ABSTRACT Catholic-Reformation Painters of the Baroque: a Study On

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ABSTRACT

Catholic-Reformation Painters of the Baroque: A Study on Why Women in Bologna

Mikaila B. Schmidt

Director: Dr. Heidi J. Hornik

This thesis examines the unprecedented rise in female artists in Bologna during the Baroque period. It argues that women in Bologna found success during the 17th century primarily due to their revival of the maniera devota style. After the decisions made at the Council of Trent in 1565, religious art was required to reflect the newly unified Catholic Church as well as inspire a deeper sense of religious devotion and connection to faith. Artists such as Caravaggio and Artemisia Gentileschi solidified the emotional intensity of this period through dramatic contrast and religious symbolism. Influenced by Archbishop Paleotti, painters Guido Reni and the Carracci painters, Lavinia Fontana, and Elisabetta Sirani combine naturalism and science in a way that inspires devotion and introspection. While many factors contributed to female prosperity, the religious intensity and emotional connections they establish with the viewer allowed for their popularity in Bologna and across Italy to grow, paving the way for future success by later female painters.

APPROVED BY DIRECTOR OF HONORS THESIS:

______Found Heidi f Dr. Heidi J. Hornik, Professor of Art History

APPROVED BY THE HONORS PROGRAM:

______

Dr. Andrew Wisely, Interim Director

DATE: ___April______26,202L

CATHOLIC-REFORMATION PAINTERS OF THE BAROQUE: A STUDY ON WHY

WOMEN IN BOLOGNA

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of

Baylor University

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Honors Program

Mikaila B. Schmidt

Waco, Texas

May 2021

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ...... iii

Dedication...... iv

List of Illustrations ...... v

Introduction ...... 1

Chapter One ...... 4

Chapter Two ...... 20

Chapter Three ...... 42

Bibliography ...... 65

ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Anyone who knows the challenge that has confronted me knows that you cannot do it by yourself. There are many people for me to thank in the completion of my Honor’s Thesis. I would first like to thank my advisor, Dr. Heidi J. Hornik, Professor and Chair of the Department of Art and Art History. The door to Dr. Hornik’s office was always open whenever I ran into a trouble spot or had questions about my research or writing. She has served as a model for female leadership and success. Her dedication to recording the history of art is an inspiration. Dr. Hornik consistently allowed this project to be my own work but steered me in the right direction whenever she thought I needed it.

I would also like to acknowledge Dr. Katie Larson of the Department of Art and Art History as the second reader of this thesis and Dr. Marcie Moehnke of the Biology Department as the third reader of this thesis. I am gratefully indebted to them both for their very valuable comments on this project.

In addition to those mentioned above, I would like to show my appreciation to the Department of Art and Art History for the classes and opportunities it has provided me in my time at Baylor University. From multiple courses to the chance to speak at the Midwest Art History Society Conference, I am thankful for the support and encouragement of the department. I would especially like to express my gratitude for being named the Outstanding Student in Art History in 2021. My time at Baylor would not have been the same without the Hooper-Schaffer building and the people in it.

To my University Scholars advisor, Charmaine Dull, thank you for your continued belief in my ability to succeed. In every up and down you remained constant in your support. Thank you for pushing me to pursue both science and art, to follow my passions, and for being a source of confidence.

Finally, I must express my very profound gratitude to my family for providing me with unfailing support and continuous encouragement throughout my years of study and through the process of researching and writing this thesis. This accomplishment would not have been possible without them. To my parents and my sisters – it would be an understatement to say that we have experienced some highs and lows in the past two years, yet every time I was ready to quit, you did not let me, and I am forever grateful. Specifically, to my mom and dad – thank you for the support and encouragement you have provided me for many years and for everything you did to make my time at Baylor possible. This thesis stands as a testament to your unconditional love and encouragement. Thank you.

Mikaila Schmidt

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To the curious little girl at the art museum.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 1.1: Rosso Fiorentino, Madonna and Child with the Infant Saint John the Baptist, 1515, Mixed technique on poplar wood, 101.2 x 77.5 cm, Städel Museum, Frankfurt, Germany. (Used with permission from museum website)

Figure 1.2: Rosso Fiorentino, Virgin and Child with Saints, 1518, Oil on panel, 172 x 141 cm, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, Italy. (Used with permission from museum website)

Figure 1.3: Rosso Fiorentino, Pietà, c. 1524-27, Oil on canvas, 133.4 x 104.1 cm, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America. (Used with permission from museum website)

Figure 1.4: Caravaggio, The Incredulity of Saint Thomas, c. 1601-1602, Oil on canvas, 42 x 57 ½. inches, Neues Palast, Potsdam, Germany. (Used with permission from Artstor)

Figure 1.5: Francesco Salviati, Doubting Thomas, c. 1547, Oil on canvas, 275 x 234 cm, Musée du Louvre, Paris, France. (Used with permission from Artstor)

Figure 2.1: Caravaggio, The Sacrifice of Isaac, 1603, Oil on canvas, 104 x 135 cm, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, Italy. (Used with permission from museum website)

Figure 2.2: Caravaggio, The Conversion of Saint Paul, 1600-1601, Oil on canvas, 230 x 175 cm, Cerasi Chapel, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome, Italy. (Used with permission from Artstor)

Figure 2.3: Annibale Carracci, Madonna Enthroned with Saint Matthew, 1588, Oil on canvas, 384 x 255 cm, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Dresden, Germany. (Used with permission from museum website)

Figure 2.4: Lodovico Carracci, Saint Sebastian Thrown into the Cloaca Maxima, 1612, Oil on canvas, 163.5 x 232.4 cm, The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, United States of America. (Used with permission from museum website)

Figure 2.5: Guido Reni, Christ with the Crown of Thorns, Oil on poplar wood, 49 x 37 cm, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Dresden, Germany. (Used with permission from museum website)

Figure 2.6: Guercino, The Return of the Prodigal Son, 1654-55, Oil on canvas, 155.6 x 146.1 cm, Timken Museum of Art, San Diego, California, United States of America. (Used with permission from museum website)

Figure 2.7: Guercino, Return of the Prodigal, 1627-1629, Oil on canvas, 125 x 163 cm, Galleria Borghese, Rome, Italy. (Used with permission from Artstor)

v Figure 2.8: Artemisia Gentileschi, Esther Before Ahasuerus, 1628-1630, Oil on canvas, 208.3 x 273.7 cm, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, New York, United States of America. (Used with permission from museum website)

Figure 2.9: Artemisia Gentileschi, Judith and Her Maidservant with the Head of Holofernes, c.1623-1625, Oil on canvas, 187.2 x 142 cm, Detroit Institute of Art, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America. (Used with permission from museum website)

Figure 3.1: Caterina Vigri, St. Ursula and Her Maidens, c. 1456, Oil on panel. (Used with permission from Artstor)

Figure 3.2: Properzia de’ Rossi, Joseph and Potiphar’s Wife, 1520s, Marble, Museo de San Pietro, Bologna, Italy. (Used with permission from Web Gallery of Art)

Figure 3.3: Lavinia Fontana, Portrait of Costanza Alidosi, ca. 1595, Oil on canvas, 62 x 47 3/8 in., The National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, DC, United States of American. (Used with permission from museum website)

Figure 3.4: Lavinia Fontana, Portrait of Ginevra Aldrovandi Hercolani, 1595, Oil on canvas, 114.62 x 94.62 cm, Walter’s Art Museum, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America. (Used with permission from museum website)

Figure 3.5: Lavinia Fontana, Portrait of Antonietta Gonzalez, 1595, Oil on canvas, Château de Blois, France. (Used with permission from WikiArt)

Figure 3.6: Lavinia Fontana, St. Francis Adoring the Crucifix, 1580, Oil on canvas, 50 x 37 cm, Private Collection. (Used from Marlene Misiuk, La Donna e La Maniera Devota: Lavinia Fontana, Sacred Imagery and the Natural Sciences in Sixteenth-Century Bologna, 105.)

Figure 3.7: Lavinia Fontana, Stigmatization of St. Francis, 1579, Oil on canvas, 63 x 75 cm, Seminary of Bologna, Bologna, Italy. (Used with permission from Artstor)

Figure 3.8: Elisabetta Sirani, Virgin Addolorata with the Symbols of the Passion, 1657, Oil on copper, Regional Museum Complex of Emilia Romagna- National Art Gallery of Bologna, Bologna, Italy. (Used with permission from museum website)

Figure 3.9: Elisabetta Sirani, Judith Showing the Head of Holofernes to the Israelites, 1658, Oil on canvas, 236.5 x 183 cm, Burghley House Gallery, Stamford, England. (Used with permission from museum website)

Figure 3.10: Lavinia Fontana, Judith and Holofernes, 1600, Oil on canvas, 130 x 110 cm, Museo Davia Bargellini, Bologna, Italy. (Used with permission from Web Gallery of Art)

vi Figure 3.11: Elisabetta Sirani, Baptism of Christ, 1658, Oil on canvas, 400 x 500 cm, San Girolamo della Certosa, Bologna, Italy. (Used from J. Rubinski, Elisabetta Sirani’s: Judith with the Head of Holofernes, 57.)

vii

INTRODUCTION

Beginning with Martin Luther in 1517, the Protestant Reformation brought to light concerns within the Catholic Church. Forced to unify the Catholic faith and make changes in response to accusations from Protestants, the Church called the Council of Trent in 1545.

It was here that the Catholic doctrine was clarified, and towards the end of the Council, the concept of images was discussed. The Council made decisions about the decorum, subjects, and purpose for religious images. In order to unite Catholicism, it was decided that art must be used to instigate personal devotion and introspection into their own faith relationship, hoping to refocus the faith of viewers. The current style of art at the time is known as

Mannerism. This style is characterized by experimentation and elongation of proportion, centered around propelling forward the careers of the artists rather than communicating the core tenets of the Catholic faith. The decisions made at the Council influenced the production of religious art moving forward, causing a shift from the current Mannerist style to the emerging of the Baroque period.

The rise of the Baroque style can be attributed to artists like Caravaggio (1571-

1610). He utilizes the contrast between light and dark, movement, and emotional intensity to communicate themes of personal devotion. One city that rose to the forefront of the

Baroque style is Bologna. Home to many artists, and more specifically the Carracci painters, Bologna became a center for religious iconography. With the institution of the

Bolognese Academy, Lodovico Carracci (1555-1619) and his cousins taught students to reform religious art, rooting their styles in naturalism and spiritual introspection. Along

1 with the precedents set by Caravaggio, the Carracci painters influenced the depiction of religion in art, characterizing the period with devotional images and subjects that inspired personal reflection aimed at strengthening the Catholic hold within Italian cities. In addition to the rise of the Baroque style is the rise of female painters. Women like Artemisia

Gentileschi (1593-1653) began to find international popularity for their ability to communicate emotion and virtue in new ways.

With Artemisia’s popularity taking hold in cities like Rome, Bologna housed its own surge of female painters. Bologna was a prospering university town with a different government style than many other cities. This, in conjunction with patrons such as

Archbishop Gabriele Paleotti (1522-1597), influenced the combination of science and religion in art. Paleotti called for the inclusion of women in religious reform, and part of this included their participation in art as well. The ability of female artists such as Lavinia

Fontana (1552-1614) and Elisabetta Sirani (1638-1665) to revive the maniera devota style, coupled with a city that supported the inclusion of women in higher social circles, allowed for women to rise in popularity amongst patrons. By breaking the mold of typically completing portrait paintings, women in Bologna took on religious historical iconography.

It was through their paintings that female artists successfully conveyed the emotions related with personal devotion and virtue. As a whole, Bologna’s welcoming attitude to women and their ability to revive naturalistic, religiously devotional images allowed for a rise in the maniera devota style, solidifying the place of female painters in the city.

Starting with the revival of religiously focused images at the Council of Trent, the

Baroque period marks changes in art and the reasoning for producing particular images.

Through the rise of devotional images came the combination of religion and nature in order

2 to inflict introspection in the viewer. With patrons and a city that accepted and favored the emotional connection they establish with the viewers, women began to rise in popularity for religious commissions. As their careers took root in Bologna, they communicated devotion and virtue in a way that pleased the scholarly minds of those within the university town and upheld the goals established for art at the Council of Trent. By painting from an intention of devotion, reviving maniera devota, women instituted a shift in their place within the art scene, propelling them to a level similar to that of the males who also dominated the Baroque style.

CHAPTER ONE

The Council of Trent, implemented by Pope Paul III (1468-1549), began in 1545.

It was an eighteen-year meeting to bring reform to the Catholic Church in response to the accusations made by Martin Luther (1483-1546), beginning in 1517, and the subsequent

Protestant Reformation. There were multiple theological focuses put forth by the

Protestants. These included Scripture’s centrality and sufficiency, the Sacraments, and the

Church.1 It appears that those who instigated the Protestant Reformation, like Martin

Luther, did so out of a concern for the authenticity of the Christian religion. Reformers were most concerned with the Gospel and an individual’s appropriation of it, how it applied to their lives, and how they lived it out.2 These concerns developed into questioning the ability and sufficiency of Scripture to teach its readers, specifically that the Gospel narrative is centered around the idea that the divine offer of forgiveness is not dependent upon the worthiness of an individual. Through questioning the ability of Scripture to effectively communicate the Gospel message, the emphasis reformers placed on renewing, or even redirecting, the Christian faith can be seen.3 Those involved with the Reformation are viewed as changing the focus of the faith from the individual and how they can achieve perfection to being centered on the individual’s reliance on grace, rather than works.

However, a turning point in the Reformation is Luther’s direct refutation of four out of the seven Catholic Sacraments and a reinterpretation of the other three, in his 1520 contract

1 Hans Joachim Hillerbrand, Christendom divided: The Protestant Reformation (New York: Corpus Instrumentorum, 1971), 285. 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid.

4 The Babylonian Captivity of the Church.4 This caused a more dramatic rift between the two doctrines because of the emotional overtones that resulted on both sides as a result of the contract. Overall, the biggest question posed by the Protestants during the Reformation was where did authority within the faith lie? It unveiled the battle for authority between the Church or the pope and the individual or the conscience.

In response to the Protestant attacks against the Catholic Church, Pope Paul II called for the commencement of a council to begin meeting in Trent, Italy in 1545. The

Council represents a victory of the church over the papacy as it was held independently, and the decisions made were done so collectively and were not given by the papacy for the subjects of the Catholic Church.5 The Council would be addressing the grievances brought against the Catholic Church and is the beginning of reformation within the Church.

The Council had many different areas of concern and questions to work through during its meeting. The main goal was to establish a clear-cut definition for Catholic doctrines as well as reunify the Catholic Church.6 The Council had to defend Catholic doctrine and clarify the beliefs that the Church held.7 These clarifications encompassed the

Sacraments, the individuality of the faith, and make widespread and cohesive responses to the accusations made by the Protestant leaders. The decisions and conclusions that were made in Trent impacted the future of Catholicism more than any other council had in the

Church’s history.8 The Council surveyed the Protestant theses and opposed them with the truths established within the Catholic tradition. More specifically, the Council analyzed the

4 Ibid., 286. 5 Rosseeuw Saint-Hilaire, “Art. I. – The Council of Trent” in The American Theological Review; 16th ed. (New York: American Periodicals Series III, 1862), 583. 6 Charles Nauert, Jr., The Age of Renaissance and Reformation (Washington DC: University Press of America, 1981). 7 Rosseeuw Saint-Hilaire, “Art. I. – The Council of Trent,” 583. 8 Henri Daniel-Rops, The Protestant Reformation (London: J.M. Dent & Sons LTD, 1962), 94.

5 revelation and the tradition of doctrine, the role of faith, grace and works, and the sacraments.9 It was in Trent that the Council also created the Catholic Canon of Scripture, establishing the list of authoritative texts that they believe to be essential in shaping the

Christian religion. As for the discussion concerning the Catholic doctrine and what it entailed, the Council concluded that it did not centrally focus on the Fall but is instead centered around the Redemption.10 This means that rather than being a faith that focuses on the sin that separated humanity from the divinity of God, it focuses on the resurrection and redemptive nature of Christ’s sacrifice to save humanity. The Council essentially denounces predestination and established that God does not whimsically call some of his children to Heaven and push others to Hell. It became clear that in Catholicism, the focus was not that people were sinners or that they fell from the righteousness of the Lord. While these are still important tenets of the faith, the Council decided that the faith is instead centered on how the Lord redeems those who have fallen. There was a benefit for the

Council to create a cohesive statement for the central beliefs of the faith when combatting the claims and accusations of the Protestants, as it allowed for a united front across the many papal states at the time.

Ultimately, the Council served as a reunification of the Catholic Church and provided a defense mechanism against the consistent attacks by Protestant leaders such as

Martin Luther (1483-1546), John Calvin (1509-1564), and Philip Melancthon (1497-

1560). There were two decrees that were a result of the Council: dogmatic and disciplinary.

The dogmatic decrees served as a refutation of the heresies and accusations that arose as a

9 Ibid, 95. 10 Ibid, 98.

6 result of the Protestant Reformation. Additionally, they solidly, but with compromise, helped define the orthodox faith.11

There were also disciplinary decrees that brought the much-needed corrections to the Church, which was in an anarchical state at the time of the Reformation. These decrees recognize the moral abuses that resulted due to the poor administrative practices of those with leading positions in the Church.12 Per their goals, the disciplinary decrees had to bring together the government, system of jurisdictions, and hierarchy that existed within the church in order to create a harmonious whole rather than divided parts. The Catholics had to put up a unionized front against the attacks from Luther and his followers, and these disciplinary decrees helped do just that.

The disciplinary dogma that was specifically discussed at Trent would include the discussion of what was appropriate in the artistic representation of worship and saints.

Some of those on the Council wanted the total suppression of religious art while others saw that religious images were necessary for the Christian faith. In the 16th century, the art associated with Catholicism was the first to have a global mission.13 This is because the religion reached almost every corner of the civilized world and one way it spread its ideals and beliefs was through images. Images were crucial when it came to the spreading of the

Catholic doctrine as illiteracy was common amongst the majority of people. Artistic images would possibly be the only interactions many people had with the Catholic faith, therefore if individuals involved with the church were going to be patrons, they needed to ensure that the images they were displaying in churches or public areas reflected the Catholic faith

11 Pierre Janelle, The Catholic Reformation (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1949), 89. 12 Ibid. 13 Jesse Locker, “Art and Reform in the Late Renaissance: After Trent” in Art and Reform in the Late Renaissance, 1st ed. (New York: Taylor and Francis Group, 2019), 1-4.

7 in a compelling way. The Council at Trent aimed to regulate the production of art so that it reflected the unified doctrine of the religion and so that it showed particularly what the council wanted it to.14 Through the rise of Protestant ideals, many Catholic principles were challenged, and the Church needed to establish a clarification of where it stood on key topics.15 They had to make decisions concerning the efficacy of the saints, the value of monastic vows, and their stance on the doctrine of transubstantiation. Additionally, they had to decide how to establish overdue reforms that would prevent the Protestant criticism that had originally come about due to areas of concern within the Catholic Church. Those at the Council believed that the way in which they depicted these fundamentals in art would influence the perception of the Catholic Church, hopefully removing the critical eye that had been placed upon them.

Most of the time that the Council spent together was focused on defending and redefining the Catholic faith. The council did not address the question of images until the final session, which was December 3-4, 1563.16 One of the reasons for such a delay in this discussion could be due to the fact that images were such a heavy topic. They were everywhere and were seen by everyone, therefore it required many decisions to be made about such a large and broad area of religious portrayal. Broad statements and precise decisions had to be made and the conversations surrounding art and religious images would be a large undertaking. This was partially due to the fact that art evokes emotion and feeling, so when deciding the kinds of images that could be allowed, the emotional repercussions art could have played a big part in the discussions. Results from the

14 Ibid, 3. 15 Ibid, 2. 16 Ibid, 3.

8 discussion of images were decreed in “On the Invocation, Veneration, and Relics, of Saints and on Sacred Images.”17 The first portion of the decree upholds the doctrine of images established at the Second Council of Nicea in 787. The second half of the decree focuses on questions regarding decorum.18 This means that the religious art must be appropriate for the setting in which it is located. In the case of religious art, it must uphold the values and expectations of Catholicism as it would be displayed within churches or other religious settings. While privately commissioned images began to grow in popularity due to the increase in personal devotional practices, most pieces seen by multitudes of people would be located within churches and other public gathering spaces. Not only did the images have to be appropriate for their location within the chapels, but they also had to be considered appropriate in their adherence to Catholic doctrine. Decisions had to be made concerning the overall direction that religious art was traveling in order for there to be unity and cohesion at the front of the church.

One of the largest questions surrounding art involved the reasoning for having the images. An early point made by the Council was the assertion that religious images could prove beneficial if they are used properly.19 This was important because it shows that the

Council concluded that religious images held a purpose and could be used for more than personal pleasure or interest. It established art as a dominant form of communication and solidified its presence in society. Images with religious content could be used in furthering the understanding, love and worship one could have for God. This assertion by the Council helped ensure that art had a place in society because it gave religious art a direction and

17 Ibid. 18 Ibid. 19 Pierre Janelle, The Catholic Reformation, 197-198.

9 intention for its creation. Additionally, declaring that religious art needed to be used properly gave rise to another purpose for the image created. The religious content, and more specifically the images of saints, was not only for edification, but also provided instruction for the viewers.20 The images of saints were supposed to provide for the cultivation of faith built on the Catholic dogma and practices. So not only were the religious images meant to help improve the moral character of an individual, but they were also meant to instruct the viewer on how to achieve that moral improvement. In particular, the increased focus on devotion that would be seen in images would encourage and instruct the viewers on how to observe a greater sense of personal religiosity.

As a result of the assertions made concerning the reasoning for religious art, the next question was what would art look like moving forward? Will the subject matter change? Would the intentions and underlying meanings of images change? While the

Council never officially made a widespread and universal condemnation of the current state of art, the decisions it made still changed art, once the Council concluded its sessions.

Part of the Council’s discussion was centered around the subjects of art produced at the time, and how the current pieces being produced had lost their focus on religious matters, becoming concentrated on materialistic and decorative things.

This is most evidently seen with the rise of the Mannerist style and the desire of emerging artists to break the previously created molds of the Renaissance. Considered to be one of the first true Mannerist artists, Rosso Fiorentino (1495-1540) was an eccentric whose art went against the main ideals of the High Renaissance. One thing that is characteristic to Rosso’s style as an artist is the extremely expressive faces of his figures.

20 Ibid, 206.

10 Compared to the figures seen in the High Renaissance, who have serene and calm expressions of contentment and reflection, Rosso’s figures have contorted facial features that reflect the overall emotion of the image. This is clearly seen in his 1515 Madonna and

Child with the Infant Saint John the Baptist (Fig. 1.1). Specifically, the faces of the Christ

Child and John are not beautiful and idealized. Instead, they hold eerie or irritated expressions. Additionally, Mary is almost goddess-like, with a voluptuous chest and outline of her breasts. This, paired with her elegant neckline, work together to give her the look of an aristocratic woman and not the ethereal, heavenly look typical of the Virgin

Mother. By depicting the Virgin Mary in this way, her chaste status becomes overlooked.

As a result, the perception of Mary shifts from that of the Virgin Mother deserving of high reverence and devotion to be one of a modern, noble woman. In Rosso’s 1518 depiction of the Virgin and Child with Saints (Fig. 1.2), viewers are met with uncomfortable colors that are almost acidic in appearance. They are overly vibrant and even drastically contrasted and seen in the musculature that is St. Jerome. Further, the faces of the putti are almost theatrical in appearance, like there is makeup running down their faces, rather than the soft heavenly look that angels typically have in the High Renaissance.

An even greater break in High Renaissance tradition is found in Rosso’s Pietà (Fig.

1.3), completed between 1524-1527. Without the figure of Mary, it is difficult to classify the image as a pietà painting, but there is no other fitting name as it doesn’t easily resemble other events in the life of Jesus. The largest difference from previous tradition we see here is the subject of a nude crucifixion. Painting Christ in the nude had not been done up until now, seeing as it would have been inappropriate during the Renaissance to depict Jesus, or any other holy figure, in the nude. One of the main reasons this image wasn’t critiqued

11 more for the nude Christ is that it was commissioned for private devotion. Christ would have been nude during the crucifixion, so while it isn’t straying from the original story it still pushed the boundaries of the Renaissance style.

The precedents set by Rosso Fiorentino encouraged aspiring artists at the time to break from Renaissance tradition. The Mannerist style was pushing the envelope on what was appropriate and what would be tolerated when it came to religious subjects in art. As a whole, these images were beginning to lose their devotional purpose and were becoming ways in which artists could experiment with new techniques and make new statements from the avant garde style they were developing. The work that followed closely after the

Council was propelled backwards to the Middle Ages in that it recentered its focus on religion and piety more than secular images and themes.21 The Council influenced artists to focus on the reasoning behind the painting rather than techniques that made them as an artist stand out and made a statement. As a result of the Council, taking shape in the 1580s, is the Baroque period. It can be described as a style focused on persuasion by the Catholic

Church to display the spirit behind the Counter-Reformation efforts, aimed at speaking to the heart and emotions of the already faithful Catholics. They encouraged artists to focus on the inclusion of personal devotion and the influence of scripture in their images and to use that to emotionally push the viewer in their religious journey. It is, as a whole, characterized by grandeur, tension, intensity, movement, and emotional exuberance. The

Baroque style is rooted in the desire to dramatically evoke emotional responses by appealing to the viewer’s senses.

21 Ibid, 196.

12 In addition to paintings needing to be decorous, another change that occurred in art after the Council of Trent is that the art became extremely intense in its religious subjects, spiritual depth, and power.22 This is in part due to the Council’s assertion that religious art could be beneficial to the Catholic faith. This meant that the art needed to contain subjects that were canonical or scripturally based. The Council discussed how art before the Counter

Reformation focus too much on materialistic things and served the purpose of decoration.

The art that followed conversations at Trent was more religiously intense and encouraging of personal devotion.

One artist that excelled during this revival for religious painting is Michelangelo

Caravaggio (1571-1610). His paintings, typically having religious contexts and subjects, were extremely realistic and dramatic. One key example of his work, painted between

1601-1602, is The Incredulity of Saint Thomas (Fig. 1.4). The way in which this painting furthers the goals of the Council at Trent is how it questions the faith of the viewer. This is reflected in the way in which Jesus is depicted, essentially proving to Thomas he was wrong when he questioned whether or not Jesus could in fact be resurrected after his crucifixion. This image helped communicate the newly defined Catholic doctrine by pushing faith into the life of a blind believer, like Thomas. The employment of biblical reference, tenebrist lighting and chiaroscuro puts a dramatic emphasis on the question of faith, allowing for the viewer to interpret the image in the context of their own faith in light of the Catholic dogma.

In contrast to Caravaggio’s depiction of this scene is Francesco Salviati’s (1443-

1479) own Doubting Thomas (Fig. 1.5), which was completed in 1547. Done before the

22 Ibid, 196.

13 decrees from the Council of Trent, Salviati’s image takes a more Mannerist approach to the image. The emotion of the scene seems to be lacking as Salviati takes a more detached approach to figural composition. Christ’s figure is brought almost completely to the front and Thomas seems to be far away from the wound in Christ’s hand. Compared to

Caravaggio’s painting, the personal connection as a doubting believer who is seeing the miracle of the resurrection seems to fall short. One of the most evident changes seen in painting, sculpture and music after the Council is the simplicity and classical restraint they exhibited.23 The scene done by Caravaggio takes a simple approach, utilizing the key figures of Jesus and Thomas with only two other disciples, while Salviati depicts multiple figures in front of an architectural background with bright and vibrant colors. Caravaggio seems to take a more straightforward approach to convey the raw emotion in the image more than Salviati does. Between these two examples, the shift toward more religiously intense and thought-provoking images seems evident in the post-Trent painting more than it appears in Salviati’s painting.

The evolution from the Mannerist period to the Baroque period took time but can be safely attributed to the decisions made at Trent and the Catholic intention to take stronger hold of its roots and put forth more religiously sound images than those being commissioned at the time. The need for unitization and religious definition allowed for artists to revive ideals of the High Renaissance and merge them with new techniques found throughout Mannerism, giving way to this new Baroque style. As a result of the Council and the reforms instituted in the Church, the Baroque style emerged, allowing for a new era of purposeful and acceptable devotional images.

23 Ibid, 196.

Figure 1.2: Rosso Fiorentino, Virgin and Child with Saints, 1518, Oil on panel, 172 x 141 cm, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, Italy. (Used with permission from museum website)

Figure 1.3: Rosso Fiorentino, Pietà, c. 1524-27, Oil on canvas, 133.4 x 104.1 cm, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America. (Used with permission from museum website)

Figure 1.4: Caravaggio, The Incredulity of Saint Thomas, c. 1601-1602, Oil on canvas, 42 x 57 ½. inches, Neues Palast, Potsdam, Germany. (Used with permission from Artstor)

Figure 1.5: Francesco Salviati, Doubting Thomas, c. 1547, Oil on canvas, 275 x 234 cm, Musée du Louvre, Paris, France. (Used with permission from Artstor)

CHAPTER TWO

As previously discussed, the Council of Trent helped change the trajectory of religious art at the end of the sixteenth century. After the Council settled on its decrees regarding proper decorum and adherence to Catholic doctrine, religious art began to shift.

Instead of the transitional and experimental style seen in Mannerism, art shifts back to a focus on religion and personal devotion to the faith. While techniques in lighting, form, and composition continue to progress, the purpose for these advancements is no longer for personal achievement but to deepen the religious message being conveyed by the image.

The Mannerist style focused on asymmetry, juxtaposition, distortion, and acidic coloring.

This style was opposed by those who desired greater clarity of subject and simplification in art. What flowed and developed from these desires is called the Baroque by art historians.

As the church was looking for a way to counteract Protestantism, the Baroque art style began as a religious art movement to further the aims of the Catholic Counter

Reformation. With the Roman Catholic Church being a highly influential patron, the

Baroque period utilized the dramatic, emotional, and realistic art as a way to spread the faith.24 The drama within each image is accompanied by grandeur, movement, and intensity. The largest contributor to the dramatization seen within the images is the implementation of strong contrasts between shadow and light. Because of this contrast, the

Baroque period is filled with scenes and images that evoke strong emotion and inner

24 Edward J. Sullivan, Baroque Art and Architecture (Sacramento, CA: California State University, Sacramento, 1993), 1-10.

20 reflection. Many images used biblical subjects set in modern 17th-century clothing and settings in order to make the art more relatable to the people viewing it. Overall, the

Baroque period evolved from the desire to use art as a way to religiously impact individuals, encourage personal devotion, and remind them of their roots in Catholicism.

As previously discussed, Caravaggio helped solidify the style of the Baroque period. He excelled at employing dramatic lighting, sudden movement, and contrast.

Caravaggio tends to paint biblical figures in the way he saw modern life and as living breathing people. Once again, The Incredulity of Saint Thomas (Fig. 1.4) uses the lighting contrast to create drama surrounding Thomas’ doubting faith. It pushes the reader to contemplate Thomas’ doubt and turn it into an opportunity to reflect on their own faith and where they stand in their beliefs. The hope of the Catholic Church is that images like this one would inspire viewers to realize they were straying from the Church in the midst of

Protestantism and their introspection would redirect them back to their roots in

Catholicism.

Another example of Caravaggio’s dramatic use of light is in his 1603 work, The

Sacrifice of Isaac (Fig. 2.1). Abraham is seen preparing his son Isaac to be a sacrifice.

Caravaggio paints the moment found in Genesis 22:10-13, when the angel is seen stopping

Abraham and pointing to a ram to be used for sacrifice instead. While already a dramatic and suspenseful story, Caravaggio uses dark and light to create a larger sense of urgency within the painting. The light comes from a single source on the left side of the image and floods the faces of Abraham and Isaac, as well as highlights the angel and his gesture towards the ram. This technique, known as tenebrism, utilizes the violent contrast of light and dark to create drama and intensity. By choosing to highlight only the expressions of

21 the individuals, Caravaggio emphasizes the crucial moment in Biblical history. The sacrifice of Isaac foreshadows the sacrifice of Christ and the lighting used in this image places emphasis on the fear of God both Abraham and Isaac feel in the moment. The drama created through shadow and light emphasizes fear of God and communicates to the viewer that they too should hold the same reverent fear for the Lord.

The drama in Baroque images intensifies religious scenes. These included martyrdoms, ecstasies or miraculous apparitions. In 1600, Caravaggio once again successfully creates an intense biblical scene in The Conversion of Saint Paul (Fig. 2.2).

One of the key things to notice in this image is the tenebrist lighting, violently contrasting the light and dark. In this image, the light seems to cast out the dark in a literal sense, seen with the light flooding from an off-canvas source to flood the scene. The light also figuratively casts out the darkness within Paul as he experiences his spiritual conversion.

Caravaggio makes strides for the purpose of Baroque images in that this scene conveys the conversion of the persecutor of Christians to a devout disciple in such a dramatic and sudden way that it would greatly impact viewers on their own conversion journeys. It is the intensity and drama that Caravaggio paint so well that propelled him to the front of the post-Trent Baroque movement in Italy.

As artists and their academies or workshops began the transition into the Baroque style in the wake of the Counter Reformation, a city that stood at the forefront of the movement is Bologna. As a result of reform in the Catholic Church, the style of art being produced and taught began to shift towards something new. The city of Bologna housed the beginning of this new shift in Italy, and it was strongheaded by the Carracci family in

22 1584.25 Lodovico Carracci (1555-1619) and his cousins could not approve of the current style of art being produced because they thought it to be declining in comparison to what was produced during the Renaissance.26 They would ultimately work together to reform the art produced at the time. The movement created by Lodovico Carracci and his cousins can be referred to as the Bolognese School. In the simplest of descriptions, this school of thought refers to the works produced by the Carracci and their students and the different theories and techniques they expounded upon in their teachings.

The Carracci painters were disturbed by the excessive nature of the Mannerist style.

They believed that they could reform art through research and experimentation. This proved successful for them and their clear and direct productions fit well into the new expectations for religious art placed before them by the Counter Reformation. The new expectation was that religious art would not create a barrier between the observer and the image, but instead create a devotional connection caused reform in the purpose of images.

The simplicity of the style put forth by the Carracci painters allowed for this barrier to be broken and for the viewer to truly connect with the faith message found in the painting.

During the 1580s, these three members of the Carracci family formed an “Academy.”27 It is there that they created and evolved an “anti-Mannerist” style that was largely based on northern Italian realism. The academy was first called the Accademia dei Desideriosi and was later changed to be called the Accademia degli Incamminati.28 This Academy was founded in the thought that art needed to return to its basis in the observation of the mastery

25 Charles Dempsey, “Painting in Bologna from the Carracci to Crespi” in Captured Emotions: Baroque Painting in Bologna, 1575-1725 (Los Angeles, CA: Getty Publications, 2008), 1. 26 Ibid, 3. 27 Ibid, 1. 28 Ibid.

23 found in nature.29 In its instruction to artists, in order to draw from nature and paint what is seen, the Academy would have needed to use live models in order to increase their skill in depicting the human body.

While painting from nature was also taught during the Mannerist period, artists would diverge from nature in the forms they painted and the colors they used. A reasoning as to why Mannerist artists would exaggerate proportions is that the style allowed for artists to break from the traditional laws of proportion that were established during the

Renaissance period. It was a way for new painters to try and rival artists like Michelangelo,

Raphael and Leonardo da’ Vinci, making a name for themselves outside of the shadows created by the masters before them. The Carracci painters and their students are seen to

“remake” art through observing nature and by drawing from the works of the leading

Renaissance Painters.30 This institution changed the concept of the artist as well as altered the standards of artistic education for the future.31 Overall, the Carracci painters utilized this school to institute what is known as “reformed art.”32 With the intense focus on naturalism and depicting what is seen, this Bolognese School set a precedent for using the natural world around them to induce spiritual introspection and devotion. Following the new desire for a religious awaking in art throughout the Catholic Counter Reformation, this new Bolognese school made an impact to further the ideals of the Baroque period and

Catholic Church.

29 J. Paul Getty Museum. Captured Emotions: Baroque Painting in Bologna, 1575-1725 (Los Angeles, CA: Getty Publications, 2008), 1-21. 30 Giulia Savio, “Captured Emotions: Baroque Painting in Bologna 1575-1725” Review of Captured Emotions: Baroque Painting in Bologna, 1575–1725, 62nd ed., vol. 3, (Cambridge: The Renaissance Society of America, 2009), 931-932. 31 Gail Feigenbaum, “Practice in the Carracci Academy” in The Artist’s Workshop, ed. Peter M. Lukehart (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1993), 59. 32 Ibid.

24 This return to the observation of nature in painting is demonstrated by Annibale

Carracci (1560-1609) in 1588 through his painting Madonna Enthroned with Saint

Matthew (Fig. 2.3). In this image, Annibale does a masterful job of depicting the human body. The figures almost appear three dimensional in the way in which he covers the bones and muscles with a thin layer of flesh.33 Some of the figures in which this detailed depiction of the human body is exhibited best are the angel along the bottom of the image, Saint John the Baptist and the plumpness in the belly of the Infant Christ. Carracci’s anatomical accurateness draws the viewer into the scene, allowing for a deeper connection to the image to be created. Annibale’s ability to paint from nature is also found in the different textures seen throughout the image. There is yellow satin, gold brocaded cloth, and a ragged and worn sackcloth. These different textures seem illuminated by the direct light, appearing in full intensity. In addition to painting from nature, Annibale paints this scene with a dramatic movement that is typical of the Baroque style. The bottom half of the image displays an earthly scene with the earthly saints of Matthew, John and Francis. The eye follows the movement of John’s pointed arm and it comes across the Virgin Mary holding the Infant Christ. The Christ Child is pointing and twisting around to look at the upper half of the image, where heavenly angels are seen. This image helps to reiterate the belief that

Christ is over all of heaven and earth. That he is god and man. Annibale uses the intensity created by the movement within the painting to encourage inner reflection about the role

Christ plays in the viewer’s life and the power that he holds to be over all dominions.

Another example of painting focused on nature that came from the Carracci

Academy is Saint Sebastian Thrown into the Cloaca Maxima done by Lodovico Carracci

33 J. Paul Getty Museum. Captured Emotions: Baroque Painting in Bologna, 1575-1725, 1-21.

25 in 1612 (Fig. 2.4). This magnificent painting demonstrates a blunt naturalism in the depiction of Saint Sebastian’s corpse. While the slight contortion of Sebastian’s body hints at a Mannerist influence, this piece is filled with exceptional drama and contrast frequently seen in that period. The drama created in this image develops from the movement that is captured and reduced into this single moment. The Roman soldiers are seen throwing

Sebastian’s body into a sewer. The intensity of the light brings a focus to the body being merely disposed of rather than properly buried. This would create an emotional response from viewers at the time because here Sebastian is denied a proper burial, which was deemed a fundamental Christian rite within the Catholic Church. With the light fully capturing the body of the saint, the darkness covers the rest of the figures from view. The focus on the denial of rites for a man martyred for the faith should have evoked an emotional stirring at the time, which of course was the purpose of religious after the

Council of Trent.

Through their Academy in Bologna, the Carracci family was able to train many artists in the new Baroque style of the seventeenth century. Furthermore, they taught more people about painting from observing nature and using live models for inspiration and guides. Among the many names that came through their Academy, Guido Reni (1575-

1642) had one of the greatest impacts on the Baroque period. Reni joined the Bolognese

Academy in 1595 and was strongly influenced by Annibale.34 After building a name for himself and moving to Rome, Reni eventually returned to Bologna in 1614.35 After

Lodovico Carracci died in 1619, Reni took over as the director of the Bolognese Academy.

34 Finch College. Baroque painters of Bologna and neighboring cities; a loan exhibition. (New York: Finch College Museum of Art, 1962), 8-9. 35 Ibid.

26 As director, Reni taught his own take on the Carracci style, influencing the art that would come from many artists.36 One image that shows Reni’s mastery of the natural world and his ability to merge this with spiritual devotion is Christ with the Crown of Thorns (Fig.

2.5). The detail depicted in this up-close image of Christ reveals the anguish and pain he experienced during his torture. The coloring of Christ’s skin has tones of green and red, as well as the detailed musculature of his twisted neck, contribute to the idea that Reni painted from nature and would have used real models in order to convey a realistic depiction of

Christ in his suffering, as taught to him during his time at the Academy. The emotion seen on Christ’s face is a look of desperation as he casts his eyes towards heaven. As a popular subject found during the Counter Reformation, Christ’s suffering would evoke devotion and empathy in those who saw the image. Reni paints the body in a time of intense emotion and uses it to impact the personal devotion of those who have the image in a way that causes them to reflect on the suffering of Christ on their behalf. Reni and his workshop would produce many variants of this subject throughout his time as an artist and they served as personal devotional images.

Another artist that would rise to fame during this period is Guercino (1591-1666).

While he never actually studied at the Bolognese Academy, Guercino was largely influenced by the theories and practices taught there.37 After the death of Reni, Guercino found new possibilities in the city of Bologna.38 Like many artists that flourished at this time, Guercino paints from the observation of nature and uses his subjects to create an emotional response to the faith. One image produced by Guercino that reflects the style set

36 Ibid. 37 J. Paul Getty Museum. Captured Emotions: Baroque Painting in Bologna, 1575-1725, 1-21. 38 Ibid.

27 in motion by the Carracci family is 1654 depiction of The Return of the Prodigal Son (Fig.

2.6). In this image, Guercino depicts the story found in Luke 15:11-32, specifically the moment that the prodigal son is received by his father with compassion. The emotional encounter between father and son is evident in the close-up of the figures. It allows the viewer to see the love of the father as he tried to embrace his son, who tearfully turns away, creating a dramatic rift between the two figures. Influence of the Carracci style is seen in the detail of the figures. One specific area is in the hand of the father where the veins and small musculature are easily identified. Additionally, the texture of the fabrics is evident and distinguishable. Like many of his paintings, Guercino paints with clarity and simplicity, something taught and emphasized by the Carracci’s at the Bolognese Academy.

The emotions brought about by the almost embrace of father and son creates a lesson of repentance and forgiveness that should be exhibited in everyday life. The scene, with the merging of drama with naturalistic depictions, would have prompted the introspection of viewers who resonated with either the prodigal son or the father, and would influence them to evaluate their faith in response to other character that exists in their life.

What is interesting about this biblical story and its relationship to Guercino is that he painted this scene multiple times. According to the Council at Trent, the prodigal son plays the role of the penitent sinner who is “at variance” with God.39 As a whole, the

Catholic interpretation of the parable made the father out to be a representation of God’s forgiveness as well as the Church.40 Another representation of this story, completed from

1627-1629, is the Return of the Prodigal (Fig. 2.7). The lighting in this painting casts a

39 Heidi J. Hornik and Mikeal C. Parsons, Illuminating Luke: The Public Ministry of Christ in Italian Renaissance and Baroque Painting (New York: T & T Clark International, 2005), 141-142. 40 Ibid.

28 shadow on the face of the son while illuminating the faces of the father and the servant.

The darkness of the prodigal’s face contrasts the light flooding through the window behind him. The light of the other faces starkly stands out against the darkened background. The chiasm created by this shows the prodigal son emerging from the darkness surrounding his shame, in contrast to the illumination of the father and servant and their reconciling actions.41 The lighting of this painting differs from the 1564 painting in that the faces of both the father and the son are illuminated, highlighting the reconciliation moment between the two figures, despite the shameful head turn of the son. While these are only two depictions of the prodigal son parable, each has the same overall message of forgiveness and reconciliation. They would all serve as a source of inspiration for viewers to exercise more forgiveness in their everyday lives.

Just as male artists dominated the art world since the Classical period, male artists dominated the Baroque period. At least they did at the beginning. Throughout the Baroque period, women begin to establish themselves in the arts and in painting. One of the first women to become internationally known is Artemisia Gentileschi (1593-c.1653). She is a native to Rome and grew up during the height of Caravaggio’s career, with her father

Orazio Gentileschi being a friend and colleague of Caravaggio.42 She was the first female painter to receive admittance to the Accademia del Disegno in Florence in 1616.43 This is significant because solidified Artemisia’s position as a respected artist at the time. In a society where women experienced extreme difficulty in selling art, Artemisia began to

41 Ibid, 149. 42 Babette Bohn, “From Oxymoron to Virile Paintbrush: Women Artists in Early Modern Europe” in Blackwell Companions to Art History: A Companion to Renaissance and Baroque Art (West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons, Incorporated, 2013), 5. 43 Ibid.

29 break the barriers that stood in the way of women. Specifically, Artemisia is the first female artist to successfully pursue professional history painting in Italy.44 Not only did Artemisia compete successfully with men, but she painted scenes that hold the highest regard in the hierarchy of paintings.

One example of Artemisia’s religious historical painting is Esther Before

Ahasuerus, completed between 1628-1630 (Fig. 2.8) Based on Esther 8:1-8, Artemisia paints the moment that Esther swoons and King Ahasuerus is about to spring forward.

Esther typically is depicted kneeling or sitting down, but instead, Artemisia paints her standing up.45 This displays Esther as a strong heroine who does not serve the king.46

Furthermore, there is a sort of comical connotation surrounding the outdated costume and exaggerated expression of King Ahasuerus.47 Artemisia mocks the king and depicts Esther as a heroine determined to persevere through three days of fasting to stand up to his authority and demand justice for the Jewish people. The movement in the image is seen in the way Artemisia paints the fabric as it appears to be energized by the folds and crinkles.48

The virtue surrounding Esther in the image would have encouraged female viewers to also stand up against men for the benefit of what is true and noble.

As seen in her religiously historical painting Esther Before Ahasuerus, a common theme that exists in Artemisia’s work includes biblical heroines that offer ambivalence towards men. She frequently depicts biblical heroines like Esther, and another common one associated with Artemisia is Judith. One of her most famous pieces is the Detroit

44 Ibid. 45 Keith Christiansen and Judith W. Mann, Orazio and Artemisia Gentileschi (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2001), 376. 46 Ibid. 47 Shelia Barker, Artemisia Gentileschi in a Changing Light (London: Harvey Miller Publishers, 2017), 96. 48 Ibid, 28.

30 Institute of Art’s Judith and her Maidservant with the Head of Holofernes done between

1623-1625 (Fig. 2.9). The influence of Caravaggio is very evident in the dramatic moment that is depicted immediately after the beheading of Holofernes as well as in the tenebrist light that creates sudden movement and tension within the captured moment. Artemisia uses a small source of light to establish the intensity of the scene. An apocryphal book in the Catholic Bible, specifically Judith 13:1-19, this story carries with it inspiration for the

Christian faith, and it displays how a man’s might can be conquered by virtue and innocence. There is transformation of Judith from a goddess of beauty, representing sensuality, into a warrior, displaying power.49 Representing her most complex depictions of Judith, Artemisia establishes that her skill was comparable to that of her male counterparts.50 In this painting of Judith, Artemisia displays honor and power as virtues that can be held by women typically recognized solely for their beauty.

While Artemisia Gentileschi was skillful and her works rival the works of painters like Caravaggio, the patronage of her career greatly contributed to her success as a breakthrough female painter. Her major patronage began in Florence when she moved there with her husband in 1613. Artemisia’s earliest contacts were Grand Duke Cosimo II and the Medici Court at the Pitti Palace, as well as Michelangelo Buonarroti the Younger’s

Casa Buonarroti.51 These connections, as well as relationships with other aristocratic individuals within Florence, helped her once she returned to Rome in 1620. She also received support from the nephews of Pope Urban VIII, cardinals Francesco and Antonio

49 Keith Christiansen and Judith W. Mann, Orazio and Artemisia Gentileschi, 368. 50 Ibid. 51 Mary D, Garrard, Artemisia Gentileschi and Feminism in Early Modern Europe (London: Reaktion Books Limited, 2020), 27.

31 Barberini.52 Another patron that she became well acquainted with would have been Queen

Regent Marie de’ Medici, who potentially had a large influence on the feminist themes found throughout many of Artemisia’s works. Artemisia’s relationship with prominent figures across major Italian cities helped propel her popularity. Most specifically, many of her patrons supported feminist ideals and wanted to further female empowerment. Her ability to strongly convey these ideals in a masterful and skillful way helped keep patrons and acquire new ones as these ideals began to spread throughout Italy. This is a major reason as to why she found such success as a female in a profession dominated by men.

Male artists did not convey as much emotion or relation to the image as Artemisia did, allowing her to build a stronghold within feminist historical painting.

The Council at Trent greatly shifted the purpose for religious art and the messages it would convey. As a result, the Baroque period would push the bounds of previous personal devotion images and use them to develop spiritual introspection in the viewer.

With the period spearheaded by Caravaggio, contrast, drama, and movement became common in these images of devotion and reflection. The city of Bologna was a powerhouse during the Baroque period, and it came from the presence of the Carracci founded

Academy. This academy trained artists like Guido Reni in the style of devotional images coming from nature. The Carracci style also reached beyond artists in their academy as exemplified by artists like Guercino. Women, such as Artemisia Gentileschi, began to find success in cities across Italy during this period as well. Her prosperity marks a shift in the accomplishment of female painters, specifically in Bologna. It is in this city that women form an unprecedented stronghold for devotional and religious historical painting.

52 Ibid, 36.

Figure 2.1: Caravaggio, The Sacrifice of Isaac, 1603, Oil on canvas, 104 x 135 cm, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, Italy. (Used with permission from the museum website)

Figure 2.2: Caravaggio, The Conversion of Saint Paul, 1600-1601, Oil on canvas, 230 x 175 cm, Cerasi Chapel, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome, Italy. (Used with permission from Artstor)

Figure 2.3: Annibale Carracci, Madonna Enthroned with Saint Matthew, 1588, Oil on canvas, 384 x 255 cm, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Dresden, Germany. (Used with permission from museum website)

Figure 2.5: Guido Reni, Christ with the Crown of Thorns, Oil on poplar wood, 49 x 37 cm, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Dresden, Germany. (Used with permission from museum website)

Figure 2.7: Guercino, Return of the Prodigal, 1627-1629, Oil on canvas, 125 x 163 cm, Galleria Borghese, Rome, Italy. (Used with permission from Artstor)

Figure 2.8: Artemisia Gentileschi, Esther Before Ahasuerus, 1628-1630, Oil on canvas, 208.3 x 273.7 cm, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, New York, United States of America. (Used with permission from museum website)

CHAPTER THREE

In addition to the rise of the anti-Mannerist style of the Baroque within Bologna, the rise of female artists also marks the city. Previously dominated by the successes of artists like the Carracci family, Reni, and Guercino, Bologna becomes a center of achievement for female painters. This is significant and worth noticing as women, at the time, were not typically artists, nor did they hold roles in technical professions. If it was unlikely that a woman would become a professional artist, why then did it become acceptable in Bologna?

What made this specific city special?

Within the city of Bologna, women held more significant roles in art, science, and religion than a majority of other cities on the peninsula of Italy at the time of the Counter

Reformation. When it specifically comes to art, Bologna was home to forty-four women artists in the peak of their accomplishment during the seventeenth century.53 These women specialized in painting, printmaking, embroidery, and sculpture. The overwhelming presence of female artists in Bologna as compared to other cities suggests that something about the city was unusually welcoming towards their success and fostered an environment where they could continue to thrive.

A large contributor to this environment is that Bologna was an accomplished university community. The success and magnitude of the university and community of scholars surrounding it propelled Bologna to be second only to Rome as the most important city of

53 Babette Bohn, “Collecting Women’s Art in Early Modern Bologna: Myth and Reality” in Reframing Seventeenth- Century Bolognese Art: Archival Discoveries, ed. Babette Bohn and R. Morselli (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2019), 73.

42 the Papal States.54 Not only did the university teach law, theology, and history to men, but it also taught these subjects and offered degrees to women.55 This set Bologna apart from other cities because it was often unheard of for women to receive such a high level of education. In fact, the university had been educating and giving degrees to female students since the thirteenth century.56 By allowing women to study at a higher level of education, the city set a precedent for women to be involved in higher social circles. In addition to the presence of the university, Bologna was not governed by a single family like many Italian cities. Instead, roughly seventy noble families ran the city together with many of these family members serving in the Senate, which ruled the city alongside the papal legate.57

This form of government allowed for a new approach to artistic patronage in the city, as it largely consisted of wealthy aristocrats. By having seventy wealthy, aristocratic families, there was a larger number of people wanting to be patrons of the arts, generating a market for styles and iconography that female artists could execute successfully. This form of patronage promoted women in art so successfully that even local writers, like poet Giulio

Cesare Croce and art historian Malvasia, wrote of the female rise in the art scene.58

Another important factor that contributes to the inclusion of women in various settings was Archbishop Gabriele Paleotti (1522-1597). He actively encouraged women artists to take on a more progressive role and to become more involved in the movement towards reformed and renewed Catholic imagery.59 The Archbishop’s main goal was to reform the

54 Patricia Rocco, The Devout Hand: Women, Virtue, and Visual Culture in Early Modern Italy (Montréal, CA: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2017), 18. 55 Ibid. 56Ibid. 57 Babette Bohn, “From Oxymoron to Virile Paintbrush: Women Artists in Early Modern Europe” in Blackwell Companions to Art History: A Companion to Renaissance and Baroque Art (West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons, Incorporated, 2013), 11. 58 Ibid. 59 Patricia Rocco, The Devout Hand: Women, Virtue, and Visual Culture in Early Modern Italy, 5.

43 current visual imagery and art being produced. In his eyes, this meant creating a greater inclusion of, and prominence for, female artists. He would explicitly call for this kind of involvement when prompting women to participate in religious reform. By giving women a greater agency in the religious reform of Bologna, women had another way in which their increased involvement in the arts was supported. For example, in Florence, art at this time is defined by a male-dominated ducal iconographical production, leaving little room for female involvement of religious reform through art.60 This is because the most prominent artists in Florence at the time were men such as Cristofano Allori, Matteo Rosselli, and

Carlo Dolci. In his reform efforts, Paleotti promoted institutions and centers of learning that focused on the education of young girls and women.61 This would prove helpful in the rise of female artists because the images displayed at these institutions would be geared towards women in their function and iconography. Who better to create these images than women themselves?

Having been an educated man that held prominence in society, Gabriele Paleotti became involved in the meetings of the Council at Trent and participated in the discussions of the later meetings surrounding images.62 His time at the Council caused him to reevaluate the power surrounding Christian art and influenced his writing of the Discourse on Sacred and Profane Images in 1582.63 He used this to give instruction and guidance to painters. He filled it with an endorsement for the clear representation of scripture and pushed for sacred art to be true and naturalistic in manner so that it could guide the viewer’s

60 Ibid, 7. 61 Ibid. 62 Marlene Misiuk, La Donna e La Maniera Devota: Lavinia Fontana, Sacred Imagery and the Natural Sciences in Sixteenth-Century Bologna (Quebec: Concordia University, 2018), 6-7. 63 Ibid.

44 spirit in the direction of the Christian faith.64 Due to being the Archbishop of Bologna,

Paleotti had major influence when it came to the reformation of politics and religion within the city. As head of the Bolognese church, Paleotti desired for women to become more involved in the patronage process for religious art, in which he encouraged female involvement in the reformation of Christian images. As a major patron for the city, Paleotti could commission images that held themes he desired, such as naturalism, as a way to influence faith and devotion.

Art of the Counter Reformation, pursuing the decisions of the Council of Trent, brought forth a revival in the interest in the maniera devota.65 Paleotti’s stress on the importance of naturalism and desire for female involvement in art reform contributed to the success of the maniera devota once again. It is a style that, meaning devout manner, is largely associated with Bologna’s connection to female success at the time. This style lends itself to art that exemplifies emotional sentimentality in addition to piety, resulting in an emotional response full of introspection from the viewer.66 It also generates a response of devotion due to the accurate depiction of scripture, enabling profound contemplation on part of the viewer.67 This kind of art would have been favored by Archbishop Paleotti due to his desire for art reform that resulted in a clear depiction of scripture and naturalism, as maniera devota links itself to the merging of naturalism and piety.68 A key aspect of maniera devota is that the art in this category appeal to the intellect and emotions of the viewer. Being a university town, the people of Bologna would be focused on intellectual

64 Ibid, 7. 65 Patricia Rocco, The Devout Hand: Women, Virtue, and Visual Culture in Early Modern Italy, 5. 66 Ibid, 13. 67 Marlene Misiuk, La Donna e La Maniera Devota, 6-7. 68 Patricia Rocco, The Devout Hand: Women, Virtue, and Visual Culture in Early Modern Italy, 13.

45 art and the conversations that would arise from looking at it. Paleotti’s intense desire for naturalism is what contributed to the return of this style after it lost popularity during the rise of the Mannerist style.69 The ability of female artists to merge the emotions associated with intellect and religion is what helped set them apart from their male contemporaries.

In setting the stage for the women of the Baroque, it is essential to study the women who came before the period. One of the earliest women able to make a name for herself in

Bologna was Caterina Vigri (1413-1463). She was the founder of the Corpus Domini, the

Poor Clares convent in Bologna.70 Caterina helps to set the stage for women in art, and more specifically in Bologna. While her paintings were done for private devotions and remained within her convent, she had a large impact on the city and furthered the potential for later women artists. Overall, her fame went beyond the convent, spreading across the city, laying the foundation for a climate that was more accepting of female artists.71 A well- known work of hers done in 1456 is St. Ursula and Her Maidens (Fig. 3.1). Something that

Caterina does well is the naturalness of the gestures and poses she employs. Additionally,

Caterina successfully depicts the faces with a liveliness that is not often seen. The work done by Caterina helps reveal the emotional truth-telling that comes from female artists.

Women, stereotypically seen as more emotional than men, are able to paint these emotions more clearly, bringing art closer to the sympathies of viewers. Furthermore, women artists are more delicate with their work, giving rise to their ability to depict how they tend to be more inward-looking.72 This helps create a deeper connection between the piece and those

69 Marlene Misiuk, La Donna e La Maniera Devota, 6-7. 70 Babette Bohn, “From Oxymoron to Virile Paintbrush: Women Artists in Early Modern Europe,” 11. 71 Ibid. 72 Linda Nochlin, “Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists” in Art News (New York City: Penske Media Corporation, 1971), 4.

46 interacting with it. Caterina, in successfully connecting with audiences, helps to set the stage for women in art, and more specifically in Bologna.

Properzia de’ Rossi (1490-1530) was the first successor of Vigri in the realm of artistic achievement. While she was not a painter, she did work with sculpture and, according to

Vasari, she began her career by working with fruit stones.73 Furthermore, Vasari describes the delicacy and subtly of her seed carvings as miraculous.74 The work that is most confidently attributed to Rossi is Joseph and Potiphar’s Wife, sculpted during the 1520s

(Fig. 3.2). Properzia de’ Rossi successfully and intricately depicts the musculature of the figures. Additionally, the subject matter of the marble sculpture would have held a prominent theme for the Counter Reformation as it references the dangers of immorality.

There is a natural and vigorous expression of movement and action in Joseph as he attempts to escape the temptress that is Potiphar’s wife. There is a sense of harmony within the sculpture and the lines seem to be unbroken throughout the piece. The graceful and natural flow of the marble alludes to a Classical influence. Overall, the scene generates personal and momentary introspective thought on the dangers of immorality in one’s own life. While very little is known about Properzia de’ Rossi, through her large-scale commission, her important and valued standing as a female artist at the time is clearly seen. Although her work predates the Baroque period and the boom in Bolognese women artists, Rossi’s model from nature and the classical style would influence the women to follow her.

The first professional woman painter in Bologna was Lavinia Fontana (1552-1614).

She was the daughter of an artist and confidant of Paleotti, Prospero Fontana (1512-1597).

His paintings were in a Mannerist style, yet his works exhibited a sense of naturalism that

73 Babette Bohn, “From Oxymoron to Virile Paintbrush: Women Artists in Early Modern Europe,” 12. 74 Lauren Ragg, The Women Artists of Bologna (London: Methuen and Co., 1907), 171.

47 was characteristic of Bologna. It is this naturalism that would strongly influence Lavinia’s style. There is also a large possibility that Lavinia’s career was propelled by her relationships with the female noblewomen of Bologna.75 She often painted portraits for these women with an example being Portrait of Costanza Alidosi, completed in 1595 (Fig.

3.3). One reason Fontana would be commissioned for portraits by Bolognese noblewomen is due to her ability to depict their expensive and luxurious clothing and jewelry. In this particular portrait, the detail in the pearls, rings, and golden chains reflect the nobility and status of the sitter. Other images commissioned for noblewomen are Portrait of Ginevra

Aldrovandi Hercolani (Fig. 3.4) and Portrait of Antonietta Gonzalez (Fig. 3.5), both of which were painted in 1595. These images display the richness of the fabrics and even include a dog, which suggest wealth through portraiture. Fontana’s work was also greatly influenced by Bologna’s focus on science and Paleotti’s focus on intense religious naturalism. Due to her close proximity to Paleotti, it is possible that his desire for a female presence in artistic reform aided in her success, but Paleotti’s push for devout and scripturally accurate images may have also influenced the subjects and scenes Fontana would frequently paint. It is important to note that as a patron, Paleotti commissioned images in the maniera devota style that fulfilled his desire for biblical truth and pious decorum.76 These influences are evident in many of her early works.

Two examples of scientific naturalism used for religious devotion in the work of

Lavinia Fontana are her paintings St. Francis Adoring the Crucifix, in 1580 (Fig. 3.6), and the Stigmatization of St. Francis completed in 1579 (Fig. 3.7). Francis is known for preaching that the natural world, plants, and animals, hold significance in God’s kingdom.

75 Babette Bohn, “From Oxymoron to Virile Paintbrush: Women Artists in Early Modern Europe,” 12. 76 Patricia Rocco, The Devout Hand: Women, Virtue, and Visual Culture in Early Modern Italy, 15.

48 In figure St. Francis Adoring the Crucifix (Fig. 3.6), Fontana depicts St. Francis amongst a dense forest in which he is almost secondary to the flora and fauna.77 Fontana uses an intense representation of nature to reveal Godly wonder, successfully blending the desires of both Paleotti and the scientific minds of Bologna. Francis is seen kneeling before Christ, where he is directly communicating with him. There is a stillness combined with devotion, all intensified by a natural and real illustration of forest around the two figures. In figure

St. Francis (Fig. 3.7), Fontana portrays Francis in a natural landscape with many plants and natural land formations. She also paints the scene in a way in that it accurately represents Scripture. This is evident in how she correctly paints the location, time and actions within the image as they are described withing scriptural passages.78 Her attention to detail and the intense devotional position of Saint Francis would have pleased the desires of Paleotti, fulfilling the naturalistic maniera devota style he deemed important. She would have been influenced by the work of naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522-1605), whose collection of naturalia would have helped her in accurately depicting landscapes as well as flora and fauna.79 Overall, as a result of the Council at Trent determining that art must encourage the personal faith of viewers, Lavinia Fontana achieves this by blending religion with scientific naturalism. This merging of religion and science would have appealed to the university students within the city, contributing to her success. This blending helped encourage personal faith and devotion rather than standing in the way of it, contributing to the desire of the Council and matching the purpose of the Baroque period.

77 Ibid, 39. 78 Marlene Misiuk, La Donna e La Maniera Devota, 6-7. 79 Patricia Rocco, The Devout Hand: Women, Virtue, and Visual Culture in Early Modern Italy, 19.

49 Another artist that followed in the successful footsteps of the female artists before her is Elisabetta Sirani (1638-1665). What helped Sirani stand out as a woman is that many of her works fall into the specialty of history painting.80 This is quite significant at the time due to historical painting being seen as the most significant genre within painting, and women, if they painted, did not partake in this category.81 Elizabeth is the only female artist of the period to start a painting school primarily intended for women.82 Her works include some portraiture but a majority of them are religious or mythological in addition to the historical paintings she often did.83 A majority of Sirani’s pieces take traditional women role models, who she then presents with innovative compositions and iconographies in order to spread messages of women’s virtue.84 A key point in the training of Sirani is her proximity to Guido Reni, who studied at the Carracci Academy. This is suggested in the serenity of her scenes, the flesh tones she utilizes, and the gently diffused light she employs.85 It is important to note that while at the Carracci Academy, Reni would have learned from models as well as the importance of painting from the natural world and what is seen. It is lessons like these that Sirani would have learned from Reni, contributing to her style.

With many of Elisabetta Sirani’s religious paintings being devotional in manner, the

1657 painting of the Virgin Addolorata with the Symbols of the Passion (Fig. 3.8) is a prime example of her religious paintings being used for the purpose of personal devotion. There is a somber mood covering the image and there is a look of mourning on the face of both

80 Babette Bohn, “Elisabetta Sirani and Drawing Practices in Early Modern Bologna” in Master Drawings vol. 42, no. 3 (New York: Master Drawings Association, 2004), 210. 81 Linda Nochlin, “Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists,” 12. 82 Patricia Rocco, The Devout Hand: Women, Virtue, and Visual Culture in Early Modern Italy, 120. 83 Babette Bohn, “Elisabetta Sirani and Drawing Practices in Early Modern Bologna” 210. 84 Patricia Rocco, The Devout Hand: Women, Virtue, and Visual Culture in Early Modern Italy, 121. 85 Lauren Ragg, The Women Artists of Bologna (London: Methuen and Co., 1907), 290.

50 Mary and the angels. This solemn display of emotion coupled with the inclusion of the cross, crown of thorns, and nails help suggest message for the remembrance of the events at the Cross. The grief displayed in the face of the Virgin and the face of the other figures is used to demonstrate the gravity of Christ’s death. The intense emotion found within the scene would impact the way viewers would see the crucifixion, inducing a grief-filled response by the viewer. By encouraging the observer to recognize the despair that surrounds Christ’s death, they would themselves grow in their faith and belief in the crucifixion, deepening their personal devotion.

Sirani not only excelled at devotional paintings, but she also successfully completed many historical religious paintings. One key example of this kind of painting is Sirani’s

1658 representation of Judith Showing the Head of Holofernes to the Israelites (Fig. 3.9).

Much like Fontana’s Judith and Holofernes (Fig. 3.10), painted in 1600, Judith is portrayed as a model of female fortitude, displaying boldness and courage as a female virtue to be celebrated.86 Sirani depicts Judith robed in triumph as she returns to her people, showing off her victory prize. In addition to the strength that Judith displays, Sirani painted her fully clothed, with the image of Minerva on her breast.87 Minerva was the example of a virgin warrior at the time. This suggests that Judith’s virtue remained intact throughout her victorious mission. By depicting Judith in this way, Sirani makes the statement that women can triumph over corruption while remaining virtuous, inspiring other women to do the same. Sirani’s depiction of Judith escapes the typical representation as a central figure of seduction and associates her with honor and courage, traits normally used when describing

86 Patricia Rocco, The Devout Hand: Women, Virtue, and Visual Culture in Early Modern Italy, 130. 87 Ibid.

51 men.88 This image is a prime example of how Sirani utilized iconography differently from male artists in order to convey female virtues. It evoked the dedication of women to maintaining virtuous standards while encouraging female devotion to do the honorable thing, just as Judith did.

One of the largest areas of painting that Sirani impacted was historical painting. One work that exemplifies her skills best is the Baptism of Christ (Fig. 3.11), completed in

1658. Sirani utilizes a multi-figure composition, unlike the quiet and intimate scene that is typically painted.89 What is interesting about this image is that while it can be considered a religiously themed history painting, it exhibits still life, portraiture, animals, and landscape. Sirani gave the painting so many different facets that this image would have been appealing to many different patrons. She portrays this sacred narrative in a way that exemplifies her comparability to male artists of the time. Her ability to merge the heavenly and earthly realms helps demonstrate the duality of Christ and the two worlds he inhabits.

By doing so, Sirani utilizes the maniera devota style, inspiring devotion to a savior who was fully human and fully divine, encouraging the baptism of those who saw the image, inspiring them to follow in the footsteps of Christ. This painting showcases Sirani’s abilities, propelling her to the same technical level as male artists at the same time.

Women excelling in major painting commissions in Bologna was a new concept at the time of the Baroque period in Italy. Beforehand, women were involved in small-scale painting that hardly gained attention. However, Bologna fostered a university atmosphere that, coupled with the desires of Archbishop Paleotti, generated a revival of the maniera

88 Babette Bohn, “From Oxymoron to Virile Paintbrush: Women Artists in Early Modern Europe,” 15. 89 Jessica Rubinski, Elisabetta Sirani’s: Judith with the Head of Holofernes, 17.

52 devota style. As exemplified in each image studied by the prominent women of Bologna, and most specifically beginning with Lavinia Fontana and Elisabetta Sirani, women excelled at the maniera devota and could naturally and accurately depict Scripture in ways that prompted intense devotional responses of viewers. This, being the desire of patrons, and of Paleotti in particular, allowed for women to take a stronghold in Bolognese Baroque as compared to other Italian states, explaining the unprecedented rise in female artists within the city.

Figure 3.1: Caterina Vigri, St. Ursula and Her Maidens, c. 1456, Oil on panel. (Used with permission from Artstor)

Figure 3.2: Properzia de’ Rossi, Joseph and Potiphar’s Wife, 1520s, Marble, Museo de San Pietro, Bologna, Italy. (Used with permission from Web Gallery of Art)

Figure 3.5: Lavinia Fontana, Portrait of Antonietta Gonzalez, 1595, Oil on canvas, Château de Blois, France. (Used with permission from WikiArt)

Figure 3.7: Lavinia Fontana, Stigmatization of St. Francis, 1579, Oil on canvas, 63 x 75 cm, Seminary of Bologna, Bologna, Italy. (Used with permission from Artstor)

Figure 3.10: Lavinia Fontana, Judith and Holofernes, 1600, Oil on canvas, 130 x 110 cm, Museo Davia Bargellini, Bologna, Italy. (Used with permission from Web Gallery of Art)

Figure 3.11: Elisabetta Sirani, Baptism of Christ, 1658, Oil on canvas, 400 x 500 cm, San Girolamo della Certosa, Bologna, Italy. (Used from J. Rubinski, Elisabetta Sirani’s: Judith with the Head of Holofernes, 57.)

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