Mt Wilhelm Studies 2 The Climate of Mt Wilhelm RJ Hnatiuk JM B Smith D N Mcvean Mt Wilhelm Studies 2
TheRJ Hnatiuk Climate JM B Smith of DMt N Mcvean Wilhelm
Research School of Pacific Studies
Department of Biogeography & Geomorphology Publication BG/4
The Australian National University, Canberra Printed and Published in Australia at
The Australian National University 1976
National Library of Australia Card No. and I.S.B.N.
0 7081 1335 4
© 1976 Australian National University This Book is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticism, or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part may be reproduced by any process without written permission .
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Distributed for the Department by: The Australian National University Press The Climate of Mt Wilhelm
PREFACE
In 1966, the Australian National University with assistance from the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Hawaii, established a field station
beside the lower Pindaunde Lake at an altitude of 3480 m on the south- east flank of Mt Wilhelm, the highest point in Papua New Guinea. The
field station has been used by a number of workers in the natural sciences, many of whose publications are referred to later in this work. The present volume arises from observations made by three
botanists and their collaborators when members of the Department of
Biogeography and Geomorphology, during the course of their work on
Mt Wilhelm while based on the ANU field station. It is the second in the Departmental series describing the environment and biota of the mountain, and will be followed by others dealing with different aspects of its natural history.
I am grateful to Dr Roger Barry of the Institute for Arctic and
Alpine Research, Boulder, Colorado, for advice and careful reading of the manuscript.
Nigel Wace ( Editor )
v
CONTENTS Page
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LI ST OF PLATES xi
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF APPENDIXES xi ii
INTRODUCTION Equatorial mountain cl imates 1 Mt l�i lhelm 2 The regional cl imate on Mt Wil helm 3 The data 4
PRECIPITATION , RUNOFF AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION Ra infall 11 Snow and hail 16 Runoff and lake level s 19 Evapotranspiration 20 Relative humidity and wind 22
RADIATION AND TEMPERATURE Radiation 27 Screen tempera tures 29 Temperatures near ground level 33 Topo thermal cl imates 35 Temperatures on slopes of different aspect 37 Soi l and lake temperatures 43 Frost and ice 43
COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSION The differen t val leys of Mt Wil helm 47 Comparison with other regions 48 Summary and conclusions 54
REFERENCES 57
APPENDIXES Summaries of Pindaunde meteorological data 61
vii
LIST OF FIGURES Page
1. Maps of Mt Wi l helm and New Guinea ( facing ) 1
2. Map of Pindaunde val ley with meteorological sites 5
3 . ( a) Level of lower P indaunde Lake, 1972 14 (b) Daily rainfal l at Pindaunde, 1972 ( c) Daily rainfall at Kundiawa , 1972
4 . Typi cal actinograph traces 28
5. Thermoisopleth for Para , Brazil 30
6. Thermoisopleth fo r Framdrift expedi tion, North Polar Sea 30
7. Thermoisopleth for Pindaunde, 1.5 m 31
8. Thermoisopleth for Pangrango, Java 31
9. Thermoisopleth for El Misti , Peru 31
10. Thermoisopleth for Pindaunde, 0.2 m 36
11. Thermoisopleth for Upper Va11 ey , 0.5 m 36 12. Maximum and minimum temperatures on slopes of opposing aspect, Pindaunde 40
13. Max and min temperatures on slopes of opposing aspect on days with cloudy afternoons , Pindaunde 40
14 . Max and min temperatures on slopes of opposing aspect, 4020 m 41
15. Max and min temperatures on slopes of opposing aspect, 4380 m 41
16. Thermoisopleth from near Ridge Camp ( site 4) 51
17. Thermoisopleth for Macquarie Island 51
ix
LIST OF PLATES
Page 1. Kombuglomambuno (site 1) 8
2. Pindaunde valley showing position of research station (site 3) 8
3. Upper Guraguragugl valley 17
4. Snow on Mt Wil helm surrmit ridge as seen from fiel d station 17
5. Runoff after heavy rain 18
6. Install ation of evapotranspiration lysimeter, Pindaunde ( near site 3) 18
LIST OF TABLES
1 . Extent of Pindaunde meteorological records 6
2. Comparison between rai nfall at 3480 m and at 4380 m 12
3 . Annual rainfal l at places on and near Mt Wil helm 13
4. Rainfall and PET at Kombuglomambuno and Pindaunde 21
5. Summary of rel ative humidity records , Pindaunde, 1970 24
6 . Mt Wil helm, surrmary of temperature records (4400 m ) 34 7. Weekly temperatures at four sites of different aspect and topography , Mt Wilhelm 38
8. Climatic data for 8 equatorial mountain stations and Macquarie Island 49
9. Kotilainen 's Index of Oceanicity 53
xi
LIST OF APPENDIXES Page
1. Mt Wil helm Climate Summary , 1965-72, Pindaunde Station 3480 3 61 m (site ) 2. Cl imate summary 1966, Pindaunde 62
3. Climate summary 1967, Pindaunde 63
4. Cl imate summary 1968, Pindaunde 64
5. Cl imate summary 1969, Pindaunde 65
6. Cl imate summary 1970, Pindaunde 66
7. Cl imate summary 1971-72, Pindaunde 67 8. 3480 1966 68 Pindaunde, m, temperature , oc, data for 9. 3480 1967 69 Pinda unde, m, temperature , oc, data for 10. 3480 1968 70 Pindaunde, m, temperature , oc, data fo r 11. 3480 1969 71 Pindaunde, m, temperature, oc, data for 12. 3480 1970 72 Pindaunde, m, temperature , oc, data for 13. 3480 1971 73 Pindaunde, m, temperature , oc, data for 14. 3480 1972 73 Pindaunde , m, tempera ture , oc, data for 15. Precipitation , mm , data for 1965-72 74
xiii MT WILHELM
MT CARSTENZ
National boundary 0 200 �Main range krlometres
Forest
l FIGURE 1. The Mt Wilhe lm region. Inset showing New Guinea with some major mountains and ranges . 1 INTRODUCTION Climatic data are few for equatorial mountains, largely because they are uncomfortable, economically unproductive , and usually uninhabited except at low altitudes . For most such mountains only short runs of records have been kept by expedition personnel , and con sistent records for periods of a year or more are rare . In Malesia such records are available for Mt Pangrango in Java (Braak 1923-25, summarized by van Steenis 1972; Troll 1961). Temperatu re data for South American mountainous areas (Oruro 3703 m in Bolivia, and El Mi sti 5850 m in Peru) are published by Troll (1959). EQUATORIAL MOUNTAIN CLIMATES Mountains exceeding 3000 m alti tude and lying wi thin ten degrees lati tude of the equator occur in Africa (East Afri ca , Ethiopia and Cameroon ) South America (the Andes mountains of Colombi a, Ecuador and north Peru ) and Mal esia (New Guinea, Sul awesi, Borneo, Java and Sumatra). Of these mountains , only those of East Afri ca, Ethiopia, the Andes and New Guinea belong to fairly extensive mountainous regions , the others bei ng isolated vol canic or plutonic peaks . Because of their height equatorial mountains have far colder cl imates than are normal in the tropics , but because of their latitude they experience no winter or summer, and in some cases virtually no seasons whatever. Their climates are comparable only wi th those of some oceanic isl ands of the temperate zones , for example Kerguelen and Macquarie Island . Herein lies one reason for their considerable bio logical interest, since they support biota which in many respects resemble those of temperate mountains and even arctic regions , but under quite different conditions. To describe such an environment as alp ine is, as Troll (1959) points out, misleading since it implies the exi stence of alternating winter and summer seasons the absence of which in equatorial mountains is a fact of considerable ecological importance. Equatorial mountain climates are geographically varied (and sometimes temporally variable) due mai nly to differences in total and seasonal precipitation, which are in turn affected by the interception of regional air movements by the mountains. Different mountains in the same region may be climati cally distinct, as has been emphasised for 2 a Java by van Steenis (1972), nd for the northern Andes by Lauer and others (1952). In New Guinea , Mt Carstensz probably has a wetter cl imate than Mt Wi lhelm to its east , whil e Mt Suckling further to the southeast is yet drier. Di fferent flanks of the same mountai n may differ markedly in precipitation and presumably also in cloudiness and radiation, as has been demonstrated by Coe (1967) for Mt Kenya, and Schmidt (1952) for the Columbian Andes. MT WILHELM Located at 504o•s; 145°11E, and 4510 m above sea level , the summit of Mt Wil helm marks the junction of the Bismarck Range ( running NW and ESE of the summit) and the Sepi k-Wahgi divide ( to the WNW), and is the highest point in Papua New Gui nea . Both the Bendenumbun valley ( by way of the Jimi , Yuat and Sepik Rivers) and Imbukum val ley ( by way of the Ramu River ) drain northwards to the Bismarck Sea . To the south several smaller valleys lead via the Chimbu and Wahgi rivers to the Purari and so to the Gulf of Papua. The most easterly of the southern vall eys is the Pindaunde, which provides the usual access route to Mt Wil helm and in which most of the meteorological data were coll ected ( Figure 1). Though a part of the Bismarck granodiorite, the rock of Mt Wil helm is better described as gabbro. Pleistocene glaciation has scoured steep val leys, often with lakes , and produced a rugged scenery. Soils above 3000 m are predominantly acidic and peaty though much bare rock is exposed especial ly along ridge crests and above 4000 m. Large animals are rare but some small birds and rodents are common both in and outside the forests . A general account of the environment of the mountain has (1969), been provided by Wade & Mcvean who al so refer to earl ier work. Man is present in large numbers bel ow 2500 m, the upper limit of agriculture , except in the two northern val leys and in particular the Imbukum , where human populations are smal l. Though useless for agricul ture , the hig her slop es of the mountain have been and are stil l used for hunting , affecting not only animal populations but also the vegetati on. natural forest limit is said to lie at 3800-3900 m (Smith,1975) The and below this level the only natural ly unforested sites are roc ky or precipitous places, landslips, and the very poorly-drai ned and often frosted val ley bottoms . By repeated fi res these smal l areas of herbaceous vegetation have been progressively enlarged at the expense of forest , 3 so that the natural upper forest limi t can only be seen today in the Imbukum valley . Elsewhere tussock or short grassland extends over most of the area above 3500 m, the forest being represented by smal l thickets and isolated trees often in the less accessible places before becoming continuous below 3200 m. Between 1965 and 1974 a small research station was maintai ned at 3480 m near the lower of the two Pindaunde lakes by the Department of Biogeography and Geomorphology of the Australian National University. It is here that most research has been based , publ ished work including descriptions of vegetation types ( Wade & Mcvean, 1969; Walker, 1968) , a checkl ist of vascular pl ant species ( Johns and Stevens, 1971), an account of vegetation history ( Hope, 1973) , two papers on weather (McVean, 1968 and 1974) and origins and ecology of the non-forest angiosperm fl ora ( J.M.B. Smi th 1974). Past cl imates in the New Gui nea mountains , particularly in relation to glaciation, have been discussed by Hope and Peterson (1975), Loffler (1972) and Peterson & Hope (1972). THE REGIONAL CLIMATE OF MT WILHELM Local ly induced atmospheric circulation domi nates the weather of Mt Wilhelm while regional circulation determines the separation of the year into wet, dry, and transi tional seasons , as it does over the remainder of New Gui nea . Vortices al ong the inter-tropical convergence zone are essentially part of the surface circulation and rarely extend above 3000 m, although the southeast trade-winds may penetrate in modified form north of the Bismarck Range in the mid-year months ( Brookfield and Hart, 1966). There is little information on the upper air streams , which have a consi derable influence upon the weather on 1 Mt Wilhelm above Kombuglomambuno (3215 m) . Radiosonde tephi grams show that a temperature inversion in the southeast trade-wi nds ri ses equa torwards and lies around the 4000-4500 m level in the reg ion of Lae. The periodic influx of dry air to the upper slopes of the mountain, particularly in the dry and transitional seasons , is probably the result 1 Altitudes for Mt Wilhe lm are estimates from numerous aneroid barome ter readings made by J.M.B.S. in 1971, 1972. These differ slightly from those quoted by Wade and McVean , 1969. Apart from the summit mark, no accurate survey altitude data are available for Mt Wilhelm . 4 of subsidence of air from high altitudes, while the predominating moist air probably results from upwel lings in the Ramu val ley and coastal areas to the north. Air having its origin in the interior Wahgi and Chimbu val leys , wi ll probably tend to be of intermediate humidity. On Mt Wi l helm it is possible to distinguish three types of daily weather pattern whose distribution through the year reflects the regional wet and dry season cycle. The 'wet' season (usually November to May) is characterised by long runs of days with fairly steady rai n, thick fog , and littl e, if any, clear sky, either at night or during the day . During the 'dry ' season (usually June to September or October) showers are frequently light or absent and the sky sometimes remains clear throughout the 24 hours . The third weather pattern is common at any time of year . The day begins with a clear sky and often with ground frost or heavy dew . A broken or conti nuous cloud stratum at about 2600 m in the Bundi and Chimbu valleys often extends northeast to the coast, with the higher ranges projecting above it. Down val ley pre-dawn winds give way to calm air , followed by updraught on the val ley wa l ls and cloud formation beginning before 0800 hours . Clouds often appear to devel op above the ridges bounding the Pindaunde val ley leaving blue sky visible over the centre of the valley. Between 1100 and 1500 hours , intermittent mist and showers occur at the level of Pindaunde (3480 m). By sunset, clearing begins and the sky becomes cloudless by 2100 hours . THE DATA The research stati on on Mt Wi lhelm, though occupied for many months of each year from 1966-72, has never been manned for 12 consecutive months . Data are particularly scarce for the wettest part of the year, December I to February, but automatic recorders have provided some records for nearly every month of the year. Although some observations from other val leys are given in Chapter 4, most measurements were made at a number of sites in the Pindaunde valley or on the summi t ridge. These sites are listed below with the type and the dates of data col l ection, and their locations are shown in Figure 2. 5 One kilometre MT WILHELM "1'._ SUMMIT 4510m Meteorolog1cal site ·.. 8 •··. PINDAUNDE 'e-········�·· ·. · · . ----- . -. : � GIWIMAWI RIDGE PENGAGL VALLEY VALLEY FIGURE 2. Pindaunde Va lley, Mt Wi lhelm. The major meteorological sites are marked with circled numbers . Site 1. Kombuglomambuno, 3215 m Thi s site is located just above the Pleistocene terminal moraine of the Pindaunde val ley in the lowest tongue of grassl and before continuous forest is encountered (see Plate 1) Screen tempera ture 1966 (Casel la thermograph in standard Stevenson screen) Precipitation 1966-67 Evapotranspiration 1966 Site 2. Waterfall, 3370 m Temperature and humidity records from a screen at 0.2 m above ground in tussock grassland; 1970 (Casel la hy9rothermograph) Site 3. Pindaunde, 3480 m This site, at the research stati on , lies near the southeast shore of the lower Pi ndaunde lake (see Pl ate 2). Records are extensive, as indicated in Table 1, and most of the data are summari sed in the Appendix. Most records were made within a small enclosure upon a knoll about two metres high and located some 30 metres east of the lake. A Theiss hygrothermograph was used in a Stevenson screen at 1. 5 m above O'l Table 1: EXTENT OF METEOROLOGICAL RECORDS, PINDAUNDE STATION, 3480m (SITE 3) 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 Screen temperatu res -- -- - 'Grass' temperatures -- -- 'Grass' temperatures on slopes of opposing a spect -- -- - Radiation I- - Precipitation - I- -- Lake level and temperature Potential evapotranspiration - - - - - - Relative humidity - --I PT, RJH, a ONM & GSH & Recorder ow ONM & RJJ GSH & JMBS JMBS LKW RJJ LKW WH a ONM = D.N. McVean; OW= D. Walker; PT = P. Tilley; GSH = G.S. Hope; JMBS = J.M.B. Smith ; LKW = L.K. Wade; RJH = R.J. Hnatiuk; RJJ = R.J. Johns; WH = W. Hocking 7 ground . Surface temperatures were measured wi th Dobbie maximum and m1n1mum thermometers on top of a very short grass turf. The maximum thermometer was shaded from direct solar radiation by a white masonite board (except in 1966-7 when the bul b was placed just beneath a thin layer of soil). Evapotranspiration measurements were made on flat ground about 50 m north , and grass shade-temperatures (Dobbie max-min thermom eters) at 0.01 m above ground on slopes of opposing aspect on a rather larger knol l about 30 m east of the enclosure . Temperature records (Sumner automatic recorder) from within screens were maintai ned 0.2 m above ground in tussock grassland 200 m south of the encl osure in 1970. Site 4. Ridge Camp (Bivouac Gap), 4020 m This site, a sharp crest on the summi t path, forms part of the Bogunolto Ridge which separates the Pindaunde and Guraguragugl val leys (see Plate 3). Grass shade-temperatures (Six's thermometers) at 0.01 m above ground on slopes of opposing aspect : 1972 Tempera ture records from a screen at 0.2 m above ground level on north side of ridge : 1970. Site 5. Wilhelm Trail, 4230 m An open rocky slope exposed to the east and north and overl ooking the upper Pindaunde val ley. Temperature and humidity records (Casella hygrothermograph and Six's thermometer) in screen maintai ned 0.2 m above ground : 1970 . Site 6. Upper val ley, �· 4300 m This site is a smal l basin-l ike valley forming the source of the Pi ndaunde stream on the eastern side of the summit ridge. Shade temperatures (Sumner thermograph) in tussock grassland near the val ley bottom. Measurements were made at "canopy" height (0.5 m) and "below canopy" (0.17 m) above ground level . Screen temper atures and humidity (Casella hygrothermograph and Six 's thermometer) were also measured in tussock grassl and about 50 m above the val ley bottom (0.3 m above ground), and on val ley wal ls of opposing aspect but simi lar vegetation (0.3 m above ground). Al l these measurements were made in 1970 . Site 7. Saddle Camp, 4380 m A rai nguage measuring up to 76.2 mm (30 in) was located on the side of a small crag immediately north of the campsite on the summi t path and overl ooki ng Upper val ley. 'Grass' shade-tempera tures (Six's thermometers) at 0.01 m above ground on slopes of opposing aspect were measured at the same altitude about 300 m west of the campsite astride a col of the main sunmi t ridge. Precipitation 1966-67, 1970, 1971, 1972 Temperature 1972 8 PLATE 1. Kombuglomambuno (site 1), lower Pindaunde Valley. Tall tree ferns (Cyathea atrox) in the foreground are about 2. 5 m high. (Photo J.M.B. Smith, 19?2) PLATE 2. Outflow of the Lower Pindaunde Lake. The A. N.U. Field Station (below) and Chimbu Council Rest House (above). The main meteorological site (no. 3) is to the right of the Field Station building, where the Stevenson screen is visible. (Photo J. M. B. Smith, 19?2) 9 Site 8. Swnmit Ridge , 4400 m This site is on a smal l level area of ground wi th low cryptogamic vegetation on the southwest flank of the main summit ridge, where a Sumner automatic thermograph was located . The site is at the bottom of a glacial ly scoured depression 1.5-2.0 m deep. The side wal ls are nearly vertical , bl ack and about five metres apart. The temperature sensors were cyl inders 0.15 m long which were held vertical ly in louvred screens. The lower one measured temperatures between 0.1 m and 0.25 m whi le the upper one measured then between 0.9 m and 1.05 m above ground level . Barometric Pressure Records of three-hourly barometric pressure were made in May and June 1965 and January 1966 at Pindaunde ( Site 3). Unfortunately the records are not representable in terms of mi llibars or inches of mercury . However, it appears that the expected bimodal , diurnal osci llati on of air pressure in the tropics is present at Pindaunde as is a larger scale seasonal fluctuation . The January figures are consi stently higher than the May-June figures : this is of particular interest in that the reverse situation is expected ( Riehl, 1954). Further measurements would be of interest here. 11 PRECIPITATIONJ RUNOFF AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION RAINFALL Rainfal l on the mountain shows the pronounced single maximum that is found in many regions of the southwest Pacific from late December to early March ( Brookfield and Hart, 1966; McAl pine, 1970). At the Pindaunde Station the change from the wet to the dry season is abrupt, occurring around the end of May. On the other hand, the return to wetter weather later in the year in gradual so that the months of August to November may be cal led a transitional season . It has not been possible to make an accurate measurement of the total rai nfal l for any year, since rai ngauges have overfl owed during the wettest part of the year when they have been unattended : a minimum figure of 2976 mm for Pindaunde ( Site 3) has been given by Mcvean (1968) . In October 1971 a non-standard long-term rai ngauge was constructed from a 4-gal lon drum wi th a funnel ( with elevated lip ) of about 6 cm diameter. This gauge at 3480 m accumulated 7550 ml of rai nwater between 13 October 1971 and 16 Apri l 1972 . The gauge was cal i brated for two periods of severa l weeks by compari son with standard rai ngauge records in 1972. The two cal i bra ti on figures differ slightly, and give estimates of rainfall for the period measured ( which included the wettest part of the year) of 2363 and 2543 mm respectively. By adding each of these figures in turn to the total rai nfal l measured between 1 September and 12 October 1971 and between 17 Apri l and 31 August 1972, a figure is reached of rainfall at the Pindaunde station for the year beginning 1 September 1971 of 3354-3537 mm . This is a higher figure than that indicated by the sum of monthly means ( Appendix Table 1) whi ch , however, includes very few wet season records . The rainfall measured at Kombuglomambuno (3215 m Site 1) during parts of 1966-67 tended to be less than at Pindaunde (3480 m Site 3) except during the dry season when there was little difference or even a tendency for it to be sl ightly higher ( Table 4) . From the fragmentary records , the rai nfal l at 3215 m was calculated to be about 2400 mm per year. The change in precipi tation with alti tude has not been consistent from year to year. During the 1966-67 period of observation, rain- 12 Table 2: A COMPARISON BETWEEN PRECIPITATION (MM) AT PINDAUNDE (3480M) THE SUMMIT RIDGE OF MT WILHELM (4380M), FOR SOME PERIODS 1970-1972 SITE 3 3480M SITE 7 4380M FROM TO B/A XlOO (A) (B) 7 I 4/70 20/ 4/70 54.4 41.7 77 21/ 4/70 27/ 4/70 54.3 60.2 111 28/ 4/70 4/ 5/70 137.8 55.4 40 5/ 5/70 9/ 5/70 49.8 32.2 65 10/ 5/70 12/ 5/70 25.9 21. 1 81 13/ 5/70 2 6/ 5/70 81.4 65.5 80 27/ 5/70 30/ 5/70 18.0 11. 9 65 31/ 5/70 8/ 6/70 32.2 16.3 51 9/ 6/70 15/ 6/70 47.3 44.7 95 16/ 6/70 22/ 6/70 19.2 20.6 107 23/ 6/70 29/ 6/70 1 0 30/ 6/70 1/ 7 /70 15.0 13. 2 88 2/ 7 /70 8/ 7 /70 19.3 22.6 117 9 I 7 /70 13/ 7 /70 20.4 25.4 125 14/ 7 /70 20/ 7 /70 15.4 13.5 88 21/ 7/70 26/ 7 /70 45.8 47.8 104 27 I 7 /70 9/ 8/70 19.9 23.2 117 10/ 8/70 13/ 8/70 1. 5 0 14/ 8/70 24/ 8/70 16.3 11.9 73 25/ 8/70 31/ 8/70 38.6 24.6 64 1/ 9/70 7/ 9/70 25.0 23.6 94 8/ 9/70 14/ 9/70 46.2 38.6 84 15/ 9/70 21/ 9/70 42.4 42.7 101 22/ 9/70 28/ 9/70 22.9 33.0 144 29/ 9/70 5/10/70 26.5 23. 1 87 6/10/70 11/1 1/70 74.5 85.9 115 12/ 10/70 18/11/70 97.3 539.8 555 19/11/70 1/ 12/70 155. 1 129.5 83 16/ 8/71 7 I 9/7 1 78.2 62.2 80 8/ 9/71 16/ 9/7 1 63.2 50.8 80 17/ 9/7 1 12/10/7 1 275. 1 210. 5 76 19/ 4/72 28/ 4/72 91.4 59.4 65 29/ 4/72 2/ 6/72 314.2 243.6 78 3/ 6/72 8/ 6/72 0 0 9/ 6/72 28/ 6/72 11. 2 8. 1 72 29 I 6/72 5/ 7 /72 3.3 5.3 161 6/ 7 /72 30/ 7/72 139.2 108.7 78 31/ 7/72 10/ 8/72 0 0 11/ 8/72 14/ 8/72 0 0 15/ 8/72 19/ 8/72 1. 5 1.8 120 20/ 8/72 27 I 8/72 33.0 30.2 92 28/ 8/72 1/ 9/72 30.0 16.2 54 2/ 9/72 9/ 9/72 11. 2 5. 1 46 13 gauges at the Saddle Camp (4380 m Site 7) recorded about 10% more rain fall than the Pindaunde gauge (3480 m Site 3). During April -November 1970, about 20% more rainfall was recorded at Saddle Camp than at Pindaunde, from August to October 1971 and from Apri l to September 1972, about 24% less rainfall fel l at the higher than at the lower station (Table 2). On the basis of these fragmentary records, no general i zation can be made about the rel ationship of rai nfal l to altitude on the Pindaunde fl ank of Mt Wi lhelm. The Pindaunde valley, however, receives more rai nfall than lower porti ons of the Chimbu val ley into which it drains. A comparison of monthly and total rainfall for Pindaunde (Site 3) and Keglsugl (2515 m) in the Chimbu val ley indicates that the former, higher alti tude site receives more per annum (Table 3) . Pindaunde also had a greater seasonal range than the latter site, being both drier during the dry season and wetter during the wet season than Kegl sugl . On the north west flank of Mt Wi lhelm, there appeared to be a sharp decrease in precipitation from Bundi (1400 m) on the edge of the Ramu River val ley to the Saddle Camp (4380 m Site 7). Annual rainfal l figures for surrounding lower alti tude stations are gi ven in Table 3 for comparison wi th the Mt Wi lhelm (Pi ndaunde, Site 3) figures. Figure 3 compa res the daily rainfal ls at Pindaunde Tab le 3: ANNUAL RAINFALL AT PLACES ON AND NEAR MT WILHELM POS ITION RELATIVE ANNUAL SITE ALTITUDE TO MT WILHELM SUMMIT PPTN. (MM) Summit ridge 4380 1 km SE ea 2900 3450 Pindaunde 3480 4 km ESE ea 2400 Kombuglomambuno 3215 6 km ESE ea 9 2284 Keglsugl 2510 km SE Kundiawa 1500 35 km s 2184 Kerowagi 1650 25 km SW 2908 Jimi 1800 45 km NW 3209 Bundi 1400 25 km NE 4664 ...... FIGURE 3. Lower Pindaunde Lake levels, and corresponding rain .p. 800 fall registrations nearby at Pindaunde field station (site 3), and at Kundiawa, in 19?2. 6 00 , .. �·· . _N ·· I .. \ (/) · 400 f-� UJ :.":! · Lower Pindaunde lake level ·· •. ::J · •• ...J ·, • ·· ...... ·, (' . :.":! 50 ...... :-...... � . . . � · . _ . _ . - .. · ------·· . . 40 ·· · Pindaunde rainfall � . . . ;LJ l . ;�0 50 40 30 20 Kundiawa rainfall 10 0 APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER April 15 to September 17 1972 15 and Kundiawa ( altitude 1500 m) for several months during 1972. It can be seen that the Mt Wil helm rai nfall appears to be less than at lower altitudes to the north but more than to the south . During the dry season of 1972 rai ny days tended to occur simultaneously at Pindaunde and Kundiawa . Up to 22 consecutive dry days ( defined as days with less than 0.3 mm of rain ) have been experienced at the Pindaunde Station , but less than half of this number is characteristic of dry spel ls. Over 40 consecutive rain days have been experienced during the wet and up to 22 consecutive rain days during the dry season . Fal ls of up to 58. 4 mm in 24 hours have been recorded but there are no records of shorter period intensities . However, the impression of observers is that rain fal ls as showers of low intensity, even during the wet season and particularly so at the higher level s, although violent showers do occur. The generally low intensity of the rainfall is consistent wi th the absence of sheet and gul ly erosion of peats and of the few erodible soils, and with the small size of al l uvial fans where streams enter lakes . Mud slides and rock fal ls may occur particu larly during the wet season when surface soils become satura ted. During only 23 days' observations at 3353 m on Mt Kinabal u ( Borneo) in August 1967, the highest da ily rai nfall recorded was 104 mm - nearly twice the highest recorded at Pi ndaunde during more than 40 months of observation. Rain of such intensity is cha racteristic of lowl and climates throughout Mal esia; its absence from Pindaunde may be the result of two factors : ( a ) Pindaunde is on the rain-shadow side of Mt Wilhelm for moisture coming from the Ramu val ley to the north, and ( b) Mt Wil helm is not in the first range of mounta ins intercepting moi sture from the south . Actual precipitation reaching the ground may be higher beneath vegetation due to interception of mist by fol i age . At 3420 m on Mt Suckl ing during a night of mist and light rain in July 1972 , an improvised rainga uge in the open col l ected ea 2 mm of rain while an identical container beneath a forest canopy but away from obvious drip points col l ected 13 mm of precipi tation ( P. F. Stevens , pers. comm., 1973). Local thunders torms are rare on Mt Wil helm at the altitude of the Pindaunde Station ( Site 3) and above. Such storms have been recorded 16 twice in June (1966 and 1972) and once in September (1966). Distant thunder is frequently heard in the afternoons and evenings, and lightning can be seen after dark on many days of the year. Distant lightning was observed to the east and southeast at altitudes lower than Pindaunde on 48 out of 125 days of observations between 16 April and 18 September 1972. Observations were most numerous in the middle months of the year: there were 22 sightings in May and 13 in July. Nothing is known about the occurrence of electrical storms on the other high fl anks of Mt Wilhelm. SNOW AN D HAIL Early morning sightings of snow on Mt Wi lhelm (general ly above 4000 m) have been made in al l months of the year except October, and December to February (Plate 4) . Since these records come principally from observations made from the level of the lower Pindaunde lake (3480 m), they are dependent upon visibility; for example, whether blocking clouds are present. Visitors to the summit have often reported seeing snow patches in shaded places when there have been no sig htings of snow from the station for many weeks . We infer that snowfal ls are frequent above 4000 m and may occur at all times of the year. Snow seen in situ is usual ly of the 1sago1 (hard translucent pel let) type , although occasional heavy fal ls are of the fl ake type. Sago snow has been observed to result from a decaying cumulo-nimbus 'anvil' drifting across the summit from a thunderstorm over the Ramu valley. It is possible that while light fal ls of sago snow are not uncommon during the dry season , heavier fal ls of fl ake snow are more characteristic during the almost continuous precipitation of the wet season. Snow usually fal ls only above 4000 m. Having settled it may remain unmelted for several days where local ly shaded from direct inso lation by vegetation or topography. An attempt was made to calculate the maximum possible time during which snowfall could occur at the summit ridge (4400 m Site 8). Li nes were drawn across the thermograph charts at �C a nd 0.5°C to indicate the tempera tures at 1.5 m above ground between which any precipitation would be likely to take the form of sleet. Precipitation at temperatures bel ow 0.5°C would be as snow on the poin t of mel ting, but stil l able to accumul ate if falling heavily, and liable to persis t with a clearing sky. 17 PLATE 3. Upper Guraguragugl Valley. The Bogunolto Ridge, which separates it from the Pindaunde Valley, is on the right sky line (Photo J. M. B. Smith, 1972) PLATE 4. Snow on the Mt Wilhelm swrorrit ridge at 0900 a. m. , as seen from the Field Station (Photo R. J. Hnatiuk, August 1970) ...... CX> PLATE 5 . Runoff after heavy rain when soils PLATE 6. Installation of eva:potranspiration are saturated. Looking up the valley lysimeter near the Field Station at above the Upper Pindaunde Lake. The Pindaunde. (Photo D. N. McVean, trees by the lake are about 8 m tall. 1966) (Photo G. S. Hope, July 1969) 19 From this it was calculated that in August 1969, snow temperatures occurred for up to 16 hours per day, with a mean time of 8 hours per day. The corresponding figures for December 1969 were simi l ar, being 15 and 7 hours . Sleet temperatures in August prevailed for 13-24 hours per day ( mean 16 hours ) and in December for 12-23 hours per day ( mean 16 hours) . The incidence of precipitation during these potential snow and sleet periods is not known ; ne ither is the diurnal distribution of precipitation which is important since lower temperatures tend to occur at night. The figures do indicate, however, that a substantial proportion of the precipitation on the summit ridge coul d be received as snow . Hai l may fal l occasional ly at nearly any altitude on Mt Wilhelm. It is rarely heavy or prol onged at Pindaunde, but fal ls sufficient to whi ten the ground have been seen there on at least four occasions : ·in July 1966 , August, 1969, July 1970 and July 1972. RUN OFF AND LAKE LEVE LS Runoff appears to be very fast, at least from the unforested slopes above 3500 m ( Plate 5). During or immediately after heavy rain the mi st may clear to reveal the slopes streaked wi th white streams and torrents . During five months of 1972 records were made dai ly at 0800 hr of the relati ve height of the surface of the lower Pindaunde lake. Measurements were made on a steel me tre rule attached to a post firmly embedded in the lake bed near the shore. The level of water in the lower Pindaunde lake is infl uenced both by local rain and by runoff from higher up on Mt Wi lhelm. Another compli cating factor is that most of the catchment drains first to the upper lake, which connects with the lower by a 100 m cascade, and could act to buffer the effects of rainfal l upon the lower lake . Since short-term rainfall record s are not available for the higher areas of the catchment, a complete account of the relationship of lake level fl uctuations to rainfall cannot be given. The variation in lake level , which has been measured up to 642 mm, can be considered in relation to rainfal l as measured at the Pindaunde Station about 30 m from the lake shore. From Figure 3 it appears that the lake level rose from 0-2 days after rainfal l was recorded at the Pindaunde Sta tion . The late July peak in lake level lagged behi nd 20 Pindaunde rainfall by several days . Thi s could have res ulted from no rainfall in the upper catchment until several days after the Pindaunde rain . However it is more likely to have been the result of the preceding prolonged dry spel l having dried out the peaty soil so that much of the rain was absorbed by the soi l and it was not until later that through flow occurred into the lake. Variations in level have not been measured for the other Mt Wilhelm lakes , but the fol lowing observations indicate that each lake may be different from the others. On 10 August 1972, the level of Lake Bendenumbun (3572 m) in the upper Jimi valley was observed. From the narrowness of the beach by comparison with those of the Pindaunde and Guraguragugl lakes it appeared that Lake Bendenumbun fl uctuates less than these other two lakes. The large area of Lake Bendenumbun and the extensive bog up-val ley of the lake may tend to buffer the degree of lake level change in response to precipitation . By contrast, the very small Lake Bandenumbun at 3530 m in the same val ley (Figure 1) has a wide beach. Old water levels discernible on rockwalls are 2 m above the current lake level and a strandline of weathered driftwood is found over 5 m above the water. The great variation in the level of Lake Bandenumbun is probably a result of its small size combined with the fact that its outlet is subterranean (passing beneath a hillock of ti ll) and is therefore unable to transmi t large volumes of water, occas ional ly released by storms , as effi ciently as an open spil lway. At the time of observation this outlet was partly blocked by small logs. EVAPOT RANSPI RATION An evapotranspi ration lysimeter constructed of oil drums and galvanized iron piping (Plate 6) was instal led in 1966 in an enclosure in tussock grassland near the Pindaunde Station (Site 3). A second lysimeter was set up at Kombuglomambuno (3215 m Site 1) at the lower end of the Pindaunde val ley. Records of potential evapotranspiration (PET) were maintained as described by Green (1960). The Pindaunde lysimeter worked reasonably wel l between August 1966 and August 1968, but there were long periods during which records could not be maintai ned. Figures for each month were plotted and if the month's records were incomplete the graph was extended to give an estimate for the whole 21 calendar month . After August 1968 unreasonably high figures for evapotranspiration indicated that an outward leak from the apparatus had developed. The second lysimeter , installed at Kombuglomambuno, proved to be less reliabl e and given to developing an inward leak during periods of high rainfal l. Over the short periods when direct comparison of the two sets of records coul d be made with some confidence the evapotranspiration at Kombugl omambuno was general ly higher than at Pindaunde to the extent of up to 19 mm (0.75 inches) per month (Table 4). Table 4: RAINFALL AND POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (PET) AT PINDAUNDE AND KOMBUGLOMAMBUNO RAINFALL (MM) PET (MM) PERIOD KOMBUGLO- KOMBUGLO- PINDAUNDE PINDAUNDE MAMBUNO MAMBUNO 1966 June 8-30 128. 8 86.1 July 48.4 53.l 56. 6 66. 0 August 113. 9 93.5 September 126.1 91. 2 56. 6 45.7 1967 March 14-31 150. 2 116. 6 April 246. 2 227. 6 May 186. 6 135. 6 19.8 39. 4 June 110. 0 60. 5 36. 1 53. 3 July 1-11 39. 6 37. 6 34. 3 39.4 1968 July + August 244.5 269.2 Septemb er 186. 0 147. 1 37. 3 44.7 It can be seen from the available figures for the Pindaunde Station (Table 4) that potential evapotranspiration varies inversely as the rainfall, reaching about 50 mm (2 inches ) per month during the dry season and probably fal ling to 12.7 mm (0.5 inches) or less in December , January, and February . Each month of the year shows a substantial water surplus but , concealed within these figures for the months of the dry season , there may be short periods of water deficit which can amount to about 25 mm and which may be significant for plant growth. If we define 22 a ' dry period' as a period of five or more consecutive days in which potential evapotranspiration exceeds rai nfal l, then ten dry periods occurred between March 1966 and June 1967. No dry peri ods were recorded between July and December 1968. During periods wi thout rai n, the water level in the lake and soil pits is seen to fa ll rapidly, the surface peat and mosses in the Pindaunde bogs become quite cri sp, and it is possible to wal k dryshod nearly everywhere . Epiphytic bryophytes and ferns in the subalpine forest become dry and shrivel led, although they are not normally kil led. The months of July, August, and September in both 1970 and 1972 were much drier than the same months in 1966-68 ( when evapotranspiration was measured). Visitors to the mountain prior to 1966 have al so given accounts of lengthy dry spel ls. Thus , the evapotranspiration data presented here may not represent the extremes which can be mea sured . There seems to be no correlation between potenti al evapotrans piration and air temperature. RELATI VE HUM IDITY AND WI ND Al though wet and dry bul b thermometer readings in the meteoro logical screen at the Pi ndaunde Station ( Site 3) were maintai ned , it was apparent from the hygrogra ph traces that relative humidity fl uctua ted in such a way that one or two spot readings from the thermometers could not provide an adequate estimate of the RH factor in the envi ronment. Analyses were, therefore , based enti rely upon the hair hygrograph charts. Repeated checks were made of the ins truments' cal i bration , but the absolute RH val ues can not be guaranteed . At ground level , fl uctuations in relative humidity are more extreme and more closely rel ated to temperature than at screen height. The normal diurnal fluctuation of RH , corresponding to the rise and fa ll in air tempera ture throughout the 24 hours which are characteristic of most lowl and stations, were experienced only seldom at the Pindaunde Station . Records for 175 of a possible 236 days between 9 April and 1 December 1970 showed that on 76 days (43%) the RH minimum occurred within 2 hours of the temperature maximum . Thus, on 99 days (57%) the RH minimum did not coincide with the temperature maximum. Instead, irregular and sometimes substantial changes of RH , unrelated to changes of temperature, took place at any time of day or night. Thi s phenomenon 23 has already been noted by Mcvean (1968) . Van Steenis (1972 ) presents remarkable records for 3025 m altitude on Mt Pangrango where highest RH 's are regul arly attained during the day and lowest during the night thus completely inverting the usual pattern . The more viol ent and irregular flu ctuations in RH are of short duration , varying from five minutes to two hours but with the five and 30 minute periods being most frequent. That a hysteretic effect may have been res ponsible for the shorter wavelength fl uctuations observed on the charts is unl ikely because they were not consistently present. 'Air aval anches ' such as Scaetta (1935) reports for Karisimbi (4000 m) northeast of Lake Kivu (East Africa ) or rhythmic air pulsations (KUttner, 1949) may account for some of the variation. An attempt was made to relate the recorded incidence of dry air masses on Mt Wil helm to data recorded in upper air soundings at Lae by examining a number of radiosonde tephigrams for the periods covering dates on which low air humidities had been recorded at Pindaunde during 1968. Mr M. H. Freeman of the U.K. Meteorol ogical Office , Bracknell (pers . comm. , 1971) commented on five tephigrams and their correspon ding thermohygrograph traces as fol lows : 'The occurrences of sharp drops in humidity at Mt Wil helm appear to be associated , except for one case where part of the data was lacking , with very dry air in the 600/700 mb level in the Lae radiosonde. In most instances there are indications of subsidence inversions wi th the base below 700 mb'. Green (1965) concludes that exceptional, low humidities occur in the British Isles when large scale subsidence and fohn effects coincide. In addition he notes that the few avai lable records from high altitude stations in Britain indicate that low humidities frequently occur at high levels when they do not occur at lower stations . An anal ysis of the relative humidity data from June to November 1966 shows that during that period pronounced humidity minima occurred at dawn on 25% of days , at noon and during the early afternoon on 45% of days , and during the hours of darkness on 5% of days . Ill -defined or multi ple peaks and troughs occurred on 25% of days . The dawn , noon, and overnig ht minima tended to occur in runs of three to five days . The results of an anal ysis of the nine months of rel ative humidity data for 1970 are presented in Table 5; data for Jan uary, March , and 24 Table 5: FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY MINIMA AT PINDAUNDE (SITE 3), 1970 PERCENTAGE FREQUENCIES FOR THE MONTHS SUMMARY FEB APR MAY JU�l JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV Time of Daily Minimum R.H. (Hours ) 01 - 06 46 0 10 7 10 30 7 18 11 13 07 - 12 S4 80 34 77 4S 6S 6S 36 72 63 13 - 18 0 s S2 16 30 s 24 27 11 17 19 - 24 0 lS 4 0 lS 10 4 18 6 7 No . day s 13 21 20 30 20 20 29 11 18 18 2 observation Dai ly Mi nimum R.H. 20 - 29% 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 No. days lS 21 18 29 23 21 29 16 18 189 observation Nightly Mi nimum R.H. 30 - 39% 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 8 1 40 - 49% 0 0 0 33 0 10 7 0 0 s - 10 3 lS 3 0 8 6 so S9% 0 0 s 7 2 S 16 60 - 69% lS 16 s 13 lS 2S 0 70 - 79% 23 16 3S 23 lS 2S 28 36 33 27 S2 17 39 80 - 89% 46 68 so 43 60 20 4S 18 8 4 90 -100% lS 0 0 3 s s 3 No. da 13 lS 12 23 lS 17 24 11 12 142 obs erva rio n Time of Nightly Mi nimum R.H. (Hours ) 17 - 19 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 0 0 1 20 - 22 0 22 30 14 20 22 7 18 8 lS - 33 24 23 01 8 33 20 31 s 11 22 SS 02 - 04 66 2 2 30 31 4S 39 30 27 so 37 OS - 06 2S 22 20 17 30 22 41 0 8 23 No. days 12 14 12 23 lS 17 24 11 12 140 observation Starting Time of Nightly Minimum R.H. (Hours ) 17 - 19 12 36 31 29 13 33 s 67 SS 28 27 37 37 39 33 20 - 22 2S 27 S7 9 3S 36 23 - 01 38 18 23 2S 33 17 29 0 2S 02 - 04 2S 18 8 8 27 11 10 0 0 12 OS - 06 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 No. days 8 11 13 24 lS 18 21 9 11 130 observation Coincidence night and 4 3 4 2 s s 3 2 1 29 daily minimum 25 December are not available. The frequency distribution of daily mi nimum RH is very broad. The minimum lies between 40% and 80% RH on 87% of the days recorded. The daily minimum occurs between 0700 and 1259 hours on 63% of days , whi lst on 17% of days it occurs in the afternoon (1300- 1859 hours ) and on 20% of days , during the night hours. Night minima occur nearly twi ce as often after midnight as before midnight. No seasonal trend is apparent in the time of occurrence of the daily minimum . Clearly discernible night-time lows occur on 142 out of the 182 days of observations . On only 29 of the 142 days do they coincide wi th the daily mi nimum; the remaining 113 lows represent secondary minima occurring at night. The frequency distribution of the night lows is biased towards higher rel ative humidity val ues than occur during the daytime; 63% of the night-time lows fal l between 70% and 90% RH , compared with only 30% of the daily minima fal ling in this range. The drop in RH in the night-time lows in 1970 commences most frequently between 2000 and 2259 hours. On only 12% of days does it start between 0200 and 0600 hours. Li ke the night-time minima mentioned above, the night lows are more frequent after mi dnight than before. 60% of the night lows occur between 0200 and 0600 hours . Thi s observa tion, together wi th that of down-val ley, night-time wi nds , suggests the presence of a fohn wind during the pre-dawn hours of darkness. Hedberg (1964) has descri bed a simi lar 'dry fohn 1 for the Afroalpine zone of Mt Kenya . It is possib le that all of these dry-air events are related to night-time subsi dence of dry air aloft when the lifting force of daytime heating on lowl and moi st air is no longer present. Al though records of wind velocity have not been kept at Pindaunde it appears that, in general , val ley and slope winds of the type discussed by Geiger (1965) are frequent. Light to gusty, down-val ley wi nds are common in the early morning hours , dyi ng out between 0600 and 0700 hours ( i.e. within one to one-and-a -quarter hours after sunrise) . A brief calm often occurs before up-sl ope and up-valley wi nds develop. These winds then usual ly persist unti l mid -to late-afternoon when a second calm period occurs . The latter is often associated wi th descending tongues of cloud whi ch either dissipate a short height above the val ley fl oor or else completely fi ll the val ley. 26 Winds strong enough to shake the buil dings and raise whi te-caps on the lake have been noticed in most months from April through to October, but winds of such force are uncommon . When present, they are mostly down-valley winds and occur at any time of the day . Their causes are not known , but at least some seem to be of the 'air avalanche ' type of Schmauss (1926). In 1972 their occurrence appears to have been restricted to periods of clear weather. Winds seem to be of greater force at altitudes on Mt Wil helm above Pindaunde, but wind-shaping of shrubs is noticeable only local ly, for example where wind is channel led through narrow defiles on ridge crests and on the southwest flank of the summit ridge. Very strong winds have often been reported at the summit of Mt Wi lhelm (4510 m). Of eight nights spent encamped near the summit in July-August 1969 only two were calm, and on four the summit tri g-point became coated with horizontal crystals of rime ali gned in a single direction (G. S. Hope, pers . comm. , 1973). From on ly a few observations , summit winds are common ly from the northeast. Mean monthly windspeeds from 4250 m, Mt Carstensz, Irian Jaya , are available from Al lison (in press). He reports December 1.7 m/sec (8 days ), Janua ry 2.0 (31 days ), February 1.7 (29 days), and March 1.6 m/sec (6 days ). These data indicate the generally low wi nd velocities present in the high mountains of New Gui nea . 27 RAD IATION AND TEMPERATURE RADIATIO N A few measurements of radiation have been made at Pi ndaunde (Site 3) . An Ogawa Sei ki bimetal lic strip pyranograph wi th an accuracy error of 7.5% (cal i bration by Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization , Division of Atmospheric Phys ics) provided an estimate of global radiation from 0.28-3.0 mµ for the seven months from April to October 1970 . Records from the same instrument, when uncal i brated , were col l ected in 1968-69 and used to estimate hours of bright sunshine and radiation received as a percent of that possible on days when the sky was clear. Ty pical actinograph traces for clear and cloudy days are illustrated in Fig.4. During about the first one and a half and the last one hour of dayl ight each day direct sunl ight could not reach Pindaunde due to obstruction by high ri dges defi ning the val ley. Estimates of mean hours of bright sun per month have been made for seven months in the 1968-69 period and are incl uded in Appendixes 4 and 5. A crude estimate , based on these seven val ues, comes to about 1000 hours of bright sun per year. This is less than 25% of the possible hours . It is probably not greatly in error and emphasi zes the degree of cloudiness in this area . The average rate of radiant energy input for dayl ight hours during Apri l to October 1970 is 0.56 ± 0.05 cal/cm2/min. Al though there are differences from month to month, there is no apparent seasonal trend . To demonstra te such a trend would require much longer records at the lati tude of Pi ndaunde than presently available. The rate of energy input at 1.5 m above ground level during the wettest months of the year (December, January, and February) is expected to be much less than the above figures . Duri ng 1970 an attempt was made to measure net radiation . Al though the overall experiment was unsuccessful , rel iable readings were obta ined during a few days . Because an instrument cal i bration was unobtainable, the readings are only useful relative to one another. An important feature in the records is the great variation from day to day . Net positive radiation (daytime ) varies by a factor of ten whi le net negative radiation (night-time) varies by a factor of 2000 ! On average it appears 28 SAM PLE SOLAR RADIATION CURVES FROM SUBALPINE GRASSLAND PI NDAUN DE (si te 3 ) (Tracings from original graphs) 19 20 21 22 23 24 2 3 4 5 6 6.00 a.m. 6.00 p m . SUNNY DAY 3530m. 30 JUNE 1968 CURVE EQUALS 94% OF TOTAL POSSIBLE SOLAR RADIATION 19 20 21 22 23 24 2 3 4 5 6 a.m. 6.00 6.00 p.m . CLOUDY DAY 3530m. 17 JUNE 1968 CURVE EQUALS 13'l. 0F TOTAL POSSIBLE SOLAR RADIATION FIGURE 4. Typical actinograph traces for sunny and cloudy days at the Pindaunde Field Station in June 1968 (site 3) . 29 that about one quarter of the daytime radiant energy input is lost by re-radiation at night. On exceptional occasions, when a clear night fol lows a cloudy day , as much as eight times the day's input is lost by re-radiation at night . In general , more energy seems to be lost on nights fol lowing days of high input than during those fol lowing days of low input. Ground frosts occur on nights of high net radiation loss, as would be expected . The harshness of the equatorial alpine radiation envi ronment is partly due to the high intens ity of direct solar energy but perhaps more importantly to the very great loss of energy to the night sky. In this latter respect, however, Pindaunde wou ld appear to have a less severe radiation exchange envi ronment than many of the equatorial high mountains of Africa and South America . The life forms of the dominant plants in these regions appear speci fically adapted to withstand the harsh diurnal environment. The nyctinastic leaf movements of giant herbs on the East African high mountains has been rel ated to the protection from night-time radiation frost given to the apical bud by the outer leaves ( Coe, 1967; Hedberg , 1968) . A. P. Smi th (1974) has made detailed measurements of the air and bud temperatures of the night-closing Espeletia schul tzi i at Mucubaj{ , Venezuela (8°45 ' N lati tude, 3600 m altitude) . The thermal insulati ng value of the tussock form for its apical meris tems has been shown by Coe (1969) in the Afroalpine. It has not been pos sible in our record s to establ ish the expected correlation between potential evapotranspiration and insol ation on a monthly basis. This is partly due to the incompleteness of records and partly to the lag in lysimeter percolation. SCREEN TEMPERATURES The primary features of the temperature cl imates of equatorial , high mounta ins are small seasonal and large diurnal changes ( cf. Coe , 1967; Hedberg , 1964; Mcvean, 1968; Trol l, 1959). Geiger (1965) and Troll (1959 ) have shown that the range of air tempera tures decreases wi th increasing altitude. A clear characterization of thermal climates can be seen by using the 'thermoisopleth' diagram of Trol l (1958) . A typ ical lowland tropics thermoisopleth is illus trated in Figure 5 ( Para , Brazil, 1°27' S, 48°29 'W). Here the isopleths run paral lel to the abscissa ( month axis ) 30 PARA. BRAZIL (1 ° 27' S. 48° 29' W) 1 Orn Apr 1901- Dec 1903 0 -..-��--=--4===--���-, 23 8 9 1 0 11 12 2 3 4 5 6 7 FIGURE 5. Thermoisopleth for P FRAM DRIFT . NORTH POLAR SEA (82° 40' N. 89° 11' E) Orn 0 6· (\ 1 2 I I 20 3 35 -3 5 -30 -25 -20 -15-10-5 -5 -10-1 5- -25 - 0 - I 1 8 l 4��� 2 ,L_� �-L�LJ.,,,L-_J.._-r-�r�--,sJ..__ -+-'-��:--'-��_.__�1 2:---"'""!1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 1 0 1 1 14 Oct 1893 - July 1896 FIGURE 6. Thermoisop leth fo r the North Po lar Sea, Framd:I'ift Expedi tion . From C. Tro ll, 1964, by courtesy of the Author and the Editors of Erdkunde 31 PINDAUNDE. MT WILHELM 3480m (1 .5m) 1970 6 FIGURE 7. 12 Thermoisopleth for Pindaunde, 1 . 5 m above short turf (site 3) . 18 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 PANGRANGO. JAVA (6° 4TS. 106° 58'E) 3022m 1912 - 1925 7 r------8 FIGURE 8. 9 Therm01·.sop leth for 10 Pangrango, Java. (From C. Troll, 1964, by cour- 1 2 tesy of the Author and 12 the Editors of Erdkunde) 9 18 8 8 24�-�-�-��-�----.-----.---.--'--,---r---'-r-� 7 8 9 10 11 12 2 3 4 5 6 7 EL MISTI . PERU (16 ° 16'S .71° 25' W) 4760m Oct 1893 - Dec 1895 FIGURE 9. Thermoisopleth for El Mi sti, Peru. (From C. Troll, 1961, by cour tesy of the Author and the Editors of Die NaturwissenschaftenJ 32 indicating that the diurnal range of mean hourly temperature is greater than the seasonal range of mean monthly temperatures for any given hour of the day . By contrast, the thermoisopleth diagram for the average polar position of the Framdrift expedition, North Pol ar Sea (82°40 ' N, 89 ° ll'E) is presented in Fig ure 6. There is very lit tle diurnal variation but very strong seasonal change in temperature at this high latitude site. A thermoisopleth diagram for Pi ndaunde ( Site 3) was drawn from the 1970 data ( Figure 7) and can be compared with that for Pangrango, West Java (3022 m ) which is shown in Fig ure 8. The thermal climate of the high, equatorial mountains can be seen to be related to that of the lowl and tropics, despite the much lower mean temperatures at the high alti tudes . The typical diurnal sequence of temperatures is a rapid warming, beinning about one hour after sunrise and ending between 0900 hours and 1100 hours. Fairly stable tempera tures prevail through the mid-day period until about 1600 hours when cool ing commences , conti nuing unti l 2000-2400 hours when fairly stable tempera tures again are common . There is a tendency for lowest temperatures to occur in the early morning hours. During 1970 , on Mt Wil helm some months had higher mean mid -day temperatures than other months , givi ng the impression of a seasonal change. Whether these are seasonal differences, or just fl uctuations pecul iar to 1970 , can only be determi ned if longer-term observati ons are made. Simi lar fluctuations can be found in Trol l's (1961) diagram for El Mi sti , Peru (4760 m ) reproduced as Figure 9. Monthly tempera ture summaries for the 1967-72 period for the Pindaunde Station are given in Tables 1-7 of the Appendix. The range of mean maximum temperatures is about tw ice that of the mean minima, mean max + mean min but both are smal l. The yearly range o f - is only 2.0°c indicating the uni formity of the thermal climate . The recorded tempera ture extremes are 16 .7°C and -0.8°C. Short runs of temperature measurements at 1.5 m above ground are available from two other sites on Mt Wil helm. At Kombugl omambuno ( Site 1, 3215 m ) in the lowest area of grassland in the Pindaunde val ley, records were kept during May 1966 , using a revol ving drum thermohygro graph. Records of air temperature were obta ined from a Sumner thermo graph set up at about 4400 m ( Site 8) on the southwest side of the main 33 summi t ridge south of Mt Wi lhelm summit. These latter records are available for July and August 1968 and from July 1969 to mid-January 1970 . They cover part of the wet and dry seasons as wel l as the trans ition from dry to wet and thus are probably representative of the annual regime at the high altitude. At Kombuglomambuno, screen maxima were usual ly 0.5 to 2.8°C higher than at the Pi ndaunde Station but were occasionally as much as 6.7°C higher. Night minima were usual ly between zero and 3.3°C higher but occasionally 5.0°c higher than at Pi ndaunde . Grass minima have not been recorded at the lower site, but ground frost is probably much less common than at Pi ndaunde . At the summit ridge ( Site 8) , the mean maximum is 6.6°C lower, me an max + me an min the mean minimum 2.8°C lower, and the overal l mean i.e. 2 is 5.6°C lower than at the Pi ndaunde Station , comparing the six months for which records are available from both sites ( Table 6 ) . The lapse rate per 100 m between 3480 m and 4400 m cal cul ated from mean maximum temperatures is about -0.71°C, from mean min ima about -0.50°C and from the overal l mean -0.60°C. Other lapse rate estimates for high al ti tudes in New Gui nea are -0.55°C ( Nix and Kal ma , 1972) and -0.53°C ( Smi th , 1975) , the latter being calculated from the means of hourly temperatures at different alt i tudes on Mt Wi l helm. TEMPE RATURES NEAR GROUND LEVEL Temperature records have been made at several sites in the Pi ndaunde val ley at distances from the ground surface ranging from 0.5 m below ground surface to 0.63 m above the surface. At Pindaunde ( Site 3 ) maximum 1grass 1 temperatures were measured wi th the bulb of the thermometer inserted in the turf in 1966-69 . In 1970 a standard maximum thermometer wa s supported horizontal ly 0.01 m above a short turf and shiel ded from solar radiation by a piece of whi te hardboard : a minimum thermometer was simi larly placed but wi thout a shield both in 1966-69 and 1970 . The mean maximum 1grass1 temperature for an enti re year is about 19.7°C and the mean minimum is about l.1°C. The recorded extremes are 29 .4°C and -9.1°C, a range of 38.5°C compared with only 16.30 C extreme range at 1.5 m above ground in the screen. The ground surface clearly has a more rigorous temperature regime than do greater heights above ground. w ..j:::> Tab le 6: SUMMIT RIDGE TEMPERA TURES (°CJ AT 4400M ON MT WILHELM (SITE 8) 1968 --1969 1970 -- a SUMMARY J ULYa AUG J ULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC JANa b b Mean Max 6. 2 5. 1 4.\ 3. 7 4.8 4.9 5.2 4.8 4. 1 4.8 .µ - 0 . -1. 1 - 1. -0 . - 0 . R -0 .3 -0 .9 -0 .7 ...c Mean Min 7 -1. 1 3 2 -o . 2b O'l + 2.8 2. 0 1. 9 1. 2 2. 3 2.0 2.4 2. 3 6 2. · .-- 12 (Max Min) 1. 1 • -1 . 7 -1. 7 -3 .2 -1. 1 -1. 8 -2 .2 -1. 4 i:: Lowest Min - 2.7 -2 .1 -3 .2 .µ ...c Mean Max 7.9 6.7 6. 1 5.0 6.2 6.3 7.0 6.7 6 .1 6.4 LE'J .�(l) Mean Min -0 .6 0. 1 -1. 1 -1. 2 0. 1 -0 .6 0. 1 0.3 -0 .3 -0 .4 :r: ..--< (Max + Min) 3. 6 3.4 2.5 1. 9 3. 2 2.8 3. 6 3. 5 2. 9 3. 0 i;:: O 12 (!) Highest Max 11.2 9.8 10.0 8.7 8. 1 8. 7 11. 1 10.2 9.8 11.2 (!) • s.... u Lowest Min -1. 8 -2 .2 -1. 7 -3.5 -1. 1 -1. 7 -1.8 0.8 -1 .6 -3.5 u (/) - a Records for the month incomplete b Standard deviation of means: Mean Max July 0.90, Dec . 0.83 Mean Min July 0.4 8, Dec. 0.35 35 Duri ng severa l months of 1970 , temperature records were made wi th a Sumner thermograph and Casel la thermographs set in whi te, venti lated screens in tussock grassland at mid-canopy level (0.2-0.3 m above ground) at fi ve sites on the Pindaunde valley side of Mt Wi lhelm. The sites ranged from 3370 m to 4350 m. The 3480 m site (Sumner sensor at 0.2 m above ground level beneath a thi n grass canopy ) shows a much more extreme temperature regime than that found at 1.5 m above ground at the nearby Pindaunde meteorological station (Site 3) : cf. Figure 10 and Figure 7. At 3370 m (Site 2; Casel la sensor at 0.2 m, in an open area of tussock grassland), the temperature regime is more modera te than at the same height above ground at 3480 m, but it is still more extreme than in the Pindaunde screen. At 4350 m (Fi gure 10), the mean tempera tures are 4-5°C lower than at 3370 m, but the range at both sites is about 10°C. Al though the near-ground temperature regime can be seen in the figures to be more extreme than is indicated by the screen temperatures , the form of the temperatu re variation is only exaggerated nearer the ground, not changed. The change in temperature near the ground wi th increasing altitude from 3480 m to 4350 m is primarily in the form of reduced maximum, but unchanged mi nimum temperatures. Between 3370 m and 3480 m , however, max ima increased and minima decreased wi th the increase in altitude. Geiger (1965, p.448) states that air temperatures tend to decrease with altitude and that their annual variation becomes smal ler, and the data we present generally support thi s view. There are, however, two disparities : (a) the mean maximum tempera tures at the 3370 m site are lower than expected , possibly due to a greater inci dence of cloud over the lower site and, (b) the mean minimum temperatures between 3480 m and 4400 m differ by less than 1°c for most of the time . The significance of these differences for the long term cl imatic average for the area cannot be assessed from our short runs of data . TO POTHE RMA L CLI MATE Topothermal climatic data have been obtai ned from several sites on the mountain. At 4400 m on the summit ridge (Si te 8) temperatures 36 PINDAUNDE . MT WILHELM 3480m (0.2m) 1970 6 12 18 24._������----.,L-...L-,�-..�----.�_...... -.-�-.-�-.-----t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 FIGURE 10. Thermoisopleth for Pi ndaunde, Mt Wi lhe lm, at 0. 2 m above ground, tussock grassland (near site 3) UPPER VALLEY. MT WILHELM 4300m (0.5m) 1970 6 0 / ...... � � -;;;.:::::=::-::. 12· )� �7- � 18 -----.... 1 \ 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 FIGURE 11. Thermoisop leth for Upper Va lley, Mt Wi lhe lm, at 0. 5 m above ground, tussock grassland (site 6) 37 were measured above a short, cryptogamic vegetation whi ch g rew on fi ne soi l at the bottom of a glacially scoured basin 1.5-2.0 m deep. Temperature sensors we re located at 0.1-0.25 m and 0.9-1.05 m above ground. The main features of the thermal climate here are simi lar to those measured at 4350 m in Upper val ley ( Figure 11), wi th some inter esting differences. Al though mean mi nima are nearly the same , mean maximum temperatures are about 4°C lower at the higher site, thus continuing the trend seen between 3480 m and 4350 m. An apparently anomalous feature is the occurrence of higher mean mi nima nearer the ground surface than further above it ( Table 6). The work of Bol z (1951) on the temperatures of small depressions provides a possible explanation. He shows that the mi nimum night temperatures at the bottom of narrow depressi ons are higher than at the top in spite of a negative radiation balance . The combined infl uence of radiative heating of the air by both the soi l and the wal ls of the depression, plus the reduction in radiation loss through strong screening of the cold night sky by the wal ls, results in the lower air layer being warmer than the air layer above. Daytime heating of the upper stratum of air appears to lag behind that of the lower air stratum by about 50 minutes . Minimum temperatures tend to occur shortly before dawn whi le maxima are most frequent between 1000 and 1500 hours , as at the other sites moni tored on the mountain. The temperature differences of the two strata are found to vary by as much as 4°C on sunny days and as littl e as 0.3°C on cloudy days . TEMPERATURES ON SLOPES OF DIFFERENT ASP ECT It is postulated that because of the apparent tendency for clear daytime skies to occur in the morning and cloudy daytime skies to occur after noon , sites of easte rly aspect on Mt Wi lhelm should have very different thermal climates from sites of westerly aspect ( Smith R.M.B. , 1974 ; Hnatiuk, 1975). Attempts were made in 1970 to mea sure the effects of aspect and topographic differences on temperature by the use of Six 's style maximum-mi nimum thermometers whi ch were placed at 0.4 m above ground ( about plant canopy level ) and shielded from direct solar radia- tion by small venti l ated screens of corrugated alumi nium. From May to October 1970 , weekly observations were made at four places in Deschamps ia klossii tussock gra ssland between 4250 m 38 and 4300 m and wi th slope angles of 22 °-28° . The places differed in both aspect and topography : A was situated at 4300 m on the extensive east slopes of Mt Wi lhelm above the Pi ndaunde val ley ( near site 5: Figure 2) whi le B, C, and D were situated at 4380 m on the wal ls about 60 m above the floor of a smal l, glacially scoured val ley ( near Site 6: Fi gure 2). Area B faced northeast, C faced south , and D faced west. B was situated on a bench on the val ley wal l wi th over 100 m of wal l rising above it; C was on a steep val ley wal l wi th no ben ch and about 50 m of wal l above it, whi le D was on a steep slope but wi th only 30 m of wal l above it. Tab le 7: SUMMARY OF WEEKLY TEMPERA TURES AT FOUR SITES OF DIFFERING ASPECT AND TOPOGRAPHY BETf.fEEN 4 300 M AND 4 350 M; MT WILHELM, 1970 LLW LLW 0 0::: 0 0::: LL :::::> :::::> 0 z: I- :Z:: I- u O c:::( u O c:::( :::;::: u ::!E:U V>Vl �C> ...... 0::: :::;::: o ...... 0::: :::::> C> :::::> C> 1-W ::><'. :Z:: :::::> ----- :::::> .._... 1-W :::;::: .._... :::;::: ----- W O :::;::: c:::( 0... :::;::: c:::( 0...... w ...... w ...... ::!E: ...... w ...... :::?::: > near site 5, A 11 16.9 1. 7 -4 .5 1.7 18.5 -7 .0 Figure 2 B 7 15 .6 3.0 -4.1 1.7 20 .5 -6 .0 near site 6, c 19 15.3 3. 1 -4.2 1.4 17.0 -7 .0 Figure 2 D 22 17. 1 3.3 -1. 1 1. 2 22.0 -3.0 The results of the measurements from these four places are presen ted in Table 7. The mos t conspicuous temperature differences are found in the mean mi nima, the mean weekly maxima bei ng simila r. The mean minima which are probably night-time phenomena are significantly different ( t-test: p = 0.01) only for D which is consisten tly warmer by 39 about 3°C. It appears that at the four places , aspect is of importance at C and D and topography (probably by control ling the quantity and direction of cold air flow and ponding at night) is important at A and B as a determi nant of plant canopy level temperatures . In 1972, a further attempt was made to gauge the importance of aspect in relation to plant-level air temperatures . Three sites were selected , each having slopes of opposing aspect but of simi lar angle of slope and vegetation cover and in close proximity. 1Dobbie1 maximum and minimum thermometers (at Pindaunde near Site 3) or Six's style max mi n thermometers (at the two higher sites ) were laid on the ground (sensor at 0.01 m above ground ) shielded by venti l ated screens of corrugated alumi nium in positions where they were unshaded by overhang ing fol iage. At Pindaunde (3480 m) thermometers were placed on opposing aspects of a smal l ice-rounded hillock covered by peaty soi l and tussock grassland. The hillock lay near the research station in the bottom of the Pindaunde val ley, the slopes where the thermometers were placed having aspects of precisely 90° and 270° . The two higher sites both lay astride ridges, near Ridge Camp on the Bogunolto Ridge at 4020 m (Site 4) and on a col of the ma in summit ridge about 300 m northwest of Saddle Camp (Site 7). Thermometers were placed about 10 m below the ridge crest in each case. At 3480 m the thermometers were observed and reset almost every day for nearly 14 weeks (May to September). At the two higher sites they were observed at intervals of 1-18 and 1-25 days and for 19 and 10 weeks respectively. The aspects of the slopes at 4020 m were 35° and 210° and at 4380 m, 65° and 245° . The vegetation at 4020 m was short grassl and whi le at 4380 m most of the surface cons isted of bare rock or frost-heaved gravel . Minimum temperatures were generally lower on slopes facing east at al l alti tudes . Almost al l the minimum temperature records from 3480 m, a majority from 4020 m and all from 4380 m show this trend (Fi gures 12, 14 and 15) . Maximum temperatures by contrast are higher on eastern than on western slopes; al l records at 4020 m and almost all at 4380 m support thi s expected conclusion (Figures 14 and 15). The situation at 3480 m is less clear (Fi gure 12) , although the average of all recorded maxima on the eastern slopes (29.3°C) is higher than that for the western (28.5°C). However a factor complicating thi s t;. • t;. t;. • • . t;. t;. 40 t;. t;. � � t;. t;. t;. t;. • t;. 0 t;. t;. • t;. • • • • • t;. t;. t;. • t;. . t;. • t;. • • • /;. . • •• . t;. • • t;. • t;. 6 • • • • 30 � /;. . • • • • • • /;. t;.t;. . • • t;. • • /;.. • • t;. t;. • t;. ::::> t;. t;. /;. . t;. t;. 6. • • ,6. t;. t;. • 6 • . �w t;. /;. • i t;. • t;. . /;.. . • .o • t;. t;. . t;. . i t;. /;. - j t;. 20 • t;. ! (!) • • w t;. • • 0 • t;. t;. • t;. t;. i t;. t;. 10 t;. t;. j /;. A t;.t;. · t;. . /;. . t;. t;.t;. t;.· t;. t;. t;. /;.... �·· . <:'•�/;. t;.. /;. t;.t;. /;. t;. . /;. i t;. /;. t;. t;. . 0 .. � t;. 6 • .. t;.t;. � • • ...t;.t;. t;. • • • • t;.t;.t;.. • t;. • • t;. t;.t;. • • • • • .. •• • 40 (/) ::::> iJj _J � 30 � w a: (!) w 0 20 e Temperature on eastward slope B Ll. Temperature on westward slope JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER ( 1972 ) FIGURE 12. (A, above): Maximwn and minimwn air temperatures at ground leve l on slopes of opposing aspect at Pindaunde, 3480 m in 19?2 (near site 3) . FIGURE 13. (B, below) : Maximwn and minimwn air temperatures at ground level on slopes of opposing aspect during days with cloudy afternoons at Pindaunde, 3480 m in 19?2 (near s·ite 3) . 40 (/) :::J iii _J w 20 u (/) w w a: (!) w 0 0 A 40 (/) :::J iii _J � 20 (/) LU w • Temperature on eastwa rd slope a: (!) D. Temperature on westward slope w 0 o l � � �w � � SEPTEMBER B ( 1972) MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST FIGURE 14. (A, above): Maximum and minimwn air temperatUt'es at ground level on slopes of opposing aspect at 4020 m alti tude on Mt Wi lhelm in 1972 (site 4) . FIGURE 15. (B, be lOUJ) : Maximwn and minimwn air temperatures at ground level on slopes of opposing aspect at ..J::> 4380 m altitude on Mt Wi lhe lm in 1972 (site 7) ...... 42 investigation is that the period in 1972 during whi ch observations were made was unusually dry and cloudless by comparison wi th the common weather in which the daily march of conditions includes the prevention of direct insolation by cloud between mid-morning and sunset. If only days recorded as being cloudy in the afternoon are consi dered, a maxi mum temperature pattern consistent with the genera l weather pattern might be expected to result. When thi s is done higher maximum tempera tures are found to prevail on eastern than on western slopes at 3480 m ( Figure 13) . The val ley fl oor location of thi s site may also affect temperatures by compari son with ridge-crest sites . In addition, cloud may fi ll one val ley but not another, which would have an effect upon the thermal cl imates of opposite sides of ridges . It is easy to attribute higher maximum temperature on east facing slopes to a longer period of insolation due to a lower frequency of morning than of afternoon cloud. Lower minimum temperatures on the same slopes are less easy to expl ain, but may be due to the relative dryness of the soils. Drier soils were observed in the field on east facing slopes , especially at 4020 m, possibly through greater evapora tion of soil water under conditions of greater insolation and higher maximum temperature than occurs on western slopes . Dryi ng of the soi l involves replacement of water in soi l intersti ces by air, havi ng the dual effect of lowering both the thermal conductivity and the specific heat of the soil. Therefore the surface of the dry soil is insulated from the residual heat of the soi l which is itsel f reduced compared with the moi st soil. Under such conditions the surface of the dry soil can be expected to heat and cool in response to radi ation both to a greater extent and more rapidly than would occur over a moi st soil. Consequently, the air immed iately over the dry soi l of east-facing slopes wi ll reach both higher and lower temperatures than air over moi st soil on west-facing slopes. An indication of the daily duration of temperatures on the north- northeast aspect of the 4020 m site is provi ded by the thermoisopleth in Fig ure 16. From the few sets of microcl imatic observations available for Mt Wil helm, the fol lowing conclusions are possible: ( a ) due to the frequently observed pattern of clear mornings and cloudy afternoons some slopes of eastern aspect have drier environments wi th higher maximum and lower minimum tempera tures than do comparable west-facing slopes ; 43 ( b) the differences between thermal cl imates of east- and west-facing slopes may be confined to the air layer below 0.2 m and to the soil very near the surface; ( c) local topogra phy by its infl uence on shiel ding some sites from earl y morning sun as wel l as control ling the movement and col l ection of cold nocturnal air, can affect the temperature environment of sites. SOIL AN D LA KE TEMPE RATU RES Soi l tempera tures were recorded during 1970 in tussock grassland at 3480 m ( near Site 3) and 4300 m ( Site 6). At the former, temperature� were measured at 0. 15 and 0.5 m beneath soil surface by means of an Ota two-sensor recording thermograph . Temperatures at both depths average 7.5°C varied diurnally by less than 1°c and for any given hour of the day by less than 0.5°C. There is no change in temperature between periods when the water table is at the surface and when it drops to more than 1.5 m below soil surface . At thi s site, the effective energy exchange surface is the one metre high tussock canopy and not the soil surface. Beneath a bare soil surface or a short grass turf, the situa tion may be different. At 4300 m, using a one-sensor Ota thermograph , beneath a 0.5 m high tussock canopy and only 0.025 m of soil , the mean temperature is 0.58°C but ranged from -6° to +17°c. Lake tempera tures were measured on 121 mornings from May to September 1972 at 0.05 m below water surface in an area near the south east shore of the lower Pi ndaunde Lake where water depth is about 0.5- 1.0 m. A mean temperature of 10.7°C is obtained wi th a range of 8.9° to 12.8°C. As would be expected , temperatures are lowest after nights with clear skies and highest fol lowing clear days wi th cloudy nights . In general , lake temperatures fl uctuate very little and are simi lar to ( though higher than) the 1.5 m screened air temperatures nearby at Site 3. FROST AND ICE There have been very few days on whi ch freezing temperatures have been recorded in the Stevenson screen at 1.5 m above ground at Pindaunde ( Site 3) . At ground level , in open areas wi th short vegetation, 44 or at canopy level in the tussock grassland (0.5-1.0 m above ground) , freezing air temperatures are common . Ground frost can occur on any night of the year when skies are clear and consequently occurs most frequently during the drier months when clear night skies are most common . On average , it appears that there is ground frost on about one quarter of the nights in a year, but ground frosts have been recorded on over 50% of nights in a year (excluding December, January, and February, for which there was no data : Mcvean , 1968) . Between mid Apri l and mid-September 1972 , hoarfrost occurred on about 50% of nights at the Pindaunde Station. It appears that ground frost is most common during the drier, middle months of the year. During five months from June to October 1970 , ground frost above a short grass turf at Pindaunde (Site 3) was recorded on 35% of nights compared with a 72% frequency at tussock canopy level nearby (0.6 3 m above ground ). From June to September of the same year, frost occurred on 88% of nights at tussock canopy top (0.5 m) at 4300 m (Site 6). The number of frost changes per day has not been determined for any site on Mt Wi lhelm. In general , frost change days are common at ground level but rare at 1.5 m above low-growi ng vegetation . There appears to be great variability from year to year at one site and from site to site during one year. Al l scales of topography probably have an important influence, in that the observed variation between the two Pindaunde sites in 1970 may be accounted for by the fact that the Pindaunde Stati on (Site 3) is situated on a small knol l about 10 m in diameter and about 2 m high, whereas the tussock site is on a gentl e slope of large extent near the outlet of the lower Pindaunde lake. The slightly rai sed site of the former could protect it from cold air ponding. The vegeta tion , as wou ld be expected , modifies the thermal micro cl imate . For example at Upper val ley (Site 6, 4300 m) frost occurred on only 49% of nights beneath 0.3 m of dense tussock canopy , whi le it occurred on 88% of nights just above the same canopy in 1970 . The thermal cl imate within forest is far more equable than that of adjacent gra ssland. At about 3640 m alti tude northwest of the upper Pindaunde lake mean weekly temperatures show a difference between maximum and mi nimum inside the forest about 4.3°C less than in grassland, both the maxima and minima being less extreme in forest than in grassl and (McVean , 1968). Measurements made in the alpine vegetation on Mt Kenya by Coe 45 (1969) and Hedberg (1964) and on Mucabaj{ by A. P. Smi th (1974) demon strate further the insulating properties of dense layers of leaves . Coe (1969 ) and Hedberg (1964) poi nt out how the micro-envi ronments created by the plants are utilized by animals. Needle ice (pi pkrake) was noted at Pindaunde (Site 3) on mornings in June, July, August, and September over the 1966-72 period. Sighti ngs were most common in June and July and ranged from zero to seven times per year in the Apri l to November periods for which there are records. The formation of needle ice requi res freezing air and soi l sur face temperatures , unfrozen sub-soil and a supply of water (Trol l 1958). Whi le temperatures below o0c at ground level are common at Pi ndaunde, clear nights when freezi ng can occur are usually accompani ed by periods of dry weather , thus reducing the incidence of needle ice by limi ting the supply of water. From very sparse recordings, it appears that needle ice occurs more frequently on Mt Wi l helm above Pindaunde , than at Pindaunde itself. Hoarfrost (rime) is frequently seen in the Pindaunde val ley, occasionally even as low as at Kombuglomambuno (3215 m) , especi ally after a clear calm night whi ch fol lows a late afternoon shower . The year 1972 was notable for frost damage to natural and cul tivated vege tati on as low as 1600 m al ti tude in parts of the New Guinea Highlands. On the mornings of 31 May and 5 June, 1972 , bl ack plasti c waterpipes 1 m above ground level on the outside of the Pindaunde research station were frozen solid, although minimum temperatures of only 0.6°C were recorded in a Stevenson screen in the nearby meteorological enclosure. Thi s emphasises the importance of radiative heat loss in generating low temperatures and the ameli orati ng effect of protection from such loss. Natura l protection against radi ation frost is afforded by night-time cloud cover, and insulating layers of vegetati on. 47 COMPARI SONS AND DISCUSSION TH E DI FFERENT VALLEYS OF MT WILH ELM To date , all meteorological measurements on Mt Wi l helm have been made in the Pindaunde val ley or on its adjacent ridges . Only casual observations have been made in other val leys . A summary of these observations is presented bel ow to indicate the extent to which observa tions in the Pindaunde val ley refl ect the climate everywhere on Mt Wi l helm. It seems probable that the climates of the other southern val leys are simi lar to that of the Pindaunde , although cloud has been seen to fi ll the Guraguragugl val ley on several occasions when the Pindaunde val ley has remained clear, and on at least one occasion the reverse has been observed. The Imbukum valley ( Bundi catchment) lies north of the Pi ndaunde val ley and drops steeply towards the Ramu river, thus facing the direc tion from which most rai n-bearing air movements come. Bundi , at 1400 m, records very much more rain than the Pindaunde val ley. Observers near the summi t of Mt Wi lhelm have often reported seeing mist or cloud in the Imbukum val ley when there was a clear sky over the Pindaunde val ley. Thus the Imbukum val ley is probably wetter and cloudier than the Pindaunde val ley. The high and apparently natura l forest limi t in the Imbukum val ley, usually attri buted to negl igible human disturbance ( Smi th , 1975), may have been partly maintai ned by the wetter cl imate helping to withstand fires lit by men . The Bendenumbun or upper Jimi val ley may be divided into two climatically different sections which are separated by a narrow and precipitous right-angled bend in the val ley between the two lakes ( i.e. between 3580 m and 3530 m ) . Frequent observations from the summit area of Mt Wi l helm suggest that the upper section is probably cl imatically simi lar to the Pindau nde val ley but that the lower section is mistier and moister. Cloud has been seen in the lower section when the whole summit area is clear. There is some botanical evi dence in support of the hypothesis of a cloudier cl imate for the lower section of the Upper Jimi valley. Agapetes vitis-idaea , a smal l rhi zomatous shrub , is common from below 3170 m to 3650 m, this being the only valley on Mt Wi l helm where it occurs ( except for a single record from Imbuka Ridge) . Elsewhere 48 in New Guinea ( �. Kubor range and Mt Ialibu ) , it is a plant of moi st habitats. Many of the upper Jimi val ley plants suffered frost or drought damage in August 1972. Hypericum papuanum a smal l shrub, is found up to 3322 m in the upper Jimi val ley but elsewhere on the mountain it occurs much lower down (�. up to only 2926 m in the Pengagl val ley ) . Trees and other shrub taxa , restricted to the forests in the Pindaunde val ley, are found in the grassland of the lower val ley section bel ow Lake Bandenumbun. These observations suggest that there may be a mi lder, moister cl imate in the latter val ley compared wi th that of the Pindau nde val ley. A common dry season weather pattern for the upper Jimi val ley is for persistent cloud to fi ll its lower section before noon , the upper part remain ing clear or, if cloudy , clearing by about 1630 hr ( G. S. Hope, pers. comm. , 1973). On a day of exceptional ly clear weather in August 1972 , thin cloud fi lled the lower section from 1400 hr unti l sunset while the upper section, a nd summi t ridge, a nd probably most or all of the rest of the mountain, remained completely cloudless. COMPAR ISON WITH OTHER REG I ONS In Table 8, some climatic parameters for Mt Wi lhelm are compared wi th those for other tropical mountains and for the sub-Antarctic Macquarie Island. It is interesting to compare the fragmentary Mt Wi l helm record wi th that of drier, continental , tropical mountains in Afri ca . On Mt Ki limanjaro , the annual precipitation is reported to rise to a maximum at 2440 m altitude and then to fal l off rapidly wi th increasing altitude: Salt (1951), recorded 1778 mm (70 inches) at ) 2740 m but only ea 710 mm (28 inches at 5790 m. Coe (1967) quotes ea 762-1778 mm (30-70 inches) for the subal pine region and 762 mm (30 inches ) for the summit region of Mt Kenya (4267 m ) . For each tempera ture parameter listed by Coe (1967) for Mt Kenya ( except mi nimum dai ly range) , the differences in the figures for the three alti tudes given are almost directly proportional to the differences in altitude. Using this relationship, it is poss ible to interpolate for each parameter to obtain the probable val ues on Mt Kenya for the 3480 m and 4400 m levels. It is evident that the climate of Mt Kenya is more extreme or 1continental 1 than that of Mt Wi l helm which could be termed 1quasi -oceanic' . Minimum temperatures on Mt Kenya are consi derably 49 Tah le 8: SUMMARY OF CLIMATIC DATA FOR EIGHT EQUATORIAL MO UNTAIN STATIONS AND MACQUARIE ISLAND >< z z >- w ...... 0 ...... c:t: 0:: .;-' >< ...... w ----- __J :::i z ::E: ::E: I- 0 (/) ...... c:t: ...... I- w ----- __J c:t: ----- :::i w c:t: w ::E: ----- :::E----- w ----- I- I- 0:: 0 c:t: 0 u u 1-U f-U c:t::::i ::E: a: :::i :::i ...... I- :::i Z o zo C> C> ::E: w z o... .._... I- w z 0... I- c:t: ...... c:t: ...... __J ...... __J ...... z ,...... __J :::E c:t: w w 0 0 u c:t: ...... w :::E __J ::E: ::E: (/) (/) c:t: ::E: w 0... co co w I- a: ::E: c:t: c:t: 0... c:t: New Guinea Mt Wilhelm, 3-4* (19 70) 34 80 11. 6 4.0 16. 7 -0.8 ea. 3450 Pindaunde ea. 7 ( 1972) Borneo a Mt Kinabalu, 3353 ea. 8 ea. 15 5.3 ea. 18 0.6 ea. 3300 Panar Lab an Java b Pangerango 3022 2-5 ? ? 12 . 8 6. 5 ea. 3500 c Ecuador Co t opaxi 3600 8. 6 7.5 5.4 17. 3 -1. 5 500-1000? Cruz Loma 3950 6.4 6.8 5.9 14 . 0 1. 5 ? Gomessiat 4750 2.5 0.9 0. 7 3. 5 -2 .0 ? East Africa d Mt Kenya Naro Mo ro Trk. 3048 14 . 4 16 . 2 1. 7 19.4 -1. 6 1397 Teleki Valley 4191 8. 9 5.3 -3. 6 11. 0 -6. 7 889 e Macquarie Island 12 0. 4- 1. 9 ? ? 7 . 7 2. 7 1050 a Kinabalu data from August 1967, temperature for only 14 days . Rainfall extrapolated from only 23 days . b Pangerango data from Troll, 1964 c Ecuador temperature data from Troll, 1959 ; Cotopaxi precipitation estimate from Oxford Atlas , 1966. d Mt Kenya data from Coe , 1967. e Ma equarie Island data De Lisle, 1965 and Jenkin, 1972 . * See footnote to Appendix 1 concerning figures for Feb ruary 197 0. 50 lower than those from the same altitude on Mt Wi lhelm, the mean mi nimum being bel ow 0°C at the former place at the altitude of Pindaunde. Maximum temperatures are , however, quite simi lar. The diurnal tempera ture fl uctuation is considerably greater on Mt Kenya . The available climatic data for the wetter, central African Ruwenzori mountains are summarized by Osmaston (1965). He has found wet and dry flanks on Ruwenzori which are related to the regional air flow producing orographic precip itation on the ENE and creating rains hadow on the WNW. There is a ri se in precipitation to about 2500 mm at 3300 m altitude on the ENE but no clear change in annual precipitation above this alt itude. Tempera tures on Ruwenzori are less extreme than on the dry East African mounta ins and thus more simi lar to those found on Mt Wi l helm ( �. the mean daily mi nimum at 3962 m on Ruwenzori is about -1°C which is similar to that recorded at 4025 m on Mt Wi lhelm). Mt Pangrango (3022 m) in West Java and Mt Ki nabalu (4101 m) in Borneo are simi lar in therma l regime to Mt Wi lhelm in that temperatures , whi le being low, fluctuate by only a smal l amount both daily and annually. This may demonstrate the moderating influence of the nearby ocean upon these high, mountainous isl ands in contrast with the conti nental infl uence on the east African high mountain s. Some data not included in Figure 31 has recently become available from Al lison for Mt Carstensz in Irian Jaya . At 4200 m during early 1973 (31/1 to 17/2) mean air temperature ranged from a low of 2.9°C at 0200 hr to a high of 8.9°C at lOOO hrs whi le relative humidity ranged from 96 .2% (1800 hrs) to 73. 1% (1000 hrs). Mean mi nimum temperature between 25/l and 17/2/73 was 1.6°C and the mean maximum was 7.4°C. Extreme temperatures were 9.3°C and 0.2°C. From the incomplete precipitation records it appears that the annual total could be 2300+ mm . In comparison wi th Mt Carstensz it seems that Mt Wi l helm may be less humid, a little cooler, perhaps have a higher annual precipitation but a greater seasonal range of monthly preci pitation total s. The high mountains of the Col ombian and Ecuado rian Andes exhib it both continenta l and oceanic influences depending upon their location (Schmidt, 1952). These South American mounta ins differ from the isolated African, Indonesian, and New Gui nean peaks in being part of a massive system of mountains. For comparison wi th Mt Wi lhelm data , the thermo isopleth diagram for El Mi sti , Peru (4760 m) is shown in Figure 9. Another interesting compari son can be made between Mt Wi l helm FIGURE 16. Thermoisop leth for tussock grassland 0. 3 m above ground at 4020 m near Ridge Camp, Mt Wi lhelm (site 4). FIGURE 1?. Thermoisop leth for Macquarie Is land. From C. Troll, 1964, by courtesy of the Author, and the Edi tors of Erdkunde. 52 and Macquarie Island in the Australian sub-Antarctic region. The isl ands of the sub -Antarctic are noted for their extreme temperature constancy, both diurnal and annual ( Troll, 1958) and as such they bear a resemblance to the high equatorial mountains . Macquarie Island has an annual temperature range of only 4°C and a diurnal fl uctuation of less than 2°C. Figure 17 shows a thermoisopleth diagram ( from Trol l, 1964) for Macquarie Island. From this diagram it is clear that the pattern of the thermal climate of Macquarie Island is closer to that of temperate latitude sites than to that of tropical mountains in that the isol ines of the former tend to the vertical rather than to the horizontal , indicating the domi nance, though weak, of seasonal fluctu ation over diurnal fluctuation in the sub-Antarctic. Relative humidity is also consistently high on Macquarie Island. However, the similari ties of the vegetation of the two cl imatic regions, an abundance of large tussock grasses and giant-l eaved herbs , tend to emphasize the importa nce of the simil arities of climate rather than the differences. Freezing air temperatures are experienced for short periods of a few hours to, at most, a few days in both regions at any time of year - above freezing temperatures being more common. Macquarie Island and the sub-Antarctic isl ands in general are noted for their perpetually blustery weather with gale force winds being common ( De Lisle, 196�; Fabricius, 1957) and as such are very different from the equatorial high mountains. It is tempting to refer to the 'oceanicity' of some of the equatorial high mountains because of the rather narrow range of mean temperatures near but above freezing poi nt, and the genera l ever-humid character of the climate . Godske (1964) appl ied Kotilainen's Index of Oceanicity to sites in Norway and found no values above 417 (minimum of 10 and most near mean 100). Poore and Mcvean (1957) found values of 118-467 for Scotland . If thi s Index K = <�0��) where N = precipitation (mm) dt = number of days each year with mean temperatures of O-l o0c, and 6 = the difference between mean temperatures of the coldest and warmest months is appl ied to sub-Antarctic or nearby isl ands values of 590 to 1100 are obtained ( Table 9). When extended to the equatorial high mountains the val ues rise to nearly 12,000 ( Pindaunde = 6300). Thus sites wi th c ool 'oceanic' climates may be provisional ly divided into three groups: low, med i um, and hi g h 11K 11 • 53 Tab le 9: KOTILAINEN 'S INDEX OF OCEANICITY APPLIED TO TROPICAL HIGH MOUNTAINS, SUB-A NTARCTIC ISLA NDS AND NORTH TEMPERA TE REGIONS a Norway 10-417 b Scotland 118-46 7 c Gough Island ca. 590 d Macquarie Island 962 Campbell Island ca. 1100 Mt Kenya 3048m ea . 1020-10200 419lm ea . 650-6500 Mt Wilhelm 3480m ca . 6300 Mt Pangrango ca . 9800 Cruz Loma 3950m ca. 1 1900 a Godske , 1944. b Poore and Mcvean , 1957. c Wace, 1961. d Jenkin 1972. Without complete annual data from the Afroalpine, or equatorial Andes , one can only postulate what 11 K11 might be there . For example, Mt Kenya at 3048 m has a rainfall of 1397 mm (Naro Moro Track: Coe , 1967) and 889 mm at 4191 m (Teleki val ley, ibid) . If it can be assumed that virtually all days of the year wi ll have a mean temperature of between 0 and 10°C, then the "K" for the respective sites are about 1020 to 10,200, and 650 to 6500 based on 6's of 5.0 and 0.5 respectively at each site (this range of 61s i s probably a real istic guess given the very near equatorial locatio;n of Mt Kenya). Since the Naro Moro site has a mean tempera ture max min of 8.9°C and mean max of 16.2°C it is possible that some days would have a mean of greater than 10°C and so reduce the va 1 ue of 11 K" (�. a 10% reduction in dt wou ld reduce "K" by 10% if other factors are unchanged). Since the Teleki valley site has a mean tempera ture of only 0.85°C, it is simi l arly possible 54 that several days a year would have a mean tempera ture l ess t han o0c and so reduce "K". However, it is clear that between 3000 m and 4000 m on Mt Kenya "K" spans the broad range of val ues between the sub-Antarctic and Mt Pangrango. Kotilainen's Index was devised to bring order into the interpre tation of oceanic Y2._ continenta l cl imates in north temperate areas. Its extension to other parts of the earth requires a new approach if it is to be wi dely used in biogeographic work. A step towards defining a new meaning of the index mi ght be sought by compi ling "K" for as large a number of sites in as many different parts of the earth as possible ( and appl icable ) , and seeing if any natural groupings or clines are found. As an index of oceanicity it is of course limited to cool regions. The highly oceanic atol ls and coasts of the tropics cannot be compared by the use of "K" because of the restrictions placed on dt. A problem also arises with smal l, arid isl ands surrounded by extensive areas of ocean. The climate of such isl ands is strongly controlled by the surrounding ocean and should be cal led 'oceanic' , but small N values wou ld mean small "K" values and thus low oceanicity. It wou ld perhaps be bes t, in view of the range of data in Table 9 and the above mentioned limitations of "K" in certain oceanic environ ments , to restrict the use of Kotilaine n's Index to the cl imatic region for which it was originally conceived. To attempt to extend it to other areas of the earth may result in misleadi ng comparison because site 1oceanicity1 is not always directly proportional to "K". SUMMARY AND CONCLUS IONS The climate of the upper regions of Mt Wil helm appears to be simi lar to that of other high, equatori al , mountains, but typifies the more 'oceanic' type of climate of the isl and mountains in contrast to the continenta l mountains of Afri ca and South America. The screen temperatures at 1.5 m above ground are low for tropical lati tudes but are relatively unchanging from day to day and year to year. The greatest variation is seen in the diurnal fl uctuation , but even this is smal l. The thermal climate near the ground or active energy exchange surface is more extreme than that at 1.5 m above low vegetation; the gradient of temperatures from ground level to 1.5 m is steep and at the greater height it is trun cated at both upper and lower extremes of temperature . Ground frost can 55 occur any clear night of the year, but freezing temperatures in the screen at 1.5 m ( at 3480 m level on the mountain ) are rare. Rainfall on the mountain is markedly seasonal . Its amount is high, but its variation wi th alti tude or aspect on Mt Wi l helm is uncertain. Rel ative humidity fluctuation is of special interest in that it appears to be unrelated to diurnal temperature variation . An infl ux of dry air at any time of day or night is a conspicuous and common feature apparently connected wi th subsidence inversions of dry air strata of the upper atmosphere. Hours of bright sunshine appear to be less than 25% of the possible number because of the predomi nance of cloud. Insolation , however, is about the same as that received during the summer on north temperate mountain s. Potential evapotranspiration seems to be generally low, and water is probably seldom limi ting to plants , although if fi ner measure ments were made ( especially during the more prolonged dry periods ) , temporary water shortages wou ld probably be detected . Al though wi nd measurements have not been made on Mt Wi l helm, casual observation has led to the impression that the gentl e ebb and fl ow of up- and down-va lley wi nds predomi nate. Wi nds in the summi t region, however, may be consistently stronger and the result of quite different factors from those operating in the valleys . Micro-climatic variation has been studied in relation to site alti tude , aspect, topogra phy , and vegetation cover. Whi lst the records do not depart from general expectations , they do provide data on the degree of variation to be found in comparison wi th standard meteorologi cal observations. 57 REFERENCES Al lison , I. ( In press) . Climate and meteorology . In Gunung Es Results of the Australian Universities Glaciers Expedi tion to Irian Jaya 1971- 3. Eds G. S. Hope, J. A. Peterson and U. Radok. Ro tterdam: A. A. Balkema Bolz, H. M. 1951. Der Einfluss der infraroten Strah lung auf das Mikroklima . Abh. Me t. D. DDR, 1 (7) , 1-59 ( quoted by Geiger , 1965 ). Braak, C. 1923-5. Het Klimaat van Nederlandsch-Indie . Verh . Kon . Magn . Me t. Obs . Batavia, 8, 1-528 ( q�oted by van Steenis , 1972) . Brookfield, H. C. and Hart, D. 1966. Rainfall in the Tropical south west Pacific. Dept. Geography Pub lications (G/3) . Canberra : Australian National University. Coe, M. J. 1967. The ecology of the alpine zone of Mount Kenya. Monographiae Bio logicae, 17, 1-136 . Coe , M. J. 1969. Microclimate and animal life in the equatorial mountains. Zoologica Africana, 4, (2) , 101-28 . De Lisle, J. F. 1965. The climate of the Auckland Islands , Campbell Island and Macquarie Island . New Zealand Eco logica l Society Proceedings, 12, 37-44. Fabricius, A. F. 1957. Climate of the sub-Ant arctic Islands , pp . 111-35. In Me teoro logy of the Antarctic� Ed . M. P. van Rooy . Pretoria , S.A. : Government Printer. Geiger, R. 1965. The climate near the ground. Translated by Scripta Technica, Inc . Cambridge , Massachusetts : Harvard University Press . Godske, C. L. 1944. The Geographical Distribution in Norway of certain indices of humidity and oceanicity . Bergens Museums Arbok, 8, 2-26 , 2 Tables , 4 Figs . Green , F.H.W. 1960. A technique for measuring potential evaporation and some of its applications . Wa ter and Wa ter Engineering, 64, 558-63. Green , F.H.W. 1965. The incidence of low relative humidity in the British Isles. Me teorologica l Magazine, 94, 81-8. Hedberg , 0. 1964. Features of afroalpine plant ecology. Acta Phy to geographica Suecica, 49. Hnatiuk, R. J. 1975. Aspects of the growth and clima te of tussock grasslands in montane New Guinea and sub-Antarctic Is lands . Ph .D. thesis , Austral ian National University, Canberra. Hope, G. S. 1973. The vegetation history of Mt Wi lhe lm. Ph.D. thesis, Aus tralian National Un iversity, Canberra . 58 Hope, G. S. and Peterson, J. A. 1975. Glaciation and vegetation in the high New Guinea mountains . Bul l. Roy . Soc. N. Z., 13, 1 55-62 . Jenkin, J. F. 1972. Studies on Plant Growth in a Subantarctic environ ment. Ph .D. thesis , University of Me lb ourne , Melbourne . .. Kuttner, J. 1949. Periodische Luftlawinen . Me t. Rundsch, 2, 183-4 ( quoted by Geiger, 1 965). Johns, R. J. and Stevens , P. F. 1971. Mount Wilhelm flora: a checklist of the species. Div. Bot., Dept. Forests, Lae, Bulle tin, 6, 1-60 . Lauer, W. , Schmidt, R. D. , Schroder, R. , and Trol l, C. 1952. Studien zur Klima-und Vegetationskunde der Tropen, Bonner Geo graphische Abhandlungen, Heft 9. Loffler, E. 1972. Pleistocene glaciation in Papua and New Guinea. Z. Geomorph. Supp l. , 13, 46-72 . McAl pine, J. R. 1970 . Climate of the Goroka-Mount Hagen area, pp .66- 79. In Lands of the Goroka-Mount Hagen area, Papua-New Guinea. Land Research Series, 27. Me lbourne : Commonwealth Scient ific and Industrial Research Organization. McVean , D. N. 1968. A year of weather records at 3480 m on Mt Wilhelm, New Guinea. Weather, 23, 377-81. McVean , D. N. 1974 . Mountain climates of the Southwest Pacific. In High altitude ecology in Malesia , Misc. Series in Geography , 16, 47-57. Un iversity of Hull . Nix, H. A. and Kalma , J. D. 1972. Climate as a dominan t control in bio geography of northern Aus tralia and New Guinea. In Bridge and Barrier: The Natural and Cultural History of Torres Strait. Ed. D. Walker. Department of Biogeography and Geomorphology Pub lications BG/3. Canberra : Aus tralian National Un iversity. Osmas ton , H. A. 1965. The past and present vegetation and climate of RWiJenzori and its neighbourhood. D.Phil. Thesis , Oxford University. Peterson, J. A. and Hope , G. S. 1972. A lower limit and maximum age for the last maj or advance of the Carstensz Glaciers , West Irian. Nature, Lond . 240 , 36-7. Poore, M.E.D. and McVean , D. N. 1957. A new approach to Scottish mountain vegetation. J. Eco l, 45, 40 1-39 . Riehl , H. 1954. Tropical Meteorology . New York : McGraw Hill. Salt, G. 1951. The Shira Plateau of Kilimanj aro. Geogr. J. , 117, 150-64. Scaetta , H. 1935. Les Av alanches d'air clans les Alpes et clans les hautes montagnes de L'Afrique centrale. Cie l et terre, 51, 7 9 -80 (quoted by Geiger, R. 1965) . 59 Schmauss, A. 1926. Luftlawinen in Alpentalern . D. Me t. Jahrb. f Bayern. Anhang F. ( quoted by Geiger, 1965) . Schmidt, R. D. 1952. Die Niederschlagsverteilung in an dinen Kolumbien . In Studien zur Klima- und Vegetationskunde der Tropen. Bonner Geographische Abha�dlungen, 9. Smi th, A. P. 1974. Bud temperature in relation to nyctinastic movement in Andean giant rosette plants. Biotropica, 6, 263-6 . Smi th, J.M.B. 1974 . Origins and Ecology of the non-forest flora of Mt Wi lhelm, New Guinea. Ph.D. thesis, Australian National University , Canberra. Smi th , J.M.B. 1975 ( in press) . Mountain grasslands of New Guinea . Jour. Biogeography, 2. Trol l, C. 1958a . Climatic seasons and climatic classification. Oriental Geographer, 2, 141-65. Trol l, C. 1958b. Structure Soi ls, So lifluction and Frost Climates of the Earth. Strukturboden, So lifluktion und Frostklimate der Erde . U. S. Army Snow Ice and Permafrost Research Establishment , Corps of Engineers , Translation 43. Trol l, C. 1959. Die tropischen Gebirge . Ihre dreidimensionale klimatische und p flanzengeographische Zonierung. Bonner geographische Abhandlungen, 25. Trol l, C. 1961. Klima und Pflanzenkleid der Erde in dreidimensionaler Sicht . Die Naturwissenschaften, 9, 332-48. Trol l, C. 1964. Karte der Jahreszeiten-Klimate der Erde. Erdkunde, 18, 5-28. van Steenis, C.G.G.J. 1972 . The mountain flora of Java. Leiden : Brill. Wace, N. M. 1961. The Vegetation of Gough Island . Ecological Monographs, 31, 337-67. Wade , L. K. and McVean, D. N. 1969. Mt Wi lhelm studies 1: the alpine and subalpine vegetation. Dept. Biogeography & Geomorphology "Pub lication BG/1 . Canberra: Australian National Un iversity. Walker, D. 1968. A reconnaissance of the non-arb oreal vegetation of the Pindaunde Cat chment, Mount Wilhelm, New Guinea. J. Ecol. , 56, 445-66. APPENDIX l: MT WILHELM CLIMATE S UMMARY 1965-1972 PINDAUNDE STATION, 3480m (site 3 ) Temperature 0c Q) Q) u u Q) Q) "' .... "' u u .... I .... � .... "' "' "' u .... " "' "' .... " � .... " "' p. N " "'� � "'" " "' "' 8§ a .... " -- "' "' " "'u §Q; :i � " " "' � � " "' "" "'"" " Q) " x " ...... "' "' .... "' "' "' "'"' 10' "' "'" .... " "' "' .... ::a.. � " .... "' "' "' "' "" 0 0 '2 � 8 a ...... "' ...... � � ! " .... "' .. a ·ri ...... 0 "' Q)" "' " "'"' SN NN ��� � p. .... " " .... "' bO" .... "' .... -- .... "' O'I O'I O'I O'I a � 8 ...... 0 ...... "' "' .... Q) "' ) .... " .... "' .... 0 ·"' M ....j' ll) \0 ,...._CO 0 " "' "' "' "' "' 0 0 .... ""' "' "' .... > "' .... � "' "" Q) Q) QJ "'"' "' "'0 "' " Q) "' I I I I I I "' "' a Q) "' "' x Q) "' """ .... "' .... "'' I' Q)" Q) ) ) "" .... 0 .c "' p. "'" Q) " -0 00 0000 0 .,... ) ) 0 0 .c " .... " "' u " 0 "' " """ M _ ....j' ll) \0 ,...._CO � :c x -&. bO x "' " 'i "' .... p...... , ..., .... " "' "" " """ " .c " "' ...... � .... � ..., ...... 0 "'0 � "' "' "' Q)"' " "' "' � 0 ..., .... "' "' 8 .... "" "' "'" Q) ...... � "' .... "' "' 0 bO u !3£"" ...... 5 "' " " Q) � " � Z Q) "' "' A :I:t:, ) g " " � "' .... Q) Q) -&. z .... � � � .... 0 ...... , "' "' 0 0 "' "' JANUARY 11.8 4.4 8. 1 13.4 2.7 10. 1 6.7 -2. 1 17.2 0.9 365 36 .8 26+ 6+ FEBRUARY 8. 3* 3. R* 6 . l * 11. l 1. 7 5.6* 5.3* ( 285) 50 MARCH 10.9 4.8 7.9 13. 9 1. 9 8. 5 5,9 -2. 6 17.8 2.5 23.5 205 23. 1 22+ l+ APRIL 11.7 4. 1 7.9 13.9 -0 .6 8.5 7.2 -6.0 18.6 1.0 26.8 10.9 216 58. 4 27 17+ 45 MAY 11.4 4. 4 7.9 16.7 -0.6 7.3 6.1 -3. 3 19.2 0.5 24 .6 10. 9 228 36 .3 25 3 7+ 45 JUNE 11.8 3.7 7.7 15 .0 -0.4 7.5 8. 7 -4.7 18.6 -0. 4 29 .4 10. 9 87 38.6 21 0 24 25 JULY 11.3 3.3 7.3 14.3 -0.2 7.8 6. 1 -6.9 18.2 -1.3 23. 3 10.5 75 26. 7 21+ 29 30 AUGUST 11.6 3.3 7. 3 14.0 -0. 8 8.1 5.9 -6.9 18.6 -1.2 27.0 10. 7 130 29 .2 19 27 30 SEPTEMBER 11.9 3.2 7.5 14.4 -0.3 6.8 7.6 -6.8 20.2 -0. 8 27.0 11.4 185 40 .9 23 24+ 30 OCTOBER 11.7 3.8 7. 7 15.5 -0. l 7.8 6.2 -3.3 17.3 0.2 24.4 228 41. 7 23 0 15 30 NOVEMBER 11. 7 3.9 7.8 15.2 -0. 2 8.4 6.7 -9 .1 18.9 0.4 25.9 231 42.4 26 2 15 30 DECEMBER 12.0 4. 1 8. 1 14.2 -0. 4 9.2 6.2 -2. 1 16.9 1.1 22. 3 398 50.8 24 5+ 55 YEAR 11.6 4.0 7.8 16. 7 -0.8 5.6 8. 7 -�. l 18.6 -0.2 29 .4 10.9 2633+ 58. 4 257+ 19 17o+ 25 RANGE 1. 1 1.6 0. 8 3. 3 3.5 3. 3 2.8 7.0 3.3 3.8 7. 1 0.9 323 35 .3 30 to differ markedly m those for *These figures for February are based on on ly 15 days observations (in 1970) , and they ap pear fro all other for January and Marc� in the calculation of yearly means , and yearly ranges of "' months . They have been replaced by the me ans of values I-' mean temp eratures : Editor � APPENDIX 2: CLIMATE SUMMARY, 19661 PINDAUNDE N Temperature 0c ., ., u ... u ., ., "' ...... "' I � "' u u Cll u ...... ,; "' "' M ,.., ) " ..... M ...... " ,.., � "' 0 ,.., ., "' "' §e " .... e- N " M M "' .,, " "' u §Qj'§� ,.., ,_, "M M ., " - x " x " "' " " M "' .,, "' ,, .... "' ,.., "' ,; "' " ... " .,, "' " .,., "M "' "' .... ., � " ..... -" "' .,, .,, "M N 0 0 x ... ::H"' ..... " a a .... "M � .,, "M u QJ M ,_,.M ,.., .,, "' 13 N N N N N N N 0 "' ..... M M e ..... � "M ...... 0 "' 1 .... "' "M 00 " .-I Cl) r-1-... "' ..... °' °' °' °' °' °' °' 0 "'u ., ., � u .... � � a u ...... u 0 "M "M "' ) ...... M -r-t Ul •rl Cl) "' 0 • N "' .j "' "' co > "' ...... " " "' "' "' "' "' 0 0 .... "' "' � "' "' 0 nl M ., "' :X: I I I I I I I I QJ M "' " "' .,, ., "' ., ., "' "' x ., "' ., ...... ,, .... ., M 0 0 0 0 ) "' ..... u .c "'O p. "'O :J . 0 0 0 0 "M ) Qj ., .c ) .c c "' ..>: c 0 "' u c 0 .,, ) QJ 0-: N '"' .j "' "' .... co °' .... "' :>:: :.: x 00 0 � 00 "M x c a "' c nl "M � " c ..... c .c " 0 -" "' ...... , ...., .,., e "' .,., ...., "M ., "' M "' u 0 "' 0 "'� 0 ...., e .c .,., "' "' "' "' e a u "' M M ., ,.., Cl)'"'QJ QJ .... "u ...... � u "' � "' " "' ObO :F. N� u Z "M " u u "' c c ., " M � ) QJ c c ., "' "' "" u ., ., ) ., ., -So z 0 u ... 0 :.: � :.: "M p., 0 0 ...., "' p., p., JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY 11. I 3.9 7. 5 13. 1 2.8 8.9 5. 1 - 3.3 - -0.8 - 95+ JUNE 11. 5 3.7 7.6 14. 4 1. 9 7.5 5.6 - 4. 7 17.4 -0.5 22. 8 152.4 38.6 21 0 17 - 37 JULY 12. 1 2.6 7. 5 13.9 0.8 9.4 4. 7 - 6.9 18. 7 - 3.0 22.8 - 48.4 9.9 12 0 29+ ------56.6 14.0 5.8 AUGUST 11. 7 3.5 7. 6 13. 9 1. 7 7.5 5.8 -4.4 18.6 -1. 7 23.6 113.9 17.8 19 0 27+ ------57. 7 8. 1 87. 1 SEPTEMBER 12.6 2.7 7.7 14.0 0.3 9.7 5.4 -6.8 21.4 - 2.8 25 .6 126. 1 25. 7 19 0 24+ - - 34 ------56.6 15.5 89 . 7 - - - OCTOBER 11. 7 3. 9 7. 8 13.9 0.6 10.0 5.3 - 3.1 18. 2 -0.2 24 .4 - 315 .3 32.3 13 0 7+ - - - 38. 9 0 273.6 ------NOVEMBER 11. 4 4.1 7.7 14.0 -0.2 8.9 6.2 - 9.1 - -0.3 - 237.9 34. 3 25 1 15 - - - 17.8 0 201.9 DECEMBER - 4. 1 ------o. 7 "' .. '""' '""' .. '""' "'a z (")0 "' "' (") 0 .... .,, c: '"" "' "' ;:i"' "' .... ?'"" §2"' � (")� "' 10 ;;J "'0 "' 2"' H "' c: "' .... r c: "'s s"' "' �'"" "' "' "'s �'"" "' - - - - .., ::: 0 :::> 0 0 Mean max ...., N .., - ...... , ...., ...., ...., � � � I I Mean min � "' .... ;,., 0 00 "' "' ...... :-" ( )/ ;,., :0 ...., :0 ...., .., I I �lax & min 2 - - 0 ...., ;:; ...., N ...., I Highest max :,, � :,, I N N '."' N :- :- :,, I I Lowest min 00 00 :-" .... 00 00 ...... , ...., ;,., :.,, I Lowest max "' s 'O"' � "' "' "' "' "' ... I Highest min � 0 .... - - :0 "� c... I I I I I I "' 0 N ...., N "' N ;,., :.,, - - ;,., I Lowest min soil surface 0 no - "' ;; :::; 00 00 .... I Mean max soil surface ;,., ...., 0 :0 � 00 I I 0 0 :- 0 0 N I Mean min soil surface � - N .... 0 :.,, I N N N N N .... 0 :- � "' ...., ...., ;,., :,, :.,, I I I Highest max soil surface I l�z 0 Lake water "'H I ...., "' N N N "' :; 00"' "'� "'0 � Rainfall (mm) (") I I r ...., :,, 0 ;,., N + + H �.... - - - ...., ...., N "' ...., ...., "' � � ...., Greatest daily :.,, :,, - I "' 0 00 rainfall (mm) c: - N N N 00 "' .... N I Number of rain days � � '+ + ;!;! 0 0 0 ...., I N Days summit snow "'� .... N - Frost change days , N .... � "' :::; I I .,, + + + ground surface H z ..0 Mean daily sun (% of possible) 2 0"' Mean daily sun (hours I day) Cloudless days Lowest R.H. Number of days with R.H. minimum 20- 29% 30- 39% 40- 49% 50-59% 60-69% 70-79% 80- 89% 90-100% "' ...., "' "' � � :::; Potential evapotrans- I I ;,., - :,, - 00 piration N � N 0 :.,, 0 I I I Potential water deficit .., N N .... "'a: N 00 ? I I Potential water surplus ...., "' '!' I £9 " z 0 "' '"" '"" '"" "' 0 n "' E: c: ;:; t:l n < >-l "' Cl fi z "' "' ii; "' "' "' "' H "' :;:: :;:: "'0 "'>-l "'c: � "'n c: "' '" "' t""' � c: "' "' "' >-l > s;"' "' "' "'63 "' � ::: ::: ::: I Mean max I CX> "' "' '-" " w w w w w Mean min ;., "' � "' "' I I :" __, :" :" __, __, "' I I I (Max & min) /2 - - _,,_ '-" ::;; w j;'. _,,_ I I I Highest max 0 ;,_, � CX> 0 I I I 0 0 0 - 0 - I I Lowest min � - - 0 Oo 0 >-l ro "' "' __, CX> "' "' s I I Lowest max " CX> __, 0 ,_ ro � "' "' '-" __, '-" '-" � I Highest min c ,_ � "' ;,_, � ro I I I I I I o N '-" w _,,_ _,,_ Lowest min soil surface n CX> - - - "' CX> '-" CX> "' CX> I Mean max soil surface CX> __, CX> I I I I - 0 ? ? 0 0 Mean min soil surf ace 0 "' - "' w CX> N N - N N N N w "' _,,_ "' !" !" I I Highest max soil surface :0 w __, w I�"' "z Lake wa ter I w N - N "' _,,_ 0 00 0 w 1: __, 0 "' CX> I I Rainfall (mm) � ?' n CX> - N 0 w N t""' + H '-" ;; _,,_ -N "'w N ';;'. 0 N N Greatest daily "'>-l - - "' I I Oo _,,_ 0 rainfall (mm) "' N N - _,,_ "' N :;; :::; 0 I I I Number of rain days + + I "' Days summit snow :;; "' CX> - Frost change days , '-" - CX> CX> CX> :::; I + + I I ground surface "' H "z _,,_ '-" '-" '-" "' Mean daily sun '-" "' _,,_ - ( % of possible) Ii w w N N Mean daily sun '-" I I 0 ._,, � � I (hours/day) 0 0 0 N '-" _,,_ I I I Cloudless days '-" _,,_ w w w _,,_ '-" '-" 0 0 '-" N I I I Lowest R.H. Number of days with R.H. minimum 0 0 0 0 0 0 I I I I I 20-29% '-" 0 0 N N 0 I I 30-39% 0 N w N N w I I 40-49% "' - CX> w _,,_ I I 50-59% '-" - '-" � _,,_ � I I I 60-69% - CX> _,,_ w w CX> _,,_ I I I 70-79% 0 N N 0 I I 80-89% - 0 0 0 0 0 90- 100% w w w __, '-" _,,_ Potential evapotrans- I I I w piration w _,,_ I I 0 "' - Potential water deficit - _,,_ "' N N N __, I I Potential water surplus 0 w _,,_ I f79 t:l z 0 en '-< '-< '-< "' 0 (") "' � "' � t:l"' > (") < ... "' C") ,... � "' z "' "' ... "' >< "' .... (") "' :.: 0"' "' � ,... "'� El "' "' ...en "'6i "' "' iil>< "' "' "'6i iil>< "' - :::: :::: ;::; :::: I I I Mean max 00 "' "' � w 00 w 00 w w w N w w w � I I I Mean min w ..., Oo "' 00 00 ;,_ _,,_ ..., ..., ..., ..., ..., ..., 00 I - (Max & min) / 2 "' Oo ..., - ;,_ Oo •n - - - w � w w N ; "' w I I Highest max Co N - 00 N ..., :,,_ I I I I I I N 0 0 0 0 0 Lowest min "' I ..., Oo w ;,_ ;,_, :,,_ ;,_ H 11> :; "'a 0 "' "' "' 00 ..., 0 I - Lowest max 11>" 0 ;,_, � 0 "' "' w " CT "' "' "' "' "' "' 00 "' c" I Highest min ;,_ ..., - - ..., "' ..., 11> (")Q I I I I I I I � w N "' w _,,_ N I I I I - Lowest min soil surface w :,,_ :.0 "' N I I I Mean max soil surface I I I I I - 0 0 - - - 0 "' Mean min soil surf ace 0 - - "' "' w ·�"' "' Highest max soil surface ! z s :>< Lake water "' N N w "' ..., ;::; "' _,,_ "' w 00 - (") "' 00 � w 0 ?' I I _,,_ Rainfall (mm) ,... w w ..., "' ..., w "' "' + + + ... i"' N w w N N w"' w "' ..., "' :::: - ::; Greatest daily I I I en "' - w ex, rainfall (mm) c:: N - N �"' :;; :::;; :;; "' I I "' _,,_ w Number of rain days >< + + + + + + + . :;; "' Days summi t snow "' - N Frost change days , "' "' ;::; - I I "' .... + � + :i: + + ground surf ace z t:l > "' "' w Mean daily sun I I I 00 ( % of possible) I� Mean daily sun (hours/day) Cloudless days _,,_ "' w w _,,_ w "' w 00 w I Lowest R.H. Number of days with R.H. minimum 0 0 0 0 I I I 0 20-29% 0 0 � 0 I 0 30-39% � 0 w I w I 0 40-49% "' "' I I w 50-59% - N :; 60-69% - "' N N "' I 70-79% 0 _,,_ 0 I 0 I w 80-89% - 0 0 0 I 0 I I 90- 100% Potential evapotrans- piration Potential wa ter deficit Potential water surplus I S9 "' APPENDIX 6: CLIMATE SUMMARY , 1970, PINDAUNDE "' Temperature 0c "' "' <) "' "' <) '-' " <) <) "' I .... " � "' ... Ul Ul <) .-< ...... � ... " Ul c .... 0. " ...... " "� "' " "' c� c Ul "'§ e "' ...... Ul " " Ul "" �c "'<) " "' "� "' " ...... "' " ... "' "' "' c '-' x c x c Ul Ul Ul "" Ul.-< Ul " "' ... " "" Ul ...... -< .-< ::a.. � c ... .D "' "" "" . .... 0 0 x " -;: e 6 .... .-< .-< ..... � ! "" . ... '-' "' ... " .... "' "" "' SN NNNNNN 0 0...... 0 ...... 0 .-< "' Oil" .-< Ul .., ._ Ul ... °' °' 0\ °' °' "' � � "' .... • "''-' "' e 6 '-' '-' '-' '-' Ul 0 0 Ul 3 .-< ...... c Ul .... Ul Ul Ul '-' 0 NM..;1"V'\..0,...._ 00 � > "' '-' '-' � Ul Ul Ul Ul Ul Ul .-< Ul"' "' "' 0 "' ... "' Ul "' I I I I I I I I "' ... "' c c "' "' "' "' "' c x "' ., ...... <: "" "" 0. """ .-< "' ... . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .... 3 "' .<: .... x c "' � '-' c 0 Ul <) c "" "'""N M ..;1" V'\ ...0 ,...._00 "' "' .<: 3 3 ...... "i " c ... c " .-< 0. � "' x Oil 0 0 Oil e "' c _g � .D "' .-< .... � ;.: .... ,.., ,.., .... e � ,.., .... "' "' ... Ul '-' 0 "' 0 .. � 0 ,.., .... "' "' "' "' '-' � '-' ...... "' " Ul ... "' .-< '-' ...... Ul c " Ul � '-' .D "' 0 Oil � u z§ -5.... " '-' '-' "' "' "' e "' ... ;.:� 3 c g .... � .<: " � Ii "' 0 � � Oil z 0 '-' '-' ,.., .... 0. 0 0 "' 0. 0. JANUARY * FEBRUARY 8. 3 3.8 6.1 11. l 1.7 5.6 5.3 50 0 0 0 3 0 MARCH APRIL 13.3 4.3 8.8 1 3 . 9 -0 .6 11.l 6.7 184.6+ 46.5 18 0 45 0 0 5 6 0 0 MAY 11.9 4.9 8.4 13.9 2.8 9.8 6. 1 239.l 35 .8 17+ 0 45 0 0 0 JUNE 12.l 3.9 8.0 13.9 1.3 9.4 6.0 -3 .5 21.l 1.3 29 .4 112.0 27 .7 15+ 0 5 25 0 3 4 11 6 0 JULY 10.9 3.4 7. 1 14.3 0.7 7.8 5.6 -4 .5 18 .2 0.2 23.3 107.3 17.3 21+ lo+ 30 4 5 3 0 AUGUST 11.5 2.8 7. 1 13 .4 0.8 9.7 5.2 -4 .3 20. 7 -1.3 27 .0 6.9 21. 3 13+ 15+ 30 0 6 4 0 0 SEPTEMBER 11.7 3.7 7.7 14. l 1.7 6.8 5.3 -3. l 20 .2 0.5 27.0 144 . 9 40.9 23 10 35 0 6 0 OCTOBER 11. l 4.2 7. 7 13.4 2.8 9.3 6.2 -0.7 18.2 1. 7 23.9 134.3+ 41.7 lo+ O? l+ 45 0 0 NOVEMBER 12.4 3. 7 8.1 14.2 0. 1 8.4 5.6 -0. 7 19.9 1.7 25.9 210. 7 41 .9 17+ 2+ 30 0 6 0 DECEMBER 13.2 4.3 8. 7 14 .2 3. 1 12.3 5.0 -0.3 21.l 1.6 22 . 3 23.9+ 23.4 2+ l+ * See footno te to App endix 1 "' "' z 0 "' > <.... <.... 0 > (") (") t'1 c '° t'1 0 t'1 c c __,- ;) ..., .,, "' "' __, ..., "' "' < r"' "'§i ..., 1 t'1 0 ..., c �H I:;;N "'0 "'c - "' t'1 "' � r t'1 "' ..., t'1 ..., ill"' "'� t'1"' "';<: "' "' "' t'1ill t'1"' "' - N ;::; - N - - - I I Mean max .c- .c- "' .c- N w w w .c- .c- I I I Mean min ;,_ - __, ;,, ;,_ "' ;-' __, ;-' "' __, I (Max & Min) /2 "' "' 0 '° 0 - .c- "'- w- t;; w � I Highest max ;,_ 0 ;,, 0 '° I 0 0 ' 0 0 I I Lowest min ;,, 0 ;,, "' "' ..., - ro "' "' '° __, "' = I ' I LowesL max "O :,, w "' "' '° ro'"' " '"' "' "' "' "' __, Highest min c'"' ro Lowest min soil surface I 0 Mean max soil surfacf: Mean min soil surf ace Highest max soil surface - 0 0 0 0 ' 0- - Lake water '° '° N N N N __, "' .c- N N 0 w - __, "' "' w .c- N '; - 0 - Rainfall (mm) - __, "' '° "' __, __, .c- (") + I II � + r H N N N w "' w N "' .c- "' N "' "' __, "' 0 Greatest daily "',_,� "' ;_.., .c- __, � ;,_, rainfall (mm) "' N - "' .c- '° ; '; 0 .c-- Number of rain days � + + + + I ""' 0 0 0 0 w N I I Days summit snow :;; Frost change days , __, N w :::; "' ' + + ground surface I '° __, Mean daily sun N ( % of possible) "' H Mean daily sun "'z (hours/day) "' Cloudless days t'1� Lowest R.H. Number of days with R.H. minimum 20-29% 30-39% 40-49% 50-59% 60-69% 70-79% 80-89% 90- 100% Potential evapotrans- piration Potential water deficit Potential water surplus L9 APPENDIX 8: PINDAUNDE, 3480m. TEMPERATURE, 'c, DATA FOR 1966 Month 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23° 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 mean "' "' MAY 1 11.1 10. 8 11.1 11.1 13. 1 11. 7 12. 8 11. 1 8. 9 9. 2 11.1 2 4.4 3.9 4.4 3.9 2.8 2.8 3.1 3.8 5.1 5.0 3.9 3 4 -2 .2 0.0 -1 .7 -1.7 -2 .8 -1 .7 1.1 0.0 3.6 -0. 6 -3. 3 -1.7 -2 .2 -1.7 1.1 1.1 -0 .8 JUNE 11. 9 11. 1 11 .7 12. 8 13. 9 13. 9 14. 2 12.2 14. 2 9. 2 12. 3 12. 5 12. 2 11.9 10. 0 12. 8 9. 7 10. 0 10. 0 8.3 9. 7 8. 3 7. 5 8. 9 12. 5 11. 9 13. 9 14. 4 13. 9 13. 1 11.6 3. 3 5. 6 3.6 5.0 2.8 3.2 3.3 3. 1 3.9 2 .8 4 .4 3. 9 3.1 3. l 3. 5 4. 2 3.1 2. 2 l.9 5. 6 3.6 5. 3 5. 3 4. 7 4. 4 3. 6 2. 8 5. 6 2. 8 2. 8 3.7 22. 8 20. 0 18. 3 16. 4 18. 3 14. 4 15. 6 17. 5 17. 2 16. 7 12. 2 12. 2 13. 3 17. 8 18. 9 19. 7 17. 8 21 .1 21 .1 17. 4 o. 5 2. 2 2.2 -4 .7 -4 .4 -2 .2 -1 .9 0.3 -2 .2 -0 .8 -0 .8 -1. 9 -4 .4 -2 .2 2 .8 -1. 9 -2. 2 -2 .8 3. 9 o.o 4.4 3. 9 3 .9 l. 9 -2. 5 -1. 7 l.4 -2 .8 -2 . 5 -0 .5 JULY 13. 6 12. 2 13. 3 11. 9 12. 2 12. 2 13. 6 9. 4 11.9 11 .1 11. 4 11 .1 13. 9 11.9 11. 7 13. 1 12.5 12. 5 12. 2 11. 4 11. 7 12. 5 12. 9 12.5 12. 8 12. 2 10. 0 12. 1 0.8 2. 2 l. l 1.4 2. 5 2. 5 2. 5 2. 2 l. 7 4.7 2. 5 3.9 3. 6 3. l 2.5 2. 5 3 .3 2.5 2 .8 4. 7 3. 9 3 .6 3.1 3.3 2. 2 l.7 3.1 3.3 3.3 2.8 19. 4 21 .1 19. 7 17. 8 18.1 18. 1 22. 2 10. 0 18. 3 15. 6 19. 7 15. 6 20. 3 18. 1 17. 2 21 . 4 18. 9 19. 7 20. 3 16. 4 21 . 7 19. 2 22. 8 20 . 6 19. 2 15. 6 16. 7 18. 7 -4 . 4 -4 . 2 -3. 6 -5. 6 -3 . 3 -3. 3 -3. 3 -4 . 4 -5 . 5 -1 . 7 -3 . 3 - 1.9 -1 . 9 -2. 8 -2 . 2 -2 . 8 -2 .2 -2 .8 -2 . 2 -2. 2 -0 .5 -2 .2 -2. 2 -3 . 3 -3. 9 -6. 9 -2.2 -0. 6 -2 .2 -3.0 AUGU ST 11. 7 ]?,.2 11. 7 12. 5 13. 3 12. 8 9. 4 12. 2 12. 8 12. 5 11.1 11. 9 7. 5 12. 8 11. 7 10. 0 11. 1 8. 5 10. 5 10. 5 12. 2 12.8 13. 3 11. 9 13. 1 1]. 7 11. 7 11. 4 12. 8 13. 9 11. 7 3. 6 3. 3 3. 3 4 .4 3. 3 4. 2 3. 3 4 .4 3.1 2. 8 3. 3 2 .8 2. 2 3 .6 3. l 3.6 3. 9 5 .8 4 .4 3.9 3.3 2.8 2. 2 4. 4 l.7 4. 2 3.6 3. 6 4 .4 3.5 18. 3 16. 7 16. 9 21 .1 21. 7 19. 2 15. 6 22. 2 23. 6 19. 4 17. 2 20 .3 9. 7 21 . 4 15. 6 15. 6 17. 8 12. 5 17. 8 15. 6 20. 0 18. 3 23. 3 19. 4 19. 4 20 . 0 16. 7 14. 7 23. 3 23. 6 18. 6 -1. 9 -1. 7 -2 . 2 o.o -4 . 4 -1 . 7 -0. 6 -1 . 7 -3. 3 -3. 3 -2 .5 -2. 5 -2 .8 -2 . 2 -2 .8 -1 .l -0.5 2 .2 3.3 -0 .8 -1 .l -2 .8 -3. 3 -1. 7 -3. 6 -1. l -2. 2 -2. 2 -0 .6 -1. 7 SEPTEMBER 1 12. 2 12. 8 12. 8 13. 1 13. 3 12. 2 13. 3 13. 5 JJ. 3 13. 3 11 .2 12. 3 13. 7 11. 5 9. 7 14. 0 13.4 12. 5 13. 2 11. 3 11. 3 12.8 12. 9 11.1 12. 3 12. 5 13. 1 12. 9 11. 7 13. 4 12. 6 2. 2 3. l 1.1 1.4 1.1 o.3 3. 9 2. 2 3. 3 l.4 l.4 3. l 2. 5 l.2 l . 9 4. 0 2.4 2. 7 5. 4 3.8 3.0 2.4 3.1 3. 3 3. 1 2.8 4.8 2. 9 3.5 4. 2 2.7 19. 4 20. 8 21 . 9 23. 3 22 .2 23. 3 23. 3 25. 6 23 .9 21 . 7 19. 7 22 .2 23. 3 17. 2 18. 5 25. 5 24. 2 23. 9 20. 6 19 . 7 17.1 18. 7 19. 4 18. 5 21 .1 21 . 6 21 .9 19. 7 21. 7 23. 5 21. 4 -2. 8 -1. 9 -4 .4 -5. 0 -5 .0 -6 .l -2 .8 -3 . 3 -1. 9 -3. 9 -4 .4 -2 .2 -2 .8 -6 .8 -3. 3 l.6 -2 . 5 -2 .8 0.1 -0. 5 -2 . 2 -2 . 7 -2 . 5 -2 . 5 -2. 5 -2 .8 0. 1 -2 .8 OCTOBER 11. 7 12. 2 11. 9 10. 6 12. 3 11. 7 12. 0 10. 0 � 13. 9 10. 5 11. 3 11.4 11. 2 12. 9 12. 5 11.7 3. 3 3. 4 3. 7 2. 6 5. 3 4. 4 4. 3 4.4 4. 2 3.6 ��- ��- o. 6 4.3 4. 6 4. 9 4.4 5.1 3.9 19. 9 20. 0 18. 8 13. 2 19. 2 20. 7 16. 1 16. 1 � 24. 4 16. 4 19. 2 16. 2 14. 7 20. 0 18. 2 -1. l -2. 2 -3 . l -2. 8 4. l o. 9 -1. l 0.2 -0 .4 -1 . 7 o. 5 l. 4 o. 7 o.o 1.2 -0 .2 NOVEMBER 1 14. 0 10. 7 11. 7 10. 7 11. 2 12. 4 13. 0 12. 2 10. 4 12. 0 12. 1 10. 5 10. 7 8. 9 12. 1 13. 6 11 .2 10. 0 11.9 12. 5 10. 6 12. 4 8. 9 11.5 11. 6 13. 1 11. 2 12. 0 10. 3 10. 0 11. 4 2 4.3 -0. 2 3.4 4.8 6.2 3.4 3.8 4.0 5.0 2.6 3.2 4. 6 4. 5 3. 8 4. 7 3.1 2.4 5.2 5.6 4.0 5.4 4.7 5.1 4. 2 5. 3 4. 1 5.7 2.8 4.5 2. 9 4. 1 3 4 -3.3 -9 .l -1 .6 0.2 2.5 -1.6 1.1 -1 .3 2.4 -2 .2 -1.l 3.4 1.1 -1 .0 3.9 -2 .2 -4 .0 2. 7 0.5 -1 . 7 l.7 o.o o. 3 l.7 4. l -0 .4 -0 .9 -2 .2 0.3 -2 . 6 -0 .3 DECEMBER 1 2 4.1 4.0 4.1 3 4 1. 1 o. 3 0.7 screen max ; screen min ; 3 = ground max ; ground min APPENDIX 9: PINDAUNDE , 3480m, TEMPERATURE , 'C, DATA FOR 1967 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 mean 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Month l 2 3 4 ) 0 0 , 10. 9 MARCH 12.3 9. 5 11. 8 11. 2 10. 8 9. 5 11. 8 8. 5 8. 5 10. 7 13. 9 11. 7 12. 5 11. 4 8. 5 9. 4 11. 4 11 .1 11. 8 10.9 12. 3 10. 4 11. 4 9. 2 5. 9 4. 6 3. 9 4. 6 5. 4 5. 3 5. 3 3. 4 [. 9 4. 8 5. 3 5. 8 5. 0 5.6 5.0 5. 3 5. 6 4. l 5. 8 4.4 4.5 4. 5 5. 0 5.2 16.4 18. 2 15. 1 16. 4 23. 0 15. 4 16. 2 20. 6 17. 8 15. 0 11.4 15. 6 18. 7 23. 5 21. 1 19. l 19. 6 20 .3 20. 2 15. 4 18. 3 14. 6 2.3 2. 0 0. 8 3. 4 4. 6 [. 8 4. l o. 6 -2. 6 2. 5 4. 8 3.3 4 .4 2. 2 1.1 5.1 0.6 [. 7 2.0 4.0 4. 4 AP RIL 9. 6 10. 7 9.2 11. 2 9. 7 10. 8 9. 8 10. 0 11.1 12. 6 12. 8 12. 4 11.2 12. 5 9. 7 10. 8 9. 7 11. 3 9. 5 11. 8 10.9 12. 2 8. 3 8. 4 8.4 10. 0 11. 2 10. 9 10. 5 11. 3 12. 4 4.4 3. 2 4. 1 3. 8 5. 2 4.0 4 .1 3. 1 2. 7 3. 2 4. 9 5. 2 5. 2 3. 1 2. 2 3.1 4.6 4.4 4. 1 3. 6 2.3 4 .1 5. 8 5.1 6 .1 5 .1 5.4 3. 3 [. 9 3. 9 3. 6 15. 2 18. 4 15. 4 17. 0 16. 8 16. 7 17. 0 15. 0 16. 9 24. 3 21. 3 22. 1 16. 9 20. 0 15. 3 20. 2 14. 6 19. 2 18. 0 22. 3 22 .1 26. 8 15. 3 14. 1 13. 9 16.4 13. 5 16.9 21 . 3 25. 3 22. 5 -2. l 0.4 -1.0 5. 1 o.o o. 4 -0 .6 -2 .1 -0 .5 -0. 7 1. 7 5.1 -1.0 -1 . l -1.4 -0 . 9 0.4 -1. 0 [. 7 -6.0 -3. 3 -1. 4 4.4 1. 9 2. 6 4. 1 2. 3 -1 . 7 -3. 4 0.6 -0 . l 8. 9 7. 4 11. 1 MAY 11. 9 13. 12. 2 10. 1 10. 8 11.9 11.1 10. 1 11. 8 8. 9 10. l 8. 9 7. 3 12. 1 11. 8 13. 1 13. 1 12. 8 12. 5 13. 4 10. 2 10. 9 10. 9 12. 9 12. 2 11.1 12. 8 l 11. 9 8. 6 4 5. 7 4. 7 3. 6 4. 5 2. 7 4.6 3. 7 5.6 4 .4 4 .6 3. 9 4.7 4 .4 4.1 5. 3 6.1 5.1 5. 6 5. 5. 3 5.8 3. 9 5. 6 4. 2 3 .4 3. 5 3.8 3. 2 4.3 4 .4 5.6 4.5 14. 7 15. 2 18. 9 21. 2 26. 3 20. 3 17. 7 16. 7 19. 1 14. 4 17. 4 22. 4 15. 8 17. 4 21. 1 15. 4 16. 4 24 . 6 20. 1 19. 2 21 . 4 20. 6 17.6 15. 0 15. 8 23. 2 20 . 4 22 .2 23 . 9 19. 9 13. 3 15. 7 5. 6 3. 9 2. 3 0.6 -1. l o. 7 -1.0 -1. l 2. 2 -1 . 8 -1 . 6 -1. 6 o.o -1. l -0 .3 1. 7 3.1 1.8 1.7 4. 9 2. 4 [. 7 -1. l 3. 4 o. 3 -2 .1 -1. 0 -1 . 0 -0 . 7 -0 .l -0.4 2.2 JUNE 10. 8 10.9 11. 4 12. 8 11. 4 12. 2 11. 4 10. 3 12. 8 12. 6 9. ? 12. 4 12. 2 11. 3 12. 5 11. 8 11. 3 9. 6 9. 6 8. 4 7. 3 11. 2 11. 2 9. 7 10. 7 12. 1 11. 6 10. ? 9. 3 8. 6 9. 6 3. 4 3. 6 3.0 3. 4 3. 7 3. 2 5. 7 2. 7 2. 9 4. 5 4 .1 3. 7 3 .6 2. 9 2.6 3. 2 3. 7 4. 7 3 .1 4.2 3. 2 5. l 3. 4 4. 4 4.6 4. 7 4 .8 3. 9 2. 2 3. 1 3. 9 17. 6 17. 0 21 . 3 17. 8 17.6 16. 4 15. 8 16. 4 21 .1 13. 7 21 .1 20. 1 18. l 19. 9 17. 2 15. 2 16. 2 14. 2 9. 3 18. 3 19. 3 13. 7 12. 6 19. 3 17. 3 15. 9 14.9 19. 6 13. 2 18. 7 16. 9 -1. 6 -2. l -1. 9 -1. 5 -1. 2 -1. 3 -1.0 -2 . 3 -3 .1 0. 4 -2 .3 -2 . 8 -1. 9 -2 . 7 -3 . l -2 . 2 -2. l -0. l -). 2 [. 0 -0. 7 -1. 0 -0. 6 2 .1 4.5 3. 8 1.4 -1. l -2 . 4 -1. 7 -0 .8 JULY 11. l 10. 8 10. 2 11. 2 8. 4 13. 1 11. ? 10. 3 8. 8 10. 3 10. 2 8. 3 8. 6 5.0 4. 7 3.6 3. 8 3. 8 4. 3 2. 2 4. 7 2 . 8 2. 8 3. 2 3. 2 3. 9 3. 2 3. 2 16. 4 17. 8 16. 3 14. 6 15. 1 15. 7 11. ? 15. 6 20 .? 16. 6 15. 1 16. 2 17. 0 18. 9 - 4.4 3. 6 -0. l o. 2 -2. 5 2. 7 -1. 6 -2 .0 -2 . 2 -1 . 7 -1. l -0 . 8 AUGUST 9. 3 1 9 . 4 10. 3 8. 1 - 3. 4 2 4.4 3. l 2.8 16. 3 3 15. 6 17. 2 16.1 - 0. 4 4 2. 2 -0 .6 -0.3 screen max; 2 = screen min ; 3 :::::: ground max ; 4 = ground min "' "' APPENDIX 10: PINDAUNDE, 3480m, TEMPERATURE, o C DATA FOR 1968 -.J 0 Month l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 mean JULY 1 12. 9 11. 9 10. 7 9.4 9. 6 10. 8 12. 1 11. 3 12. 7 11. 8 10. 1 10. 2 13. 0 10. 2 10. 7 11. 7 14. 3 11. 4 2 - - 2. l 4. 6 1.0 5. 2 3. 4 3. 2 4. 2 3. 3 l. 8 2. 7 2. 7 4. 7 3. 8 4. l 5. l 3.8 4. 2 4. 2 3. 6 3 19. 3 17. 7 17. 6 15. 8 15. 8 15. 0 14. 1 16. 6 19 . 2 20. 1 20. 1 21. 7 20. 1 22. 2 22. 3 22. 2 22. 2 16. 8 - 18. 8 4 -2. 4 -4. 3 o. l -0. 5 -1. 4 -1. 2 -0 .4 -3. 3 -3. 2 -2. 3 3. 3 -2. 3 -0. 7 2. 2 -0. 3 3. 6 -0. l - -0. 8 AUGUST 1 12. 6 12. 4 12. 3 10. 1 9. 9 .9 . 9 14. 0 13. 3 11. 3 11. 3 9. 7 9. 0 12. 6 JO. 0 12. 8 12. 7 12. 2 11. 2 9 . 8 9. 0 11. 3 2 - 1. 4 5. l 5. 3 5. 5 4. 7 4. 6 3. 3 5. 7 5. 7 4. 6 4. 7 5. 5 5. 9 -0. 8 3. 8 2. 2 l. l 2. 4 4. 7 3. 1 2. 4 3. 9 3 22. 2 17. 9 16. 9 16. 7 20. 3 15. 1 15. 1 13. 3 12. 8 17. 2 13. 7 13. 8 13. 5 22. 7 17. 1 16. 9 16. 7 22. 2 16. 1 16. 1 20. 2 13. 5 16. 8 4 l. 3 l. 4 3.4 1.0 0.6 -1. 8 4. 2 1. 2 3. 3 0.9 l. 8 1.6 -4. 7 -3. 5 -3. 5 -3. 6 -3. 6 1.9 -2. 4 -4. 7 -0. 3 SEPTEMBER 1 10. 5 12. 9 13. 2 12. 3 12. 3 12. 3 10. 4 9.6 12. 0 10. 9 11. 7 12. 2 13. 0 12. 1 10. 1 10. 1 8. 7 9. 6 10. 1 9. 3 13. 8 13. 8 13. 8 11. 7 10. 9 10. 8 11. 5 2 5. 9 6.0 4.4 l. 7 3. 4 2. 3 2. 7 2. 6 3.0 7. 6 2. 3 2. 4 2. 7 4. 9 4. 6 1. 8 4. 5 3. 7 4. 7 4. 3 3. 5 l. 0 4. 6 2. l 4. 4 2.4 3. 4 3 - 23. 3 23. 6 23. 7 21. 6 14. 6 22. 2 15. 5 14. 6 15. 4 20. 3 17.9 17. 9 23. 2 15. 5 18. 3 15. 6 15. 7 15. 6 14. 9 18. 7 1 8. 9 24.9 19. 8 21. 1 19. 1 14. 4 18. 7 4 1. 6 - 1.0 -0. 4 -5. l -0. 8 -2. 8 -1. 7 -2. 3 -1.6 -1. 7 -1. 9 -1. 8 -1. 7 2. 2 l. 9 -4. 8 l. 4 -0. l -0. 6 1. 7 -l. 8 -1. 6 o.o -2.6 l. 3 -1. 9 -0. 9 OCTOBER 1 11. 8 12. 9 15. 5 13. 2 13. 2 12. 6 12. 4 9. 6 11. 6 9. J 7. 8 10. 7 10. 7 11. 6 2. 9 3. 7 3. 3 3. 3 3.4 3. 4 -0. l 4. 6 3. 4 4. 2 5. 4 3. 8 4. 5 - 4. 7 3. 6 14. 4 17. 6 19 . 3 14. 9 15. 7 14. 6 18. 7 19 . 3 12. 3 19. 3 15. 1 11. 0 14.6 14. 7 15. 8 - !. 8 -0. 8 -0.7 -1. 2 o.o -2 . l -3. l I. 4 -0.4 -1.8 3. 7 2. 4 2. 3 - 0.2 -0. l NOVEMBER 1 9. 3 11. 7 12. 2 11. 7 12. 8 11. 1 10. 0 10. 0 11. 1 12. 9 12. 6 15. 2 11. 6 11. 7 12.9 11. 4 11. 3 10. 1 9. 4 11. 1 11. 2 13. 0 11. 7 9. 3 11. 6 11. 2 9. 6 13. 2 14.0 12. 3 11. 6 2 4. 3 5. 6 3.1 3. l 3. 3 3. 3 5.0 6. 7 3. 9 4. 4 3. 7 3. 8 4. 9 3. 4 3. 7 2. 8 O. l 2. 9 3. 7 4. 9 3.0 3. 3 3. 3 5 . 8 4.6 3.8 3. 3 4. 9 4. 2 3. 6 3.9 3 17. 8 16. 8 16. 7 22. 8 22. 8 22. 8 23. 3 23. 9 17. 3 14. 6 14. 2 14. 2 16. 6 18. 8 20. 1 20. 1 14. 6 14. 1 14. 9 17. .J 14. 5 18. 8 21. 4 21. 6 1 8. 2 14.9 14. 9 21. 6 18. 7 18. 2 4 3.4 3. 9 0.6 o.6 3. 9 o.o - 3. 6 -1. 9 2. 2 -0. 6 -0. 7 -!. 3 -3. 3 -3. l 0. 1 2. 7 -!. 2 -!. 4 -1. 9 4.0 1.6 1. 9 -0. 8 3. 0 0. 1 0.2 - 0. 6 DECEMBER 1 14. 0 12. 3 11. 7 11. 1 12. 3 9. 2 12. 4 11. 2 10. 3 11. 7 12. 8 11. 6 11.6 11. 1 11. 8 11. 4 10. 4 12. 4 11. 6 11. 8 11. 8 12. 9 12. 4 13. 2 11. 8 2 3. 7 4.9 4. l 2. 7 4. 4 3. 2 4. l 3. 8 4.4 2. 9 3. 8 5 . 0 5.0 6. 2 6. 2 4. 7 4. 1 2. 7 3. 8 0.4 4. 3 5. 4 3. 8 4 .4 3. 8 4. 6 4.0 4. 1 3 16. 6 13. 8 14. 7 17. 0 14. 7 17. 9 11. 8 22. 3 18. 7 17. 1 16. 7 16. 8 16. 8 11. 2 16. 8 16. 8 12. 5 15. 3 19. J 15. 5 16. 9 15. 2 14. 8 17. 6 18. 3 17. 3 19. 7 16. 4 4 0. 1 1. 2 1. 2 -2. l o. 9 o. 2 0.3 0. 1 1. 8 o. 2 0.4 o. 6 -1. 4 4. 7 4. 7 -0. 3 -0. l I. 0 -o. 5 0.0 3. 8 2. 1 1.4 l. 3 4.0 0.2 O. l I. 0 screen max ; 2 = screen min ; 3 = ground max ; 4 = ground min APPENDIX 11: PINDAUNDE, 3480m, TEMPERATURE, 'c, DATA FOR 1969 Month 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 mean JANUARY 1 11. 4 11. 3 11. 2 11. 3 11. 3 11.2 11. 2 11. 3 11. 5 11.4 11. 9 12. 6 12. 5 11.0 11. 5 11. 2 11. 2 10. 1 13. 1 10. 2 11. 8 12. 1 12. 3 13. 3 13. 2 13. 4 13. 0 11. 8 2 4. 1 4. 4 2. 7 5.8 5. 2 5. 1 4. 7 4. 3 2. 9 5.6 5. 2 3.0 3. 7 4.9 4.5 4. 9 4. 6 4. 7 5. 1 4.0 3. 9 3. 9 4.6 6. 7 3. 7 3.4 3.5 4.4 3 19. 7 18. 4 10. 6 22. 2 12. 9 14. 4 15. 6 23. 6 15. 2 17. 2 14. 1 15. 2 21.9 23. 0 18. 4 19.9 12. 9 12. 8 14. 3 14. 8 14. 7 16. 2 19.8 19. 7 19. 6 18. 7 18.9 17. 2 4 I.8 1. 4 -1.4 4.3 3. 4 4. 0 0. 7 0.2 -0. 4 3.4 2. 3 -2 .0 -2.1 2.9 -0. 8 3.6 1.0 I.I 1.3 I. 2 0.6 0. 1 0. 2 0. 1 0. 1 -0. 4 o. 7 o. 9 MAY 16. 7 12. 1 10. 3 11. 1 11. 7 12. 0 12. 3 12. 6 12. 3 -0. 6 5.6 4.4 4.2 3. 7 3.8 3. 8 3.6 JUNE 11.0 12. 9 11. 3 13. 3 14. 2 12. 7 12. 1 13. 3 11. 8 11. 1 13. 1 12. 9 13. 0 13. 1 11. 7 11. 1 8. 9 7. 5 11. 1 10. 7 11. 7 13. 4 12. 3 12. 6 12. 3 11. 2 10. 5 11. 4 11.8 11.4 11. 8 4. 2 4.4 6.2 5.2 3.4 0.3 2.9 2.2 2. 7 2.8 2.7 3.3 3.9 3.9 4.5 3. 1 5. 1 3.1 5.0 8.7 2.8 3.8 3.3 3.8 4.6 4.6 5. 1 4.9 4.6 -0.4 3.8 -I. I 3.4 0. 1 -2.2 -3. 1 -3.3 -4.2 -2. 1 -2.0 -3.5 -1.7 -0.9 -2.6 1.7 -3. 1 2.2 -1.7 0.9 -2.2 -2.8 -2. 8 -2.6 -1.7 0. 3 0.4 0.8 -1.4 -0.6 -4.0 -1. 3 JULY 12. 2 12. 1 10. 7 11. 7 12. 5 10. 3 12. 8 12. 8 8. 9 9.4 11. 9 12. 2 9. 8 12. 8 11.1 9. 2 11. 4 12. 2 11.3 2.3 - 3. 5 3. 8 2.4 3.4 4.0 0. 6 3.3 3.7 4.0 5. 1 -0. 2 2.8 3.3 -0. 1 3. 2 3.3 2.8 1.5 2.8 -3. 8 -3.9 -2.2 -2.5 -2.4 0.0 -1.4 -2.8 -I.I -1.6 3.6 -2.9 -2 .2 -2.2 -1.2 -0. 2 -2.9 -3.8 -1. 9 AUGUST 9.0 10. 6 11.2 12. 2 9.0 10. 1 11. 7 12. 3 12. 4 10. 6 12. 9 12. 7 11.9 13. 1 11. 4 3.1 - 3.8 2.3 2.4 2.8 5.0 2.3 -0.6 1.4 5.1 3.9 2. 3 3. 3 2.4 3.9 2. 9 -1.4 0.2 -3.6 -2.0 -2.2 3.4 -2.6 -5.9 -6.9 3.8 -2.2 -3.6 -2.2 -3.4 -0.5 -1.9 SEPTEMBER 1 12. 8 11. 7 13. 1 13. 2 9.5 11 .7 10. 1 10. 9 11.4 12. 7 12. 5 11. 8 10. 3 10. 1 10. 1 11. 8 11. 1 12. 4 11. 3 11. 5 2 -0.3 3.6 3.7 3.9 3. 3 3.9 6.7 6.1 5.9 5.2 3.4 4.3 3. 3 2.4 3.8 2.8 2.8 3.4 4. 4 3.8 3 4 -2. 2 -2. 4 -1. I -0. 3 -1. I -2. 1 5. 1 2. 8 3.9 2.3 0. 7 0. 3 0. 3 -1. 6 0. 1 -1. 1 -2. 1 - -1. 1 1.4 0. 1 OCTOBER 1 13. 1 11.0 11. 2 10. 6 11. 7 11.9 14. 0 11. 8 14. 8 13.4 11. 5 12. 3 12. 8 11. 7 9. 2 12. 4 11. 0 12. 8 13. 1 13. 0 12.9 10. 0 9. 7 11. 3 12. 3 10. 4 11.9 2 2.5 3. 3 4. 1 1.8 4. 1 2. 7 3.4 3.9 2.2 4.4 1.9 2.8 4.1 4.9 3.9 3.1 4.2 3.4 3. 3 3.3 5. 1 5. 1 4.8 5.6 3.4 3.7 3 4 -2.7 -0.4 0.6 -2.8 0. 7 -3. 1 -1.7 -2. 2 -3. 3 -I.I -2.8 -0.5 -1.2 3.2 2.3 3.4 2.5 -0. 3 -1.4 -1.0 2.8 3.9 3.3 1.2 -I. I -0. 1 NOVEMBER 1 10. 0 10.$ 13.0 13. 3 11.8 11. 8 2 4.6 5.2 3.3 2.2 1.6 1.8 4.6 3. 3 3 4 3.8 3.4 -0.9 -4.4 -3. 7 -4.9 -0. 2 -1.0 1 ,., screen max ; 2 • screen min ; J • ground max; 4 • ground min ..., ..... APPENDIX 12: PINDAUNDE, 3480m TEMPERATURE, 0c, DATA FOR 1970 Month 3 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 mean APRIL .... 1 18.9 12. 1 11. 7 12. 8 12. 7 13. 4 13. 9 13. 3 12. 2 13. 2 13. 2 11. 7 12. 8 12. 8 14. 4 14.2 13. 2 14. 2 13. 1 14.4 14. 4 13. 2 11. 7 13.4 11. 1 13. 3 "' 4. 3 2 -0.6 0.8 0.8 1.6 3. 6 4. 7 3. 3 4.4 4.4 4.7 5.0 4.6 5.6 4.9 4.7 6.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 4.7 5.3 6.7 6. 7 6. 1 5.6 3 4 MAY 1 10. 0 11.1 9. 8 12. 1 11. 2 10. 4 12. 2 10. 2 13. 9 13. 5 11. 2 12. 3 13. 9 11.2 12. 8 13. 4 12. 2 11. 1 12. 4 13. 2 12. 8 11.il 2 5.6 5.o 4. 1 5.8 5.3 6.1 5.5 5.6 4. 7 3. 3 3. 9 5 .o 4.8 2.8 5.6 3.9 4.3 5. 1 5.6 5.6 6. 1 4.9 3 4 JUNE 13.3 13. 9 13. 4 12. 2 13. 3 13. 3 11. 7 11. 7 11. 1 10. 3 11. 5 11. 1 10. 6 11. 7 11. 6 11.4 13.9 13. 8 11. 3 11. 4 10. 4 9. 4 12. 5 13. 0 13. 3 13. 8 13. 3 13.3 10. 0 11. 5 12. 1 3.8 4.4 3. 9 4.2 3. 7 3. 7 4.4 3.8 4.4 3. 1 3. 8 5. 3 5. 4 5.0 5.4 5.6 6.0 4.2 3.4 3. 2 2.4 4. 3 3. 1 1. 7 1. 3 2.1 2.2 3.6 4. 4 5. 8 3. 9 28.2 27. 2 23. 2 24.4 25. 7 21. 1 21 .6 16. 1 13.8 16. 1 19. 4 16. 7 23. 9 20.0 16. 7 28. 7 20. 3 15. 6 25. 9 17. 7 16. 1 29. 4 23. 3 25. 6 23. 8 22. 8 20. 6 11. 8 17.0 21. 1 3.4 3.8 2.2 1.1 0.6 1.2 0.2 2.6 0.6 3. 9 4.3 2.2 2.2 1.6 2.2 1.6 -0.6 1.4 0. 1 2.2 0.6 1.6 -3.5 -2.0 -l.9 -0. 6 o.9 4 .2 1. 3 JULY 10. 7 13. 3 13. 1 12. 4 10. 7 9.2 10. 2 9. 2 7. 8 9. 1 11. 6 10. 6 9.9 11. 7 12. 8 11.2 10. 3 10. 3 9. 9 12. 7 14. 3 9.4 10. 9 5.6 2.3 2.8 3. 3 4.5 3.3 3.4 4.6 4. 1 5.0 3.9 2.2 3.0 2.9 3.0 3.3 3. 1 3.3 2 . 8 4. l 3. 6 ------o. 7 4.2 3.4 13. 9 18. 2 20. 6 23. 0 23. 3 20. 8 11. 7 14. 3 18. 3 10. 6 15. 4 21. 6 15. 2 16. 6 18. 4 23. 3 20. 6 18. 3 17. 2 13. 2 23. 3 22. 9 4.9 -1.9 - -0. 8 -1.2 1.3 1.0 -1. l 1. 1 1.4 2.9 1.6 -0. 8 0.6 -0. 1 -l.4 -0. 2 0. 1 I. I 0.4 0. 1 !. 6 -4.5 -l.7 0.2 AUGUST 1 9. 7 10. 4 11. 7 10. 4 13. 3 12. 7 12. 7 11. 4 12. 2 12. 1 11. 7 12. 8 13. 4 13. 2 12. 8 11. 6 12. 2 12. 1 9. 8 11. 7 12. 2 11. 5 2 3. 7 3.6 1. 6 5. 2 4. 2 l. 2 3. 3 4.0 5.0 2. 3 0. 8 1. 7 2. 8 2. 2 3. 2 l.5 3.4 3. 3 2. 1 3.4 2. 1 1. 7 2. 8 3 14. 8 16. 6 15. 6 16. 1 23. 8 21. 7 22. 2 18. 2 21. l 21. l 22. 2 25. 0 23. 6 27. 0 21. 1 18. 4 23. 3 21.9 15. 3 23. 3 23. 3 20. 7 4 -0. 1 0.3 -3. 3 -0. 7 o. 5 -l. 2 o. 0 2. 8 -1. 0 -4. 3 -1. 8 -2. 3 -3. 3 -3. 2 -1.2 -l.6 -1.7 0.6 -1.8 -2.2 -l.3 SEPTEMBER 1 12. 6 12. 8 10. 6 12. 2 11. 8 12. 9 13. 3 12. 2 12. 1 11. 6 12. 3 12. 0 11.9 9. 0 10. 0 13. 3 6. 8 10. 5 11. 2 11. 8 12. 8 8. 9 11. 1 10. 6 12. 9 11. 1 12. 5 11. 7 13. 9 14. 1 11. 7 2 1. 8 1. 7 3. 7 4.3 3. 3 3.3 4.4 5.3 4.4 3.0 3.0 2.8 4.7 3. 8 4. 6 3. 3 3.3 3.3 4.4 3. 4 3.1 4.4 4.4 5 . 0 3.8 3. 4 3. 3 5.0 3.4 2.8 3. 7 3 23. 4 23. 3 20. 5 22. 2 21. 1 22. 7 23. 3 24. 4 21. 2 16. 6 23. 2 22. 3 21. 7 13. 4 14. 3 21. 1 9.9 16. 0 20. 0 22. 5 21. 7 13. 3 19. 8 18. 8 21 . 0 18. 2 19. 2 19. 6 24. 4 27. 0 20. 2 4 -3. 1 -2.8 -l.l 1.1 1.2 0.5 -0. 6 2.8 -0. 1 l. 2 0. 2. l 0.6 -1. 5 0.6 4. 1 o. 0 1. 3 I 0.4 -0. 3 1. 8 2. 7 1.1 1.1 l.O 1. 8 -0. 7 -1. l o. 5 OCTOBER 1 13. 4 10. 3 12. 2 9. 9 13. 0 12. 2 9. 3 10. 0 10. 6 10. 4 11. 2 11. l 2 4.4 4.9 3. 0 J.6 3. 4 2.8 3. 7 4.4 3. 6 5.0 6.2 5.0 4. 2 3 23.9 15. 7 19. 6 22. 2 23. 7 16. 9 12. 8 13. 2 17. 8 17.8 17.0 18. 2 4 1.7 3. 4 0.4 0. 3 0.3 -0.7 1.4 l.2 0.0 3.9 5.6 2.4 !. 7 NOVEMBER 1 13.4 14. 2 13. 3 13. 4 14. 2 14. 2 12. 5 8. 4 13.3 10. 0 10. 6 11.2 13. 4 13. 5 12. 0 10. 6 12. 3 12. 3 12. 4 2 5.6 3.4 3. 3 3. 1 0. 1 3.9 3.2 3.8 3.4 4.5 3.6 3. 6 4. 5 4.4 3. 7 3.9 3. 7 3 20. 2 20. 8 25. 24. 5 25. 9 24. 4 20. 6 12. 2 19. 3 14. 8 12. 9 19.0 4. 1 3 20. 3 23. 4 19. 2 16. 4 18. 9 19. 5 19.9 4 5. 1 -2. 1 1.9 -0. 7 0. 3 1.7 0.3 2.5 0.2 1.6 3. 1 0.4 l. 7 3. 7 3. 9 1. 5 3.4 1.7 DECEMBER 1 13. 0 14. 2 12. 3 13. 2 4. 8 5.0 3. 1 4.5 4. 3 3 18.9 22. 2 22. 3 21. 1 4 1. 7 2. 4 -0. 3 2. 7 l. 6 1 = screen max; 2 = screen min ; 3 = ground max; 4 = ground min APPENDIX 13: PINDAUNDE, 3480m, TEMPERATURE , 'c, DATA FOR 1971 Month 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 mean APRIL 1 10. 7 11. 1 9.2 10. 0 12. 4 10. 3 10. 3 12. 5 11. 4 13. 1 10. 8 12. 8 13. 2 13. 1 9. 7 10. 7 10. 3 11. 3 2 4. 7 4. 6 3. 6 4. 4 4.4 ------l. 9 4. 2 3. 1 3. 1 3. l 3. 9 4.0 4. 1 4. 1 4. 1 4. 0 4.0 3.8 3 16. 8 16. 7 16. 9 15. 6 35. 1 13. 6 20. 1 22. 3 20. 6 19. 6 15. 6 22. 3 19. 5 22. 0 14. 4 15. 7 16. 6 19. 0 4 3. 2 3. 4 3.4 3. 9 3.3 ------0.0 2. 7 1.7 3. 2 2.2 2. 8 ) . 3 2. 8 3. 6 3. 3 1.9 2. 2 2. 8 MAY 1 13. 1 10. 3 12. 5 13. 3 10. 3 10. 2 11. 6 2 3. 8 2.9 3.9 4. 1 3. 7 5. 6 4. 2 4.0 3 18. 7 16. 8 20. 6 32. 3 15.0 19. 7 20. 5 4 2. 4 1.4 l. 8 l. 7 3. 3 5. 3 l. 9 2. 5 • screen max ; 2 ,., screen min ; 3 "" ground max ; =- ground min APPENDIX 14: PINDAUNDE, 3480lli, TEMPERATURE , 'c, DATA FOR 1972 Month 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 mean APRIL 13. 3 11.1 12. 8 12. 8 8. 3 9. 4 8.9 11. 1 11. 1 11. 1 --- 12. 2 10. 5 11. 1 3. 3 3. 3 3.3 2. 8 5 . 0 5.0 3. 3 5.0 6. 1 7.2 --- 4.4 4.4 MAY 11. 7 10. 0 10. 0 8. 3 10. 0 11. 7 12. 8 12. 2 12. 8 11. 1 11. 7 11. 6 7. 8 10. 0 13. 3 12. 8 12. 8 11. 1 10. 0 9. 4 10. 5 8 . 9 --- 11. 7 13. 9 11. 7 12. 8 11. 2 6. 1 6.1 5.0 6. 1 6.1 3. 8 5.0 5.0 4. 4 5.0 6. 1 6.1 4.4 6.1 5.0 3. 3 1.7 3.9 3.9 6. 1 5.6 5 . 0 2 .2 1.7 --- 2.2 2.8 - 0.6 4.4 JUNE 12. 8 15. 0 15. 0 14. 4 13. 9 12. 2 12. 8 11.1 9.4 11. 7 13. 3 12. 8 10. 6 11. 7 10. 5 12. 8 13. 9 11. 7 11. 1 13. 3 12. 2 12. 8 13. 3 12. 8 12. 8 12. 6 3.9 5.0 2.8 1.7 0.6 1.1 0.6 2.8 2.2 1.7 3.9 4.4 4.6 3. 9 4.4 5.0 4.4 6. 1 3.9 4.4 3.9 4.4 4.4 3.3 3.3 3.9 3. 5 JULY 12. 8 13. 9 11. 7 10. 0 8. 3 11.1 11. 7 11. 7 10. 0 10. 6 13. 3 12.8 11. 7 11. 7 10. 6 10. 6 10. 0 11. 7 9. 4 10. 0 10. 6 11. 7 13. 9 12. 8 12. 2 12. 2 11. 4 3.3 5.0 3.9 4.4 6.1 4.4 3.3 3.3 3.3 3. 9 4.4 3.9 2.8 3.9 6. 1 3. 3 4.4 5.0 3. 9 2.8 2.2 1 . 1 1.7 1 . 1 3.3 5.0 3.7 AUGUST ------13. 3 12. 2 14. 4 12. 8 15. 0 --- 13. 3 13. 9 --- 12. 8 13. 3 12. 8 8.9 9. 4 11. 7 ----- 13. 9 10. 0 --- 11. 7 10. 6 10. 6 12. 3 6.1 ------0.0 2.2 ----- 2.8 4.4 3.9 --- 3. 3 2.8 --- l. 7 2.2 3.3 5.0 3.9 2.8 3.3 3.3 -- 3.3 3. 9 3. 2 SEPTEMBER 1 10. 6 12. 2 12. 8 13. 3 13. 8 12. 2 13. 3 13. 9 14. 4 12. 8 10. 0 7. 8 12. 2 12. 8 12. 2 12. 3 2 1.7 1.7 0.6 0.6 1.7 2.8 2.8 5.0 --- 3.9 2.2 6.1 3.3 0.6 1.1 1.7 2. 4 1 • screen max ; 2 • screen min .... w APPENDIX 15: PRECIPITATION, mm, DATA FOR 1965-1972 ...... Month 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 total 1965 MAY a 0.8 9.1 0.0 0.0 4. 1 (14.0) JUNE a 28.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.� 5. 1 (36. 9 ) 1966 JANUARY a 9.3 8. 7 20.4 9. 7 5. 1 1.5 (54. 7 ) MAY a 15. 7 0.3 19.6 1.5 1.3 3.0 3.6 12.2 5.6 25.6 0.0 o.o 0.5 o.o o.o 1.5 4.6 (95.0) JUNE a 5.3 0.0 17.8 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 J.O 13 .2 3.6 0.0 0.8 9.4 0.8 17.0 10.4 2.5 10.2 3.8 0.5 38. 6 10.7 0.0 0.5 1.8 0.0 0.0 2.5 - 152.4 JULY 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 o.o o.o o.o 6.6 o.o 1.0 2.3 o.o 9.9 0.5 0.3 0.8 2.5 1.5 o.o 9. 1 0.0 0.0 o.o 0.0 0.0 1.3 o.o (36.3) AUGUST ------28.2 0.0 8.4 o.o o.o 0.8 3.6 o.o o.o 4.3 4.1 0.8 1.3 o.o 2.5 17.8 1.8 17. 8 2.3 7.6 7. 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.6 1.0 0.8 10.2 (126.0) SEPTEMBER a 0.3 l. 8 0.0 4.3 0.0 0.0 8.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 4.6 0.0 3.3 13.5 0. 3 0.0 0.0 0.0 15.5 6.6 2.8 0.5 1.0 18.3 13.5 2.5 3.0 25.7 126 .1 OCTOBER a 3.8 16.0 0.0 11.2 18.5 30. 7 0.0 1.3 13.2 121.2 4.8 10. 7 32.0 32 .3 19.6 315.3 NOVEMBER a 0.0 0.0 3.3 0.0 1.3 20.8 7.6 0.8 4. 1 20.3 5.6 8.4 27.4 17.8 34. 3 2.0 0.0 14.0 5.8 17.3 9.1 l.5 0.0 0.5 10.9 7.9 2.8 4.3 4.6 5.5 237. 9 DECEMBER a 12.4 13.7 (26. 1) lliZ. MARCH a 10 .4 6.9 14.0 16. 5 7. 1 8.6 3.6 l.5 8.6 0.5 9.4 3.8 10. 7 10.9 23. 1 2.0 12.4 21.8 14.0 13.2 5.3 0.8 0.0 (205. 1) APRIL a 0.5 0.0 0.0 3.0 23. 1 1.3 14.0 16.0 5.8 1.0 0.0 1.5 5.5 34 .8 11.2 2.5 9.4 8.1 18.5 15.2 19.3 10.4 6.9 15.7 8.9 0.8 0.3 0. 3 0.8 11.4 246.2 MAY a 34.8 2.5 1.8 11.2 0.5 0.0 0.5 0. 5 1.5 9.7 1.5 10.4 0.3 0.0 8. 1 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 9.1 10.2 6.4 0.0 14.0 0.5 11.2 12. 7 34.5 0.3 1.8 2.3 186.6 JUNE a 0.0 16.5 0.3 9.9 7. 1 13.5 14.5 10. 4 0.0 O.O 1.0 15.2 0.8 1.3 4.6 0. 3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.3 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.7 110. 0 JULY 2.5 1.0 13.0 0.0 4.8 0.5 3.8 10. 7 0.0 0.3 3.0 7.1 4.3 4.8 (55.8) AUGUST a 13. 7 5. 1 5.5 (24. 3) 1968 JULY a 0.0 0.0 6.1 1.3 7.4 2.8 o.o 2.0 0.0 o.o 0.0 1.5 o.o 0.0 1.0 1.3 14.0 0.8 ( 38. 2) b 0. 0 0.0 6. 6 1.5 8. 1 3.0 0. 0 2 . 0 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0 1. 8 0.0 0. 0 1.0 1. 3 14. 2 1. 0 ( 40. 5) AUGUST a 8.9 18. 3 16.3 11.2 3.3 2.8 16.5 18. 8 18.5 22.6 22.9 20.3 8.4 0.0 1.0 0.0 2.3 0.0 5.8 0.0 0.0 8.4 (206.3) b 22. 9 18. 8 17. 0 12. 2 4. 3 4. 1 16. 8 22. 6 20. 6 23.9 23. 1 21. 8 8. 6 0.0 1. 0 0. 0 2. 3 0. 0 6. 6 0. 0 0. 0 8. 6 (235. 2) SEPTEMBER a 8.6 o.o 0.0 6.3 0. 3 7.6 10.9 5.1 2.0 10.2 l.3 6.3 1.0 0.0 10. 2 22.4 39 .1 28.4 3.0 o.o o.o o.o 5.8 2.3 15.2 (186.0) b 8. 1 0. 0 0.0 6. 9 0. 3 7. 6 10. 9 5. 1 2.5 10. 4 1. 3 6. 3 0. 8 0.0 10. 4 24. 1 42. 2 29. 7 3. 0 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0 5. 8 3. 8 14. 7 (193. 9 ) OCTOBER a 16.5 3.6 8.4 7.9 0.0 0.0 0.3 1.0 7. 1 13.0 21. 1 9.1 0.3 11.9 (100.2) b 16. 8 3. 6 8. 6 7. 9 o. o 0.0 0. 5 1. 0 7. 1 14. 0 21. 6 9. 1 0. 8 11. 9 (102. 9 ) total Month 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 NOVEMBER a 23. l 9. 7 5.1 4.6 2.5 42 .4 1.5 3. 3 4.3 3.8 0.0 11.9 9.1 0.0 0.0 4.3 3.6 10. 9 11.7 14.5 0.0 2.5 10. 7 2.8 23.9 15.5 19. l 1.3 0.5 0.5 243. l 23. 6 10. b 2 5. 1 3. 3 3. 0 45.5 1.5 3.6 4. 6 4.1 0. 0 11.9 9. 1 0. 0 0. 0 4. 6 3. 8 10. 9 11. 9 1.1. 2 o. o 2. 5 11. 7 2. 8 24. 4 15. 5 19. 1 1. 5 0. 8 0. 5 250. 7 DECEMBER a 9.1 35 .3 8.6 1.0 19 .l 12. 7 13.5 11.4 0.8 0. 5 50. 8 2.0 9.4 16.8 2.0 97. 3 6.9 --- 44. 7 1.0 11.2 4. 1 18.3 20.8 0.5 0.0 39 7.8 9. 7 36. 6 10. 9 1.0 19. 1 12. 7 13. b 5 11. 4 0. 8 0. 5 50. 8 2. 0 9. 7 18. 8 2. 0 100. 3 7. 4 --- 50. 8 0. 8 10. 9 4.1 18. 5 19. 6 0. 5 0. 0 412. 4 1969 JANUARY a 24.6 4.6 16.0 17.8 10. 7 32.8 36. 8 20.3 20.l 1.0 5. 6 17.0 9.1 7.4 4.6 8.1 2.3 23.6 20.6 0.0 5. 1 7.9 8.4 40. 6 0.3 15.5 3. 8 (364.6) b 24. 6 4.6 16. 3 18. 0 11. 7 34. 3 39 .4 21. 8 19. 8 1. 3 6. 6 18. 5 8. 1 6. 9 4. 8 8. 6 3. 8 26. 2 19. 6 0. 0 7. 1 7. 6 8. 6 43. 2 0. 3 15. 5 3. 8 (381. 0) MAY a 4.6 17.3 15.6 5. 1 3.8 0.5 0.0 (46.9) JUNE a 1.0 4.8 10.2 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.8 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.5 12.4 9.7 0.5 2.5 0.0 1.5 0.5 0. 0 1.0 7.9 21. l 1.5 O.O 7.1 2.0 0.0 90. 3 JULY a -- 21.8 3.8 4.6 1.3 0.0 9. 7 0.0 0.0 1.0 5.3 1.0 0.3 33.8 1.0 ------20.6 --- 4.6 11.9 0.0 --- 1.0 121. 7 AUGUST a -- 19.8 0.8 0.8 0.5 29 .2 0.5 ------4.6 o.o 1.5 o.o 0.0 0.0 0.0 10. 7 ----- 4. 6 0.0 0. 5 ------(73. 5) a o.o ------SEPTEMBER ----- 25.9 1.3 6.9 2.0 0.8 15 .5 0.5 2.3 4.6 10. 7 37. l 2.5 27. 7 5. 3 2.0 4. 3 69 .3 40 .9 ------25. l -- (284. 7) OCTOBER a -- 49 .5 20. 6 25.9 0.0 8. 6 2.3 1.0 0.0 22.6 0.5 5. 3 21.8 4. 1 8.9 1.5 10.7 0.3 0.0 0.5 16. 3 7.6 4.6 8. 1 10. 2 1.8 35 .6 (268. 3) NOVEMBER a 23.6 6.9 0.5 0.0 0.0 4.3 -- - (35. 3) 1970 APRIL a 2.5 o.o o.o 0.8 3.8 0.0 1.3 10.5 0.0 3.8 22 .7 8.4 0.0 o.o 0.0 4. 1 7. 1 7.4 2. 1 31.8 1.8 16.8 10. 7 2.5 46.5 ( 184. 6) b 1. 6 10. 7 0. 3 4. 1 22. 7 8. 4 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0 4. 3 6. 9 8. 1 2. 5 33. 5 1. 8 16. 8 10. 9 2. 5 49 .8 (184. 9) MAY a 16.0 31.8 13.5 0.5 35 .8 10. 7 0.0 2.8 0.0 1.8 24.1 7.4 73.4 0.3 0.0 1.0 7.1 8.9 1.0 3.0 0.0 239. l b 16. 3 33. 5 15. 2 1.0 38. l 11.9 0. 0 3. 0 0. 0 2. 0 25. 4 7. 9 79. 8 0. 5 0. 0 1. 3 7. 4 7. 1 1. 3 3.6 0. 0 255. 3 JUNE a 3.8 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 25. l 6. 1 27.7 0.0 0.0 11.2 1.5 0.8 0.0 0. 3 0.0 0.0 4.3 5.8 9.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 8.4 6.6 112.0 4. 1 0. 0 0. 3 0. 0 0. 0 26. 2 6. 9 32. 0 0. 0 0. 0 11.9 1. 8 1.0 0. 3 0. 3 0. 0 0. 0 5. 1 6. 4 9. 7 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0 b o. o 0. 0 0. 0 o. o 1.0 8. 9 6. 9 122. 7 JULY a 0.0 19. 3 0.3 0.8 6.4 0. 5 12.4 3.3 1.3 2.0 4.1 3.6 0.8 0.3 2.8 5. 3 6.4 17. 3 0.5 13. 5 ------0.3 o.o 6.1 107.3 0. 0 b 20. 6 0. 3 0. 8 6. 6 0. 8 12. 4 3.0 1. 3 2. 3 4. 1 3. 6 0. 8 0. 3 2. 8 5. 3 6. 6 17. 5 0. 5 14. 0 ------0. 3 o. o 6. 9 110. 8 AUGUST a 2.3 0.5 0.8 5.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 4. 1 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.0 16.3 0.0 0.0 4.6 5.3 0. 5 6.6 21.3 0.3 0.0 69 .9 b 3. 3 0. 5 1. 0 6. 1 o. o 0. 0 0. 0 4. 6 0. 0 0. 0 1. 8 0. 0 17.3 0. 0 0.0 4. 8 6. 1 0. 8 7.9 23. 1 0. 3 0. 3 77.9 SEPTEMBER a 0.0 16. 3 0.5 l.3 6.9 0.0 1.0 0.0 4. 3 40.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.3 9.4 14 .7 4.3 3.8 8.4 8. 1 5.3 2.3 3.6 2.3 0. 3 1.0 1.0 o.o 7.4 144.9 b o. o 16. 3 0. 8 1. 8 8. 1 0. 3 1.0 0.0 4. 6 42. 9 0. 0 0. 3 o. o 1.5 0. 3 9. 9 16. 8 4. 3 3. 8 8. 4 8. 6 5. 3 2. 8 3. 8 2. 3 0. 5 1.0 1.0 o. o 7. 4 153. 8 OCTOBER a 5.3 7.9 4. 6 0.3 0.0 19. 1 14. 7 9.7 16.5 14.5 41.7 -( 134. 3) b 5.6 7.9 5. 1 0. 3 0. 0 17.3 15. 2 10.9 17. 3 15. 5 44. 2 (139. 3) NOVEMBER a 1.5 0.0 0.3 3.0 0.3 0.5 14.0 7.1 10 .9 18.0 11.9 0.5 ------62.7 5. 3 5.8 25.7 41.9 1.3 - (210. 7) b 1. 8 0. 0 0. 3 3. 0 0. 3 0. 5 14. 7 8. 1 12. 2 17.5 13. 0 0. 8 ------70. 4 5. 8 6. 6 25. 1 43. 4 1.5 (225. 0) DECEMBER a 0. 5 0.0 23.4 (23.9) b 0. 5 0. 0 23. 6 (24. 1) -.J "' Month 3 4 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 total .... "' .!ill. (331 . 0 ) APRIL a 9.9 30. 5 5.6 0.5 4. 1 80 .5 18. 8 5. 1 5. 1 36 . 1 23. 1 48. 3 l.3 0.8 24. 9 9.7 24.4 2.3 (56. 7) MAY a 6.6 l.O 17.3 4.6 26.4 0.8 AUGUST a o.o o.o 0.0 --- 10. 2 0.0 0.0 0.0 l.O l.8 23.4 (36.4) SEPTEMBER a 7 .1 11.9 9. 1 0.0 2.3 11.4 22.9 21.8 13.5 3.6 --- l.3 0.3 15.0 0.3 9. 9 7.1 ------15.2 26.4 22.4 2oi. 5 OCTOBER a 14.2 4. 3 21.6 21.8 29. 7 37.8 23. 1 3.3 20. 1 2. 8 0.0 11.4 0.0 2.3 32 .8 0.8 (226.0) .!lli_ APRIL a 19.1 13. 7 0.0 0.0 ----- 22.4 10. 7 21.6 28. 4 2.5 3.0 2.8 --- 38. l 58.4 (220. 7 ) MAY a 14.5 2.0 10. 9 19. 1 4.3 4. 6 2. 5 0.8 o.o o.o 11.4 20. 8 3. 6 22. 6 0.0 o. 3 4. 1 2.3 36 .3 27.9 25.4 3. 8 0.5 o.o o.o 0.0 o.o 0.0 o.o 217.7 JUNE a 0.0 0.0 o.o 0.0 0.0 o.o o.o o.o o.o 1.3 o.o 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.3 o.o 0.0 o. 3 2.0 2.8 0.3 2.3 1.0 0.3 0.3 0.3 o.o l.8 0.8 0.0 14. 1 JULY a o.o 0.0 0.0 3. 3 3.8 4 .1 0. 5 ----- 6.4 --- 24.6 0. 5 o.o 6.4 7 .1 o.o 0.3 22.4 17.3 26. 7 3.8 14.7 0.8 0.0 0.0 o.o 0.0 o.o o.o 0.0 142. 7 AUGUST a 0.0 0.0 o.o 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 o.o 0.0 o.o o.o 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.0 0.0 0. 3 l.3 5.6 2.0 0.0 23.9 1.5 --- 24.9 1.3 2.3 64. 6 SEPTEMBER a o. 3 0.0 o.o 0.0 o.o 0.3 10. 4 0.3 1.0 --- 3.8 24. 1 25.9 7.5 0.3 o.o 0.0 (73.9) a = Pindaunde Station, main site; b "" Pindaunde , evapotranspiration site located 50m north of "a" The series of monographs of which this volume is the fourth provides a means of publication for work arising from the Department of Biogeography and Geomorphol ogy at the Australian National University, Canberra. These monographs are generally unsuitable for journal articles because of the need to include in them large amounts of basic data, extended expositions, or related material from a number of disciplines. Volumes concerned with Mt Wilhelm in Papua New Guinea, are included in Mt Wilhelm Studies within the Series. A photograph of Mt Wilhilm taken from near the Lower Pindaunde Lake by G.S. Hope in 1970 forms the backdrop to the front cover of the volume. Other titles in the Series are: BG/ 1 1969 Mt Wilhelm Studies I: The Alpine and Sub-Alpine Vegetation, L.K. Wade and D.N. Mc Vean $A3.50 BG/2 1970 Secondary Plant Succession in Tropical Montane Mindanao M.C. Kellman $A4.95 B G/3 1972 Bridge & Barrier: The Natural and Cultural History of Torres Strait D. Walker (Editor) $A9.50 Readers may be interested in the following titles from the now discontinued Department of Geography Publications series: G/ 1 1965 A Geomorphological Study of the Gippsland Lakes E.C.F. Bird (out of print) G/3 1966 Rainfall in the Tropical South-West Pacific H.C. Brookf£eld and Doreen Hart $A3.95 G/5 1968 Contributions to the Study of Karst P. W. Williams and ].N. Jennings $A3.95 G/6 1968 The Blockfields of Northeastern Tasmania N. Caine $A3.95 Recommended retail prices only, as at June 1976. Postage extra. Department of Biogeography and Geomorphology Public ations are edited by the Department in the Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, and distributed by the ANU Press PO Box 4 Canberra ACT 2600 Australia.