As For de Sosa, the basic markers of identity when discussing any group are, first, their their first, are, group any discussing when identity of markers basic the Sosa, de For L 248 astly, he is speaking about the Jews, although not in such detail as about the Moors the about as detail such in not although Jews, the about speaking is he astly,

umanists of the fifteenth century like Piccolomini, Flavio Biondo or Lauro Quirini. He rather uses uses rather He Quirini. Lauro or Biondo Flavio Piccolomini, like century fifteenth the of umanists their profession, and their clothing.their and profession, their

e ta h i well is he that ter de

Sosa puts their number living in Algiers in the second place, but it is not indicated in every every in indicated not is it but place, second the in Algiers in living number their puts Sosa the the

Kabyles are “the ancient and natural natural and ancient “the are Kabyles Arabs — the terms used more freely by Leothe terms freely usedAfricanus. more by

and and - informed, precise and reliable. Furthermore, it could bear strategical strategical bear could it Furthermore, reliable. and precise informed, - Moors categories of “Turks.” of categories

fnto o te or rlts o ulm wo ie in live who Muslims to relates Moors the of efinition 247 ,” and further writes that “Many women among the Kabyles and and Kabyles the among women “Many that writes further and ,”

249

Berber If some characteristic was more decisivemorewas or characteristicIf some

Africans

a further identificatory category of of category identificatory further a about the Turks de Sosa divides them divides Sosa de Turks the about women live from the work of their hands… hands… their of work the from live women .” He mentions that the “Turks” go for for go “Turks” the that mentions He .”

nd renegades.” renegades.” nd

246

n, Mallorca and and Mallorca n, Topographia

kers like like kers 245

So ,

CEU eTD Collection Africanus’ work, too. Especially, port cities were the sites of “civility” for him, particularly because they they because particularly him, for “civility” “Self Rothman, Arabia. of and Europe with sites Mediterranean the through the Africa North connected were cities port Especially, too. work, DeCorse, Africanus’ and Scupin see differences cultural Anthropology, with characteristics physical connected which classifications Stu by ed. R 251 250 Meserve, see “Turks” ofthe theorigin about writing humanist century fifteenth the For writings. earlier from him distances which categorization, “regional” dirty. and color” in brown dark ill “ugly, being to due level lowest the on Bedouins tan” partly and white “partly their with the with body, the of build and complexion the in reflected etc. manufacture, to ability education, citize good a (being “civility” of level a meant city the in living also whereby trope theory political Greek classical from derived was It a authors. Renaissance the was by embraced which inhabitants, rural and urban Sosa the De between people. opposition tribal the than civilization of level higher a occupies the with starts list The Sosa. de th Christianityand the Spanish. of enemy” one “number the as regarded are Turks the that show to meant are them about villainous.” and stupid people, of vilest “the as reader the to them introduce to urge the feels he “Turks,” the about talking while Furthermore, alms. for beg just but work not do they that accusation harsh Bedouins. the li earlier, element significant the put and order, the changed he important, “lively and talented,” while Tur while talented,” and “lively 253 252 account. his many in times “civility” Leouses theterm 135. Zone,” Contact Mediterranean eporting, and and eporting, e characterization of the Turks and Jews) indicate their place in the hierarchy devised by devised hierarchy the in place their indicate Jews) and Turks the of characterization e

Topographia Topographia Seymur Phillips, “The Outer World of the European Middle Ages,” in Ages,” Middle European the of World Outer “The Phillips, Seymur Topographia The factors defining a group within the category of the “Moor” (the same is true in in true is same (the “Moor” the of category the within group a defining factors The art B. Schwartz (New York: Cambridge University Press: c1994), 50. For more about racial racial about more For 50. c1994), Press: University Cambridge York: (New Schwartz B. art

129 Reflecting on the E the on Reflecting , , 119. , 124. , 122.; The same applies for the Turks as he regards Turks from Rumelia as whiter and more more and whiter as Rumelia from Turks regards he as Turks the for applies same The 122.; ,

In their case, after mentioning their place their mentioning after case, Intheir - 30.; This opposition between people living people between opposition This 30.;

250

hs sta These ks from Anatolia are much darker and “more simple “more and darker much are Anatolia from ks

n counters between Europeans and Other Peoples in the Early Modern E Modern Early the in Peoples Other and Europeans between counters baldi 253 eet ad hi pemnn pae n h description the in place preeminent their and tements

“Introduction.” 251

, who is a “citizen” living in an urban area and thus and area urban an in living “citizen” a is who , 252 hs aeoiain f epe codn t their to according people of categorization This

This supposedly higher civilizational degree is also is degree civilizational higher supposedly This

skin and white, good figured women, and with the with and women, figured good white, and skin 67

- within and outside the city walls appears in Leo Leo in appears walls city the outside and within featured, of skin and bones, tan or very very or tan bones, and skin of featured, of living, de Sosa continues with the the with continues Sosa de living, of baldi Implicit U Implicit

n), and supposed a kind of kind a supposed and n), on the top of the hierarchy hierarchy the of top the on nderstanding: nderstanding: - minded.” minded.”

ke in the case of of case the in ke eotd o the to resorted - fashioni Topographia O

bserving, bserving, ng in the the in ng ra , ,

CEU eTD Collection hc ws ey oua nt ny n al mdr Erp, u i te ulm ol a we as world Muslim the in but Europe, modern early in only not popular very was which 255 224. Orientalism,” “EarlyModern European the of World Outer “The Phillips, more: See well. as way this settled was sixteenth to according of servants the be to were Ham of people the Thus 9:25). (Genesis, brethren” his unto be he shall servants of servant “a father: his of nakedness the saw 254 Captive’sT “Moori the Zoraida, about writing Cervantes content/uploads/2005/02/CLASICOS009.pdf on mínimos Clásicos Carvajal” Mámol del Luisy Africano el León según continente del nombre del yorigin África de general “Descripción Martínez, peo white by habited are which cities the are leyes.” there which las in Africa, de of part y remarkable most razón the is la (Berbera) [This de dictámenes los según gobiernan se que blancos, hombres por habitadas ciudades de notable más parte la es [Berbera] “Esta noticed: be can positive something 124. Valencia, Aragón, Granada, of kingdoms the from over come still and parts these to over Lastly,Beduoinsonly a thedrag are ansociety. unnecessaryelement, ofthe knit. weaveor servewealthierwomen, women their ofauxiliarywhile kind a astroops, them vineya and gardens digging often rich Moors, or Turks “serving are Kabyles the livestock; and cattle raising producers, silk land, of tillers or artisans laborers, foodstuffs, producing principally shopkeepers, merchants, are useful people’s indicates occupation categorization, Sosa’s de nineteenth later, informs that thinking racial prefigureslevels “civilizational” the of concept the with together concept’s this external m according to ofcategorization thepeople and distinction religiousroots, the Despite inferiority. of indicator as skin dark the of theory known widely not does Sosa people. European to inferiority their of sign the also thus, and carrying, were they sin a of sign a was blackness The Bible. the from inherited was and authors century ski their of color complexion, 256 NewY of University (Albany: State Shefer Miri 2005); Press, 1470 Culture European in Physiognomy of Art The Soul: the of Windows

Topographia Considering together the skin and body type, it also indicates the beginning of the science of physiognomy, physiognomy, of science the of beginning the indicates also it type, body and skin the together Considering Africans were considered to be the descendant of Ham (one of Noah’s sons), who was cursed because he he because cursed was who sons), Noah’s of (one Ham of descendant the be to considered were Africans ple, which is governed according to reason and law.] law.] and reason to according governed is which ple, e Arcns hrceie te naiat o te hl “ebr” “white “Berbera” whole the of inhabitants the characterized Africanus Leo The forth group of Moors are described are Moors of group forth The ale,” to have “una muy blanca mano” [very white hand]. white mano”[very muy“unablanca have to ale,” , , 120. use the concept of “Europe” and “European people,” I think he still used this used still he think I people,” “European and “Europe” of concept the use - century anthropology and colonial discourse. colonial and anthropology century

- seventeenth century ideas) and of Iaphet (people of Europe). The superiority of Europe Europe of superiority The Europe). of (people Iaphet of and ideas) century seventeenth

- Mossensohn, Mossensohn,

ork Press, c2009). Press, ork ad o hi ws rsn i te rtns f h sixteenth the of writings the in present was hair or and/ n Archivo de la de Archivo toa Mdcn, eln ad eia Isiuin, 1500 Institutions, Medical and Healing Medicine, Ottoman

oh h ecnet f hm(eii epe epeo Asia of people people, (Semitic Shem of descendents the both

rds;” 68

frontera

256 in the following manner: “those who came who “those manner: following the in

the Zwawa are soldiers and the Turks use Turks the and soldiers are Zwawa the , (2005) http://www.archivodelafrontera.com/wp (2005) , Cited in Laura Lara Martínez and María Lara Lara María and Martínez Lara Laura in Cited Cervantes, Cervantes, - 1780

255 ness in the society: the the society: the in ness

Furthermore, according to according Furthermore, Don Quijote Don (New York: Oxford University University Oxford York: (New Africa, en la cual se hallan las las hallan se cual la en Africa, - implied it that and sinned” Middle Ages,” 44.; Vitkus, 44.; Ages,” Middle

sh” heroine of “The of heroine sh” , 412. , 254 ll. Martin Porter, Porter, Martin ll.

Although de Although

arkers arkers baldi - 1700 – - -

CEU eTD Collection other Muslims. other made the all describes Fuchs, which Spaniards.” Moriscos,” for “real” appearance from physical Moriscos…undistinguishable standard any “certain establish to impossible it makes detailed are fact “the says, she Thus, “blanco.” to “negro” from anything as Moriscos the of color the about talk slaves the of color the specifying documents these that says and Africa North from captives 259 (1492). ofGranada conquest the Christianityafter 258 257 go nor fear neither with reared are they childhood since “because manners: good missing was education their that suggests which “robust,” as bodies their characterizes Sosa de and text, the throughout way negative very a in described are They “Turks.” the blood.” Christian th calling harshly, very them depicts he such as and Spain, for especially Christianity, for are people). and lands (Christian lev cultural higher a on be to considered are who people Muslim as writings Spanish contemporary in appeared “Moriscos,” as literature the in termed typically Iberian Peninsula, the from Muslims before, g harquebuses, of manufacturers (like navy and war in useful extremely were that those particularly craft, of kind every know they proportioned.” Hispano these Tagarinos sees he that clear becomes it Sosa, de by discussed groups different the all of characteristics the compares one If Catalonia. Mudéjares Catalonia,” and group the Turks from Anatolia (“coward, uncouth and rustic”) are the most numerous and eminent. He writes He eminent. and numerous most the are rustic”) and uncouth (“coward, Anatolia from Turks the group 262 261 260 em the “cruelest enemies of enemies “cruelest the em

Mudéjares and Tagarinos were Muslim people, who remained in the Iberian Peninsula without converting to to converting without Peninsula Iberian in the whoremained people, Muslim were Tagarinos and Mudéjares Topographia Topographia 68. Oro,” de musulmanesSiglo en el los “La de visión Bunes Ibarra, Ibid., 124. Salvago also speaks about th about speaks also Salvago 124. Ibid., Barbara Fuchs examined notary document notary examined Fuchs Barbara The other group of inhabitants of Algiers who bring his emotions to the surface are surface the to emotions his bring who Algiers of inhabitants of group other The ) 258 rm rnd ad Andalucía, and Granada from

, 122. Italics mine. Italics , 122. , 122.

Moriscos as “white,” perhaps because of the abovementioned belief in their “superiority” over over “superiority” their in belief abovementioned the of because perhaps “white,” as Moriscos 259 s ueir o n ohr group other any to superior as 257

261

Moreover, he views them as the most useful participants in the society as society the in participants useful most the as them views he Moreover, and de Sosa divides these Hispano these divides Sosa de and el than the rest of the Muslims because of their links to Christianity Christianity to links their of because Muslims the of rest the than el

Here, loosesthe“objective out. tone,” he and emotions burst his

260

us Christians Christians us

On the other hand, de Sosa emphasizes how dangerous theydangerous how emphasizes Sosa de hand, other the On em in a very negative way, mainly about “Barbary Turks,” in which which in Turks,” “Barbary about mainly way, negative very a in em unpowder, blacksmiths, builders). As it was indicated indicated was it As builders). blacksmiths, unpowder, s from the second half of the sixteenth century about redeeming redeeming about century sixteenth the of half second the from s

69 in Barbary, because they can never get enough enough get never can they because Barbary, in

and and Tagarinos u t ter en “ht ad well and “white being their to due - Muslims into two groups, that is, the is, that groups, two into Muslims - ulm (.. the (i.e. Muslims

iei ad Empire and Mimesis

from Aragón, Valencia and and Valencia Aragón, from

that all these different shades shades different these all that od manners.” od Mudéjares 13 Yt Sosa Yet 153. ,

and 262

CEU eTD Collection 264 263 f b to murderers vagabonds, considered are Turks These Barbary….” in Janissaries of militia new a instituted they and Turks were founders The progeny. and races many of ruffians Barbary of “creators” the as them to points also Salvago and elite, administrative the were “Turks” Barbary In cowardly.” be to deemed are Turks] [Anatolian they while valorous,be to deemed are who Europeans,to opposed as rustic Anat the considering distinctions these make themselves “Turks” the Istanbul in that tribes Moorish the about less writing is He Europe. in circulating pamphlets and reports ab information more had have considerations). must author strategic the Moreover, of because information needed who officials state or readers (individual readers the of expectations the as well as them, of fear and curiosity great the i space significant a such occupy Turks the why reason other The war). the of categories (in chapters a Algiers of society and life is the in position This prominent a Jews. occupied they and since understandable Moors the with together them discusses he where chapters the from whole devotes then He chapters toeachprofession. craftsmen. or masterbuilders merchants, corsairs, janissaries, living a make Turks that ways six the lists he renegades, the is that fles the to appeals or materializes that vice and manner all in rein free given are they animals brute “like allegory: an as only but appears also animals and beasts as described commonly were they when era previous the from topos i present nature human homogenous of concept the of indication valor.” and worth of men be to out turned “some that admits also Sosa de Turks, the of view negative his despite that note to important is it But 43. 42 Things,” of Order “The Middle Höfert, race.” “monstrous and beasts, wild as the depicted fifteent being “Turk” the of treating and the from antiquity accounts of the writings from of disappeared gradually characteristic and a Ages, was alike and creatures mysterious with territories ashioning in the Mediterranean C Mediterranean in the ashioning nd held the leading posts in administration and the army, which are discussed in separate separate in discussed are which army, the and administration in posts leading the held nd

Topographia The concept of a homogeno a of concept The

De S De : “The corsairs of the province are called Barbaresques, but in reality they are a mass and a gang of of gang a and mass a are they reality in but Barbaresques, called are province the of corsairs “The : osa speaks most about the Turks, devoting fourteen chapters only to them, apart them, to only chapters fourteen devoting Turks, the about most speaks osa , , 124.

–

fteOtmn oit. o mr nSlaoad i htrc e oha, “Self Rothman, see rhetoric his and Salvago on more For society. Ottoman the of us human nature emerged already in the fifteenth century. Inhabiting the remote remote the Inhabiting century. fifteenth the in already emerged nature human us

ontact Zone.” Zone.” ontact kadis , spahis

e adventurers, outlaws and marginal elements elements marginal and outlaws adventurers, e

70 , janissaries, corsairs, their customs in peace and and peace in customs their corsairs, janissaries, ,

h.” 265

After discussing “Turks byprofession,” “Turks After discussing 263

He calls them “men,” which is an is which “men,” them calls He h century on. The same applies for the the for applies same The on. century h u te uk fo te books, the from Turks the out

n the text. the n olians to be “uncouth and and “uncouth be to olians n the account can be be can account the n –

as 264 kaids

However, the However, -

swindlers, swindlers, sipahis - - ,

CEU eTD Collection as itdo just dies, soul the dies body the when that hold They reasons. political for men by invented were religions said and beliefs, religious no had who renegades these of many known have I fact, of matter a “As relazione: his in 266 265 more a as reasonseconomic the discuss to on goes he conversion, of agents the and converts Turks that forcedbecausedoing they toconvert saw Muhammad. as service people this toGodand saying by well as perspective other the from reasons gives He masters. their ignorance” “t and “youthful to due conversion about talks he Lastly, Turks. the of life good a live to desire slavery” of work the (callin slaves the of case the lists God” of path true the “forsaking for reasons gluttony.” and sodomy “lust, of because only convert they and Turks,” or Muslims.” legitimate “not as (certainlyalso arenegade) among nation” Jewish the “of one and renegades 12 also were there but name, by lists he corsairs 35 the of out persons) six counting Genoese, the were ones numerous most (the renegades corsairs of catalogue Sosa’s de to According “Turks” the profession” of by “Turks are they because discussion his in corsairs the includes Sosa De in. served he household ( citizens Moorish the with experience hand first more had He daily. them encounter not did he since Bedouins) and Zwawa (Kabyles, 270 269 268 267

Topographia Ibid, 125. Ibid, 125. Ibid, 125. Ibid, Topographia Topographia es with brute beasts, which they are.” Bernardo, “Its Decline May Now be Under Way,” 157 Under Now“Its be DeclineMay Bernardo, are.” they which withes beasts, brute fe enume After them depicts he rather, Muslims; “real” not are renegades the Sosa, de to According

, , 228. , 124. , 210. The same appears in various other writings; to cite an example example an cite to writings; other various in appears same The 210. , he wickedness imposed” ofsodomy he

aig h raos o cneso fo te esetv o bt the both of perspective the from conversion for reasons the rating

269 . e hn icse cneso “y laue eaaig rm the from emanating pleasure” “by conversion discusses then He ). 266 267

He writes that “few are the renegades who are truly Moors truly are who renegades the are “few that writes He Chapter 13 is dedicated to them, and them, to dedicated is 13 Chapter g the act of conversion the “fainthearted refusal to take on take to refusal “fainthearted the conversion of act the g

the 23 – ka’id

even though the origin of the corsairs was varied. varied. was corsairs the of origin the though even 71

268 s , there were 22 renegades and three sons of of sons three and renegades 22 were there ,

benefits of being a Muslim, and because of of because and Muslim, a being of benefits of Algiers beforeof 1581.

baldi with using many known topoi. As first he first As topoi. known many using with 270 ) te Trs” r h Jw whose Jews the or “Turks,” the ,

on converts since their childhoodon convertsby their since

Lorenzo Bernardo writes Bernardo Lorenzo Sosa lists here the here lists Sosa - 8.

CEU eTD Collection 271 they that so all, of front in publicly profess to and soul, and body received, has he all with creator his and God serve to obliged is man “a confession: public a of importance the and together, soul and body both on emphasis putting man church a of tone moralizing a adopts pe a with text the are they that claims outwardly. only renegades Muslims and many inside the on that Christians writes Sosa De reconvert. to want who of hand. first renegades the of one d only not are Renegades by treatment bad experienced Sosa de so origin, by Jewish was he if even renegade, a was master Sosa’s de Furthermore, sin. greatest the meant establishm ecclesiastical Christian Christianity. betrayed and enemy the of service the into manpower and artisans) other harquebusiers, carpenters, were (many skills their put they Moreover, C into creep easily thus could and coreligionists former their of appearance the shared and language the knew (they lands their of knowledge numbers, great their of because partlyreligion, Christian p the being of accused are fundamental renegades their work, Sosa’s to de sticking In of difference. instead similarity, out pointing by closer worlds two the brings time same the at and understandable, it makes observed, the with audience the Christians”). among dictates law common what as same the is (“it “Turkish”laws and between Christian similarity anoting and parallel renegadesdrawing S down 273 50 to estimates them.” in 272 osa gives word to “the doctor of law” who then discusses the inheritance issues of the the of issues inheritance the discusses then who law” of doctor “the to word gives osa

Ibid, 126. Ibid, The character of the renegade who wants to reconvert app wantsreconvert who to ofthe renegade character The “Almost all the power and dominion, and government and riches of Algiers and the entire ki entire the and Algiers of riches and government and dominion, and power the all “Almost - to

( - Topographia earth or materialistic explanation for “turning Turk.” In this part, “the cleric” in de de in cleric” “the part, this In Turk.” “turning for explanation materialistic or earth

- 60 thousand people. Garcés, Garcés, people. thousand 60 rsonal judgment, pointing that these people will go to Hell. Afterwards, he he Afterwards, Hell. to go will people these that pointing judgment, rsonal , 127.) Sosa puts the number of their households to six thousand or more, which Garcés Garcés which more, or thousand six to households their of number the puts Sosa 127.) ,

epicted as the great enemies of Christianity but also as people most most people as also but Christianityof enemies great the as epicted

ent, of which de Sosa was a member, converting to Islam to converting member, a was Sosa de which of ent, An Early Dialogue Modern An 72

hristian territory without being recognized). recognized). being without territory hristian ear in Cervantes’ plays as someone, who wantswho to someone, as inplays Cervantes’ ear 273 272

Here de Sosa again intervenes in intervenes again Sosa de Here

and partly due to their (strategic)their to due partly and , , 321. 271

In this way he way this In

icpl nme of enemies rincipal In the eyes of the the of eyes the In ngdom resides resides ngdom familiarizes

CEU eTD Collection because “Muslim women bought and sold property, inherited and bequeathed wealth, established established wealth, bequeathed on rights and inherited property, sold bor [endowments], and bought or husbands, women Christian their from “Muslim divorce to because wanted they e.g. Muslim, a being of advantages the of because Conversions in Martyrdom,” Christian Orthodox and Coexistence of Politics Communal “Everyday Krstic, Tijana victims passive and objects sexual weak r as too to regarded are since they reports Inquisitorial 277 of 276 letters a like severed now gain was he Cervantes, limb.” ignorance corrupt and to sin own his by which order from Church, Mother Holy in the of bosom the captives Christian helped them criticizes also who 59 renegades, Spain,” Modern “Early Hershenzon, of (About 3 Chapter see recommendation flight. to attempts in slaves their Christian help they thus, land, Christian to and Christianity to return 275 274 small a [even] … Jew a upon coming “when alive;” them skin they a on occasion, or slender complaint slightest the “for says: He see.” to “incredible as describes he which give also He Muslim”). a as and Jew a as both them (“hating Turk” “turning upon captives Christian the of treatment bad their and money) counterfeiting in engaged being their thus (and money North Africa. and Algiers of conquest future a for legitimation a and urging an as regarded be can Africa in waiting Christians true as women these Depicting them. free to Algiers at appears armada church, the to goods send mass, to go name, God’s in and truly “very Christ…” them Jesus Lord of our to themselves some commend continuously least at that saying by way positive more a in latter the gainand position. power this…” know and see ulm ad ad siiae wie n h cs o wmn t a asmd ht hy ee co were they that assumed was it women of resist. were unableto and case convert to husbands the in while assimilate, and lands in remain Muslim to intention his suggested it because Inquisition the of eyes the in evidence incriminatory strongest the in that interesting also is It 426. Women,” of

Topographia Topographia Cervantes had a different view, a double vision on renegades. He depicts them as converts, who want to to want who converts, as them depicts He renegades. on vision double a view, different a had Cervantes The female converts are described more positively in the sources such as narratives of conversion and and conversion of narratives as such sources the in positively more described are converts female The Furthermore, he makes a distinction between ma between distinction a makes he Furthermore, De Sosa does not h not does Sosa De miri , 157, 161. But as Marc Baer also argues, many times this was n was this times many argues, also Baer Marc as But 161. 157, ,

[state] lands, as tax farmers and in business partnership.” See his “Islamic Conversion Narratives Narratives Conversion “Islamic his See partnership.” business in and farmers tax as lands, [state] s account of the humiliation and indignity the Jews suffer from the Muslims, Muslims, the from suffer Jews the indignity and humiliation the of account s , , 229 , 228. 277 rowed and lent money, and at times even served as holders of holders as served even times at and money, lent and rowed

saying “he himself [the renegade] obtain the object he so much desired, his restoration to to restoration his desired, much so he object the obtain renegade] [the himself “he saying .

274 Don Quijote Don

275 He sees the renegades as tricksters who convert to become rich andrich become to convert who tricksters as renegades the seesHe

ave a positive opinion of the Jews; he emphasizes their love for for love their emphasizes he Jews; the of opinion positive a ave of circumstance,” and “bound by patriarchal and familiar constraints.” See constraints.” familiar and patriarchal by “bound and circumstance,” of

, 413. ,

case of men, marrying a Muslim woman was considered the the considered was woman Muslim a marrying men, of case 73

esist pressures of conversion. conversion. of pressures esist

and wait for the day when a Christian Christian a when day the for wait and le and female renegades, depicting renegades, female and le - 103.) On the other hand Cervantes Cervantes hand other the On 103.) ot the case, and women converted converted women and case, the ot 276

whatever they can, even with even can, they whatever These women send alms send women These timar

[prebends] and usufruct usufruct and [prebends] They are depicted “as depicted are They erced by their their by erced Contested Contested waqfs 278

CEU eTD Collection 161.; The accusation of the Jews as those lending money at usury appear in Nikolas de Nicolai’s accou Nicolai’s de Nikolas in appear usury at money lending those as Jews the of accusation The 161.; Germany in Discourse,” 282 281 Davis, Zemon Natalie Worlds sultan. the to tribute a pay and manner differential a in behave clothes, distinctive wear to required is it whom for Jews mentions he Fez, 280 279 well. him notwho treat did Muhammad, 278 excitin with flavored is but dry not is relation his pattern, precise this of spite In chapter. each in schema set a following is He living. of places current or and/ d carefully distinctions and detailed are descriptions His text. to the throughout criteria keeps he of which list a to according each of characteristics main the sets Sosa de separately youtharound oldage.” to cheating from go Jews the knows, everyone almost “as states pamphlet a As Christians. to loans on interest alloy.” copper of quantities mixing or money counterfeiting falsehoods, and deceits great in engage “they Jews: the about chapter the in depicted is same The money.” false coining and alchemy, practicing money… about bustling money, counting money, rum in nights and days his occupy but else nothing “does who Jew, former a and sin tribe.” his obstinacyof great the for penance unremitting and deserts just Jew’s “his, was it that saying himself.” defend or move to dare not will Jew the and times, thousand a face his slap to use will boy which Moorish with the same group as group same with the 283 7. fol. 1., Nikolai, de Nicholas inhabitants. its and Algiers about writing is he where well, elineated, ordering peoples into further subcategories, mainly according to their origins origins their to according mainly subcategories, further into peoples ordering elineated,

Topographia Topographia Ibid R. Po R. Although de Sosa also discusses renegades, apart from some comments on their weak faith, he puts them them puts he faith, weak their on comments some from apart renegades, discusses also Sosa de Although When one reads these lines, she/he has to keep in mind that de Sosa’s master was a Jewish renegade, renegade, Jewish a was master Sosa’s de that mind in keep to has she/he lines, these reads one When .

, 182.; This very low statu low very This 182.; , (New York: Hill and Wang, 2006), 131. 2006), Wang, and Hill York: (New 281 - In sum, in th in sum, In

e. y . Po R. by ed. , chia Hsia, „The Usurious Jew: Economic Structure and Religious Representations in an Anti an in Representations Religious and Structure Economic Jew: Usurious „The Hsia, chia

boy will make him remove his skullcap from his head and take off his slippers, slippers, his off take and head his from skullcap his remove him make will boy This image follows the Christian polemic about the “usurious Jew” who took great took who Jew” “usurious the about polemic Christian the follows image This n n Ot f h Get: Je Ghetto: the of Out and In , 181.; , The 181.; , 182. 279

Moors and Turks when he is talking about their customs. their about whentalking he is Turks and Moors e chapters discussing the three main groups (Moors, Turks, and Jews) and Turks, (Moors, groups main three the discussing chapters e - e lo rvds h epaain h Mos ae o ti treatment, this for gave Moors the explanation the provides also He

Chia Hsia and Hartmut Lehmann (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 1995), Press, University Cambridge York: (New Lehmann Hartmut and Hsia Chia 280

One has to remember that de Sosa had a bad opinion of his master,his of opinion bad a had Sosa de that remember to hasOne s of the Jews are also mentioned in Leo Africanus. When he is relating about about relating is he When Africanus. Leo in mentioned also are Jews the of s

wish 282

74 - etl Rltos n ae eivl n Ery Modern Early and Medieval Late in Relations Gentile rcse Travels: Trickster

Sixteenth a

g stories and phenomena, phenomena, and stories g

Navigations into Turkie into Navigations - century Muslim between between Muslim century o on n no an into in coin to maging through through maging

- Semitic Semitic book book nt as nt 283

CEU eTD Collection 288 287 286 285 284 deeds their recounting story a through but directly expressed always not is characterization ret will I that something Turks throughout them. among conflicts the discusses also but Muslims of groups different among differentiates it because only not text important an this makes Moors. the century. sixteenth the in appearing them of characterization used often an tyrannical, called are Turks the mentioned, first are the of “trend” the follows it such, as and, landsChristian ofthe onbehalf Algerian Muslims. r continuous “Christians.” the “ of sense and coasts the all on inflict well are people its and Algiers what to attention the draws Sosa de where chapter, first the of line first the in already beginning, “them” and “us” between distinction past, the in “Christianity” their indicating facesZwawa the carvedin cross the storyof the as such years, until the Turks tyrannically seized the city and took possession of it, as what follows will show.” show.” chapter. thefollowing will follows what as it, of possession took 289 and city the Topographia seized tyrannically Turks the until years,

De Sosa also mentions European nations, like Germans, French and Galicians. French and Germans, like nations, mentionsEuropean also Sosa De 93. Ibid., 144. Ibid., 121. Ibid., Salvago writes abou writes Salvago “The Algerians hoped that this sheik would defend them and take them under his under them take and them defend would sheik this that hoped Algerians “The 284

The hatred towards the Turks is also set at the very beginning and pervades the text, the pervades and beginning very the at set also is Turks the towards hatred The or the origin of the horsetail that the janissaries used in battle. in used janissaries the that horsetail the of origin the or

unitas Christiana unitas , 101. ,

e oa th Sosa De eferences to the bad circumstances of Christian captives, or the attack on on attack the or captives, Christian of circumstances bad the to eferences

287 the text is their cruelty and lechery, and their being villainous and villainous stupid being and lechery, their istheircrueltyand the text

ute i te et e os o lt h rae fre ti b providing by this forget reader the let not does he text the in Further this issue but in the first half of the seventeenth century. It will be discussed f discussed be will It century. seventeenth the of half first the in but issue this

erefore sets the opposition between the Moors and Turks, which which Turks, and Moors the between opposition the sets erefore ” on the part of the author who uses the pronoun “us” to denote denote to “us” pronoun the uses who author the of part the on ” r t i te nun chapter. ensuing the in to urn pro

vinces of the Christian world.” Christian the of vinces 288

- This accusation appears related to related appears accusation This nw fr “h get n caees am t people its harm ceaseless and great “the for: known –

Christian writings produced in the era. When they they When era. the in produced writings Christian 75 Chris

in ad Algerians and tians

289

h mi acsto aant the against accusation main The utemr, hs negative this Furthermore, 286

It also implies a certain a implies also It – wing, as he did for some some for did he as wing,

285 s e a te very the at set is their oppression of oppression their

The fundamental The urther in in urther — CEU eTD Collection Turks upon the conquest of Constantinople that they trample on laws and the liberal arts, with the difference difference the with arts, liberal the and laws on trample they that Constantinople of conquest the upon Turks ru Tremecen de ciudad la en dicho 291 queda como 48.cap. 5.124. fol. lib. Carvajal, Mármol city mato, ofTlemcen.”] the in said as itis killed, tyrant tiranno aquel w here, quien arrived Barbarossa Oruc when a [“and [Tlemcen].” Tumi Beni Celim posseya a on account the gives He Algiers. of history the relating is he when does Carvajal as just tyrant a Barbarossa calls 290 orderly on emphasis This trustworthy. is who knowledge, relevant deep with someone as wr of strategy common a was which authority, the claim to him allows precise appear use. strategic and military great of been have must themselves.” covering and sleeping for cape a with blanket and mat small a and gunpowder; for container horn some scimitar; and harquebus a as such armaments wide; spans hand few a chests, small in kept he janissaries the about talking is he When “insider.” the of explanations the with or him), to (according logic with arguing possible, as detailed as possible, as precise as be to endeavors he writing: by possessed be to important more “sense” and “reason,” regards rather he but characteristics, valued most the among the whole text. Tur the resist to “daring not and cowardly being Moors’ “reason.” to according live not do they because but education of lack their of terms in Sosa de by barbarians as seen not sense and stupid being their indicates times) few only word this uses only (he “barbarians” as Turks the of accusation The too. occasions, other on strategy this uses He in 294 293 292 that ining the liberal arts by naming things differently. This calls to mind Piccolomini’s accusation against the the against accusation Piccolomini’s mind to calls This differently. things naming by arts liberal the ining

What I mean by that is mentioned in Chapter 1 ofthis 1 thesis. in mentioned Chapter mean is I that byWhat Ibid Topographia The emphasis on education and “arts” can be seen when he is talking about the Arabs and accusing them of of them accusing and Arabs the about talking is he when seen be can “arts” and education on emphasis The Algiers occupied he how and Barbarossa about section the in seen be can it As an “objective tone,” but which implicitly reinforces the negative opinion about them. about opinion negative the reinforces implicitly which but tone,” “objective an same murder of the former ruler of the city of Algiers (Al Algiers of city the of ruler former the of murder same de de . Sosa is worrying about the na about worrying isSosa , , 146. This also indicates that in de Sosa’s perception courage and military virtue are not are virtue military and courage perception Sosa’s de in that indicates also This

, , 103. even lists what one can find in their packs: “two or three shirts and breeches breeches and shirts three or “two packs: their in find can one what lists even

291 293

Furthermore, the Turks’ being courageous is juxtaposed to theto juxtaposed is courageous being Turks’ Furthermore,the mes, words, which was typical for his era. his for typicalwas which words, mes, h eteey eald nomto h poie i te text the in provides he information detailed extremely The ma a n. This is reflected in his methodology and style of of style and methodology his in reflected is This 76

hi ch was possessed by Celim Beni T Beni Celim by possessed was ch - Thumi): “y quando Horux Barbarroxa aporto alli aporto Barbarroxa Horux quando “y Thumi):

294

n h ohr ad hs tep to attempt his hand, other the On ks.” 292

This juxtaposition pervades juxtaposition This

Topographia

less. They are They less. umi whom that that whom umi , 103. De Sosa De 103. , iters, iters, 290

CEU eTD Collection 296 295 cooking/food, decorating, home pastime, childrearing, and such childbirth issues marriage, and language, activities everyday on particular in focused Sosa de Algiers “socio of discussion Inhis arenoteworthy. representation mannerof the go its and type andlandscape, fortifications,of religion inhabitants, ofits and customs buildings its sixteenth other by knowledge gathered the h in uniformities or likeness make to order in “discern to tried and universality,” or importance of criteria “some used He comprehensible. themes cultural into them arranging 4.2. the socio of classification for categories choose to had author the intelligible, observations his make familiar understandable, information new the making of method a was decoding and comparison through familiar the upon Calling Christians. to compared parts…” other from merchant with company a form to accustomed not are merchants swords...” their carry Galicians our Spanish way same the … knives damascene ornate beautifully some hangs everyone almost (“….and similarity to attention pays He depictions. his in comparison of tool the applies o methodology, his Regarding intelligence. and abilities, education, self his of part a also was exposition precise and 299 298 Hodgen, 297

Ibid, 167. Ibid, 169. Ibid, See Stagl, “A History of Curiosity;”Höfe of “AHistory Stagl, See Ibid. e mr o mtoooy f tngahcl rtns n h sixteenth the in writings ethnographical of methodology on more See The ThemesThe vernment. , , 164 e oa raie his organized Sosa De Early Anthropology in the Anthropology Early - cultural system ofthecultural peopleAlgiers. of system

- 5.

299

of Classification of

However, his specific editorial choices within these larger categories and categories larger these within choices editorial specific his However, - century travelers, such as the history and the name of the place, its its place, the of name the and history the as such travelers, century

is materials.” is

S ixteen

observations on the “alien ways of living” in Algiers by by Algiers in living” of ways “alien the on observations

in de Sosa’s th and Seventeenth C Seventeenth th and rt, “The Order of Things,” and C and ofThings,” Order “The rt, 298 77 295

De Sosa mainly followed the categories devised categories the followed mainly Sosa De

ad ifrne (“ difference and ) Topographia -

representation indicating his high his indicating representation enturies , 167. ,

- eetet centuri seventeenth hapter 3 of this thesis.ofthis 3 hapter

to the reader. the to nie hitas these Christians, unlike ne can also see that he he that see also can ne - cultural systems” of systems”of cultural 297 es in Margaret Margaret in es

In order to order In

as dress, dress, as - level of of level 296 ) CEU eTD Collection customs. The Inquisition also gathered and analyzed reports (travel writings, captivity narratives, etc.) etc.) narratives, captivity writings, (travel reports analyzed and gathered also Inquisition The customs. everyday and rites religious norms, beliefs, markers, external especially Jews), and (Muslims others” “religious t to similarity its and “witnesses”) and suspects of asked (questions inquiry inquisitorial the of character detailed 300 the among were Both language. and dress Sosa: de for identity define that factors “external” Dress L and his where and Africa, North on aboutseemexplanations aphenomenon being worthy of mentioned. sources other or contemporaries his from assumed diverges this lost he where those on as well as expected been have would judgment negative a when tone “objective” an maintain to tried he where passages the on be will focus The text. the of readers potential the mind in keeping also while law, his an and about cleric, most a “Spaniard,” reveal a Christian, that a being those of sensibilities on and perceptions focus will I but account his in mentions Sosa de crypto convicting cryp and recognizing in helpful information of kind every gathering was which Inquisition, the for information valuable potentially provided Sosa de natu the dictate also could church) the and monarchy, Spanish the of administrators the (particularly readers potential the Moreover, culture. “Christian” to) similarity sometimes (or from difference diversity great the showing for suitable were author, the to interesting being from apart classification, of themes These forth. so and calendar, circumcision, magic, education, games, as such topics upon touched also Sosa descriptio shorter much a receive government its and city re burials, festivals, religious and Abigail Dyer (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011); Bennassar, 2011); Press, University JohnsHopkins The (Baltimore: AbigailDyer and c1989); Press, Method Historical the and M about produced a o a oen anthropologist modern a of hat

h tte f al Gnbr’ esy Te Inquis “The essay Ginzburg’s Carlo of title The to - Jews). pr fo csos n rts rtas n mnes f vrdy ie there life, everyday of manners and rituals rites, and customs from Apart anguage Inquisitorial Inquiries: Brief Lives of Secret Secret of Lives Brief Inquiries: Inquisitorial 300 uslims and Jews. See Carlo Ginzburg, “The Inquisitor as Anthropologist,” in in Anthropologist,” as Inquisitor “The Ginzburg, Carlo See Jews. and uslims re of inquiry. By detailing the differences among the inhabitants of Algiers Algiers of inhabitants the among differences the detailing By inquiry. of re

Within the scope of this thesis I cannot discuss all of the customs and rites and customs the of all discuss cannot I thesis this of scope the Within

, trans. by John and Anne C. Tedeschi (Balitmore: The Johns Hopkins University University Hopkins Johns The (Balitmore: Tedeschi C. Anne and John by trans. , Te usin tuhd pn vr nacd aspects nuanced every upon touched questions The . ligious customs and rites, etc. rites, and customs ligious

within the inhabitants of the city of Algiers and their their and Algiers of city the of inhabitants the within 78 itor as Anthropologist” is telling because it suggests the the suggests it because telling is Anthropologist” as itor

Jews and Other Heretics Other and Jews n. Within the mentioned themes de de themes mentioned the Within n.

In contrast, the topography of the the of topographythe contrast, In

, ed. by Richard L. Kagan Kagan L. Richard by ed. , Les Chrétiens d’Allah Chrétiens Les distance, where he he where distance,

of the lives of the the of lives the of - ulm (and Muslims Clues, Myths, Myths, Clues,

expert in expert

are two two are .

CEU eTD Collection of great importance for both Christians and Muslims since it conveyed one’s status in the society. For example, example, For society. the in status one’s conveyed it since Muslims and Christians both for importance great of like marker external identity. religious an with connects and reader the informs Sosa de that here seen be can also it Thus, etc. heels the on taps iron (the considerations economic simple or clean) house the keep to order in shoes in houses their enter not do Muslims because fast and law), Muslim by required was it as kin other elbow the to up arms his wash to wearer the enabled which sleeves, 303 book costume a consider be also can Mediterranean the in travels his of account Nikolay’s de Nicholas 2004). c. Ashgate, see issue this On deno century. sixteenth also was class social of indication an and code behavioral a as dress The well. as world Asian and Islamic the of that and clothing Roman and Greek listed which 1575, in th from printed books costume 302 History A Inquisition: Fuchs, See Europe. and Spain of parts different in differently dressed Christians as just identity, religious not regional of indicator an is Granada in worn dress Nu Francisco leader Morisco t Castilia. upon in called like and do, customarily they like dress to Granada of Moriscos the forbid to was aims 301 shoes wear to allowed is Jew “no Jews: on imposed restrictions the of because particularly hairstyle), and (dress Muslims and Jews between is clothing by indicated distinction main in worn garments in about “walk yet, clothes new bought not had who “Romania”), (and Constantinople from people the instance, For differences. “ethnic” and regional of account gives and notices Sosa i what discusses mostly he While affiliations. religious and diversity cultural both for eye an with clothing) of and materials color also but “style” to only not attention particular (paying “fashion” Algerian of weal status, socialage, as (such messages different communicated that values and beliefs shared of signs as served and meanings symbolic also but roles functional have only not did they that sense the in well as Europe in importance Alpujarras. the of revolt the to the led that against Moriscos legislation the from apparent is as monarchy, Spanish the of concerns main 304 1., 144. vol. 1881.) & Co., Paul C.Kegan Daniell (London: Blackburne F.H. and Forster t telling is it and disastrous, or evil something with connected as clothing of color black the discussed Busbecq hat Jews had to wear this color. color. this wear to had Jews hat

Topographia The contemporary interest in clothing as an indicator of ethno of indicator an as clothing in interest contemporary The The legislation did not target the domain of religion but regulated cultural and even daily life. O life. daily even and cultural regulated but religion of domain the target not did legislation The t s neetn t nt ta d Ss dsusd eiiu dmnin o cohn (ie h elbow the (like clothing of dimensions religious discussed Sosa de that note to interesting is It ds of customary aspects of dress (like wearing slippers in order to be able to take them off easily and and easily off them take to able be to order in slippers wearing (like dress of aspects customary of ds

, , 172. ofthe area It also ruled against the usage of Arabic, the language of (converted) Muslims in Spain. The The Spain. in Muslims (converted) of language the Arabic, of usage the against ruled also It

Turkey. These differ considerably from Algerian fashions…” Algerian from considerably differ These Turkey. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005). University Press, Yale CT: (New Haven, Topographia

ñez Muley in his argumentation against the legislations points to the fact that the the that fact the to points legislations the against argumentation his in Muley ñez e fifteenth century onward. The first universal history of clothing was published published was clothing of history universal first The onward. century fifteenth e The Life and Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq de Ghiselin Ogier of Letters and Life The

Clothing Culture, 1350 Culture, Clothing , 172. He does not discuss the colors of clo of colors the discuss not does He 172. , s worn by “Algerians” (“Turks, Moors and renegades”), de de renegades”), and Moors (“Turks, “Algerians” by worn s of shoes to make them long them make to shoes of Mimesis Mimesis 79

n Empire and - 1650 th, etc.) th, 301

lte (n ha (and Clothes - , edited by Catherine Richardson (Aldershot: (Aldershot: Richardson Catherine by edited , religious identity can be seen from the many many the from seen be can identity religious ted in some of these costume books of the of books costume these of some in ted 302

- 102 , lived, because shoes were expensive), expensive), were shoes because lived,

De Sosa was a carefulaobserverwas Sosa De - 104.; Joseph Pérez, Pérez, Joseph 104.; thing, which was another issue another was which thing, rtl) ee f great of were irstyle) , eds. Charles Thornton Thornton Charles eds. ,

304 hem to dress dress to hem The Spanish Spanish The

Another ne of its its of ne - length length dress dress as ed 303

CEU eTD Collection fias (e Africanus, (Leo Africans” (http://e Directory 421. 2012), Lectura, de Punto (Madrid: doubloons…” thousand a at afterwar me them told she that diamonds many so with set gold, purest by the worn of anklets women] or Morisco [bracelets carcajes had she bare, were customary is as which anklets, her On head. her on fr hung pearls more that saying with myself content 310 309 183. 1, Book I, reputation. appea their maintaining about care they and jealous are husbands 308 307 306 305 no Moor “neither seriously: taken is which of exclusivity the dress, peculiar their by signified also men.” “important and reputation,” of “men men,” clothing both by indicated and depicted by Cervantesin pearls “countless put they and heads, their gemstones” on damask” or satin of or brocade do. women Muslim the like covered out go not fo except ones Muslim uniform.” entirely not is women of dress “The well: as them for noted is difference “ethnic” same The chapter. separate a in clothing frometc.).“Turkey,” (Spanish lands,Mallorca,Africa, come they where to according vary clothes Jews’ group, own their within Even Europe. anyof where he is speaking about circumcision, he mentions that if somebody who wants to become a “Turk” is a a is “Turk” a become to wants whoperson “distinguished somebody if that mentions he circumcision, about speaking is he where 311 renegades.” and Turks, “Moors, by worn are they says remark,only

Topographia Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. De Sosa calls as important men important as calls Sosa De will I … Zoraida beloved my of … beauty great the you to describe to now power my beyond be would “It Ibid. rs in other writer’s accounts. accounts. writer’s other in rs , , 202. , 198. , 183. kind of color.” of kind , 202.; He explains this without mentioning religious considerations; he only says that Muslim Muslim that says only he considerations; religious mentioning without this explains He 202.; , De Sosa gives great weight t weight great gives Sosa De Apart from “ethnic” differences, social stratification (wealth and reputation) is also is reputation) and (wealth stratification social differences, “ethnic” from Apart r Turk nor renegade can wear this edging on this clothing, under penalty of a life life a of penalty under clothing, this on edging this wear can renegade nor Turk r

309

, , 199.

wherever - bookdirectory.co

–

such as a so a as such

305 h Hsoy n Dsrpin f Africa of Description and History The r the shoes, as “they wear slippers of black leather,” black of slippers wear “they as shoes, the r

They usually wear black dress, which is similar to theinregulations to similar is which dress, black wearThey usually great in“TheT Captive’s detail hy a. hs ihes f h waty oe’ cohn i also is clothing women’s wealthy the of richness This can. they

and facial hair (long beard). De Sosa distinguishes among “rich “rich among distinguishes Sosa De beard). (long hair facial and See for ins for See ka’id

ldier from Orán; or a master of arts or crafts; or the officer of a ship ship a of officer the or crafts; or arts of master a or Orán; from ldier m). Leo Africanus calls the rings and ankle bracelets a “fashion of the the of “fashion a bracelets ankle and rings the calls Africanus Leo m). Miguel de Cervantes, Cervantes, de Miguel s, merchants, some merchants, s, I used the translation of John Ormsby of of Ormsby John of translation the used I o the depiction of Algerian women; he discusses their their discusses he women; Algerian of depiction the o tance Leo Africanus, Africanus, Leo tance 306 80

om her fair neck, her ears, and her hair than she had hairs hairs had she than hair her and ears, her neck, fair her om According to de Sosa, Jewish women dress like dress women Jewish Sosa, de to According

308

ru’asa o Qioe e a Mancha la de Quijote Don 311 Wealthy women wear “a round beretta of beretta round “a wear women Wealthy

The leading status of the janissaries is janissaries the of status leading The

The History and Description of Africa of Description and History The , 159.), while de Sosa does not make this this make not does Sosa de while 159.), , [ Topographia ale” in reis ], and other “older men.” Furthermore, Furthermore, men.” “older other and ],

Ibid. Don Quijote , 193; “Muslims’” being jealous jealous being “Muslims’” 193; , , 199. 199. Don Quixote Don

, ed. Francisco Rico Rico Francisco ed. , . d her father valued valued father her d 310 307

and they do they and

n E on - – Books Books , Vol. ,

he is is he

CEU eTD Collection Description of Africa of Description Africanus, Leo Arabs. the by in brought was custom this that says He custom.” decent “most Ibid. uglier.” even degree, great a to women, ugly the and ugly, quite beautiful are who those turns habit this truth, 315 200. 314 Garcés, elite.” militaryTurkish ofthe of uniform part 313 Peacetime”). in Janissaries (“Customsof the 20 chapter 312 who about clue a get can oftheone society. member as an eminent regarded was Thus, streets. the on him with parade janissaries the and Turk” a as up dressed Leo Valencia. and Flanders, signa as regards it he and wear,wealthier persons that foreignwool mentions Africanusalso England, from coming textiles with Europe and Algiers style” theGermans. style ofthe or “Hungarian the to references making by readers his for sees he what decodes he “Turkey” do.” Galicians Spanish our way same “the “ dress k damascene wearing of Iberia custom the in also similarity recognizes in women that mentions he as discussion his into way its finds also similarity cultural hand, other the On him. for unusual also is blond, the of E the to opposed as hair, black the of ideal beauty The using. are Algerians the women,” Christian by used that from his grabs painting body their especially attentio women, Muslim of case the In chapters. the them areand notimportantpersonalities, poor they wear only or renegades” and “Turks some if and artisans,” or merchant, corsairs, renegades, sentence.” 318 317 dress to sometimes pleased whenare womenthey Moorish 316

Ibid. Ibid. They “paint designs on their cheeks, chin, and forehead, such as marks, cloves, and rosettes.” rosettes.” and cloves, marks, as such forehead, and chin, cheeks, their on designs “paint They He comments on it nega it on comments He Ibid. “… some women tend to wear over their smock or camisole a kind of kind a camisole or smock their over wear to tend women some “… Ibid.

, 200. Leo Africanus, for whom these female beauty pr beauty female these whom for Africanus, Leo 200. , , , 172. , 169. , 172. Janissaries also wear wear also Janissaries 172. , , 172. The distinguished status of the janissaries is also implied here but discussed in more detail in in detail more in discussed but here implied also is janissaries the of status distinguished The 172. , n. “Algerians” andDe“Christians” throughout cultural all marks Sosa between distance In the chapters the In 314 312

His lengthy description shows fascination with this custom, “which is different is “which custom, this with fascination shows description lengthy His Regardless of ethnicity, wearing the turban is common “be they Turks bybirth,Turks they“be common is turban the ethnicity,wearing Regardlessof , 159. ,

tively with a dash of humor, which is so typical of his negative points of view: “In view: of points negative his of typical so is which humor, of dash a with tively about fashion the reader finds references to active trading between between trading active to references finds reader the fashion about tartura 318

but in a different style. style. different a in but 315

as are the big earrings and many scents and oils that oils and scents many and earrings big the are as

Topographia 81 317

Furthermore, in his discussion of fashion of fashion of discussion his in Furthermore, An Early Modern Dialogue Modern Early An a la morisca la a actices are not strange, says that body painting is a is painting body that says strange, not are actices , 127 , Tartura .

.” .” Topographia tartura

is “a hat “a is cape … of the kind used by non by used kind the of … cape nives on the left the on nives . 313 l morisca la a

, , 331. without a crown that was that crown a without

, 199. ,

The History and and History The uropean ideal ideal uropean Topographia - hand side, side, hand

.” sons of of sons 316

He - ,

CEU eTD Collection vol. 1., 133. 1., vol. 320 Sosa. de another them among signif of haue but pronuntiation, they of onely not “Moreouer diuersitie, issue: same the about speaking is Africanus Leo DeCorse, pronunciation.” and (Scupin language.” 319 Chris corruptly.” most albeit language; Arabian the indeede speake Tripoli, & Tunis against ouer dwel which Mediterra versa. vice and Berbers, the of language the “corrupting” Arabs about writing is who Africanus Leo with agrees “Ar the of corruption Italiansdifference Spanish, and between French. the to similar is suggests he which other, each understand hardly can they that differently they that states Sosa De Baldis. the and Arabs, the Kabyles, the like groups to speaking.” of M “dialects” further about “ and Moors, the by spoken “Arabic” “Turks,” the by sp dialects)and the Mediterraneanbetween cultural to of leads similarities. thetwosides that “civilit of vernacular, and its implications implications its and vernacular, 323 322 321

oors speak, although “they conform to each other, both in many of their words and modes and words their of many in both other, each to conform “they although speak, oors LeoAfricanus, Ze Topographia Lingua franca franca Lingua “Dialects are linguistic differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, or syntax that may differ within a sing a within differ may that syntax or vocabulary, pronunciation, in differences linguistic are “Dialects mon Davis, tians. The History and Description of Africa of Description and History The Cultural diversity of Algiers is also manifested in the various “languages” (languages “languages”various the in manifested also is Algiers diversityof Cultural utemr, oh Mos ad Trs ue the use “Turks” and “Moors” both Furthermore, the is province one in diversity such of cause the interpretation, his to According nean sea to the mountains of Atlas, speake broken Arabian. … Howbeit they they Howbeit … Arabian. broken speake Atlas, of mountains the to sea nean

. Bt Lo fiau ad e oa iw rd a a iprat connection important an as trade view Sosa de and Africanus Leo Both y.” 322 Lingua franca Lingua

, 184. Leo Africanus says the same. See Leo Africanus, Africanus, Leo See same. the says Africanus Leo 184. , 320 Trickster Travels Trickster

has generated heated debates regarding the meaning of the term, the origin and usage of the the of usage and origin the term, the of meaning the regarding debates heated generated has The History and Description of Africa of Description and History The oken here. According to de Sosa, these are three: “Turkish,” spoken basicallyspoken “Turkish,” these arethree: Sosa, de Accordingto here. oken

Another difference is “diction and pronunciation,” which varies according varies which pronunciation,” and “diction is difference Another

abs of Arabia” that transpired when they conquered Barbary. Here, he he Here, Barbary. conquered they when transpired that Arabia” of abs 319 321

was the “contact vernacular” mainly used in the Mediterranean, the in used mainly vernacular” “contact the was

(de Sosa uses the word “language” here as well) within what the what within well) as here “language” word the uses Sosa (de (e.g. whether it unifies or divides the Mediterranean). It contained vocabulary vocabulary contained It Mediterranean). the divides or unifies it whether (e.g. In addition, he writes: “But all the sea the all “But writes: he addition, In , 134. ,

Anthropology

, vol. 1., book 1., 134. 134. 1., book1., vol. , icant words also…” words icant , 273.), and de Sosa refers to these as “diction and and “diction as these to refers Sosa de and 273.), , 82

, vol. 1., book 1., 134. 134. book1., vol. , 1.,

lingua franca. lingua

He could have been the source here for here source the been have could He The History and Description of Africa of Description and History The iga franca lingua

- towns of Africa from the from Africa of towns ” Moreover, he speaks speaks he Moreover, ”

o pa with speak to

speak so so speak 323 le le ,

CEU eTD Collection f agae (o isac, osdr h fnto o te agae s n bet f rtcs b Burke, criticism Peter of “sociolinguistics.” Europe Modern Early of object part a an form would as nowadays that language issues the of function the on discussion a appears, diversity linguistic and languages of history the in an interest 1500 Around reformers). consider instance, (for languages his of varieties of conscious in became people when century, Burke fifteenth the of middle the Peter from languages” “discovering 59. Things,” of Order (or travel of methodology the to according visited he that place the names of new fro visible 326 Cervantes, languages.” ofall mixture but a nation, anyother capti mediumbetween the is Constantinople in even Argel de trato El Argel, de baños 325 324 1996). Wansbrough, E. John also see studies, these to addition ve and by involves which Franca, Lingua the amalg the large of features characteristic the of one indeed is merging, linguistic Philology, Kahane (Romance Renée Term” a and of Story Henry The Franca: As “Lingua their writes). in write also Sosa de (as Portuguese and Italian, Spanish, French, Greek, from labored uptheAugean toclean stables…” privileg profession those especially arts, liberal the ruined so naming of Called fo Arabsthe blames heAlgiers”), where Is City the (“Why 2 chapter in seen be can “naming” and “language” about care the franca is result the which (of Christians…” the do as cases and tenses, modes, vary superiority. of air certain a with Muslims and Turks.”of thebad diverseand ofthe pronunciation kingdoms “Moors Christian mumbo “veritable a is which Algiers,” of franca lingua “a about speech.” Christian of mode and language the both name “to term the use “Turks” the and “Moors” the that says Sosa de which about An Early Modern Dialogue Modern Early An clean came, Heracles until cleaned been never had and country the in cattle of 328 327 rnacular (e.g. a Portuguese one in India, Java or Malaysia) in her in Malaysia) or Java India, in one Portuguese a (e.g. rnacular

Topographia Topographia Ibid. Ibid. Cervantes calls the language of the Moors “la bastarda lengua.” lengua.” bastarda “la Moors the of language the calls Cervantes

, 99. Here de Sosa refers to the mythological king Augeas, whose stables contained the greatest number number greatest the contained stables whose Augeas, king mythological the to refers Sosa de Here 99. , , 185 , of Algiers, “a speech of the muzzled Black slave, brought to Spain a Spain to brought slave, Black muzzled the of speech “a Algiers, of As a representative of the European intellectual tradition of the era, de Sosa Sosa de era, the of tradition intellectual European the of representative a As

m the fact that the sixteenth the factm that the .; Cervantes also denotes denotes also Cervantes .; –

am of the Romance vernaculars.” Romance the of am , , 185. , 185. Philosophy, Astrology and Medicine Medicine and Astrology Philosophy,

(Cambr

, 312. 312. , idge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 15 2004), Press, University Cambridge idge:

). In “The Captive’s T Captive’s “The In ). - century traveler and “observer” was required to note both the old and the the and the old both note to was required “observer” and traveler century lingua franca franca lingua book book r renaming cities and forests.and renamingcities r

As Jocelyn Dakhlia also argues for different varieties of this this of varieties different for argues also Dakhlia Jocelyn As

328 326 83 ves and Moors, and is neither Morisco nor Castilian, nor of of nor Castilian, nor Morisco neither is and Moors, and ves 324

Languages and Communities Communities and Languages in his works (“The Captive’s T Captive’s (“The works his in

He accuses Muslims of not knowing “how to “how knowing not of Muslims accuses He

ale” he writes: “the language that all over Barbary and and Barbary over all that language “the writes: he ale” oevr d Ss as sek specificall speaks also Sosa de Moreover, Lingua Franca in the Mediterranean the in Franca Lingua Don Quijote Don –

that however much learned men have have men learned much however that

Lingua franca Lingua Ibid. , 421. , -

, 16. 30:1 (1976): 29: “ 29: (1976): 30:1

423. Names were important as is is as important were Names 423. - jumbo,” a mixture of words words of mixture a jumbo,” ed it and killed the king. Garcés, Garcés, king. the killed and it ed Languages and Communities in in Communities and Languages

ed by some Arabs as a a as Arabs some by ed ars apodemica ars

(Arles: Actes sud., 2008.) In 2008.) sud., Actes (Arles: He writes: “this plague“this writes: He xlrs h poes of process the explores ale” in in ale” new.”) Don Quijote Don Sprachmischung

(Curzon Press, (Curzon ). Höfert, “The Höfert, ). y religious religious y

325

327 viewed lingua

This , Los Los y ,

CEU eTD Collection light candles or lanterns in the vessels in port. “Everyone agrees that on this night all the waters shall not flow, not shall waters the all night this on that agrees “Everyone port. in vessels the in lanterns or candles light Tu and Moors the Ramadan, before days four that says He argument. his confirm for stories two heoffers Muslims, 332 331 330 Doutté, Hart, David instance for exp he phenomena cultural on observations careful his indicates which Africa, North 329 havingaccordingseveral which notion to thisfor explanation insider’sonlygivesan Sosa de but it, with fascination and custom “barbarous” this at indignation great blended that era this Moors”). and renegades as well as (“Turks Muslims among polygamy about talking starts he marriage discusses that chapter difference great a notes Sosa De separately. marry customs marital Jewish all the depicts he renegades and indifferently;” and Moors, “Turks, Algiers in Sosa, de to According community. to references numerous that illustratehisstatements. that…” responded they often the som with by debated “having or heard” I “as like phrases indicated is as people, are “sources” His with). begin were to (which scarce sources written on relies he less the Algerians, of rites and customs the of sacrifice. the of Festival” “Great the and fast, the of breaking of festival” “small the Ramadan, the as such festivals, religious Islamic and a and Ceremonies 333 greatness. such to he rose time, therefore thefor third thequiet found sea thefor Turks,” Sea the of “General the Ali, Uluç say they And God.” by wants he all given be will running, without sleeping find who venturesome, is who he And hour. an half for dormant and quiet be shall they but ssociated with childbirth, circumcision (of boys) or haircut (of girls), marriage and burial, burial, and marriage girls), (of haircut or boys) (of circumcision childbirth, with ssociated

Ibid. Topographia Ibid. De Sosa’s description of the ceremonies and customs resembles the secondary literature about Berbers in Berbers about literature secondary the resembles customs and ceremonies the of description Sosa’s De o eape wh example, For , , 218 , , 188. Magie & Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord du &l’Afrique dans Religion Magie The most important ceremonies celebrated by communities in the Maghrib were were Maghrib the in communities by celebrated ceremonies important most The h to ois eae i get egh mrig ad uil ae xlie with explained are burial, and marriage length, great in related topics two The

between Christian customs and “Algerian” ones, as in the very beginning of the the of beginning very the in as ones, “Algerian” and customs Christian between

, , 181. Everyday L n e pas bu te “ the about speaks he en

Tribe and Society in Rural Morocco Morocco Rural in Society and Tribe 331 symbolism of religious rites that clearly distinguish a socio a distinguish clearly that rites religious of symbolism

Consequently, his account contains numerous legends or stories or legends numerous contains account his Consequently, 332 ife

333

This topic was of great interest to Christians in Euro in Christians to interest great of was topic This gotomía,”

(Alger.: Typ. A. Jourdan, 1909). A.Jourdan, (Alger.: Typ. 84

329

Ibid. the behavior towards Christians as being inferior to to inferior being as Christians towards behavior the

The deeper his ana his deeper The rks light many lamps in the mosques and they also also they and mosques the in lamps many light rks , 226.; He tells a legend, which is about Uluç Ali. Uluç about is which legend, tellsa He 226.; , e of them,” of e (Portland: Frank Cass, 2000) and Edmund Edmund and 2000) Cass, Frank (Portland: 330 investigation his in lysis or “when asked why … why asked “when or

erienced by himself. See himself. by erienced Ibid. s the water quietly quietly water the s , 213. , -

employed employed - cultural cultural pe in pe CEU eTD Collection give dowry, unless he gives his slave freedom. Here, de Sosa relates about female slaves and the regulations regulations the and slaves female about relates Sosa de Here, freedom. slave his gives he unless dowry, give Chris 337 336 Topographia 335 Mohammetans,” ofthe Manners and Mohammetans… the of Manners and Religion the practices, of Account everyday and religious as such culture manners Algerian and of customs account lengthy a left and Algiers, in slavery view. of points their from it seeing and speak question this to returns he supply but beginning, the and in indifferent wellseems He equally. wives treat his to has husband the phenomenon that mentions he the Moreover, wives.” on more and four, implicitly three, two, have judgment negative a as accordanc in and usage treated general per (as them of majority be can which brackets in comment 334 the of front in legally, done is “Everything cases: both in dowry and marriage account. the in elsewhere Christ of notion renegades.” marrying in pride greatest the take [Algerians] men these “ordinarily states: He looking. better and diligent,” and “perfect more are Christians) former (hence they w from origin, groups “favored” of regardless married they Although marriage. considering when obtained kinship and origin on based hierarchy strict a where Europe Christian in audience the to could (who wife the choosing “intent of matrimony.” the andreason” “natural to stands custom this which in contradiction the out pointingthem,” lib carnal the with accordance “in is it that comments also he polygamy of issue the on however, time, same the At knowledge. of source his became who inhabitants the with conversed he that suggests explanation “insider’s” an provides wome other with “sin committing from husband the keeps women more than “constantly eating and chewing.” chewing.” and eating “constantly morethan bei of women “Turkish” and “Moorish” accuses Sosa de contrast, in places; several Absent and Silent unt sold be could only they them; concerning

Ibid. Ibid. There is a difference in the marriage ceremony when a Muslim marries a Muslim and when he marries a a marries he when and Muslim a marries Muslim a when ceremony marriage the in difference a is There God ordered matrimony to be “love, peace, and concord among married people and their children.” children.” their and people married among concord and peace, “love, be to matrimony ordered God tian slave, both of which de Sosa describes. In the case of “marrying” a Christian slave, man does not not does man slave, Christian a “marrying” of case the In describes. Sosa de which of both slave, tian , , 188. , 188.; De Sosa allows that, although most men have more, many have only one wife, and he only has a a has only he and wife, one only havemany more, have men most although that, allows Sosa De 188.; , When discussing marriage, he mentions that “lineage or nobility” did not matter in matter not did nobility” or “lineage that mentions he marriage, discussing When , 192. ,

, 83 ,

as s en mr batfl sild n lbros per hr and here appears laborious and skilled beautiful, more being as ians - 84.; The trope of Moriscos and Christian slaves in Algiers being hard being Algiers in slaves Christian and Moriscos of trope The 84.; , a s mnin t mentions lso

335

hich a bride was to be chosen. According to de Sosa, renegades Sosa, de to According chosen. be to was bride a hich 337

De Sosa also draws attention to the legal matters concerning matters legal the to attention draws also Sosa De

in even be a converted Jew), which must have been astonishing been have must which Jew), converted a be even

a ms mn ae ny n wife one only have men most hat Vitkus and Matar, Matar, and Vitkus Ibid. Topographia il they produced a child for their masters. See Toledano, Toledano, See masters. their for child a produced they il 18 Jsp Pitts Joseph 188. , 85

e with the carnal liberty that Muhammad allows them) them) allows Muhammad that liberty carnal the with e , 203. , Piracy, Slavery, a Slavery, Piracy, ) was published in 1704. Joseph Pitts, “Religion “Religion Pitts, Joseph 1704. in published was )

an English captive, who spent part of his his of part spent who captive, English an Hs con ( account His . ry ht uamd allows Muhammad that erty nd Redemption nd n.” ng lazy and doing nothing nothing doing and lazy ng 334

A True and Faithful Faithful and True A

h fc ta he that fact The - 243. working appears in appears working ing about women women about ing kadi

, or judge or , 336 –

As if if As The “the “the CEU eTD Collection h floe Han followed who Turks, the concerning particularly imaginable, easily is case similar law, religious of regardless backgrounds.”) or tribal Regarding their of because sophistication urban in lacking reg deemed incident those and this elites says urban (Peirce between inferior. as regarded was group “ethnic” mother an case, the this in class social and although inferior of men and to marriage in females Kurd give to prohibited is a it law, Hanafi to was According sister. his fiancé The regard brother the mother. it, against anything their have not by did seemingly arranged marriage sister’s his against 342 341 15. c2010), Press, Pennsylvania Captivity of Plays Cervantes, de Miguel In wife” the not dowry, pay to the husband the for customary it’s nation, strange this in for dowry: as offers he that gold the for but king, w Moor, the “And Lope: daughter: another’s 340 339 338 several give forexplanations any this. not he times, does it mentions Sosa de rank). Although socialhigh of womenfor being(except covered without latter The not. are ceremonies Muslim the everyone, for open is ceremony marriage Jewish while countryside. the of those than rather city the of inhabitants limits his text, Sosa’s de from clear not is This practice? and theory sense? this in “equality” there Was origin? tribal different had Zwawa the or Kabyles the whether relating by “Moor” the of category the within further distinguish betw world.” Christian the in those to “very contrary be to happen which marrying,” of “mode their in aspects two out points he them, th of the city but also about the way of living in the countryside (agricultural areas, etc.). etc.). areas, (agricultural countryside wayin of living the the about but also thecity Márm 343 Tales Morality

Jews are the exceptions whom Muslims do not marry and who do not marrynot others. do who marry and not do Muslims whom theexceptions Jews are Ibid. Ibid. The richness of information can be seen in other accounts on Algiers and North Africa, like Leo Africanus, Africanus, Leo like Africa, North and Algiers on accounts other in seen be can information of richness The di Peirce Leslie The issue of the dowry also appears in Cervantes’ Cervantes’ in appears also dowry the of issue The eens andeensgiven thedowry notthe wife. and by thehusband city.” e ol Carvajal, Nicholas de Nikolay de Nicholas Carvajal, ol

a b se ol b Crsin bcue hy r pritd o e Msi women Muslim see to permitted are they because Christians by only seen be can , , 189. , 189. Here De Sosa speaks about the “Moorish” inhabitants of the city in general and does and general in city the of inhabitants “Moorish” the about speaks Sosa De Here

of observation and information gathering. He seems to concentrate on the the on concentrate to seems He gathering. information and observation of , 65. , 338

scusses in her book book her in scusses

i bss f oprsn r ntrly hita csos s, oprd to compared so, customs, Christian naturally are comparison of basis His , ed. and transl. by Barbara Fuchs and Aaron J. Ilika (Philadelphia: University of of University (Philadelphia: Ilika J. Aaron and Fuchs Barbara by transl. and ed. , afi law (while the majority of North African Muslims practiced Maliki). See Peirce, Peirce, See Maliki). practiced Muslims African North of majority the (while law afi

practices. In the case of marriage, would a would marriage, of case the In practices.

Morality Tales Morality

and Jo and hat does he say?” Hazén: “That he deserves her, not for being a being for not her, deserves he “That Hazén: say?” he does hat seph Pitts. They give account not only of various tribes around around tribes various of only not account give They Pitts. seph 86 “The Bagnios of Algiers” and and Algiers” of Bagnios “The 339

a marriage case where the brother of the bride protested protested bride the of brother the where case marriage a

Los Baños de Argel Argel de Baños Los hs ae h mrigs ragd y go by arranged marriages the are Those 341 ed the fiancé as being not equal, but inferior to to inferior but equal, not being as fiancé the ed

ht a te eainhp between relationship the was What

342

343 which can be an indication of indication an be can which 340

e oa ny eoe that denotes only Sosa De

where a Moor wants to marry marry to wants Moor a where

baldi

“The Great Sultana” Two Sultana” Great “The

marry a woman of of woman a marry isters “antagonism “antagonism isters - CEU eTD Collection 348 347 346 345 344 stones.” of hail a with them pelt would boys Moorish and Turkish the because prayers, or psalms their recite to dare not do they city, the of outside arrive they until “But funerals: especially rituals, their during mistreatme the to points but city the of inhabitants Jewish and Muslim the between features distinctive of only not janissaries.account gives Sosa de Furthermore, the for place distinct a with burial, of place their in but ceremony their in why theya putthebody dead ofa over tomb marabout: importance body grave, scratching ofsilencetheir at etc.) the inmourning, saints,” and marabouts their of tomb some “over body the putting marabouts, the by praying body, the (preparing rites detailed way. other the doit Jews and while Christians last, feet and first head with body dead the carry Muslims instance, For rites. funeral the of Treasury.” State Muslim the “Muslim, of among Comparison Goods of Administrator the from body the bury to license) a without burying no is (there license a received have must family “The inheritance: Africa even as much as some returned to the Iberian Peninsula. Zemon Davis, Davis, Zemon Peninsula. Iberian in were they which to according Fez, in status the their on account gives Africanus to returned some as treatment much bad as suffered even Spain Africa from immigrated who Jews that place one in says 349

Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Topographia Ibid. , , 248. , 248. , 248. torches and candles not using like differences indicatesfurther He , 248. , 251. The oppression and hard circumstance of Jews is related in a Castilian account, where the author author the where account, Castilian a in related is Jews of circumstance hard and oppression The 251. , The legal procedure is also is procedure legal The In the case of burials, the difference between a Muslim and a Jew is den is Jew a and Muslim a differencebetween the burials, of case Inthe Heaven, enter to power the marabout the Iwhereas be say must towalk and thatit faster robustlytoward more Hell. from receive would di they deceased why someone asked I When aboutdiscussing is he whenafterlife,disagreement concerning his expresses Sosa De

description about Islamic, and also supposedly typically North African customs and customs African North typically supposedly also andIslamic, about description

, , 247.

349 346

” “Christian” and “Jewish” customs is drawn also in the case the in also drawn is customs “Jewish” and “Christian” ”

He also d also He tossing the deceased’s turban on the ground three tim three ground the on turban deceased’s the tossing

examined by de Sosa in the case of the funeral and the the and funeral the of case the in Sosa de by examined iscusses the intolerance towards Christians, and the and Christians, towards intolerance the iscusses 87

345 d this, he wittily responded that the the that responded wittily he this, d

Furthermore, de Sosa here also gives a very gives a also here de Sosa Furthermore,

nt of the Jews by the Muslims Muslims the by Jews the of nt dhimmi on the funeral procession. funeral theon

rcse Travels Trickster upon their arrival to North North to arrival their upon

status and were obliged wereobliged and status

oted not only only not oted 347 17 Leo 137. ,

es, the es,

344 348

CEU eTD Collection osatnpe n 50 wih hne te rcdr o ihrtne f h rngds Mroe, e Sosa de Moreover, renegades. the of inheritance “barbaric.” of Muslims procedure the the changed which call 1580, to in Constantinople Sosa’s de provoked It 1579. in 352 famine of Topographia cause the as regarded were Algiers of governor when the case a referencing by Christians towards intolerance the for example gives Sosa de addition, katama 351 350 ZemonDavis, the taxsultan. to dist wear to adu Muslim a of case the in sentence the between distinction the denoting Sosa, de The by detail adultery. great of in depicted case are the sentences and in conditions people of treatment the in difference great a is there way child... a of place in substituted is Algiers, of king the or Turk, Grand the Moor, a is he if but them; among equally divided is patrimony the child, male a or daughters has renegade or Turk a “if but goods, his inherit children his dies Muslim treatments. judicial other and testimony, and witnessing testaments, inheritance,court, the of front in women(divorce), “repudation” as such matters, It well. as groups Muslim manife different of treatment the in difference the about tells Sosa gotomía to Christian the orders this like it God ordered because them” owed is it for it, for gratitude show even nor back, pay remunerate, presents or gives voluntarily Christian a “If examples: numerous by by supported and inferior length as great at regarded related were is Muslims Christians the That society. the in used standard double Turk, and his daughters are d are daughters his and Turk, 353 the a commit Muslim) (a man a if writes he as practice and theory between difference the denotes

Topographia He continues: “If the deceased was a Moor and only had daughters, all of his worldly goods go to the Grand Grand the to go goods worldly his of all daughters, had only and Moor wasa deceased “Ifthe continues: He Garcés suggests that “ that suggests Garcés mizwar or newly on eye an keeps even He

in Arabic meaning to hide, or to suppress, repress, subdue. Garcés, Garcés, subdue. repress, suppress, to or hide, to meaning Arabic in sts itself, on the one hand, in legal issues. As a doctor of law he dives into legal legal into dives he law of doctor a As issues. legal in hand, one the on itself, sts The inequality in the Algerian society is not limited to Jews and Christians but de but Christians and Jews to limited not is society Algerian the in inequality The . 351 ordered the Christian images that “Turks had taken from certain galley” as booty burnt, because they they because burnt, booty as galley” fromcertain taken had “Turks that images Christian the ordered ” (a kind of chief of a body of troops) they do not present him to the to him present not they do bodyoftroops) a of ofchief kind (a ” inctive clothes, headdress and behave in “deferential manner,” furthermore, top pay tribute or poll or tribute pay top furthermore, manner,” “deferential in behave and headdress clothes, inctive , 223 ,

, , 225. - 24.

–

gotomía this was the answer of a Moor: “Look, my Christian friend, Allah … … Allah friend, Christian my “Look, Moor: a of answer the was this behave nicely to the Moor, but not vice not but Moor, the to nicely behave isinherited. And if he is a Turk or renegade, the estate is divided in half, so that that so half, in divided is estate the renegade, or Turk a is he if And isinherited. Trickster Travels Trickster ” is a slang word used in North Africa and came f came and Africa North in used word slang a is ” ntig o Msi, hy a te ae o olgd to obliged not are they say they Muslim, a to anything dered matters as he gives account on a new order coming from from coming order new a on account gives he as matters dered , 131. ,

lterer, and when Christian men commit it it commit men Christian when and lterer, 352

ee h rlts t relates he Here,

An Early Modern Dialogue Modern Early An “ - 353 versa.” kadi

and so forth. In the same the In forth. so and . Ibid. 350 rom the root of the verb verb the of root the rom

, , 230. This notion is the is notion This

fault but “please “please but fault

a we a when hat

, 343. In 343. ,

CEU eTD Collection are rejected as witnesses because “they say that these two kinds of people, no matter how they earn their their earn they how matter no people, of kinds two these that money say “they because witnesses as baths rejected public the in are living a earn who those and peddlers street e.g. testify: to ability his to importance central Christian. a or renegade a Turk, a Moor, a with adultery committed she whether offender, repeated a was or time first the for caught been has she 354 …” half theother take daughters or man’sdaughter deceased the and half, takes Algiers, of king or Turk, theGrand liberat will that armada Christian the for repeatedly sigh Moors these Muslims as “even that Turks of pride” “incomparable around.” way ap can Moors the of kadi the that preeminence: or two are there Turks: the of superiority good.” look to made and i he if But killer. or criminal or thief public a is he unless anyone, hang seldom Algerians “The repeatedly: up comes Turks the of oppression The account thehistory the relating city: of ten The matters. legal from apart Muslim. women Muslim with 357 356 355 hi was exhibiting (“he breeches his without the tombs crossed

Ibid Ibid Ibid The difference is indicated in the case o case the in indicated is difference The Ibid. , would give false testimony.” De Sosa also tells of a man, who was rejected as a witness because he he because witness a as rejected was who man, a of tells also Sosa De testimony.” false give would , , , 266. , 267. , 103. , 227. , lord of Algiers, the Moors remained greatly stricken with fright and, not not and, fright with stricken greatly daring remained Moors the Algiers, of lord intra and inequality the hand, other the On the yokethe Barbarossa…” and lordshipof … 354 the Turks having loudly declared him [Barbarossa] throughout the city as as city the throughout [Barbarossa] him declared loudly having Turks the

357 to resist the Turks, were forced to consent and subject themselves to themselves subject and consent to forced were Turks, the resist to

De Sosa goes as far as to claim that the Moors are so badly treated by the by treated badly so are Moors the that claim to as far as goes Sosa De

–

the first pays a fine, the latter is burned alive or forced to turn turn to forced or alive burned is latter the fine, a pays first the 356

Ibid. n h gvrmn o Ages e oa lo eoe this denotes also Sosa de Algiers of government the In e them from such an evil and perverse people, as all the the all as people, perverse and evil an such from them e Sosa’s de of beginning the at already indicated are sions 20 I adto, e oa eae that relates Sosa de addition, In 230. , f women as well, and the punishment changes according to whether whether to according changes punishment the and well, as women f

kadis

89 , a Turk” and a “Moor” and “there is this order this is “there and “Moor” a and Turk” a ,

355

peal to that of the Turks, but not the other the not but Turks, the of that to peal - s shameful parts to the dead”). to parts shameful s Muslim tensions are depicted in the text text the in depicted are tensions Muslim s a Turk, everything is concealed is everything Turk, a s

a witness’ reputation was of of was reputation witness’ a

Ibid. , 230. ,

CEU eTD Collection As he puts it, “the women flock out thousands in the morning to visit the sepulcher the visit to morning thein thousands out flock women “the it, puts he As appears societyalso Algerian the womenin of activity important This burial. and 361 also oftheirparents. isfault whichthe is not sufficient, education Their drinkers. great and lecherous become later and parents, their to badly behave children Sosa De necks. babies’ their around hang mothers charms” and “devices it. about talks Sosa De to connected celebrations and rites many the by indicated also is childbirth successful a of importance The Alger that allows Sosa De xv. c2010), (Greenwood, 360 3. “good” also is Me idea This “Turks.” Margaret the by against ally discussed potential a else) or (Spain “Christians” of the be to pointed could it relationship that sense bad their to pointing moreover, “Self Muslim, Rothman, and Muslim thesis. the of 2 Chapter in mentioned themselves making and Turks” “European Barbary the of “Anatolian disdain the the with mentions Barbary He to elites. arriving provincial Turks” and metropolitan Ottoman the between distinctions social the amon differences of account gives and distinctions, 359 Algiers.” will in arrive armada L our to themselves “commend still who renegades de when only 358 women’s describes Sosa De supernatural. the of intercession the seeking their on focuses Muslim,” good a considered indicating not pre thatthese is visits these make not does who woman “a says, members. family of tombs the visiting and offerings, making and marabouts visit was task peculiar Their practice. they rites religious emphasizes also lot a partying and houses, country to out going other, each visiting bath, taking rais the in role their by and spheres, private and public in both activities, religious in Maghrib the of societies the in had they role intriguing the by explained be partly can representation communityMuslim Sosa’s phenomenonera. ofAlgiers inde exceptional and a is new knows.” world 363 362 254. ofthe Mohammetans,” Manners and “Religion Pitts, Joseph marabouts.” the to visits their pay also women The them… to petitioning and graves their over weeping

De Sosa writes that Christian men an men writes Christian that Sosa De Topographia Visiting the dead members of the family is also d also is family the of members dead the Visiting Ibid Ruth Margolies Beitler and Angelica R. Martinez, Martinez, R. Angelica and Beitler Margolies Ruth Only later, in the seventeenth century, the Venetian envoy to North Africa, Salvago, makes similar similar makes Salvago, Africa, North to envoy Venetian the century, seventeenth the in later, Only ing of the next generation. next the of ing , 233 , empires of Islam to single them out as potential allies against the Ottomans. Meserve, “Introduction,” “Introduction,” Meserve, Ottomans. the against allies potential as out them single to Islam of empires .

Women of Algiersareofd Women i dsrpin f oe’ rlgos rcie (atclry f ulm women) Muslim of (particularly practices religious women’s of description His He also mentions the the mentions also He . This theme of Christians who are waited to liberate people (hence conquer the l the conquer (hence people liberate to waited are who Christians of theme This .

Sosa is speaking about the miseries of the Christian captives but when he is telling about female female about telling is he when but captives Christian the of miseries the about speaking is Sosa , , 205. 358

This careful depiction of intra of depiction careful This

ev wo ons u ta sm h some that out points who serve - IslamicIslamic wereinto practices blended ri Ibid kuloğlu , , 229.

360 epicted with great care by de Sosa. This weight given to their weightgivento This Sosa. degreat bycarewith epicted s

d women are banned from the premises where the rite ispracticed. thewhererite fromthe premises banned womenare d Besides the leisurely activities he associates with women with associates he activities leisurely the Besides –

the sons of “Turkish” soldiers and “Moorish” mothers, whom I have have I whom mothers, “Moorish” and soldiers “Turkish” of sons the Topographia ord Jesus Christ … they wait that day in which the Christian Christian which the in waitday that they JesusChrist … ord 90 g the Muslims of Algiers and of Istanbul, as well as about about as well as Istanbul, of and Algiers of Muslims the g ian women “rear their children with much loving care.” care.” loving much with children their “rear women ian escribed at greater length in the chapter discussing death death discussing chapter the in length greater at escribed

Women’s Roles in the Middle East and North Africa Africa North and East Middle the in Roles Women’s - fashioning,” 123. De Sosa’s distinguishing between between distinguishing Sosa’s De 123. fashioning,” - religious distinctions and oppositions in the in oppositions and distinctions religious

, 195 , umanists, presented certain Muslim polities as as polities Muslim certain presented umanists, - 96.

in the account of Joseph Pitts. Joseph of inthe account strategical importance in the the in importance strategical s of their deceased relations, relations, deceased their of s tes.

ing the tombs of of tombs the ing

says that Algerian Algerian that says 361 and) appear not not appear and)

the leaders of of leaders the As de Sosa Sosa de As –

de Sosa Sosa de 359

362 363 –

CEU eTD Collection could “as they say, tell fortunes, and inform people where their lost goods are.” Joseph Pitts, “Religion and and Africanu “Religion Leo Pitts, 308. Joseph Mohammetans,” are.” the goods of lost their Manners where people inform and fortunes, tell say, they “as could Jo 206. 366 365 Pérez, suchcases. S in Inquisition the of Council Supreme the 1537, In Inquisition. the of front in people against accusation frequent a was which Europe, modern early in sorcery the here note Martinez, and Beitler See divine. the with engage to ability and magic in “ the of help the with illness cure well family’s their for as well as fortunes, 364 the accuse to him for opportunity good a be to seems This activities. the while the Muslims, areJews from banned strictly them. of ceremony wedding the see to allowed are they that and unveiled women Muslim interesti is it elsewhere.Moreover, not but rite, particular this of case the in only appears Christians of exclusion an Such respond. the that Sosa, de to according say, they because Christians out keep they before ceremony a hold They enter. women distinguished danceand fall a into “aged trance,Black inwhichthe arecompetent. women” themost a heads.” their into enters claim they “having who spirit, familiar through happens fortunetelling Algiers in him, to According relation. Sosa’s de in felt is culture alien an towards curiosity great has who observer” “external the of tone the manner, same the in “Dancing up calling and bones… grinding teeth, removing spells, casting and lots drawing cease “never they that says only he churchmen, the by disciplined and corrected not are “witchcraft.” as spirits, occult the with associates he which practices, cannot expresse in any modester termes.” He also mentions women dancing “strangely at the noise of drums of noise the at “strangely dancing women mentions also He termes.” modester any in I expresse cannot which themselues, among Venerie vnlawfull commit to custome damnable haue “they addition In behalf...” some with or beckning, withor hands their of gesture answere them giue diuels the “and devil: the of help the with practice who Fez,

Topographia “Worth noting here is that there are some aged Black women among them who say wonderful things.” things.” wonderful say who them among women Black aged some are there that is here noting “Worth De Sosa gives account on women “proficient in sorcery,” casting spells in order to be loved, to have good good have to loved, be to order in spells casting sorcery,” in “proficient women on account gives Sosa De seph Pitts tells a story in which a black woman helped him find his stolen jacket. This black woman woman black This jacket. stolen his find him helped woman black a which in story a tells Pitts seph e oa icse hm dcrto ad okn tgte wt w with together cooking and decoration home discusses Sosa De many which sisterhood,” of company or “college a of account gives also Sosa De

great issue (and a debate about its existence already in the fifteenth century) of witches and and witches of century) fifteenth the in already existence its about debate a (and issue great , 206. Italics mine. Italics , 206. The Spanish Inquisition Spanish The eies.” His tone is judgmental: “ judgmental: is tone His eies.”

djinns.

” Even today, in Morocco people believe some women to have a talent talent a have to women some believe people Morocco in today, Even ” , 81. , devil - being (to succeed in marrying off dau off marrying in succeed (to being ng that he points out that Christians are allowed to see see to allowed areChristians that out points he ngthat

enters them in the same way…” same the in them enters pain issued instructions to the regional courts how to handle handle to how courts regional the to instructions issued pain 91 as dpcs otntles “iies” n cnues in conjurers and “diviners,” fortunetellers, depicts also s

so inconsid so

erate and damnable is their credulitie in this this in credulitie their is damnable and erate De Sosa depicts how certain women women certain how depicts Sosa De

which they change costume and and costume change they which Women roles Women ghters); women would also also would women ghters); 364

Since th Since Muslim 365 , 114 , djinn

mns pastime omen’s Otherwise, the Otherwise, - 115. One has to to has One 115.

women ese women of of women would not not would devils 366 Ibid

.” .” .” .” , CEU eTD Collection Topograph the and Ramadan, of night seventh al ‘Id ( Ramadan, 371 94. 2007), Press, Chicago of University Empires Renaissance the in Difference Racial and Religious of in Race,” Spanish “The Fuchs, space.” floor the of most occupied low a salon, women’s the in custom, this accommodate to style; Muslim floor the on sat women Christian century, seventeenth the in late “until that says who Nader, on pillows with Zemon See Africa.” 370 in notable or chief great Davis, any than refinement short more “In withSosa: de lives as gentleman manner Italian same the simple in discussion his closes He drink. and food of simplicity the about 369 cannot “simply 368 they that states he Eventually it.” this degr approach prohibits Qur’an high their of and tools sin household a using this not consider for “they explanation value: religious a gives also he and decoration, on money spend 367 Africanus, Leo Sosa’s. de as detailed Africa of Description and History as not is “witchcraft” and fortunetelling of account his Otherwise customs and of thephenomenon celebratingoraccording separately“nation:” to“race” festival”“small the of games and festivals Spain. in century seventeenth the into well and sixteenth the in on lived style Muslim of decoration home Fuchs, Barbara to according although homes, Algerian of style and furnishings the or lists that wasAfricanus,Leo almost verbatim. alsomade by Algiers” in Turk or Moor richest the than better himself treats Christendom “t that show to it uses but topic this in interest great no has women.” Christian do as diligence and work their with items household and clothing their simple augment to so manage not being do “they houses furnished: their for reason the is same the that claims He eating. and chewing but day the during things” “few very doing of and again laziness more honored, than others.” than others.” honored, more ironic thus and adding celebratory, more were some while that complain not would dates Muslims and months the that so the this ordained and of a explanations give marabouts the “Their like: giving places, some mostly in comments fast, the and festivals the concerning

Ibid Like de Sosa, Leo Africanus also notes the absence of the kitchen items such as napkin and fork, and writes and fork, and napkin as such items kitchen the of absence the notes also Africanus Leo Sosa, de Like Topographia Barbara Fuchs cites as example of Lope de Vega’s house (which became a museum) which is furnished furnished is which museum) a became (which house Vega’s de Lope of example as cites Fuchs Barbara n ot Arc, n i d Ss’ rlto, h mos the relation, Sosa’s de in and Africa, North In - Kabir Trickster Travels Trickster , , 208. It is interesting that de Sosa shows no familiarity with either the household i household the either with familiarity no shows Sosa de that interesting is It ia al ), and the “ the and ),

, 209 , - ‘Id al ‘Id

, 207.; The other reason de Sosa mentions is the stinginess of Muslim h Muslim of stinginess the is mentions Sosa de reason other The 207.; , the floor and items of Moorish provenance. See Fuchs, See provenance. Moorish of items and floor the - ee of elegance.” ofelegance.” ee 215; Hart, “Berbers of Morocco.” De Sosa relates legends, games, and other curious rites rites curious other and games, legends, relates Sosa De Morocco.” of “Berbers Hart, 215; - 370 Saghir

, 120. , mawlid On the other hand, the same is not true at all of all at true not is same the hand, other the On

, to which de Sosa gives the Turkish term Turkish the gives Sosa de which to , Topographia

”tebrha fMhme.H lo mentions also He Mohammed. of birthday the ,” , Vol. 2, Book 3, 457 2, 3, Book Vol. , Ibid sab’wa , , 208.

, , 209.

- ‘isterin

371 92 wih e calls he which , 367

in Algiers, where he shows familiarity with thefamiliaritywith shows Algiers,he where in 459.

platform (estrado) covered with carpets and cushions cushions and carpets with covered (estrado) platform De Sosa argues the same about the food. He food. the about same the argues Sosa De n amusing reason for this, saying that Allah wished wished Allah that saying this, for reason amusing n clbae fsias r te “ the are festivals celebrated t

es b Mrae R Ger t al. et Greer R. Margaret by eds. , 369 Rereading the Black Legend: the Discourses Discourses the Legend: Black the Rereading

Şeker Bayram Şeker axerim he poorest shoemaker or tailor in tailor or shoemaker poorest he Exotic Nation Exotic

, the forth day before Ramadan. Ramadan. before day forth the , Laylat al Laylat his descriptions of the of descriptions his ), the “Great Festival” ( Festival” “Great the ), , 143. She quotes Helen Helen quotes She 143. ,

n nt properly not and usbands, who do not not do who usbands, small festival” after after festival” small - Kadr 368 — , the twenty the , the point the

(Chicago, (Chicago, tems he he tems

The The al , a a , - -

CEU eTD Collection 375 on information Turkie to Navigations provides rarely and Algiers on focus close a has Sosa de while Ethiopia, about read he source a about tells also and wrestling, saw he where places other 374 373 372 greatest the of worthy hand, other the on also, is it of, fun make to even and witness to thing amusing an is this “Although this: in believe who people the pities and laughable this e go and them spurn not should he poor are they “because that saying Muhammad, for calling and eat, to him for house the in places various in food some putting believers the with birthday Muhammad’s Jewish) or (Muslim religious simple with satisfied not is and logic follows who man,” “sensible a of that is argumentation His their captivitycity. inthe emphasizenot the does that them ofonly is the mention this but miseries, their forgetting times,” good the enjoy and “celebrate also who Christians, the of account gives gam Pitts. Joseph and Nikolay deNicholas of city. the show to presume weak 377 376 ( 166. Ibid., playingcañas. Moors local the about talks Fonseca Damián 1612 from account Spanish a cites She 101.)

Ibid Ibid Ibid Topographia Barbara Fuchs talks about its Andalusian origin, which “had become fully Spanish.” (Fuchs, (Fuchs, Spanish.” fully become “had which origin, Andalusian its about talks Fuchs Barbara It is visible that visible is It es, which must have been familiar to Spanish readers. Spanish to familiar been have must which es, - , , 214. , 212. , 211 spirited people.” As for the Turks and renegades, they do not join either because “they “they because either join not do theyrenegades, and Turks the for As people.” spirited According to de Sosa, the Bedouins do not join in these dances as they are “vile and and “vile are they as dances these in join not do Bedouins the Sosa, de to According nation each and together, dancesa come the also women because Black the Guinea, And another. of yet in Blacks the separate Blacks the and another, in Sahara theythe of Moors the part, other in Kabylesstay Lisbon and Seville in dance to groups small in together get children The De Sosa criticizes and debates with Muslims and Jews about their beliefs or customs. or beliefs their about Jews and Muslims with debates and criticizes Sosa De Among the games De Sosa mentions wrestling, which also appears in the accounts the in appears also which wrestling, mentions Sosa De games the Among -

212. , , 212.

nd plays its drumsandnd plays flutesaccording its owncustom. toits

de Nikolay has a broader view regarding Africa and the Ottoman Empire, as he mentions mentions he as Empire, Ottoman the and Africa regarding view broader a has Nikolay de

, fol. 86. fol. , more gravity” more at that night in the homes and privies of the wealthy.” the of privies and homes the in night that at

376

373

and think and act as superior to the the to superior as act and think and explanations. For example, he tells of the celebration of celebration the of tells he example, Forexplanations. 374 eain e a expulsi la de Relación

93 He also mentions the mentions alsoHe

anything outside the city. Nicholas de Nicolay, Nicolay, de Nicholas city. the outside anything

separated by race, just as just race, by separated n e o moriscos los de on 375

nti catrd oa also Sosa de chapter this In juegos de ca de juegos other inhabitants of inhabitants other 372 377

) where the author author the where )

De Sosa finds Sosa De as misfortune of misfortune Exotic Nation Exotic

or joustingor , CEU eTD Collection onig n h aau (ee e etos ht hy s te ae ubr a i te hita world). Christian the in are “few arts: as of masters not are numbers them, teach who same marabouts, the that adds the he But these.” of use each for schools they that mentions he readinga between hedistinguishes Interestingly, (here abacus the on counting 382 381 LeoAfricanus, Astrologie.” of and Philosophie, of Mathematiques, of studious “most are they that saying scientes,” and artes good of studie “the in knowledge 380 379 378 “God like answers with questions his to respond always they because prejudice religious considers Sosa De Muslims. other than skilled and educated more being as Moriscos and superior,as appear accountChristians educated, clever, skilled, being not argu he fact, latter The found. from be to are Morisco Valencia a and renegade Genoese a only where Algiers, of all in surgeons few are professed.” and taught are sciences these all or some which in school flouris and observed is Muhammad of Law the (where Persia and Arabia, Asia, Barbary…Turkey, of all “in but Algiers in only not general, in Muslims art.” liberal any or astrology, knows geometry, them metaphysics, of “none that states and ignorant” “greatly being of harshly them accuses he help, not does it When interlocutors. his into sense some talk to wants and argumentation” “logical uses he cases these In etc. such, as them respecting saint Christian certain regarding for as well as wine drinking and pork it...” blesses that ram each for angel invisible besacrificed], respondthatGodsends [to way ram how Godaan they in blessedserious that and when them ask they “if sacrifice: ritual on section the in appears also ridiculous being judgment.” co Ibid in arts…” liberal or written discipline anyof knowledge no with fellow ignorant an truth “Inwas he that suspects Sosa is de but Arabic,” it “ancient the learned because he that say they Qur’an” whom about marabout the a mentions he understand Moreover, language.” may who marabouts and teachers the

psin gvn ht h dvl a s culy ol e wt rtoa sus and souls rational with men fool cruelly so can devil the that given mpassion, Topographia Ibid Ibid Ibid When discussing the education of Muslim children in Algiers he mentions their learning the alphabet and and alphabet the learning their mentions he Algiers in children Muslim of education the discussing When , 175 , , , 213. , 213. , 223. Here he differs greatly from the Granadian writer Leo Africanus, who is empha is who Africanus, Leo writer Granadian the from greatly differs he Here 223. , - 76.

378 , , 223.

i baig ulm fr en aant rtoa sus n jdmn” and judgment” and souls “rational against being for Muslims blaming His

the Muslims as backward, superstitious, and blinded by blinded and superstitious, backward, as Muslims the 382

n nt olwn ter es. ec, n e Sosa’s de in Hence, sense. their following not and The History and Description of Africa of Description and History The nd writing in “Turkish” and Arabic “because there are separate separate are there “because Arabic and “Turkish” writing in nd 94

379

es, confirms his statement about Muslims’ Muslims’ about statement his confirms es, He criticizes Muslims for abstaining from abstaining for Muslims criticizes He 380

e ple ti acsto to accusation this applies He hes),” since there is not “a “a not is there since hes),”

logic, nor philosophy, philosophy, nor logic, 381 , vol. 1, Book 1, 182. 1, vol.Book , 1,

He states that there that states He a Msi and Muslim as s “an ancient Arabic Arabic ancient “an sizing the Arabs’ the sizing

CEU eTD Collection 386 385 384 383 they that be may this for reason The disaster. great some for except other each wound or th of characteristic good awas it that comments beatings…” or insults to liable is ka’id powerful most and richest the even and affronts, any tolerate easily very they that is result wha them, among honor having not that concluded be may it this “From concludes:He virtue. oflack thus, and honor, oflack implies principle)“equality”(in this Sosa, de For them. touch to dares nobody while anybody hit can they as honor,” of kind “carrie rank janissary the Only Christian…” or Jew, Moor, renegade, Turk, a of son the being for another than better a himself regard anyone does nor preeminence, given not something etc. prophetic,starta beforeanimportantbusiness, ram they sacrificing as dreams” in “mightily believing their of account the with Turks and Moors the of nature disciples as Muslims, saints Christian claim to reasonable not is it that Muslims convince to wants also He example ofde Sosa’s “l An sin.” “greata is it because andknows” “God and everything”do to enough powerful was can be also put parallel to the inquiries and records of the Inquisition about people within Spain having having Spain within 387 people about Inquisition the 3 Chapter of records and inquiries the “proph to parallel put also be can

Ibid Ibid Ibi Topographia Apart from the consternation of the “learnt man” de Sosa’s account on these “superstitions” of the Muslims Muslims the of “superstitions” these on account Sosa’s de man” “learnt the of consternation the from Apart d etic dreams,” or “talent in visionary,” etc. See the cases of Elena/ Eleno de Céspedes and of Piedrola in Piedrola of and Céspedes de Eleno Elena/ of cases the See etc. visionary,” in “talent or dreams,” etic , , 218. , 217 , 221 judgment. the or is “who” the cases “why” such in that and that, knows God that respond they no is foods, other nor fruit, nor bread, by nourished arenot they sinceeither, this spirits that them tell Itheir nor tombs, their in dust and ashes being When eat, cannot bodies their because noted. earlier we as birth, this of day the on Muhammad like tombs, their over them offer devoted the what eat to night at come saints, their are who marabouts, dead the that say They De Sosa also has a different perception of honor, saying that “among them honor is honor them “among that saying honor, of perception different a has also Sosa De -

4 of Kagan, ofKagan, 4 384 had very different lives from the Muslims.” the from lives different very had

because “our Lord Christ lived 621 years before Muhammad, and …his saintly …his and Muhammad, before years 621 lived Christ Lord “our because

, , 230

383 - 231. not relevant. This is the answer of brutish people, without without people, brutish of answer the is This relevant. not Inquisitional Inquiries Inquisitional

ogical argumentation”ogical isthefollowing:

, 64 , - 115. 387 95

hr h i dsusn vrus n vcs he vices, and virtues discussing is he Where

e Algerians that they “do not challenge, stab, challenge,stab, not “do they Algeriansthat e 385

He shows further the superstitious the further shows He

t virtue can there be? The be? there can virtue t t possible possible t 386

s some some s CEU eTD Collection en te osiu ue f ph of use conscious the means the exactly time the all not “The was as rhetoric.” understood be canbest honor but “rather acted, people how samemanuals as these in written was what Engagi that follow. assumes could Taylor everyone cases which court criminal honor” of “code clear and single a not was there issues, honor handle and behavior correct to how on written books conduct of code other and manuals confessor’s and plays 389 388 a pay and societies, “other” about analysis detailed a make to, will the had or to, able were era the in “observers” many self of means a as code cultural another in competence claimed t tried job their was this because and impetus, and geographers, travelers, some among placed be can Sosa de methodology this In heard. he what and saw Arabic) he what of description in months the and of words names “local” the using (giving explanations, expressions internal giving by culture was alien it an as much to as possible close got who observer careful a as himself of image the convey to had many as church, the of man a by particularly Christian, a by condemned been have could which witchcraft), the (like things about relates He distance. the keeping while “objectivity” with observations his of account gives who “scholar” the honor and reputation. one’s defending of means no had Algerians dueling to recourse without that believed Sosa co conflicts resolve humiliation.” undo or avoid to means a people gave it “because important honor” of “rhetoric e with peace make quickly reconciliation” for greatfacility “a have they that also but honor,” of sense no possess University Press, c2008) Press, University words Taylor, these K. because Scott See term, fixed. not better were a violence being honor” of “rhetoric for argues further He confrontation.” violent a advancing simultaneously while contention in issues the about information

Ibid In his book book his In , , 245. In these chapters, it could be seen that it was de Sosa’s intention to keep to intention Sosa’s dewas it that seenbe could it chapters, In these

Honor and Violence in Golden Age Spain Age Golden in Violence and Honor 389 ncerning honor and reputation was the formal duel. It appears that de de that appears It duel. formal the was reputation and honor ncerning , 21.

a seigy ifrn i San wee h reoi o hnr was honor of rhetoric the where Spain, in different seemingly was

rases, gestures, and actions actions and gestures, rases, ach other. The perception of honor, “honor code,” or rather the the rather or code,” “honor honor, of perception The other. ach

ttention to nuances in differences and similarities besides besides similarities and differences in nuances to ttention Honor and Violence in Golden Age Spain Age Golden in Violence and Honor baili 96

o give accurate knowledge on the “other,” and and “other,” the on knowledge accurate give o

Scott f i tm, h ot f uist, scientific curiosity, of out who time, his of

– K. Taylor argues that in spite of the many honor honor many the of spite in that argues Taylor K.

nldn eeet o te duel the of elements including , and giving greatly detailed detailed greatly giving and ,

done before. He also intended also He before. done

and deeds concerning honor and and honor concerning deeds and - fashioning. However, not not However, fashioning. rhetoric of honor honor of rhetoric

(New Haven: Yale Yale Haven: (New 390

the image of image the One way to way One –

to convey convey to 388 ng with with ng simply simply

and CEU eTD Collection of agendas. possible variety a served that writing for reasons multiple had have could also Sosa de and assessed, wi house the gointo not would Muslim a how or Christians), unlike last, feet first, head (with procession funeral the in deceased his carry would “Muslim” a how instance, for on, information for societies li the examined which Inquisition, the crypto and Muslims crypto principally case this (in “heresy” extirpating at aimed struggle their in state Spanish all) at separated life day every of matters of account detailed and narration, “objective” of kind a towards inclination doctor of law. and churchman Iberian, Christian, a as identity his reinforced and it from himself distanced (“barbari the places some in ofrhetoric classical using by knowledge and comments negative his insider’s with world, Algerian an claimed he While obvious). is customs Muslim certain perspec Christian a basically had he certainphenomena, for explanations internal gavemany althoughhe time, same the At did. Soda de as phenomena “foreign” of variety a to explanations providing 391 390

Topographia Taylor, pr fo croiy n “cetfc iqiy psil explanati possible a inquiry “scientific” and curiosity from Apart – ans,” they call Muhammad “as the prophets of Baal called for their god”) their for called Baal of prophets the “as Muhammad call they ans,” Honor and Violence in Golden AgeSpain Golden in Violence and Honor

both in cases when it had to do with religion and when it did not (if it can be be can it (if not did it when and religion with do to had it when cases in both , , 214.

tive (although the familiarity of someone from the Iberian Peninsula with Peninsula Iberian the from someone of familiarity the (although tive –

- th is, that nature, strategic of be can th his/her shoes on, etc. However, the clear purpose of writing cannot be writing cannot of purposeclear the However, etc. on, shoes his/her th Jews) from the peninsula. The text could aim to help the functioning of of functioning the help to aim could text The peninsula. the from Jews)

ves of the “others” and examined reports on Muslim on reports examined and “others” the of ves

97 , , 228.

e service of the Church and the the and Church the of service e

on for this this for on 391

he also he -

CEU eTD Collection ie a eald ecito aot h ct ad t ihbtns ih suid oe of tone studied a with inhabitants its and city the about description detailed a gives apodemica methodus the follows the it in defined were as that categories literature, the along account travel an gives the and travel, of to methodology belonging work a as regarded be can it that sensible stress onthe people the of patterns the followed partly “Alg the of culture the represent and observe to themes cultural socio used He etc. rites, religious life, everyday custom, appearance, physical languages, human” of t on emphasis the put he account, Sosa’s de of structure the from first at seenbe could it As era. modern early the of treatise “ethnographic” the of example outstanding an is “ethno or “ethnic” of kind a of his appearance the and but overlap, categorization, distinction of his markers and in concepts role great a played still Religion traits. anthropological a towards inclined identity of markers basic the him, for religious; only than classification of categories different using society Muslim a analyzed Sosa de treatise his In analyzed. and classified be to is culture d a including “other,” the towards approach and of representation nuanced more a towards step significant a makes thesis this in discussed work the Moreover, era. modern early the of Europe in present was Muslims the of picture indifference or distance (however, only partly successfully). His account, however, can also also can however, account, His successfully). partly only (however, distance or indifference - religiou Through the analysis of Antonio de Sosa’s account this this account Sosa’s de Antonio of analysis the Through First, I looked at the characteristics of g of characteristics the at looked I First, –

s,” “ethno s,” the diverse inhabitants of Algiers and their place of living, their dress, dress, their living, of place their and Algiers of inhabitants diverse the . He walks the rea the walks He . - cultural” sensibility is obvious here. In this sense, the sense, this In here. obvious is sensibility cultural”

– oe sclr vso bsd n hrd utrl rgoa and regional cultural, shared on based vision “secular” more

their similaritydiversity toChristians. and toeach other r apodemica ars Conclusion der stone by stone through the city of Algiers, and and Algiers, of city the through stone by stone der 98

enres that the that enres ifferent methodology with which an alien an which with methodology ifferent , the methodology of travel, but with a a with but travel, of methodology the ,

Topography erians,” in which method he he method which in erians,” thesis argues that a diverse diverse a that argues thesis

bears. I showed showed I bears. he “diversityhe Topography

CEU eTD Collection h tx a al Wie e eot o peoea ht ee odme b mn o his of many by condemned were he contemporaries, that phenomena on reports he While all. at text the in prevails what not is this but Turks,” “lecherous and cruel lazy, “barbarian,” of usage the to according people Stereotype traits. physiognomic of categorization and examination the is so and era, modern early the during issue this in interest growing the of reflective also is languages about concern empirical on emphasis more h on means), less all and observations by and knowledge it of aspects every of dismissal the not (and culture curiosityanother towardsthe are notions era.Such the literatureof humanist the ap which concepts those used also he of writing, travel methods Beyond writing. his in found be can that perceptions and notions, concepts, bookas not this well, and are in appear Algiers in captives the of miseries the Lastly, there. people with debate even and conversations, and connections make and life common the observe could he Thus, Algiers. th years half a and four spent he as city the of inhabitants the of life everyday and culture the with relation close a in fact, in entered, he hand, other the on But Jew). converted a was master his as Jews on opinion general his (e.g. i its left there, died son his that true is it if especially captors, his towards hatred The account. his of contents the and writing of strategies his influenced have must humiliation, of feeling the and Jew), renegade incarcer a of house the in chains in kept slave a to church the of man prominent a (from status social changed his as such implications, a as understood be without judging and blaming. It has also been noted that the most negatively depicted group depicted negatively most the that noted been also has It blaming. and judging without In order to place de Sosa among the writings of the early modern era, I looked at the the at looked I era, modern early the of writings the among Sosa de place to order In ation, that he was closed off the world he knew and for which he was important, all all important, was he which for and knew he world the off closed was he that ation,

capti often attempts to evaluate them with a tone of curiosity and indifference, indifference, and curiosity of tone a with them evaluate to attempts often vitynarrative. confined tohis only s of the early modern era also appear in the writing, such as as such writing, the in appear also era modern early the of s

The experience (the trauma) of captivity with all of its its of all captivitywith trauma)experienceof (the The 99 s ore a h gt epr no h tx. His text. the into deeper got he as sources is

ere, in everyday contact with the people of of people the with contact everyday in ere, Diálogos. peared and gained more importance in in importance more gained and peared

mprints on the text the on mprints CEU eTD Collection present theperiod. in “other” the about assumptions the correcting or completing contemporaries, his of most “fieldworke sensitive more a was Sosa de that say would I issue. the into deeper even go to order in explanation the for asks he who those with debates he Moreover, phenomena. visi own his is also attitude critical His Africanus. Leo “corrected” he on when case the in like observations, insists and sources his of some corrects even Sosa de accuracy, of sake the the of mainly writings humanist concepts these of rid gets Sosa de Scythians, “Turks” the called still Nikolay, de Nicholas Constantinople, to delegated geographer, royal French the contemporary, his while h that is descriptions his in important more opposed as belief and church of matters on discussion of kind different a is which reason and logic to references uses superstitions and being illogical, senseless, argumentat His prejudice. religious by bounded and backward being their is renegades”) against and accusation Moors, main (“Turks, Sosa's “Algerians” de that shown have I Furthermore, enemy. dangerous Spani the of knowledge great Moriscos’ the But learnt. and areskilled they thus, andland,” “Christian a on born theywere because people,valuable more as them considers Sosa de hand, one the On Moriscos: of handling his in also case the Europe. of Christian threatened the of that mostly are statements condemning his So enemy. the strengthened and Muslims, the against struggle Christian the weakened which kind, social and religious, of borders violated who renegades, the and Christendom, threatene which enemy the threat”) “Turkish called conventionally (the “Turks,” the were Christian and Muslim worlds: he rather points to similar to points rather he worlds: Muslim and Christian l i qetoig ht e es n akn fr h rao ad rgn f certain of origin and reason the for asking and sees he what questioning in ble In addition to this, de Sosa does not argue for an impermeable border between the the between border impermeable an for argue not does Sosa de this, to addition In

typical of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth century. For century. sixteenth the of beginning and fifteenth the of typical 100 e does not deal with questions of origin anymore; anymore; origin of questions with deal not does e

the contemporary conventions. conventions. contemporary the ities to be found on both “sides” and and “sides” both on found be to ities sh lands made them the most most the them made lands sh ion against religious blindness religious against ion

This is exactly is This ht s even is What r” than than r” d CEU eTD Collection o a osbe iiay ly rm t from ally military possible a for Algiers in society Muslim the of nature divided the of depiction the of usefulness great the way. His attested). also king the politi served to also have letter could description Sosa’s “ethnographic” de as and matter, this for etc. accounts, travel narratives, captivity use to practice common a was it (as goals military served city I his how way, shown been has It this nature. strategical of reason another in suggested authority gained Sosa de and writings humanist of style and expectation the was it answerthat plausible the from Apart topic. a aspectof little every depicted whyhe and at, looks he themes cultural those chose Sosa de why question the to answer possible crypto of goal Inquisition's Spanish the “her extirpating served have may writing his that considering worth also is It Legend.” “Black the of accusation the against and Spain Christian homogenous of of extent aspects the Muslim clearly with familiarity) much define not show to to (or unfamiliarity show impossible To case. his seems in “Spanishness” it region, to region from varied his and Sosa's childhood de of know not do we since questions raises issue this But culture. Iberian the in presence strong culture’s Morisco regarding have could he as familiarity much as show not et game, a clothing, of piece certain on calls Sosa de where text, the in appears familiarity of notion the Moreover, regions). Christian and Algiers between trading active to due (partly differences on insist not does assumptions cannot be proven, at least they point to the complexity and richness of the text, the of richness and complexity the to point they least at proven, be cannot assumptions

- Muslims and crypto and Muslims A further assumption in the thesis, related to the strategical function of his text, was text, his of function strategical the to related thesis, the in assumption further A esy.” A possible purpose of his work could have been to serve the search for for search the serve to been have could work his of purpose possible A esy.”

familiarity with Morisco culture. As Muslim presence and influence influence and presence Muslim As culture. Morisco with familiarity culture can also be a strategy of writing, and thus, argue for the the for argue thus, and writing, of strategy a be also can culture - Jews among the inhabitants of the peninsula. It can be also one one also be can It peninsula. the of inhabitants the among Jews c., which are also present in Spain. It seems that he does he that seems It Spain. in present also are which c., he Muslims against the “Turks.” Even though these these though Even “Turks.” the against Muslims he 101

cal - eiiu mtes n h same the in matters religious

description of the of description CEU eTD Collection in some modern text. in somemodern text. it that assuming than rather account his in worked concept this how Sosa’s de capture to attempted of I markers identity details “ethnic” on into based categorization and going descriptions By connotations. modern its ascribed automatically great with treated be should context modern early the in “ethnicity” of concept However,the “ethnic” categorizations. into translated that basis “secular” more a on n developing of period a was era modern early Muslim The people. of groups of different categorizing context the in politics identity modern as served who envoys contemporaries his than efficiently more and cleric Christian a by done the of merits other me the of inequality intra of portrayal the is view, my in strength, main its and ew concepts and methods in scientific explanations that included a new approach to people to approach new a included that explanations scientific in methods and concepts ew or ambassadors, makes this work signi work this makes ambassadors, or Topography mbers of a Muslim society on the basis of “ethnic” diversity. Besides diversity. “ethnic” of basis the on society Muslim a of mbers

, the fact that this nuanced depiction of a Muslim society was Muslim a of nuanceddepiction this that fact the , 102

ficant. My study builds on the on builds study My ficant. - Christian relations, and ways of of ways and relations, Christian - Muslim relations, tension, and and tension, relations, Muslim

functioned identically as identically functioned ato ad not and caution works on early on works CEU eTD Collection Nicolay, Nicolas de. de. Nicolas Nicolay, Información ______. ______. Monnereau Dr. by Translated d’Alger.” générale histoire et “Topographie de. Diego Haedo, Bertolomew Georgiević Galán Diego de trabjos y cautiverio de crítica Edición Mármol. Carvajal, ______de. Miguel Cervantes, Ghiselin. Ogier Busbecq, Ear An Leo. Africanus, Primary Sources

Ediciones de laUniversidad de Castilla successos q de guerras of Pennsylvania Press, 2010. Ilika. J. Aaron and Fuchs Barbara by translated and Edited Lectura,de 2012. 1881. Co., Daniell. Blackburne F.H. and Forster Thornton Charles Dame Press: 2011. Garcés. Antonia María bytranslated and Edited Contained of London,of Estaban D.L., 1981. Argel… en captivo estando Españoles,Madrid: 1927 SociedadBibliófilos de Adolphe 1881. Jourdan, and A.Berbrugger. Slave Empire… inthe Turkish y oen ilge ih Islam. with Dialogue Modern ly . Te ano o Ages ad Te Great “The and Algiers” of Bagnios “The oorfa hsoi gnrl e Argel de general historia e Topografía Histoire

e iul de Miguel de The History and Description of Africa, and of the Notable Things Therein Things Notable the of and Africa, of Description and History The . Edited byCambridge Brown.York:2010. University New Press, Robert

1585.

Primera parte de la descripcion general de Affrica, Affrica, de general descripcion la de parte Primera e ri d’Alger rois des The Nauigations into Turkie. into Nauigations The Don Quijote de la Mancha la de Quijote Don

The Rarities of Turkey gathered by o by gathered Turkey of Rarities The

h Lf ad etr o Oir hsln e Busbecq de Ghiselin Ogier of Letters and Life The Africaine Revue

evne d l qe a evd á .. d l qe a hecho ha que lo de y S.M. á servido ha que lo de Cervantes ue aaudioentrelosinfieles... ue

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Transcription by Pedro Torres Lanzas. Madrid: José José Madrid: Lanzas. Torres Pedro by Transcription

London: 1661. Tasae b Henri by Translated . noi d Ss’ Tpgah f lir (1612). Algiers of Topography Sosa’s de Antonio 103 14 (1870): 364

- La 2001. Mancha, . Edited by Francisco Rico. Rico. Francisco by Edited .

New York: De Capo Press, 1968. Press, Capo De York: New . Edited by Ignaicio Lauer y Landauer. Landauer. y Lauer Ignaicio by Edited .

. Edited by Matías Barchino. Cuenca: Cuenca: Barchino. Matías by Edited . Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Notre ofIN: University Dame, Notre

- utn, To ly o Captivity of Plays Two Sultana,” 1929.

- 375, 414 Granada, 1573. - Delmas de Grammont. Grammont. de Delmas ne that was sold seven times a a times seven sold was that ne

odn C ea al & Paul Kegan C. London:

- Philadelphia: University University Philadelphia: 443, 490

- con todos los los todos con Madrid: Punto Madrid: 519. .

Edited by by Edited

Reprint Reprint Argel: Argel:

. CEU eTD Collection Travels.” of ‘Book’ the in Time and Witness, “Genre, Palmira. Brummett, Fernand. Braudel, Brann, R In Islam.” of Views “Western R. David Blanks, Nancy. Bisaha, Gábor Ágoston, Abun Secondary Literature de. Antonio Sosa, Burke, Peter. ______. “Diego Galán, la literature oral silenciada por el afán de prestigio literario.” literario.” prestigio de afán el por silenciada oral literature la Galán, “Diego ______. hostilidad una de bases las Oro: de Siglo el en musulmanes los de visión “La ______. el en ejemplares vidas las y cautivos de crónicas “Las Angel. Miguel Ibarra, Bunes Lucile. and Bertolomé Bennassar, Ethnicity.” and Race of concepts Modern and “Medieval Robert. Barlett, Baghdiantz Ina. McGabe, - Nasr, Jamil M. Jamil Nasr, Frassetto.Martin’s New Press:1999. York: St. Other of Perception Europe, Modern Early Pennsylvania: Univers 103. Cambrid Ottoman Empire of the Remapping Ottomans. Context the in Strategy University Press Parreño. c1990. Hiperión, Madrid: University 2004. Press, and 1 AndrewColin, 1250 Pilgrimage, and Ethnology, Genre, Travels: New& York:1972. Row, Harper Escrituras silenciadas en laépoca de Cervantes deTorre losL 67 hispano enfrentamiento renégats,XVIeet XVIIe siécles. Medieval Studies Modern andEarly oss. “The Moors?” Moors?” oss. “The - 82. Languages and Communities in Early Modern Europe. Europe. Modern inEarly and Communities Languages

raig at n Ws, easac Hmnss n te toa Turks. Ottoman the and Humanists Renaissance West, and East Creating “Information, Ideology, and Limits of Imperial Policy: Ottoman Grand Grand Ottoman Policy: Imperial of Limits and Ideology, “Information, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Philip of Age the in World Mediterranean the and Mediterranean The Diálogo de los Mártires de Argel de Mártires los de Diálogo ge: University Press, Cambridge 2007. ujanes A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic period. Islamic the in Maghrib the of History A

, 1987. Orientalism in EarlyModernOrientalism in France

- Medieval Encounters 47 (2002): 61 35. ity ofPennsylvaniaity Press, 2004.

- musulmá Gow. Leiden,Gow.Brill: 2009. Les Chrétiens d’Allah: L’histoire extraordinaire de de extraordinaire L’histoire d’Allah: Chrétiens Les Paris

n en la edad moderna.” edad la en n . Edited by Edited .

- 104 72.

31, no.1.(2001)

: Perrin, 2006.

- asug iar. In Rivalry.” Habsburg 15 (2009): 307 . Edited by David R. Blanks and Michael Michael and Blanks R. David by Edited . Western Views of Islam in Medieval and and Medieval in Islam of Views Western

V. H. Aksan and Daniel Goffman, 75 Goffman, Daniel and Aksan H. V. . Edited by Emilio Sola y José María María José y Sola Emilio by Edited .

(2006): 39 (2006): - 1700

: 39

. Edited by Palmira Brummet Brummet Palmira by Edited . . New York: Berg, York: . New 2008. -

- 56. Hispania sacra Hispania 318. - 56.

Cambridge: Cambridge: New York: Cambridge Cambridge York: New

The Early Modern Modern Early The In Th e “Book” of “Book” e

ora of Journal Cambridge Cambridge 45 (1993): 45

.” -

CEU eTD Collection Encyclopaedia of Islam. of Encyclopaedia Islam of Encyclopaedia and Jas Elsner, ______. R. Eric Dursteler, Doutté, Edmund. Fodor Pál and Géza Dávid, C. Robert Davis, Dakhlia, Jocelyn. In Period.” Ottoman the in “Algiers Federico. Cresti, Collab Captivity, Tales: Telling Native, “Going Linda. Colley, Cl Giancarlo. Casale, George. Camamis, ______Erdem, Y Hakan. Y Erdem, ailo Otvo i “easac i Spa in “Renaissance di. Ottavio Camilllo, ifford, James and George E. Marcus, ed. ed. Marcus, E. George and James ifford, Fifteenth andItaly,Barbary Coast, 1500 Leiden:443. Brill, 407 2, vol. Petruccioli,AndréRaymond, Attilio Holod, RenataJayyusi, K. bySalma and Present Seminar Advance Research American of University CaliforniaPress, 1986. of School A Ethnography: 2010. 1977. Martin’s Press, 1996. 1991. Leiden:Schacht.Brill Vol.1. Travel. Mediterranean. Early Modern Mediterranean. University Press, Pennsylvania 1988. of Legacy and Forms, . “The Renaissance Dialogue.” eeae oe: edr Iett, n Budre i te al Modern Early the in Boundaries and Identity, Gender, Women: Renegade

London: Books, 1999. Reaktion

Joan - Early Eighteenth Centuries) Early Eighteenth Christian Slaves, Muslim masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the the Mediterranean, the in WhiteSlavery masters: Muslim Slaves, Christian Magie &Magie Religion l’Afrique dans duNord Lingua franca. Lingua Slavery in the Ottoman Empire and its Demise, 1800 Demise, its and Empire Ottoman the in Slavery Estudios sobre el cautiverio en el siglo de oro de siglo el en cautiverio el sobre Estudios

eein i Cntniol, Nat Constantinople, in Venetians n Ottoma An 168 (2000): 170 168 (2000): - Pau

Baltimore: The Johns HopkinsUniversityBaltimore: The Johns Pr Eie b HAR Gb, .. rmr, . Lévi E. Kramers, J.H. Gibb, H.A.R. by Edited .

Edited by B. Lewis, Ch. Ch. Lewis, B. by Edited Rubiés, ed. Rubiés, 2008. Eie b Abr Rbl J. vl 2 55 2, vol. Jr., Rabil, Albert by Edited .

ed. , Ae f Exploration of Age n

Arles: 2008. Actes sud., - , 1986. asm lvr aog h Otmn odr (Early Borders Ottoman the along Slavery Ransom 193.

Baltimore: The Johns HopkinsUniversityBaltimore: 2006. The Johns Press, - Voyages and Visions: Towards a Cultural History of History Cultural a Towards Visions: and Voyages 1800.

Renaissance Studies 105

n” In in.” . New Palgrave York: 2003. Macmillan,

Leiden: Brill, 2007. Leiden: Brill, Writing Culture, the Poetics and Politics of of Politics and Poetics the Culture, Writing

Pellat, J. Schacht. Vol. 2. Leiden: Brill, Brill, Leiden: 2. Vol. Schacht. J. Pellat, . New York: Oxford University Press, Press, University Oxford York: New . easac Hmns. Foundations, Humanism. Renaissance ion, Identity, and Coexistence in the the in Coexistence and Identity, ion, The City in the Islamic World. Islamic the in City The

Algiers: Typ. 1909. A. Jourdan,

3, no. 1 (1989): 1 3, no.1(1989): orations and Empire.” and orations .

Madrid: Editorial Gredos, Gredos, Editorial Madrid: ess, 2011. - 1909. - 108 - Provencal, and J. J. and Provencal, .

New York: St. York: New - Philadelphia: 12. . Berkeley: Berkeley: .

Edited Edited Past Past -

CEU eTD Collection Imber, Colin. Colin. Imber, Andrew Hess, Hart, David. Emrah Gürkan, Francis.Guilmartin, John Molly. Green, In Anthropologist.” as Inquisitor “The Carlo. Ginzburg, Antonia. María Garcés, ______. Barbara. Fuchs, 16 Labor’ Algiers, ‘Hard in Captives at G. “Christian Friedman, Ellen Caroline. Finkel, aaa, Cemal. Kafadar, öet Amt ”h Odr f hns n te icus o te uks Tra. The Threat. Turkish the of Discourse the and Things of Order ”The Almut. Höfert, Dani Hershenzon, African Corsairs in the Sixteenth Century.” Sixteenth the in Corsairs African Mediterranean. 164. Baltimore: The Johns Method University 2002. Press, al. Chicago, 88 Empires Renaissance the in Difference Racial and York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Philadelphia: Universityof Pennsylvania Press: 2009. Studies International JournalHistorical ofAfrican Murray,John 2005. University CaliforniaPress, 1995. of Palgrave 2002. Macmillan, Frontier 163. Armando Salvatore, 39 Fifteenth Inthe Centuries.” Sixteenth and n Anthropology Occidental of Rise the in Islam of Conceptualisation Captivity, Knowledge.” University 2011. and Michigan, diss., Commerce,of PhD . “TheSpa .

iei ad mie Te e Wrd Ilm ad uoen Identities. European and Islam, World, New The Empire: and Mimesis Tribe andSocietyinR Tribe Te ogte Fote: Hsoy f h Sixteenth the of History A Frontier: Forgotten The . . Edited by Carlo Ginzburg. Translated by John and Anne C. Tedeschi, 156 Tedeschi, C. Anne and John by Translated Ginzburg. Carlo by Edited . h Otmn mie 1300 Empire, Ottoman The

. Chicago: aa “h Cnr ad h Fote: toa Coeain ih h North the with Cooperation Ottoman Frontier: the and Centre “The Safa. Exotic Nat Exotic Catholic Pirates and Greek Merchants: A Maritime History of the the of History Maritime A Merchants: Greek and Pirates Catholic ewe To ols te osrcin f h Ottoman the of Construction the Worlds: Two Between Osman’s Dream. The Sto The Dream. Osman’s el Bernardo. “Early Modern Spain and the Creation of the Mediterranean. Mediterranean. the of Creation the and Spain Modern “Early Bernardo. el nish Race.” In Race.” nish - 98. University of Chicago2007. 98. University Press, of Princeton: Princeton UniversityPrinceton: 2010. Press,

Galleons &Galleons Galleys. evne i Ages A C A Algiers: in Cervantes University ofChicago, 1978.

ion: Maurophilia and the Construction of Early Modern Spain. Spain. Modern Early of Construction the and Maurophilia ion:

- 69. New York: Peter Lang, New 2000. York:69. Peter

Hopkins University c1989. Press, ural Morocco. ural Rereading the Black Legend: the Discourses of Religious of Discourses the Legend: Black the Rereading Between Europe and Islam and Europe Between 106 ry of the Ottoman Empire 1300 Empire Ottoman the of ry

– 60 Te tutr o Power. of Structure The 1650.

London: Cassell,2002.

Portland: Frank Cass,2000. Turkish Historical Review Historical Turkish pies Tale aptive’s

16 (1980): 613 Clues, Myths, and the Historical Historical the and Myths, Clues, . Edited by Margaret R. Greer et Greer R. Margaret by Edited .

. Edited .

. Nashville: Vanderbilt Vanderbilt Nashville: . - th etr Ibero Century

- by Almut Höfert and and Höfert Almut by 18th Centuries.” 18th Centuries.” - 632. State. –

1923

1 (2010): 125 (2010): 1

New York: York: New . London: . Berkeley: - African New New The The

- - CEU eTD Collection Beitler. Margolies Ruth and R. Angelica Martinez, Meserve, Po Ronnie and Hartmut Lehmann, and Renaissance the of Literature Spanish in Turks the and “Europe Jeremy. Lawrence, Po Communal “Everyday Tijana. Krstić, Kollu Term.” a of Story The Franca: “Lingua Renée. and Henry Kahane, Richa Kagan, ______

Lorenzo, Bernardo. “Its Decline May Now Be Under Way.” In Way.” Under Be Now May Decline “Its Bernardo. Lorenzo, ______Ló Galán.” Diego de Aventuras “Las Margarita. Levisi, Kamen, Henry. pez ğ - lu, Biray, Meltem Toksöz, ed. Toksöz, Meltem Biray, lu, aat Luce. Baralt, eain i Lt Mdea ad al Mdr Germany Modern University 1995. Press, Early and Medieval Late in Relations Retirement his of Occasion the on Edited byet Griffin,al,17 Nigel Colleagues and Pupils his by Truman R.W. to Per Modern Early Stanford 2011. University Press, In Martyrdom.” Present no. 1(1976): 25 and Other Heretics “Lands 7 ofRum” (2007): Rum.” of Lands North Africa. Africa. North Harvard 2008. University Press, Ambassadors' Reports on Spain, Turkey and France in the Age of Philip II, 1500 II, Philip of 1600 Age the in France and Turkey Spain, on Reports Ambassadors' Edited byJayyusi, Salma Khadra 505 Brill,Leiden: 1992. E.J. Pelayo

. “A Rome of One’s Own: Reflections on Cultural Geography and Identity in the in Identity and Geography Cultural on Reflections Own: One’s of Rome “A . TeLgc fIlmi pns Ltrtr. In Literature.” Spanish in Islam of Legacy “The . Margaret. . Ed.by Davis, Cushman James 156 rd L. and Abigail Dyer, ed. Dyer, Abigail and L. rd

Day.I.B. York: New 2010. Taurius, 65 Spain, 1469

(1989): 109 Place: sa i Saih ieaue Fo te ide gs o h Present. the to Ages Middle the From Literature. Spanish in Islam mie o Ilm n easac Hsoia Thought. Historical Renaissance in Islam of Empires - 41. Muqarnas iod.” In iod.” otse Conversions Contested . Baltimore: The Johns HopkinsUniversityBaltimore: The Johns Press,. 2011.

- Greenwood, 2010. 1714. ASociety ofConflict -

177.

- Culture and Society in Habsburg Spain. Studies presented Studies Spain. Habsburg in Society and Culture 25. -

Chia Hsia, ed. Hsia, Chia 24, History and Ideology: Architectural Heritage of the the of Heritage Architectural Ideology: and History 24,

Cities of the Mediterranean. From the Ottomans to the to Ottomans the From Mediterranean. the of Cities

- 34. London: 2001. 34. Tamesis, Inquisitorial Inquiries: Brief Lives of Secret Jews Jews Secret of Lives Brief Inquiries: Inquisitorial 107 litics of Coexistence and Orthodox Christian Christian Orthodox and Coexistence of litics - 512. Leiden: E. J. Bril E.J. Leiden: 512.

- 166. E. iaa Krstić Tijana Ed. . In

Women’s Roles in the Middle East and East Middle the in Roles Women’s

and Out of the Ghetto: Jewish Ghetto: the of Out and New York:1970. New & Harper Row, Boletín de la Biblioteca de Menéndez de Biblioteca la de Boletín . London:. Longman, 1992.

The Legacy of Muslim Spain Muslim of Legacy The Pursuit of Power: Venetian Venetian Power: of Pursuit . New York: Cambridge Cambridge York: New . l, 1994.

Romance Philology Romance , 143

- 164. Stanford, Stanford, 164.

Cambridge:

- Gentile Gentile

30, - . .

CEU eTD Collection Shefer DeCorse. R. Christopher and Raymond Scupin, Joan Rubiés, Century.” Sixteenth the in Ethnology and “Ethnography Howland. John Rowe, Richardson, Catherine,ed. Martin. Porter, Joseph. Pérez, Leslie. Peirce, Anthony. Pagden, with Mediterranean Ottoman the and Corsairs 76. Episode Broadcast: History Ottoman Nabil. Matar, Lara Laura Martínez,

his and Salvago Battista “Giovanni Natalie. E. Rothman, hispano relaciones las de representación “La María. Ana Rodríguez, Rodríguez - Mossensohn, Miri. Miri. Mossensohn, 1780. 2005. University California,2012. of Romanticism. 26 October history.html Gürkan, http://www.ottomanhistorypodcast.com/2012/10/ottoman Safa Emrah University 1999. Press, conten http://www.archivodelafrontera.com/wp on mínimos Clásicos Carvajal.” Mámol del Luisy Africano el León según continente del nombre Albany:of New Press, University State York 2009. PearsonSaddle River,Education, NJ: 2004. Travel andEthnology SocietyAnthropoligical Papers Centre Renaissance for and Reformation Medievalisms Renaissance Galán University Wisconsin of Diego de trabajos XVII: siglo del obras tres en

- New University York: 2005. Oxford Press, Pau. t/uploads/2005/02/CLASICOS009.pdf. uk, or, n Egihe i te Renaissance. the in Englishmen and Moors, Turks, Morality Tales: Law and Gender in the Ottoman Court of Aintab. of Court Ottoman the in Gender and Law Tales: Morality The Spanish Inqui Spanish The Windows of the Soul: The Art of Physiognomy in European Culture 1470 Culture European in Physiognomy of Art The Soul: the of Windows Travellers and Cosmographers, Studies in the History of Early Modern Modern Early of History the in Studies Cosmographers, and Travellers .

uoen Enc European

New Yale 1994. University Haven: Press, and María Lara Martínez. “Descripción general de África y origin del del origin y África de general “Descripción Martínez. Lara María and rhv d l frontera la de Archivo Ottoman Medicine, Healing and Medical Institutions, 1500 Institutions, Medical and Healing Medicine, Ottoman Clothing Culture, 1350 Clothing . Aldershot: Ashgat

- Madison, 2007. sition: A History. A sition: Eie b Kna Esnihe, 123 Eisenbichler, Konrad by Edited . ounters with the New World: From Renaissance to to Renaissance From World: New the with ounters e Topographia e historia general de Argel de general historia e Topographia

30 (1964): 1 itra e idno Jol. y Mindanao de Historia 108

e Variorum, 2007. e Variorum, Anthropology. A Global Perspective Global A Anthropology. Studies, c2009. Studies, , 2012. Accessed November, 2012. 2012. November, Accessed 2012. , -

1650 - New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, Press, University Yale CT: Haven, New 19.

. Ald

(2005). Accessed May 2013. 2013. May Accessed (2005). Africa Overo Barbaria Overo Africa

ershot: Ashgate, 2004. ershot: Ashgate,

- empire

New York: Columbia Columbia York: New PD d PhD ” - pirates - 4. Toronto: 143. , - - Cautiverio y y Cautiverio musulmanas barbary

(1625).” In (1625).” issertation, issertation,

Berkeley:

Kroeber Kroeber . Upper Upper . - 1700. - - CEU eTD Collection Wansbrough, E. John Lisa. Voigt, Matar. I. Nabil and Daniel Vitkus Jean Vallée, Oriental and State Ottoman The Paradigm: Political a of Making “The Lucette. Valensi, ______. R. Ehud Toledano, K. Scott Taylor, Lajos. Tardy, e B., Stuart Schwartz, Justin. Stagl, “La Emilio. Sola, Peña. la de F. José and Emilio Sola, B. John Wolf, ____ “sinj, nomcó y utr. ieaua e vss n a pc de época la en avisos de Literatura cultura. y información “Espionaje, ______. University 1982. Press, Haven:Press, 2007. University Yale Press, 2008. merchants Budapest: Empire]. Kiadó, theOttoman 1977. in Gondolat New York: University Press: c1994. Cambridge O and Europeans between Encounters the Harwood Publishers,c.1995. Academic http://archivodefrontera.com Económica, 1996. ép la en secretos servecios y berberisco Norton & Company, c1979. c2009. Worlds. Imperial English 2001. England Modern Early from Narratives Dialogue. Anthony Blair,Ann 173 Graftonand Despotism. al., 19 In Cervantes.” h Otmn lv Tae n is upeso, 1840 Suppression, its and Trade Slave Ottoman The -

François and Dorothea B. Heitsch. B. Dorothea and François Writing Captivity in the Early Modern Atlantic, Authority Authority Atlantic, Modern Early the in Captivity Writing - A History of Curiosity: The Theory of Travel 1550 Travel of Theory The Curiosity: of History A

37. ao, öee, amrk z smn Birodalomról Oszmán az kalmárok követek, Rabok, The Barbary Coast. Coast. Barbary The

Honor and Violence in Golden Age Spain Age Golden in Violence and Honor Toronto: University Toron of Alcalá de Henares: Servicio de Publicaciones, 2006. Alcalá Publicaciones, de Servicio Henares: de In ” As if Silent and Absent: Bonds of Enslavement in the Islam the in Enslavement of Bonds Absent: and Silent if As

Lingua Franca inthe Mediterranean. Información de Argel de 1580” (2007) Accessed May 2013. 2013. May Accessed (2007) 1580” de Argel de Información d. Escrituras silenciadas en la en silenciadas Escrituras h Tasiso o Clue n al Mdr Europe Modern Early in Culture of Transmission The mlct nesadn: O Understanding: Implicit

hpl il Te nvriy f ot Crln Press, Carolina North of University The Hill: Chapel

iay Saey ad eepin Bray Captivity Barbary Redemption: and Slavery, Piracy, lir udr h Trs 10 to 1500 Turks. the under Algiers evne y a ebra Crats mno turco mundo Cervantes, Berbería. la y Cervantes 109

- 203. Philadelphia, 1990. 203. Philadelphia,

to Press, c2004.

oca de Felipe II. Felipe de oca Printed Voices: The Renaissance Culture of of Culture Renaissance The Voices: Printed . New York: Columbia University Press, Press, University Columbia York: New . hr epe i te al Mdr Era Modern Early the in Peoples ther época de Cervantes de época srig Rprig ad elcig on Reflecting and Reporting, bserving,

Place: Press, 1996. Curzon . New Haven: Yale University University Yale Haven: New .

España: Fondo de Cultura Cultura de Fondo España: - - 1800 90.

. Ed. Emilio Sola, et Sola, Emilio Ed. . Princeton: Princeton Princeton Princeton: . Chur, Switzerland: Chur, .

[Capt in the Iberian and and Iberian the in 1830. 1830.

ives, envoys, envoys, ives, ic East. ic

Eie by Edited . e York: New

New New - .

CEU eTD Collection Zemon Davis, Natalie. Natalie. Davis, Zemon York: andWang, Hill 2006. Trickster Travels: A Sixteenth A Travels: Trickster

110

- century Muslim between Worlds between Muslim century . New New . CEU eTD Collection

Andrew Hess, The Forgotten Frontier, A History of Frontier, AHistory the SixteenthThe Forgotten Frontier Fig. 1 . The Wester . The

(Chicago:94. University1978), ofChicago, APPENDIX n Mediterraneann 1480 111

- 1580 - Century IberoCentury .

- African CEU eTD Collection

John B. Wolf, John J ohn B. Wolf, Fig. The Barbary Algiers undertheTurks,1500 Coast, The Barbary Algiers undertheTurks, 1500 Coast, 2 . Algiers, a print from a German manuscript. Algiers, from c. aprint German 1550. Fig. & Company, c1979), 118 & Company, c1979), 3 . Hayreddin Barbarossa . Hayreddin 112

124. - 119.

- - 1830 1830

(New York: Norton (New York: Norton