Three Bye-Elections Introduction Rajni Kothari HE articles in this series deal and a sitting member of the Rajya tance for the conduct of the three T with the three parliamentary Sabha, was announced at the last studies, and in fact, stimulated them bye-elections held in 1963 in Anwoha, minute. In putting up Hafizji, a lead in every possible way. Both the AICC Farrukabad and Rajkot.,1 in each of ing role was played by Krishna Menon office in New Delhi and the DCC which the Congress was badly defeat who had himself defeated Acharya offices in the respective districts were ed. Although they were not the only Kripalani in the famous North Bombay found to be co-operative and I should bye-elections in which the Congress contest in 1962, and his close associate, like to record our gratitude to them was defeated, they evoked great in K D Malaviya. In Farrukhabad, Keskar, for this. We are also thankful to a terest among the politically conscious formerly Union Minister of Informa number of other public organisations, sections of the Indian public, tion and Broadcasting, who had been office bearers of political parties, a because of the circumstances in which defeated in 1962, was sought to be large number of local leaders, and they were held, and the importance brought back. His contestant from the members of the public for giving their that was attached to them by the con Socialist Party, Lohia, had fought valuable time and the benefit of their testing parties. The elections wore against Prime Minister Nehru himself experience to the respective scholars held at a time when the prestige of in 1962 from Phulpur. In Rajkot, who undertook the field work. Neither the government was at a low ebb. another sitting member of the Rajya the office-bearers of the Congress nor The Chinese attack on the country's Sabha, Jethalal Joshi, was put up as anyone else, however, are responsible northern borders was primarily res the Congress candidate against Masani. for the conclusions of these studies. ponsible for this. The atmosphere was All the three opposition leaders were full of political controversy. known to be bitter critics of the Go- vernment and especially of Nehru. Factors Behind Congress Defeat Although the bye-elections took The results of the three elections in The results of three studies are intere place a few months after the actual each of winch the Congress was sting for an understanding of the Chinese attack, the political climate defeated by a sweeping majority, factors which bring about a defeat of was still charged with suspicion and created a sensation in the country. the ruling party in India. Although dissatisfaction. In fact, fresh grounds While the extent of the defeat- sur the opposition and certain sections of for discontent were added by rising prised everyone, it nearly stupefied the press interpreted the outcome of prices, and the new policies of Gold the Congress, and raised great jubila the elections as a "verdict" against the Control and Compulsory Deposits tion in the ranks of the Opposition. policies of the Congress, and although Scheme announced by the then Fin The latter lost no time in declaring the Congress utterances before the ance Minister, Morarji Desai, in his the results as a clear "verdict" of the elections provided support for such an budget speech in April 1963. The people against the Government, and, interpretation, a striking revelation of return of peace also took away the in fact, called for a general election the three studies is the relative unim sense of the emergency under which in the country. The Congress, how portance of issues and policies in the the people had rallied round the Go ever, was in no mood to oblige the elections. The Amroha study takes vernment. The Opposition took advant Opposition like that and declared that this as the chief focus of its attention age of the elections to challenge and the election results had nothing to do but the point is equally brought out in ridicule the policies of the Govern with the policies pursued by the Go Farrukhabad and Rajkot. ment. The Congress leadership, on its vernment, adding that it had achieved part, took the challenge seriously and significant victories in other bye- Secondly, all the three studies show called upon the people to vote for elections.3 and that the public res the great importance of the state of the Congress and show that they ponse to the Chinese attack had shown the Congress organisation in the deter stand behind the Government. Such beyond doubt that the people stood mination of election results. Farruk declarations created a tempo not behind the Government. Nevertheless, habad and Rajkot provide direct evi normally found in bye-elections. the results of the bye-elections had dence on this point; Amroha docs it in greatly perplexed the leadership in the an indirect manner. Government and added to the soul- Thirdly, and this follows from the Dramatis Personae searching that had been going on for state of organisation of the Congress some time. The Congress called for an The dramatis personae behind the party, all the three studies bring out enquiry into the factors that had led elections added to this tempo. Three the considerable importance of the to its defeat, and appointed a com- of the leading lights of the Opposition struggle for power within the Congress mitteee for this purpose. The studies were put up as candidates, Acharya in its ability to deal with the opposi on the basis of which these three J B Kripalani in Amroha, Ram Mano- tion. The Amroha study vividly brings articles on the bye-elections are writ har Lohia in Farrukhabad, and M R out this factor by contrasting the con ten, were conducted independently of Masani in Rajkot. The Congress also ditions in Amroha with the conditions the enquiry undertaken by the Bye- took considerable risks. In Amroha in Jaunpur (1963) and Moradabad Election Committee,4 although the the name of Hafiz Mohamad Ibrahim, (1962) Parliamentary constituencies, in AICC provided all the necessary assis Union Minister of Irrigation and Power both of which the Congress has staged 845 May 22, 1965 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY
a come-back following the conciliation Caste, communal and demographic generated by the results of such elec of diverse groups within the party, In factors played their usual role every tions. They show the exceptional cir Amroha the Congress failed to bring where, but appeared in different ways cumstances under which the opposi about such a conciliation. The articles in U P on the one hand, and Gujarat tion was able to consolidate its forces on Rajkot and Farrukhabad also show on the other. In U P they took the against the Congress, a tendency that how the alienation of important social traditional pattern of communal voting, has been lately growing somewhat, but groups from the Congress resulted in whereas in Gujarat it was in terms of has not yet taken any definite and in a high rate of dissidence — and the powerful Kshatriya Sabha, a caste stitutional form. They also show "sabotage" — from within the Congress federation of grout political importance beyond any doubt the critical impor in the elections. in the region since 1962, tance in Indian politics of the internal The studies serve to modify the group structure of the Congress party Fourthly, as against such fragmen forebodings and excitement usually and its ability to accommodate diverse tation of the Congress, the opposition consolidated its forces in each of the three bye-elections. Such a consoli dation proved too much for the Con gress, especially when its own house was in bad shape. The point is of general importance. In both Amroha and Farrukhabad, the Congress had all along been in a minority position but had won because of its plurality over a fragmented position. On the other hand, as shown clearly in Amroha, even the organisation of the opposition parties and" the support received by them considerably depends on the pressures operating upon the Congress and the desire by various groups to acquire a dominant position within it. The support given to an opposition candidate often represents an attempt by an important group or faction to press its way to power within the Con gress. Again, this is a point of general relevance and underlies the dominant position of the Congress in the orga nisation of Indian politics.'"'
Not Issues, but Organisation Each of the three studies shows the importance of long-range factors in determining the outcome of the bye- elections, thus further modifying the impression that immediate issues do minate voters' preferences. On the other hand, the short-range factors that weighed with the electorate differed between the three constituencies. On the side of the Congress, there are such factors as the importance of Panchayati Raj in Rajkot, public dissatisfaction with the administration in Amroha, the poor impression created by the Con gress candidate in Farrukhabad. The accentuation of the 'communal pro blem' in Amroha, largely as a result of Central interference, proved decisive. There was, however, no slackening of effort in Amroha as was the case in Farrukhabad and Rajkot, both victims of acute party factionalism, internal sabotage, and a low state of morale.
846 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY May 22, 1965
conclusion that emerges is that it is not 2 The lead of the Opposition can 4 See the "Bye-Elections Committee issues but the organisational compe didates over the Congress: 50,454 Report", All-India Congress Com tence of a political party in mobilising in Amroha; 57,588 in Farrukhabad; mittee, New Delhi, a wide range of support that is the 14,151 in Rajkot. critical factor in electoral behaviour. In 3 Of the 10 bye-elections held to 5 For a theoretical interpretation of India, the conclusion is important for the Lok Sabha since the third the Congress dominance system, both the Congress and the Opposition. general elections upto July, 1963, which was also used as a point of the Congress won in 4 as against departure for the bye-election 8 in the general elections. Of 49 studies, see Rajni Kothari, The Notes bye-elections to the Legislative Party System, 'The Economic 1 Amroha: 19 May, 1963; Farrukha- Assemblies, the Congress won in Weekly, June 3. 1961; and "The bad: 19 May 1963; Rajkot: 26 28 as against 26 in the general Congress 'System' in India,'' Asian May '63. elections. Survey, December 1964,
THREE BYE-ELECTIONS-I Congress Defeat in Amroha A Case Study in One Party Dominance Bashir Ahmed Considering the various factors that operated during the Amroha bye-election. Acharya Kripalani's victory hardly appears to have been a verdict for or against the policies or record of the Congress, For, not only did an issue like the Chinese aggression fail to evoke much interest among the majority of voters but even those policies and actions of the Congress Government that adversely affected the interests of the people failed to have a bear ing on the way they finally voted. Even communalism with all its psychological and emotional overtones played no more than an accentuating role in the elections inasmuch as it merely reinforced the existing opposition to the Congress. For the Congress it self however, it did bring in more votes from the Muslims but this accretion of electoral support was not of material importance to the outcome of the election. The outcome was decided, if anything, by the opposition the Congress had been facing over the years from the influential elements in the social structure whom it has failed to accommodate in the organisation, The vote against the Congress in the bye-election was, therefore, no more than another expression of the struggle against the incumbent leadership in the Congress that these influential elements have been waging at successive elections in the district. The Congress continues to be the focal point of political power in the district and its reverse in Amroha underlines precisely this dominant position in district politics, [The study of the Farrukhabad bye-election by Ramashray Roy will appear next week and that of the Rajkot bye-election by Rushikesh Maru the week after.] THE selection of the Congress can- three of the five other Independents minute choice of such a senior leader didate and the struggle for posi who had also filed their nominations and the keenness shown by Menon and tions within the Congress party from Amroha, The Congress party, his close ideological associate Malaviya, dominated the bye-election in Amroha, however, took, a long time choosing Union Minister for Mines and Fuel, one of the two parliamentary consti its own nominee. who after Menon's departure from the tuencies in the Moradabad District of Government had become a major tar Uttar Pradesh. The election was held Finally on April 7, the Central Parli get of opposition attack, save a new in May 1963 following the death of amentary Board of the Congress pick significance to the Amroha bye-election the sitting Congress M P Maulana ed Ram Saran, a local leader, whose and turned it into a prestige contest Hifzur Rehman. One of the first to name had been recommended by both for the Congress. announce his candidature for the elec the DCC and the PCC as its candidate. tion was Acharya J B Kripalani who But it changed its mind on the day the Apparently the Congress chose Am defeated in the 1962 General Elections nominations were to close and re roha for a major trial of strength be by V K Krishna Menon in the well- placed him with Hafiz Mohammed cause Acharya Kripalani, one of the known North Bombay contest, WAS in Ibrahim, a member of the Union Cabi most prominent of its critics, had de search of a seat in Parliament; Though net and the Central Parliamentary cided to contest the seat. It was pro contesting the election as an indepen Board. Lest delay or irregularity be bably believed that his defeat, at a dent, Acharya Kripalani had the sup committed in the filing of the papers time when the opposition was subject port of all the opposition parties ex leading to their possible rejection, the ing the Government to the most severe cept the Communist party. The Repub responsibility for completing this for kind of criticism, would silence such lican party, which had earlier entered mality was taken upon themselves by criticism or at least make it less effec the contest, retired from it in favour Krishna Menon and K D Malaviya both tive. Conversely, the Congress victory of Acharya Kripalani after the last of whom personally went from Delhi to against Acharya Kripalani would vir date for withdrawals was over, as did Moradabad for this purpose. The last tually amount to a popular vindication