Article Science-Fostering Belief— Then and Now Christopher B. Kaiser Some nineteenth-century historians and philosophers portrayed the relationship between science and religion as one of open warfare. By the end of the twentieth century, this warfare model was largely abandoned by historians of science. It is now generally recognized that early modern scientists were motivated by various religious beliefs. However, historians and philosophers still often assume that the beliefs of early scientists either were abandoned by later scientists or became peripheral to scientific work. Any beliefs that scientists rely on today are thought to be merely common-sensical and secular in spirit. What seems to have escaped the notice of historians and philosophers alike is the fact that some of the beliefs of early modern scientists have persisted in surprisingly consistent forms. These beliefs are so basic to scientific endeavor that they it could not be sustained without them. Modern science actually turns out to be a faith-based enterprise. Christopher B. Kaiser In support of this revisionist position, I shall identify two distinct beliefs having to do with the comprehensibility of the natural world that occur in the writings of early modern scientists like Johannes Kepler. I shall discuss some of the forms those beliefs took in medieval Christianity [The belief that and in Reformers like Philip Melanchthon in order to show their specifically theological some people] character. Finally I shall illustrate the survival and vitality of these beliefs in modern scientists like Albert Einstein and Paul Davies.1 can discern anything atural science can be defined as the question is still why any culture or subcul- human endeavor to explore and ture that ever existed should have cultivated beyond what N 4 understand all accessible features of and sustained such an audacious belief. the space-time world, even (and especially) is required for those that are only accessible through the Exploring the cultural roots of Science- use of sophisticated technologies that probe Fostering Belief will lead us to an examina- daily life [is the heights and depths of the universe. But tion of the historic “creationist tradition” and this simple definition implies that some peo- to rethink the relationship between scientific what I call] ple have the audacity to believe they can and theological endeavor. In spite of the fact discern anything beyond what is required that the interests of science and theology Science- for daily life. Such Science-Fostering Belief, have at times conflicted, the two are much Fostering as I shall call it, constitutes part of the soft- more closely related than we often assume, ware that motivates scientists and sustains particularly when you probe the foundations Belief … them in their endeavors.2 on which the training and work of scientists rests. The tendency to treat them as two But why? Why should anybody believe Christopher B. Kaiser is professor of historical and systematic theology that they could use their brain to go beyond at Western Theological Seminary in Holland, Michigan, where he has taught what is already known about the universe? courses since 1976. He has a doctorate in astro-geophysics from the University Undoubtedly most modern scientists do not of Colorado and a doctorate in theology from the University of Edinburgh. consciously articulate this belief as the start- Kaiser has written two books: The Doctrine of God (1982, 2001), and ing point of their daily work. Science-Foster- Creational Theology and the History of Physical Science (1992, 1997). ing Belief has become a fixture of the culture The second of these was awarded a Templeton Prize for Outstanding Books in in which young scientists develop (as in my Science and Religion in 1995. A new work on the Foundations of Scientific own experience) and in which their work is Endeavour in Theological Perspective is due to be published in 2007. sustained. It may only be tacit for the major- Kaiser is active in the dialogue among Christian and Jewish traditions and is ity of trained scientists on a daily basis— also a keen participant in the dialogue between science and theology. He and which is true of believers of all sorts.3 The his wife Martha have three sons, two of whom are now happily married. Volume 59, Number 3, September 2007 171 Article Science-Fostering Belief—Then and Now separate phenomena—associated with irrec- On the other hand, there are definite oncilable opposites like skepticism and faith, constraints on science-fostering cultures. respectively—is a peculiar result of modern While the kind of beliefs needed to foster secularization. Here I take issue with Chet scientific endeavor need not be uniquely Raymo’s characterization of good scientists Christian, they are neither universal nor In spite of the as natural skeptics in contrast to “true arbitrary. A culture that can promote scien- believers.”5 tific research must inculcate the belief that fact that the the universe is intelligible in principle, and The Contingency of that humans are special in their ability grad- interests of Belief: Four Clarifications ually to learn all about it. Humans also need be made aware of their limitations, and most First we have to reckon with the fact that the science and religious traditions do a good job at that. founders of modern science were Europeans But forms of either skepticism or religion who were raised as Christians and who theology that undermine confidence in the lawfulness approached their work within an intellectual of the universe or the intelligence of human- framework strongly influenced by biblical have at times ity will not be able to sustain scientific beliefs. The result is that one particular endeavor over the long term. conflicted, religious tradition is singled out for exami- nation in this study. It is not exclusively The second preliminary point to be made the two are a Christian tradition, because its roots go is that no human culture was ever predeter- back to the cultures of the ancient Near East, mined to cultivate the efforts of scientists.10 much more Israel, and Greece. The “creationist tradi- Today we often take such support for the tion” that Christianity inherited was in the sciences for granted. We know that a career closely related process of formation centuries before Chris- in science is possible for anyone with the 6 tianity became a distinct religion. ability and the inclination to pursue the than we often It may well be the case that, of all the subject. Universities and research institutes provide the resources to make such careers assume, historic cultures of the world, the vast major- ity would not have had the inclinations or a possibility. Without such a belief and the institutions that sustain it, scientific endeavor particularly beliefs needed to develop modern science on their own. It does not follow, however, as we know it would not be possible. when you probe that no other cultures have the belief struc- Cross-cultural travel (or reading) reveals ture needed to support scientific endeavor that such institutions are not universal. They the foundations or even that progressive science might not are becoming more prevalent as industrial have originated outside of Western Europe. society globalizes, but there are still many on which the This is an immense area for investigation. areas of the world where people have more In order to make the point, we need only cite pressing things to attend to. Sustainable training and a few examples. Ancient Chinese texts like research institutes have only originated Master Lü’s Springs and Autumns (c. 240 BCE) within the last few hundred years in one work of 11 clearly affirm the lawfulness of the comple- small corner of the world. Prior to that scientists rests. mentary forces that emerge from the Supreme time, civic leaders were more likely to Oneness.7 Such beliefs are very similar to support the building of churches or the The tendency those we shall discover at the foundation of quest for the philosopher’s stone than they modern Western science. The Holy Qur’an were to support scientific endeavor as we to treat them portrayed the sun, moon, and the heavens know it. Historically speaking, therefore, as subject to the legal ordinances of Allah.8 the emergence of modern science was far as two separate In the Middle Ages, Islamic science devel- from inevitable in Western Europe to say oped mathematical and experimental tech- nothing of other parts of the world. niques that did not appear until centuries phenomena … Third, there is no need to suppose that later among early Western scientists.9 So every individual will value or support the there are certainly other theological traditions is a peculiar work of scientists even in a culture that to explore besides Christianity. But we are takes the possibility of scientific endeavor focusing on the cultural frame at the founda- result of modern for granted. Western Europe and America tion of Western science, so we must concen- are highly scientific cultures, yet there has trate on the Judeo-Christian background of secularization. been and continues to be skepticism, if not modern science as a matter of historical downright opposition, with regard to the contingency. 172 Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith Christopher B. Kaiser pursuit and support of scientific research. Cultures of think that the enormous amount of time they spent investi- belief establish certain propensities, but they are far too gating seemingly intractable problems would lead to conflicted to have exactly the same effect on all of their improved understanding? Why did anyone ever dream members.12 that questions as abstruse as the balance of matter and anti-matter or the circulation of the mantle in the Earth’s Cultures differ enormously in the kind of occupations interior could actually be answered? they make possible.