TOURISMSCAPES Promotoren: Prof. dr. J. Lengkeek Hoogleraar Sociaal-ruimtelijke Analyse, Wageningen Universiteit Prof. drs. N.W. Visser Hoogleraar Duurzame Toeristische Ontwikkeling, Université de Savoie, Chambéry, Frankrijk/NHTV Internationale hogeschool Breda Promotiecommissie: Prof. dr. H. Dahles, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Prof. dr. ir. J.S.C. Wiskerke, Wageningen Universiteit Prof. dr. ir. C.S.A. van Koppen, Wageningen Universiteit Prof. dr. M. Jansen Verbeke, Universiteit van Leuven Dit onderzoek is uitgevoerd binnen de onderzoekschool Mansholt TOURISMSCAPES An actor-network perspective on sustainable tourism development V.R. van der Duim Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor op gezag van de rector magnificus van Wageningen Universiteit Prof. dr. ir. L. Speelman in het openbaar te verdedigen op woensdag 29 juni 2005 des namiddags om 13.30 uur in de Aula Duim, V.R. van der Tourismscapes, an actor-network perspective on sustainable tourism development Dissertation Wageningen University ISBN 90-8504-226-7 © Copyright V.R. van der Duim All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means without prior permission of the author Preface Preface Preface 6 7 Preface Preface Preface In this book I introduce the concept of ‘tourismscapes’ to indicate complex processes of ordering people and things into networks. This book itself is the result of a similar process of ordering – and I should like to mention and thank those who played a role in it. As people, too, are networks – the ‘artful arrangements of bits and pieces’, as John Law (1994) puts it – this book is the product of the heterogeneous resources of my body. Although we do not have much direct control over and do not know much about vital parts of our body, if these parts fall apart we are in dire trouble. As a consequence of this falling apart, I have lost some dear friends and relatives over the last few years. This book is dedicated to the memory of these people, that is, to my father and mother, without whom I would have never been able to order anything at all; to Harry, with whom I travelled to Costa Rica a couple of times; to my dear friends Maria and Johan; and to the late Professor Sindiga of Moi University, who invited me to join the MHO project and who first opened the doors to Africa for me. These deaths reminded me that each of us is a fragile arrangement and if we count as people rather than as organisms, this is because we have a lot of other bits and pieces – our clothes, car, house, words, moods, friends, colleagues and relatives – over which we may have at least some control. For example, my bureau (thanks Jos!) and office at home, as well as my new computer with its fast Internet connection, ‘afforded’ me to work efficiently from my house. I enjoyed the months of seclusion, which were possible only because of modern communication techniques. The numerous books, articles and conference papers (thanks Wieske and Gerard!) also provided me with the material to widen and order my thoughts. Airplanes took me many times to Costa Rica, Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa. The TESO ferry connected Texel with the ‘other side’ (which is how the islanders regard the Dutch mainland). Tante Truus’ cottage provided me, as well as others involved in the process, with shelter while doing research on Texel. And there were numerous others involved in the process of ordering. It was through them that I realized this book. First of all I am greatly indebted to Janine Caalders, who joined me on several trips to Costa Rica and in various projects within the Sustainable Development Agreement between Costa Rica and the Netherlands. Working with Janine was always both inspiring and pleasant; our cooperation undeniably and significantly contributed to the ordering process. Together with Janine (and of course her colleagues Nanda, Anneke, Herma and Joost at Buiten Consultancy), I managed to collect the data in Costa Rica and on Texel that underlie this book. In Costa Rica, I worked together with many ‘Ticos’ and other ‘Latinos’. To name just a few: Allen Cordero, Luisa van Duynen Monteijn, Giovanni Beluche, Gonzalo Aguirre, Marieloz Bonilla Moya and Antonio Alfaro of Fundecooperacion. Fundecooperacion and Ecooperation financed the projects we executed in Costa Rica and on Texel. Along the way, I always kept in contact with Marinus Gisolf, who introduced me to some of the particularities of tourism. As for Africa, I am greatly indebted to Bob Wishitemi and John Akama, as well as to other staff members of the Department of Tourism of Moi University, with whom I worked so closely – and, eventually, successfully – for over nine years. On Texel, I had the pleasure to talk to many islanders who at all times, in one way or another, playfully reminded me that I am from the ‘other side’. 6 7 Preface The writing of this book is also part of the research agenda of our department. Many colleagues and students also contributed to the ordering process. It was with Jan Philipsen that I first travelled to Costa Rica and Kenya to investigate the opportunities, which turned out to be much more promising than we had hoped or expected. Jan also initiated me into the peculiarities of the Texel 2030 project. Karin Peters sheltered me by taking over many of my duties during my absence, and Lianne Boomars and I had many inspiring discussions about work and non-work while sitting in traffic jams between Wageningen and Nijmegen. I am also grateful to Henk de Haan for introducing me to some interesting theoretical avenues, to Stu Cottrell for his pleasant cooperation in joint course work, and to Jaap Lengkeek for facilitating and at all times trusting me in this process of ordering. And, last but not least, Carla, who was all ears during our many coffee breaks together. I really enjoyed the talks with the increasing number of PhD students closeted behind the spring-loaded doors lining our corridor. Numerous students did fieldwork in Tanzania, Kenya, Costa Rica and on Texel, and provided some of the data I was not able to gather myself. Ramona van Marwijk greatly supported me in one of the final stages of the writing of this book. Nico Visser, John Hummel and Stephen Wearing are just a few of my many colleagues outside the University who played a role in the process. Gerard Verschoor ‘acted at a distance’ through his book intriguingly titled Tacos, Tiendas and Mezcal. With Frans de Man I had many discussions worthy of note – in Costa Rica, Quebec, on the train from Nijmegen to Amsterdam and in many other places along the road. Jeremy Rayner corrected the English, Ans Wilders designed the cover and Dia Hopmans kindly did the layout of this book. Finally, there were many friends and relatives who once in a while carefully inquired about the progress I was making and kept faith that there would be a conclusion at some point. Marian allowed me to work on Wednesdays as well, by tenderly taking care of the children. And, of course, Bart and Jo were always there to look after their grandchildren when we were up to our necks in work. Last but not least, my partner Elize and our children Daniël and Eveline provided me with a warm and bustling nest in which to do my work. All these and many other ‘bits and pieces’ were part of my process of ordering. As such, the ordering is incomplete, and by necessity much escaped me, and I take full responsibility for any oversights in this book. The writing of it was not only my work, but also my privilege and pleasure. 8 Table of contents Table of contents Table of contents 10 11 Table of contents Table of contents Table of contents Preface 7 1 Introduction: the Legacy of César Manrique 15 1.1 Objectives 18 1.2 Organization of this book 19 Notes 21 Part I 2 Ecotourism at crossroads: the case of Costa Rica 27 2.1 Tourism developments in Costa Rica 27 2.2 Nature as a tourist attraction: the case of Monteverde 29 2.3 The case of Manuel Antonio/Quepos 31 2.3.1 Tourism Development in Manuel Antonio/Quepos 33 2.3.2 Employment and income 34 2.3.3 Political turmoil 35 2.3.4 Tourism and daily life 38 2.4 Conclusion 39 Notes 40 3 Islanders and ‘other-siders’: the case of Texel 43 3.1 The island of Texel 43 3.2 Tourism development, local identity and liveability 45 3.3 Politics, policies and planning 48 3.4 Conclusion 52 Notes 54 4 Cultural tourism in African communities 57 4.1 The Cultural Tourism Project in Tanzania and Cultural Manyattas in Kenya 57 4.2 Discussion: fractured communities and the development of tourism 61 4.3 Community tourism and empowerment 64 4.4 Conclusion 67 Notes 69 Part II 5 Tourismscapes 75 5.1 The global-local nexus 76 5.2 The globalization debate: a brief overview 77 5.3 Tourism and globalization 82 5.4 Rethinking the global-local nexus 84 5.5 Actor-network theory 85 5.5.1 The symmetry principle 86 5.5.2 Actor-networks 90 5.5.3 Translation 94 5.6 Tourismscapes 97 5.6.1 Characteristics of tourismscapes 99 5.6.2 Boundaries of tourismscapes 101 5.7 Conclusion 102 Notes 104 6 Modes of ordering tourismscapes 109 6.1 The Cultural Tourism Programme 110 6.2 Modes of ordering 113 6.2.1 ‘Much for little’ or ‘fair trade’? 114 6.2.2 Cowboys, civil servant, visionaries and professionals 117 10 11 Table of contents 6.2.3 Tactics of translation 121 6.2.4 The rise and fall of CANAMET 123 6.3 Centres of power 125 6.3.1 Relations of power 126 6.3.2 Landscapes of power 129 6.4 Modes of ordering of small-scale entrepreneurs 132 6.4.1 Small and big 134 6.4.2 Pre-Fordism, Fordism