FAITH and the COMMON MAN a Damascene Barber and Popular

CEU eTD Collection

A DamasceneBarberPopular and Religion, 1741 FAITH AND THE COMMON FAITHANDMAN THECOMMON Inpartial Second Reader: Professor NadiaReader:ProfessorSecond fulfillment of the requirementsofthefulfillment for of degreethe Supervisor: Professor AzizSupervisor: CentralUniversity European Department ofHistory Budapest,Hungary Master of Arts Master of NikolaPantić Submitted Submitted to 2014 B

l A -

Azmeh l - Bagdadi

- 1763

CEU eTD Collection madebenot writtenthepermission without Author. ofthe may instructions such with accordance in made copies Further made. copies such any of part a the from obtainedbe may Details Library. European Centralthe in lodged and author the by given instructions the with accordance in only made be may part, fullinor Copieseither byprocess, anyAuthor. with the rests of thesis inthis text Copyright the Statement of Copyright of Statement i

librarian. This page must form must page This librarian. CEU eTD Collection understudyapproximatelycentury a before region the understandingof clearer a necessaryacquiring for somedetails the illuminate help of symbol a as serve to potential the had popularpractices religious that demonstrated beshall it Furthermore, provided. be shallbarber) eighteenth the of practices and beliefs popular the social negotiating for cases, some in and others, of representation informalfromthe re century) eighteenth the ofDamascenes the case, this (in people a of religion practiced of study the that out pointed Furthermore, only. texts normative the of examination the through elsewhere) (and studyrel popular the fromto issues attempts emerge which the out point will research This barber. the by documented and perceived as city the of population the eighteenth comparison. edition printed its with manuscript the juxtaposing to committed th to Due years. aforementioned eighteenth an uses thesis eighteenth Through the barber the Through of aspects some explore to aims study This self for had tropes religious which role the highlight will thesis This - - century Damascene practiced religion, religion, practiced Damascene century Damascus, century

religious quires the re the quires - century manuscript produced by a barber a by produced manuscript century - practices. chronicler’s manuscript, this study analyzes study this manuscript, chronicler’s roughly roughly e recent discovery of the manuscript, this work offers a chapter chapter a offers work this manuscript, the of discovery recent e alization that it does not seem valid to separate the formal the separate to valid seem not does it that alization

during of unity for the population of the city. This study will will study This city. the of population the for unity of Abstract the firstthe Islamicreformers

the period of 1741 of period the ii

p roviding the overview of custom of overview rovidingthe - century Damascenes (as described by the the by described (as Damascenes century

h pplr eiiu patcs f t of practices religious popular the - igious practices of Damascus igiousofDamascus practices - 1763 mobility. Some elements of of elements Some mobility. chronicler which covers the the covers which chronicler ,

presenting results of this this of results presenting

emerged . For this purpose, this this purpose, this For . some

elements of th of elements - representation, representation, s shared by by shared s it shall be be shall it he he e CEU eTD Collection provided elsewhere and led which Zoran helpednecessaryprovidematerial.the work. this for EmíliaB year. academic past Studies, Bendik Agnes muchdeserve gratitude. also Belgrade) of (University Philology of Faculty the university, previous my with affiliated ofmembersofall work my with on carry present the in ensue to are which discussions for possible work guidanceand attitude supportive Her my queries. for there alwayswas Al Nadia Professor thesis. this writing of process the during and before confusion and to gratitude much owe invaluable Pantić. W Pantić. Furthermore, I would like t like would I Furthermore, I I CEU, er would like to express my gratitude to Professor Aziz Al Aziz Professor to gratitude my express to like would should also also should

e to the completion of this of completion the to help and support support and help nyi, and Krisztinanyi,and . I am grateful to Professor Tolga U. Esmer, whose classes served as inspiration as served classes whose Esmer, U. Tolga Professor to grateful am I .

I owe my th my owe I of the Department of History, of Department the of for being for ithout ithout the In addition, without the staff of the CEU Library, especially Ibolya Csige, Csige, Ibolya especially Library, CEU the of staff the without addition, In faculty of the Department of History. facultyof Department the of express my immense gratitude to my parents, parents, my to gratitude immense my express their . the patience he patience the

I owe much gratitude to to gratitude much owe I the always anks to Sinead Ward of the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin, who who Dublin, in Library Beatty Chester the of Ward Sinead to anks

limitless support I would not be able to make even the initial steps steps initial the evenmake to ablebe not would I support limitless he showed me. showed he necessary Kőrösi

available for all for available o express my gratitude to to gratitude my express o Acknowledgments , I would materialI be obtainsource not , to ablethe essential study

comfort and unending joy to me. Lastly, there are no no are there Lastly, me. to joy unending and comfort demonstrated .

My friends and colleagues in Budapest, Belgrade, Budapest, in colleagues and friends My T and Esther Holbrook of the Center for Religious for Center the of Holbrook Esther and his work would never be finished be never would work his iii

the help of help the manners study

while having to deal with my qu my with deal to having while , and who and ,

of issues which emerged during the the during emerged which issues of Thescholars

Professor Tijana Krstić Tijana Professor Anikó Molnár Anikó - se advices encouraged me to to me encouraged advices se Azmeh for the unending and unending the for Azmeh Vojislava Marković and and Marković Vojislava in and teaching assistants assistants teaching and many , Judit Gergely, and and Gergely, Judit ,

ways ways

without him without ,

as well as as well as made this this made - Bagdadi Bagdadi estions estions . I

CEU eTD Collection are beingthese words written. present times at gone. long those was, uphad put withVasiljević, to me who throughout the of process words undoubtedly

which could which This work is work This

throughout history, as well as to to as well as history, throughout It is committe is It , a

adequately great dedicated to the people of Syria and Damascus, both of ages present, and present, ages of both Damascus, and Syria of people the to dedicated

ordeal Theyneverforgotten.be should d to all those who perished in perished who those all to d express the immense gratitude I owe to my to owe I gratitude immense the express

for herfor .

This work is not, however,isThisdedicated work not, iv

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CEU eTD Collection usedthroughout this isthesis Arabic in works published the and manuscript the both of transliteration The manuscript. the transliteration colloquial Arabic of annotation systemis allowswhichexact no there fact that century. The Damascuseighteenth the of The manuscript used in this study is written in colloquial Arabic language native to to native language Arabic colloquial in written is study this in used manuscript The

system s

for classical Arabic language. I did not correct the grammar contained in in contained correct grammar the not did I language. Arabicclassicalfor conducted conducted

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CEU eTD Collection earthquake.rumored 1B and 1A pages hold manuscript,willI use my markingsown while quoting the foliotext.The 24 ofno. Dublin the manuscript will thus o numbering page the to theinconsistency pertaining the in ofFurthermore,because inaccurate. is, statementbarber, the of this case that show shall I 2, chapter In autographs. are manuscripts three all that state collection production.manuscript’s the of time exact the ascertain me help to clues 18 no found the of half second the in Bagdad ofgovernors the of account an as well as 1781, in Medina 3551/2, Ar Library,35 BeattyAr the Chester texts, Budayr’s MS Ibn to 1763].” addition In and Dublin. 1741 Years the Between Damascus of Events Daily [The 1 would reactionsmorepopulation threat, the thetangibleface of a instances would city thewhen at aimed specifically preventinghorridthis thre ritual a conduct and procession a gather might wide, and far famous miracleswere whose shaykh, SufiA true. comeprayers the help to power peculiar a hadwhich was body whose saint powerful a of shrine a to visit a pay perhaps, would, Damascenes barber’s the however, did, it If came. never homes their with along men the break to threatened which Th city. the of inhabitants the over rumor of power the demonstrating demise impendingdoom. ensue to is what for reader the of preparation no and introduction,

Shihāb al Shihāb

The City and the Barbershop: Popular Religion in Religion Popular Barbershop: andthe TheCity entombed in one of the local graveyards. Or Or graveyards. local the inof one entombed It is with this sudden report that the text of a Damascene barber begins. There is no no is There begins. barber Damascene a of text the that report sudden this with is It destroymanywill places,and men thethat will it that and Damascus, in happen will earthquake great a that tale] [the spread people Andinthe , h wrs n h frt ae f hs most this of page first the on words The One can speculate endlessly, but as the manuscript of the barber shows, in other other in shows, barber the of manuscript the as but endlessly, speculate can One

ca - Dīn A Dīn sd y h erhuk t come to earthquake the by used

ḥ year mad Ibn Budayr, “Hawādith Dimashq al Dimashq “Hawādith Budayr, Ibn mad

– 1154

this is the first page after the cover of the text, which begins with the report of the the of report the with begins which text, the of cover the after page first the is this

[1741], at.

theday whichoffirst Damascus Introduction 51/2 collection includes a chronicle recounting the attack on attack the recounting chronicle a includes collection 51/2 , turn intoturn women…

neoe a large a enveloped 1

perhaps they would offer a prayer in a mosque mosque ina prayer aoffer wouldperhaps they - peculiar manuscript imply that the fear of of fear the that imply manuscript peculiar Shām al Shām

wasSaturday [March18

- Yawmiyya min Sanat 1154 ilā Sanat 1176 Sanat ilā 1154 Sanat min Yawmiyya 1

number Eighteenth

is – The covers of the manuscript the ofcovers The

just a sudden sense of of sense sudden a just apocalyptic earthquake earthquake apocalyptic

of the Damascenes, Damascenes, the of th ],

t he common - th Century Century

century. I have have I century. f the the f CEU eTD Collection ImpactofWestern Civilization on MoslemCulture in Nearthe East 1938). Society, Morgenlandes 2 many in as well as Empires, Islamic early the of histories the to similar manner a In shows. scholarship recent more as complex, more far and different much been have to seems reality of development overall the of narrative historiographical schematic a of creation the facilitate may attitude simplified – community Muslim the of authorities religious the by prescribed practices and rules of sets the studied be may Empire the within religion displ East Middle the of scholars the Previously, doctrine. imperial depict normative Sunni thesubjects’in sometimesofreligious terms to tended practice non the by encouraged further was Ottomans with borders Jennings, Re I.1. pages. made about is study this short, by sent messages peculiar and dead, barber. the by recounted prop was what resemble indeed

Se the Rnl C Jnig, Sm Togt o te Gazi the on Thoughts “Some Jennings, C. Ronald e Ottoman Empire Ottoman

my et wih sals allowabl establish which texts uh f h odr itrorpy oue o te toa Empire, Ottoman the on focused historiography older the of Much netn Middle inventing

Wittek, research possible. I will take what his what take will I possible. research 6 18) 151 (1986): 76 e as Sr aitn ib n Hrl Bowen, Harold and Gibb Hamilton Sir also See retls ntos f sai otooy Ti approach This orthodoxy. Islamic of notions Orientalist

or Gibb and Bowen, and Gibb or

ide atr rlgos practices religious Eastern Middle This is This - popular reli popular 6, n Pu Wittek, Paul and 161, - atr Piety: Eastern

osed above. The present The above. osed a work about Sufi shaykhs, miracle shaykhs, Sufiabout work a nature to the inhabitants of this eighteenth this of inhabitants the to nature gion of the Damascene inhabitants. It is the barber who who barber the is It inhabitants. Damascene the of gion e sets of practices pertaining to one’s religion. This This religion. one’s to pertaining practices of sets e 2

approached the study of religious practices within its its within practices religious of study the approached only

Imagined Orthodoxy in the History of the the of History the in Orthodoxy Imagined h Rs o te toa Empire Ottoman the of Rise The 2

through the normative written texts conveying texts written normative the through - critical analysis of source narratives which which narratives source of analysis critical text - Thesis,”

ovy n rsn i nte following the in it present and conveys sai Scey n te et A td o the of Study A West: the and Society Islamic (NewYork: Oxford University 1950).Press, study but , inr etcrf f Zeitschrift Wiener ayed a tendency to assume that that assume to tendency a ayed

seeks

contains - workers, saints living and and living saints workers, to examin to

to Lno: oa Asiatic Royal (London:

like the works of of works the like ay flaws many h s the ü - century de ud des Kunde die r e such actions, actions, such tudy of the the of tudy city. In In city. . The The .

CEU eTD Collection SubjectConsumer 6 to Sourcesthe SuraiyaSeealsoFaroqhi, 2005), 171.(Boston: Reinkowski, Brill, in Conflict,” Ottomanthe LegitimacyDressler,“InventingAuthority Orthodoxy: ClaimsMarkusand in for Competing 5 1995),Press, 52. 4 CambridgeUniversity Press, 2003), 231. 3 belonga didSufinot to order. individu many not were there Empire Ottoman modern early the in that suggested be indeed, might, It population. the of rest the and order Sufi a of member a between distinguish so orders “orthodoxy.” Ottoman of proof a as than rebels local and states neighbouring rival against jihads justify to means a as doctrineincorporationand ofthe the depict to tropes mystical Emp were sultans Ottoman the that fact the is Ottomans the under Islam mystical of development and growth rapid this for reason i to due much periods), earlier twelfth the from centuryonwards. developed and spread traditions, and doctrines mystical Islamic various n more became and flourished time, of passage to conforming always not were emergence the by paralleled was ofIslamic development und Sunnismthe world, regionsthe other of

CemalKafadar, The neighbouring Safavid Empire slow Empire Safavid neighbouring The oahn . Berkey, P. Jonathan mngl aaaa n Glz e, “Ea Ger, Güliz and Karababa Eminegül ire seemed ire much that in the second half of the seventeenth century it became truly hard to to hard truly became it century seventeenth the of half second the in that much Legitimizing the Order: The Ottoman Rhetoric of State Power, State of Rhetoric Ottoman The Order: the Legitimizing , (Cambridge , &New CambridgeYork: University 1999),Press, 9.

BetweenTwo Worlds:ConstructionThe ofOttomanthe State ,” Journal of Consumer ResearchConsumer of Journal ,” eager 3

It blossomed under the Ottomans (as well as under the Mamluks, and even in evenMamluks,andthe under well(asblossomed as Ottomans It the under h Frain f sa: eiin an Religion Islam: of Formation The

5 it. accept to

The Ottomans, in fact, supported the development of these mystical mystical these of development the supported fact, in Ottomans, The

6 sultan ts flexibility and optimism towards religious syncretism. Another religioussyncretism. towards optimism flexibilityand ts

the normative written tradition, written normative the quite open for such traditions, and that the population of the the of population the that and traditions, such for open quite shari s

ly adopted Shiʿism in the same period, much for the same reasons. See reasons. same the for much period, same the in Shiʿism adopted ly 4

within the corpus of religious practices and beliefs which which beliefs and practices religious of corpus the within ’s charisma and authority and charisma ’s rly Modern Ottoman Coffeehouse Culture and the Formation of the the of Formation the and Culture Coffeehouse Ottoman Modern rly This went to such an extent that the that extent an such to went This

ʿ a

intois lawofficialthe moreof rightly codes described

37 (2010): 17, doi: 10.1086/656422. See also James Grehan, James also See10.1086/656422. doi: 17, (2010): 37 3

uanced. Scey n h Na Es, 600 East, Near the in Society d Approaching Ottoman History: An IntroductionHistory:OttomanApproachingAn

Sufism, a term used to combine the the combine to used term a Sufism, –

and the appropriation of the Sunni Sunni the of appropriation the ed. (Berkeley:University ofCalifornia

er the Ottoman government government Ottoman the er

which changed through the the through changed which Hakan T. Karateke and Maurus and Karateke T. Hakan Empire’s - 1800 rulers used used rulers (Cambridge: als who who als - Safavid CEU eTD Collection Trans Empire: Brokering Empire Ottoman Modern Early the 8 CambridgeUniversity Press, 2013), 7 21 18th in Culture Consumer & Life Everyday or of sake the for likeadvancingmundanecourt,casesachieving their goals,th defendingquiteat notions or and gender tropes religious of utilize regardless to tended Empire, even Ottoman sometimes confession, the of subjects the that demonstrated Pierce otherwise. think to researchers previous led that sources the of role preeminent the perhaps, is, it that states f dominant a necessarily not was it but population, the among present indeed was Religion Empire. the of subjects the for line itsdevelopmentof fromterritoryea the overall the guided and shaped significantly which ofinterplay the monotheisticreligions, three the to home traditional the Syria, Ottoman with case the was Such Empire. the within regions grew and the so diversity, wide a such of empire maintainan to filtered which folklore, local by influenced further was confession religious Every borders. Empire’s Judaisms and Christianities various fact, in religious only the represent not did Islam complex. more even made be can picture The time. over developed recognition

See Tijana Krstić, Tijana See rc Masters, Bruce - 55. enhancing

It would be wrong, however, to believe that religion represented an represented religion that believe to however, wrong, be would It mutual numberofwhichwith trends doctrine, within a broad itselfa Sunnism represents into the everyday practice of the Empire’s population. The Ottomans had to be flexible flexible be to had Ottomans The population. Empire’s the of practice everyday the into cetn a itrsig e o rlgos dniis native identities religious of set interesting an creating ,

hi mtra conditions. material their h Aas f h Otmn mie 1516 Empire, Ottoman the of Arabs The Contested Conversions to Islam: Narratives of Religious Change Religious of Narratives Islam: to Conversions Contested

- Imperial Subjects Between Venice and Istanbul and VeniceBetween SubjectsImperial

confession within the Ottoman Empire. Christianity and Judaism and Christianity Empire. Ottoman the within confession

105. (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2011), 121 2011), Press, University Stanford Alto: (Palo orce in all domains of life at all times. Bruce Masters rightly rightly Masters Bruce times. all at life of domains all in orce

- Century Damascus Century rly rise of Islam, till the present years.ofrly riseIslam, present till the

n e wr n eighteenth on work her In 4 –

also maintained their presence within the the within presence their maintained also - 98 A oil n Clua History Cultural and Social A 1918: ʿ ulamā

(Seattle: University of Was ofUniversity (Seattle: varietiesof 7

in the process of creating historical historical creating of process the in coas ie rtć Rtmn or Rothman, Krstić, like Scholars (Ithaca and London: Cornell UniversityLondon:Cornell and (Ithaca

religious practices multiplied practices religious - century Ottoman Aleppo, Aleppo, Ottoman century o ifrn geographical different to - and Communal Politics in Politics Communal and 164, E. Natalie Rothman, Natalie E. 164,

hington Press, 2007), Press, hington exclusive

eir social status, eirsocialstatus,

(Cambridge:

guiding guiding –

CEU eTD Collection 13 12 11 10 UniversityofPress, Texas 1999), 3 9 1402 of Wars Succession 1413,” Ottoman the in Alliances Political and Affiliations “Religious Kastritsis, J. Dimitris pertain policies Ottoman the to regards with Interesting 41. 2006), UniversityPress, Cambridge Confessionalisation,” Famil to Empires “From Tóth, György István and 176 2003) Press, California ofUniversity Angeles: Los and 2012),2 Press, normative empire the of population the Religion, “institutionalized.” labels Masters religion popular especially which elements those to only corresponds nature. of notions other and world, spiritual the with communications saints, in believedsubjects the of most normativewritingsin described “institutionalized”religionthis by recorded th centuries[inform]theirand culture.” states, religion always such have to seem sultan, a for easier lands Arab the over rule the made ideology political a as religion of use the that out points further Masters alwa not did inheritance, and marriage to regards with especially law, religious by prescribed norms the that cases court through shows Meriwether

agrt . Meriwether, L. Margaret Masters, Masters, Masters, Masters, Medieval Encounters 13

to give “structure and meaning to those who inhabited Arab provinces in the Ottoman Ottoman the in provinces Arab inhabited who those to meaning and “structure give to Religion under the examination of the present study, however, is not the religion religion the not is however, study, present the of examination the under Religion

ersn an represent was always available for the people the for available always was

The ofArabs Ottomanthe Empire The ofArabs Ottomanthe Empire, The ofArabs Ottomanthe Empire, The ofArabs Ottomanthe Empire It is my belief that it seems quite impossible to establish a religious practice that that practice religious a establish to impossible quite seems it that belief my is It

texts 9 - 34,andLeslie Pierce, e Ottomane

only utrl xhne n al Mdr Erp 1, Europe Modern Early in Exchange Cultural ex

. seta diig force driving essential c lu h eaiain f eiiu practice religious of examination The h Kn h Cut Fml ad oit i Otmn Alep Ottoman in Society and Family Count: Who Kin The 13(2007): 222 si ʿ ulamā ve –

l - – y the body of worship, worship, of body the 6.

cannot be approached be cannot d

Morality Tales:Morality LawOttomantheGender of Aintab and Court in ec in endless heaps of paper. Bruce Masters indicatesbeyond inBruceMastersheapsthat ofpaper. endless proceeding to show to proceeding ic 12 - iv 242. , 10. ,

105. 105. 81

role.

82.

Crls Rlgos n Clua Brelns n h Ae of Age the in Borderlines Cultural and Religious Circles: y

, and that one that and ,

11 for the population I will argue, however, that that however, argue, will I population the for

5 This

- 208, 251 208, practices, and rituals widely spread among among spread widely rituals and practices, study

that religion that historically of its main its of -

s ae boue authority. absolute have ys 310. See also, for instance, Heinz Schilling Heinz instance, for also, See 310. will also show that religion did not did religion that show also will

d Shlig n Tt (Cambridge: Tóth and Schilling ed. s

must must through the analysis of these these of analysis the through

in everyday in

functions a magical and magical a is be first o 1770 po,

was context

ing to religion is religion to ing conducted by by conducted - , as Masters Masters as , 1841 mystical mystical (Berkeley

9 did not did

(Austin: Bruce -

CEU eTD Collection livingamongcity.of peoplethethe and present therefore are which and society, by applied are which religion practiced of forms eighteenth barber’s the religious the examine will I that stating by Naturally, occupation. or status, social th of levels all by accepted and widespread were which practicesreligious to willrefer I language. Englishthe in meaning everyday its in “popular” term the using rather am I Damascus). of city the study, by used w practices society of strata different or religious groups, different between contrast a imply to wish not do I “popular,” term the using By Lebanon. and Palestine, Jordan, of parts into century eighteenth the during stretched Damascus, century Popular I.2. Religious yieldingexamined, satisfactory thoroughly be area geographical certain a of practices religious can form this in Only people). folklorethea by oflegendsbeliefs andaccepted (in ofscope short, wide thepopulation, andthe a was subjects imperial formalmergebetween product the of asa practicedescrib religious the of religion work, this in later argue will I As texts. normative byinformedthe those fromdisentangle practices informal hardto seems it geographical region, hand other scholars the of texts the analyze to observing This thesis will focus on the analysis of popular religious practices in the eighteenth the in practices religious popular of analysis the on focus will thesis This those those , when one turns attention to the religious practices of a people within a certain certain a within people a of practices religious the to attention turns one when , e Damascene society (as observed by the Damascene barber), regardless of rank, rank, of regardless barber), Damascene the by observed (as society Damascene e practices the - P century Damascenes, I aim to underline the significanc underlinethe to aim I Damascenes, century

capital of the province which carried the the carried which province the of capital Bilādractices al and which were (or are) present among the people. Only then can one turn are)presentOnlyamongturn canone people. then the (or werewhich results for researchers.for results

–

in the case of the Ottoman Empire, the Empire, Ottoman the of case the in - 6 Shām: DamascusShām: Modernity before ithin a ithin

certain geographical certain ed innormativewritingsed same name, and which which and name, same

area (in the present present the (in area e of studying the the studying of e ʿ ulamā. practices

On the the On

and and

of of - CEU eTD Collection (1996):326 15 MiddleEast, discu Nineteenth the the in is Production importance Of 3. 2007), Press, 12 2003), UniversityPress, Cambridge 14 practices religious of developments these which in way the examine will I century, eighteenth andextend seventeenth, the in roots took which personalities Sufi certain of influence long the instance, century. nineteenth the of half first the to sixteenth the of half second religio of development overall the of period historiographical a within centerpiece a represents Radke, Bernd to according century eighteenth East Middle the and Syriahistory of modern early ofthe increasinghistorians’developments,understanding i further to well serves practices, religious popular including century, eighteenth the of culture Syrian the in present East Middle the in addition, In Europe. with Damascus 1990 after produced in works scholarly described later Arab (in were Renaissance” “Arabic which the as such changes, terms with of scholarship set drastic a the underwent during century society Eastern nineteenth Middle the that conviction its expressed scholarship Previous

Ber e Brad Haykel, Bernard See nd Radtke, “Sufism in the 18th Century: An Attempt at a Provisional Appraisal,” Provisional a at Attempt An Century: 18th the in “Sufism Radtke, nd cos t eaie h dvlpet o te ihenh century eighteenth the of developments the examine to choose I Analyzing - ) was not in not was ) 327. ed well into into nineteenthwelltheed century. ed.Georg Stauth andSami Zubaida (Boulder: Westview1987.)Press, ,

and

I trs f h dvlpet f eiiu practices religious of development the of terms In . chronicle a allowing

began eia ad eom n sa: h Lgc o Mhma Al Muhammad of Legacy The Islam: in Reform and Revival lluminate the state of affairs in Damascus prior to the nineteenth the to prior inDamascus affairs of state the lluminate a deep, decadent slumber from which it awakened only through contacts contacts through only awakened it whichfrom slumber decadent deep, - Century Middle East,” in in East,” Middle Century several scholarly works scholarly several s al as early as h rsaces o ses lis o a ‘nihemn’ in ‘Enlightenment’ an for claims assess to researchers the

us practices us

written , and Joseph A. Massad, A. Joseph and argue

so i Rihr Shle “as utr ad sai Cultural Islamic and Culture “Mass Schulze, Reinhard in ssion h egtet century eighteenth the

y Dmsee abr during barber Damascene a by

in the Eastern Mediterranean, which lasted from the the from lasted which Mediterranean, Eastern the in ,

howe 15 7

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v suggest that the that suggest er, Desiring Arabs, Arabs, Desiring

the Arab the . 14

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orld (along with the city of of city the with (along orld processes of processes (Chicago: University of Chicago Universityof(Chicago: ic

– Radtke points out, for out, points Radtke

- the chosen century, century, chosen the for Shawkani, Die Welt des Islams des Welt Die the middle of the the of middle the - N

ah several reasons. reasons. several

Enlightenment Enlightenment ḍ a ). ). (Cambridge: A - century century s some the the

CEU eTD Collection or criticizing, colleagues, and peers their representing history, Syrian in trace their left authors the of territory the enter to way that in Attempting writing. ch Ottoman of style official the imitate to attempted some and works, their for Arabic non the to belonged they that recor who education formal previouswithout authors ofnumber a ofappearance thewitnessed noalso it and exception, was East Middle century eighteenth The past. Eastern Middle the in texts such produce period absolutely) not (but literaryinthe subjected to canonofthe predominantly stands chronicle Arabic an creating of art the that fact the in lies problem the the reconstructing at attempt historian’s Kannan Ibn of chronicle famous the like Works issue. significant a with researcher a present might however, chronicles, these of Readings administration. and politics, ofVoiceThe I.3. the Barber: – and writings normative both of combination a figuredas religious practices i values shared of community original an of creation the spurred Syria of population nineteenth better a to contribute will the of which interpretation facts significant providing time same the at while city, barber the by and byapplied treated were the

the two inseparable two the ofwhole.parts a The chroniclers of Dam of chroniclers The –

the - century reformers. It is my belief that the various religious influences shared by the the by shared influences religious various the that belief my is It reformers. century - ‘ulama’ chronicler) ded diaries of their cities. A peculiar characteristic of these chroniclers is is chroniclers these of characteristic peculiar A cities. their of diaries ded culture which existed in the Syrian society prior to the emergence of the the of emergence the to prior society Syrian the in existed which culture The . . I shall demonstrate the complexity of religious customs within the the within customs religious of complexity the demonstrate shall I . e intellectual se - A

eighteenth elite population of Damascus, or Syria. They used colloquial colloquial used They Syria. or Damascus, of population elite ascus weave the story of their city, its rulers, social activities, activities, social rulers, its city, their of story the weave ascus “ Semi

- L historical image of of image historical

- iterate” Chronicler in the CenterChronicler the iterate” in of Damascus elites, however, were not the only ones entitled to to entitled ones only the not were however, elites, cen tury population ofDamascus tury 8

tellectual elites and authorities of the tellectualelitesauthoritiesand ofthe eighteenth ʿ ulamā’ - century Damascus, but but Damascus, century tee “ these , significantly benefi significantly

(as it was perceived itwasperceived (as a

rich local folklore folklore local rich semi - n which which n l ronicle iterate” iterate”

t a a t - CEU eTD Collection StanfordUniversity 20 Press, 16 Damascus hisand2.are tonetopicsof theChapter all with inhabitants various its and city walls city the within practices religious popular writings Budayr, Ibn research this of purpose the for fit deem I whom barber, Damascene eighteenth the of history fo invaluable is view of points of variety this elite, scholarly the of voice the understandingof clearer a craftsmen. or priests an cities, their of courts in transpired that everything down wrote meticulously who points vantage different from speak chroniclers these of Dama a Homs, from clerk a Nablus, from Samaritan a son, his and ʿĀmil Jabal from farmer Shiʿī a priest, a barber, one included chroniclers the eighteenth the In traditions. cultural and origins, beliefs, religious allegiances, chronicle of practice the details,developmentsthe which habitats. withinemerged their innovations and rulers, changes, societal appraising

Dana Sajdi, Sajdi, Dana Many non Many h dsoey f h bre’ mnsrp i oe t Dn Sajdi’s Dana to owed is manuscript barber’s the of discovery The wih oe te eid ewe 15/71 n 1176/1763 and 1154/1741 between period the cover which ,

(2013). Through this work this Through (2013). The Barber of Damascus of Barber The positioned -

ʿ ulamā’ ulamā’

between what he deems common, and the city’s the and common, deems he what between he study of their texts is very important if a researcher desires to obtain to desiresresearcher if a important veryis texts their ofstudyhe 13) - etr Lvn. u f hs ie cp o atos I il hoe a choose will I authors, of scope wide this of Out Levant. century this age and region and age this , - authors appeared in the Ottoman Empire of the eighteenthcentury the of Empire inOttoman the appeared authors rtn ws dpe b many by adopted was writing 77

- 114. :

Nouveau Literacy in the Eighteenth the in Literacy Nouveau , it is possible to find out that the existing edition of the the of edition existing the that out find to possible is it ,

of their peculiarities. The peculiarities. their of , seen from seen 9

through his eyes the reader shall observe t observe shall reader the eyes his through scene soldier, and a janissary warrior. All warrior. janissary a and soldier, scene ad eodn, oeie t minute to sometimes recording, and ,

different points of view. In addition to to addition view. In of points different –

some as soldiers, others as clerks clerks as others soldiers, as some

meil subjects imperial - Century Ottoman Levant OttomanCentury vantage point of the barber barber the of point vantage

– that I will examine the the examine will I that

elites Shihāb al Shihāb . It is through his his through is It . r piecing out the out piecing r - century Levant, Levant, century The Barber of of Barber The

- of different different of Dīn A Dīn d some as as some d (Stanford: ḥ mad he –

CEU eTD Collection Anne Tedeschi,(Baltimore: The HopkinsJohn University 1980).Press, 19 18 towiththe proper nameof authorthe printedthe thus version willbe marked withthe author’sal as name manu text the the ofpage cover the useon stated as author willthe of name the with I them of each to 3551/2. 1959,referring in published Ar manuscripts of collection Dublin the in text wasDamascus:second The Saʿadedition al in publishedDār Ma 1175/1741 17 from himself stop publicly attitudes to and able feelings his not proclaiming seemingly works, vernacular heretic reading in engaged and with contact gain to opportunity the had inhabitant, indeed or barber,every not manner, similar a Inreligion. about discussions fervent in engage and texts heretic the known make or distribute, purchase, read, to urge an exceptionality represent to seem miller Friulian lifeforcommon population thewas whicheighteenth of the Menocchio. mediation of device a as writing his using family, his and himself for claims peculiar many made indeed, eighteenth this of elite scholarly the by shared circles the enter to auto an becoming them, f many served barber the Indeed, century. eighteenth the of middle the in customers his coiffed undoubtedly, p first was which text

The barber’sThe personal history,wellas theas implications of chronicle,his representthe subject of 2.Chapter See Carlo Ginzburg, Carlo See A ṭ baʿat Lajnat alLajnatbaʿat ḥ acquire a al mad n sne te abr ersns Mdl Esen onepr o te tla miller, Italian the of counterpart Eastern Middle a represents barber the sense, a In - 1762 . 18

- 19 the leverage which Ibn Budayr possessed. On the other hand, while Menocchio was hand,while was Menocchio On other possessed. leveragetheBudayr Ibn whichthe uar al Budayrī

i te eeso o Mu of recension the in ,

It is highly doubtable, ashighlyis doubtable, It amous figures of eighteenth of figures amous are diff are - Bayānal

The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth a of Cosmos The Worms: the and Cheese The - erent for erent Ḥ - allāq, ublished ʿArabī, 1959).This ʿArabī, - didactic individual who dared to write a work of his own and attempt attempt and own his of work a write to dared who individual didactic Ḥ

wdt Dmsq al Dimashq awādith each of them. Not every miller every Not them. of each –

IbnBudayr. n 1959, in exceptions ḥ ma S‘d al Sa‘īd ammad the readers the

is the edition which will be used consistently throughout the text. consistentlybetheused whichwillthroughout edition the is 17

- century Damascus, at the same time learning from from learning time same the at Damascus, century

em t ci te abrs od mc a he, as much words barber’s the coif to seems

ihn hi sceis bt h raos o th for reasons the but societies, their within 10

te abr per a (r t es fashions least at (or as appears barber the , - amya Te al Eet o Damascus] of Events Daily [The Yawmiyya

wi - - Dīn,1997.These correspondtoeditionsbarber’s the āiī e. A ed. Qāsimī, some of some ll see from Chapter 2, that the barber led a led barber the 2, that fromChapter ll see - Budayrī,while manuscriptthe willb

- century Damascus. Both heBothDamascus. centuryand the th ,

or every inhabitant of Italy of inhabitant every or e city’s most prominent figures prominent most city’s e ḥ a ‘za ‘b al ‘Abd ‘Izzat mad cit a wl a te rne text printed the as well as script, - Cent - etr ct. The city. century ury Miller, ury –

every Damascene Damascene every trans. John and John trans. - aī (Cairo: Karīm

ereferred barber, barber,

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to reac to all,wasexceptionalanindividualmedium as hisa but to regards acquaintances), with Ibn Budayr complains, quite emotionally, about the social order of his period, listing for period, his of socialtheorder about emotionally,quite complains, IbnBudayr - century Damascenes. As I will show, it might be presumed that the barber barber the that presumed be might it show, will I As Damascenes. century h an understanding about the Damascene popular religion of Ibn Budayr’s period Budayr’s Ibn of religion popular Damascene the about understanding an h differentiates

for this study thisfor

cial practices and customs which make possible the research into the into makeresearch the possible which cialcustoms and practices the barber from Menocchio from barber the d . At other times, however, the barber simply wrote what he he what wrote simply barber the however, times, other At . –

it is doubtful that he was punished by execution like the the like execution by punished was he that doubtful is it an invaluable pool of information. Finally, boFinally,information. pool of invaluable an - etr ihbtns I adto, h bre wie with writes barber the addition, In inhabitants. century 11 - century Damascus might be understood (for he, he, (for understood be might Damascus century

but exactly this trait of the barber will will barber the of trait this exactly but

o not know, although he does healthough does know, not o This traditionalist view is view traditionalist This –

not as a model a as not th Menocchio Menocchio th ramatize with - .

CEU eTD Collection ColumbiaUniversity 1989),Press, 39 20 fromisolation inlive not did centuriesnineteenth the al Najwa the of liberties the from Muslim the distinguished which obligations other and taxes alleviated government city’s the instance, for about, writes different somewhat be to proves period same the in Damascus inhabitants. makingcity’sbetween the for distinction basis asbeliefsthereligious identity Abraham Aleppo, Ottoman that of identity. group’s expression an as serve partially may region geographical same the in living people in people addit In a people. that of of culture the informs part religion significant that stated previously was It modernity. of rise a the before approximately century Damascenes the by shared was which culture the of understanding one’s the of examination folk rich a The and texts normative both of century. comprised religion popular Damascene eighteenth the in Damascenes the the constituted which of elements practice some religious of overview coherent a with readers the present to barber Damascene Reli I.4.

baa Marcus, Abraham rsnig n vriw f h eighteenth the of overview an Presenting is then, thesis, This - gion andSociety:Popular gion PracticesReligiousasSymbolsIdentity of Culture and formation. According to his words, different confessional groups of Aleppo used their their used Aleppo of groups confessionaldifferent words, his to According formation. - Qattan argues that the Muslims and the the and Muslims the that argues Qattan dhimmīs

h ideEs n h v o oent: lpo nte ihenh Century Eighteenth the in Aleppo Modernity: of Eve the on East Middle The Ibn Budayr Ibn

and allowed more intermingling in the Damascene society. Indeed, Indeed, society. Damascene the in intermingling more allowed and

about some of the religious practices present and witnessed by the the by witnessed and present practices religious the of some about Marcus indeed positions religion in the center of the process of of process the of center the in religion positions indeed Marcus

during the period between period the during - 48.

dhimmī omnt, hc increased which community, 12

dhimmīs - century Middle East through the case of of case the through East Middle century each other other each 1154/ ion, religious tradition of a group of of group a of tradition religious ion,

of Damascus in the eighteenth and and eighteenth the in Damascus of 1741 and 1741 – –

their society was much more more much wassociety their during the period the barber barber the period the during 1176/ , to an extent, the the extent, an to , lore shall widen widen shall lore go Its 1763. 20

Thecase Nw York: (New al is is al of of

CEU eTD Collection University1975),Press, especially 65 22 Studies in Societyand history, 21 al the follows largely study this by covered br in examined be will population the of habits and customs Some provi eighteenth formed.traditionbe could informed identity, communal a which of out symbol a become could practicesthese how and rituals, and rites communal own their of be sometimes France, Modern Early in inhabitants of groups whichdemonstrates whopower the religionand Z Natalie to fashion similar a in Finally, walls. city the within religion practiced th negotiate to havecertaindemonstratehow might individuals attempted to servewellbarber will eighteenth the among present were which them to notions and tropes religious the about readers of the employment the through others, of as well as self, one’s inform of image an creating of possibilities will I society. Damascene the within perceivable practices insepa the readerswill theunderstand my isthat hope It imperial solidofandsubjects group angavelocal originalto their religiouscharacter practices. a into together them brought which from, draw to superstition and folklore, tradition, of corpus fluid.

Najwaal to belonged which elements of use the through precisely authority and position social eir e Ntle eo Davis, Zemon Natalie See ded with the glimpse of the city’s geography, architecture and infrastructure of the city. city. the of infrastructure and architecture geography, city’s the of glimpse the with ded 21

The first chapter of this work will offer a brief insight into the state of affairs within the the withinaffairs of state intothe insight brief a willoffer work this of chapter first The I will I - Qattan, “Litigants and Neighbours:Qattan,“Litigants and Communal TheTopography Damascus,” Ottoman of - etr Damascus, century

further

show that the that show 44,3 (Julyno. 512 2002):

oit ad utr i Ery oen rne Egt Essays Eight France: Modern Early in Culture and Society . This study will offer a look into some of the beliefs and reactions reactions and beliefs the someof into look a offer will study This .

- establishing 96 and152 barber’s - 188.

Damascenes of the eighteenth the of Damascenes a context context a -

ʿA 22 13 - 514. its

ẓ I will show how proud the Damascenes could could Damascenes the proud how show will I m family’s rule in Damascus in rule family’s m

communalm practices - century Damascenes, and the case of the the of case the and Damascenes, century by the Damascene culture, folklore, and and folklore, culture, Damascene the by rability of formal and informal formalreligious and rabilityof for

y eerh Te reader The research. my oad ight extend over largeextend ight over

- strokes. The period period The strokes. century had a a had century

(Stan .

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CEU eTD Collection This analyzed. be will rituals, and prayers, communal holidays, religious large of Celebrations however, consistently eighteenth the of corpus rich the that demonstrating question inhabitants, the willbetween interaction the on I impact had religion measure) interaction. what in (and whether social of context the in practices religious with itself concern the over both had, chapt this have Furthermore, narrative. Budayr’s Ibn of elements integrated might as and inhabitants omens which power the to as well as places, sacred other c popular some to readers the introduce will I addition, In mobility. social and authority negotiating for cases havecould t Within practices. religious popular Damascene itscounterpart. printed and manuscript the of juxtaposition the by followed provided, be will itself text the of analysis w sectionThis from gathered be can it as much (as history personal research my for material be of some to reader the Introducing Damascus. of province Ottoman whole the and city the within liberty of increase an causing policy, social and economy, governing, in innovations many introduced nefit

The third chapter will commence with the examination of some aspects of the the of aspects some of examination the with commence will chapter third The barber the to committed is chapter second The h fut catr s omte t cmua relig communal to committed is chapter fourth The to the to overallunderstandingofth

oe nomto aot h pol ta inhabited that people the about information some it

served as a device for self for device a as served simplyremained aalld h lf o te city the of life the paralleled ill suggest explanations of his motivation to preserve motivationto his explanations of illsuggest ustoms of the Damascenes, such as visitations ( visitations as such Damascenes, the of ustoms

. It is here that the reader will find information about the identity and and identity the about information find will reader the that here is It .

available for availablethe - representation, fashioning of self and others, and in some some in and others, and fashioningself of representation, e

argumentsdevelopedin this .

I people sed f evn a a ecuie udn line, guiding exclusive an as serving of nstead 14

his chapter, it will be revealed how religion religion how revealed be will it chapter, his ,

- when they saw itwhennecessary saw they his century -

hoilr hs word whose chronicler manuscript) of the barber Ibn Budayr. Budayr. Ibn barber the of manuscript)

h ct drn ti period this during city the Damascenes’ religious practices practices religious Damascenes’ ziyārāt ious beliefs and practices. practices. and beliefs ious his words on paper on words his

study. ) of graves, shrines, and and shrines, graves, of )

. s provided the the provided s

. A brief brief A . er will will er

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CEU eTD Collection IbnmeticulouslyBudayr twelvethecanvased even which in barbershop a gardens, and alleys, minarets, towers, its of midst in locate, ease more eighteenth the of society and structure, life, brief a bewith first provided commence. shall Thereader to ready andmapped willbegiven. the brought which stimuli the explain to to population is purpose main Its periods. recent more and previous to period this of connection the indicate also will chapter This century. eighteenth the which religious about information significant uncover will chapter had the potential to serve as serveas to potential hadthe h qet o te oua rlgo o te eighteenth the of religion popular the for quest The

unity through religious practice. In the remaining text, some concluding remarks remarks concluding some text, remaining the In practice. religious through unity an

expression of an original Damascene religious identity of identityof religious Damascene original ofan expression - etr cptl f toa Sra s a t with to as so Syria, Ottoman of capital century 15

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CEU eTD Collection al of oasis the towards Damascus al cal spring the of waters the with itself recharges Barada, river, this Damascus, of west the to Somekilometers twenty SyrianDesert. the towards river its sends Barada Lake level,sea 1.1. barberemergedhis with text. the which within atmosphere, its enrich will population the of habits some of examination an the illuminate help will notables various its of roles The depicted. be can city the of topography the which upon canvas background the as well serve will Damascus of surroundings The inhabitants. its of overview an provide eighteenth of image the draw outlines practice social people’s the of understanding the among chan the with along city the shape catastrophes occasional and changes Weather interaction. social and economy, polity, in changes the as much as inhabitants the influence first - Fījah, descending then through Rabwe, a tight, steep gorge. On its passage through through passage its On gorge. steep tight, a Rabwe, through then descending Fījah,

From Frozen Hilltops into theFromDesert: and HilltopsSurroundingsinto Frozen Landscape n vriw f h ct isl. t gorpia lcto ad meit surroundings immediate and location geographical Its itself. city the of overview an Through the Labyrinth of Back of Labyrinth the Through The examination of the practices and customs common to the people of a city requires requires city a of people the to common customs and practices the of examination The Nestled atop Nestled inhabitants

the eastern slopes of Mount Lebanon, more than a thousand meters above above meters thousand a than more Lebanon, Mount of slopes eastern the . Only with the overview of all these elements will a complex complex a will elements these all of overview the with Only . Damascus and its Environment andits Damascus

- Ghū - century Damascus, posit Damascus, century ṭ a, its waters split into six branches (which are called called are (which branches six into split waters its a, ways in which the city’s businesses functioned, while while functioned, businesses city’s the which in ways Chapter 1 Chapter s -

Alleys andTowers: Alleys become available. This chapter serves to in brief brief in to serves chapter This available. become 16

ion the city geographically, and and geographically, city the ion

Reconstructing Reconstructing

ges in fashion fashion in ges led ‘Ayn ‘Ayn led CEU eTD Collection accessed9 June on online, Map a Fla and Spain in Years many forChristianity The professing after who, Turk, Also a Mostafa,of Historians.End TragicalandAdventures own Surprising their from Collected Libanus, Mount Inhabiting Maronites Part the Neighbouring of Account the An and Added, Cities, Capital Two Those of Description a with Damascus 23 of belt thin a century, eighteenth the In Desert. Syrian the of borders the on grasslands dry the intoThen theysands.the disappear th on lie that swamps the fueling and city the enveloping ‘rivers’),

o a acut f n ywtes rm h egtet cnuy se on Green, John see century, eighteenth the from eyewitness an of account an For Sprawling to the east and south of Damascus, the the Damascus, of south and east the to Sprawling Lno: . er, 76, 38 1736), Mears, W. (London: http://books.google.hu/books?id=Q1pFAAAAYAAJ&q=alleys#v=onepage&q=damascus&f=false nders,returnedSyria, Wife.Theto carrying with illustratedChristian Whole withhis andhim Notes Figure1:The th , , 2014).

B ranches ofRiver.Baradaranchesthe Source: RossBurns, A HistoryA

- 7 Ti wr ws iiaie o Jl 22 July on digitalized was work This 47. 23

(NewYork:Routledge, 18. 2007), 17

a l - Ghū ṭ a Oasis shielded the city from from city the shielded Oasis a

e very edge of the desert. desert. the of edge very e nd

09 n i, hs available thus, is, and 2009, Juny rm lpo to Aleppo from Journey A Damascus: o Sra T wih is which To Syria. of s

(last (last CEU eTD Collection 28 27 121. 26 25 24 many in but expansion, urban of process the during settled were gardens and orchards Many 1.2. plateauwh high banka on riverthe menat more thanwomen were there occasion one on withthat surprise men. as much as enjoyed women of gardens The words incredibleforeignfromattracted beauty ofpraise and surroundings rich whose labyrinthenjoyabledestinations gardens, aof into turned oasis the ofcenturies a canals,products irrigat of network large a hosted hectares thousand thirty some ofsurface Its trees. fruit and Asia. western in areas fertile city. the al named fields

IbnBudayr, Grehan, Grehan, Grehan, Henry Maundrell, Maundrell, Henry

OverviewTowersMazes:An Damascene Urbanand ofthe Landscape ot sd o ti vs Wo… tee xs] h ms batfl Summer beautiful most the exist] [there Wood… Gardens. the vast On this Prospect. the of to beauty side and advantageNorth small no add to conceiv’d be may which Summer and Steeples, of waters the by verdant kinds,fresh,and kept with all ofFruitTrees Gardens side…set on thick Thefarther are the aneven Plainsoextent,ofyou great that in [sic] situate is It voluptuousness. greater distance, a at beholder the promise can World the in place no certainly And Damascus. of prospect perfect most the indeed… have You It cannot be said with precision where Damascus ended, and where the oasis began. began. oasis the where and ended, Damascus where precision with said be cannot It 24

EverydayLife EverydayLife EverydayLife

ich al theoverlooks orse b t by Nourished HDY 26

- Marja separated the oasis from the desert, its main function to yield grain for grain yield to function main its desert, the from oasis the separated Marja ,57B. a A Journey: From Aleppo to Jerusalem at Easter A.D. 1697 A.D. Easter at Jerusalem to Aleppo From Journey: A l - Ghū

,23. ,22. ,23.

ṭ

re a e ae f h Brd River, Barada the of water he - Houses, presented a favorite destination for picnics and walks in which which in walks and picnics for destination favorite a presented 25

- - long process of construction and maintenance. Closer to the city, city, the maintenance.Closerto constructionand longof process

Marja and al Marjaand Barrady In the eighteenth century, it was covered by orchards of olive olive of orchards by covered was it century, eighteenth the In 27

frequently peeping out from amongst the green boughs, boughs, green the amongst from out peeping frequently In 1163/ [Barada]. You discover in them many Turrets, and and Turrets, many them in discover You [Barada]. can but justdiscerncan but the Mountainscompass that it, - Takiyyaal 1750, 1750, 18

the barber the - Sulaymāniyya. visitors. Henryvisitors. Maundrellwrites: a l - Ghū - chronicler ṭ rpeet oe f h most the of one represents a (Oxford: Theather, 1703), 120 1703), Theather, (Oxford: 28

Ibn Budayr Ibn - Houses and and Houses

expressed expressed

ion - CEU eTD Collection 35 managed toinfluence the development of ci a Introduction,“ September1995 An Damascus. Ottoman Late 34 33 32 Journalof Facuthe 31 30 and Estates in18the 29 ofBābnearal Damascene quarter citadel, thethe while fromHawran. transportation s the eighteenth al was quarter turbulent most undoubtedly, and distinguished for al and Sārūja city. the joining and oasis the of parts over taking gradually tra for barrier a as serve to ceased rectangle, centuries. thirteenth and twelfth the since southwest and west, north, the to expanding neighbourhoods, suburban al of neighbourhood the hosted Qāsiyūn of slopes al Qubbat named pavilion a roof the from emerging foothillQāsiyūnstood highest point mosques.of Mount OntheDamascene madrasas theof and minarets of forest the overlooking stood which Qāsiyūn grew Damascus of population immensely. the 1516), (in Empire Ottoman the of part a became Syria shops. and houses former of places the in stood gardens areas, other

Grehan, Shilcher, Grehan, Shilcher, See, for instance, ʿAbd al ʿAbd instance, for See, Damascus,” Ottoman in Recreation of Culture The Habits: Secular Gardens, “Leisure Akkach, Samer Grehan, outh EverydayLife EverydayLife Everyday Life Everyday . This road, which was a part of the Pilgrimage route, route, Pilgrimage the of part a was which road, This . FamiliesinPolitics, FamiliesinPolitics, - century city, developed from a thin belt of settlements which ran along the road to to road the along ran which settlements of belt thin a from developed city, century 30

- (Geneve: Fondation Max van Berchem, 1999), 489 1999), Berchem, van Max Fondation (Geneve: Qanawāt were the most prosperous most the were Qanawāt h ct isl epne t te otws of northwest the to expanded itself city The lty oflty Architecture th inhabita

and 19 the

32 ,26 ,27. , 25. See also Linda Schatkowski Schilcher, Schilcher, Schatkowski Linda also See 25. ,

Thus the walls of the old, medieval city, built in a rough shape of a a of shape rough a in built city, medieval old, the of walls the Thus - - 28. Razzaq Moaz, „Domestic Architecture, Notables, and Power: A Neighbo A Power: and Notables, Architecture, „Domestic Moaz, Razzaq nts 7 3

th - - 35 dignitaries. military and officials Ottoman , - 11. 4. Centuries Na

Within the walls of the old city, Sūq al Sūq city, old the of walls Withinthe

27(2010): 73.Accessed May 7 ṣ (h Dm o Vcoy, vrokn te nie city. entire the overlooking Victory), of Dome (The r

tydistrict. (Stuttgart:F.Steiner, 1985), 7. 0h nentoa Cnrs o Trih r, eea 17 Geneva. Art, Turkish of Congress International 10th

19 ffic. New settlements grew around the walls, walls, the around grew settlements New ffic.

- in the eighteenth century eighteenth the in - Ṣ Maydān the southwestern district of the the of district southwestern the Maydān āli - ḥ Barīd īyya, which d which īyya, - 495. Moaz shows how the Ottoman officials Ottoman the how shows Moaz 495. th ,2014, doi: 10.4305/METU.JFA.2010.1.4. Families in Politics: Damas Politics: in Families 33 stood a

l Of all the neighbourhoods, Sūq neighbourhoods, the all Of - Ghū

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, CEU eTD Collection MuslimCities in Laterthe Middle Ages 1708 Damascuss, in Rule Ottoman 38 384,389. PreliminaryApproaches andResults,” 37 36 place bettake sometimes could Clashes Bagdad. from originating people the by populated neighbourhood city the walls, stu certain and however, was it of south and city, inner the of section eastern the in Tūmā, Bāb around concentrated quarter Christian The study t century, eighteenth the in. live to locations prized the of one representing

ColetteEstablet andJeanPaul Pascual, “Damascene Probate Inventories of 17 the Seesection 2.1. For an example, see Ibn Budayr, seeIbn example, an For –

the shop of Ibn Budayr. Ibn of shop the Figure2:Historical weenminorities.these

also hosted quarters for minorities, like the Kurdish quarter, or the the or quarter, Kurdish the like minorities, for quarters hosted also

Ḥ y al ayy his quarter also hosted a barbershop a hosted also quarter his dies show that the population intermingled quite often. quite intermingled population the that show dies D - HDY, Yahūd Yahūd - 1758 evelopmentofDamascus.Source: Burns, InternationalJournal Middle of EastStudies 36 (Cambridge:Harvard University 1967).Press,

This area This 90A. 38 Pictn Pictn nvriy rs, 1980) Press, University Princeton (Princeton:

–

For the urban developments within Damascus, see Karl K. Barbir, K. seeKarl Damascus,withindevelopments urban the For the Jewish quarter. quarter. Jewish the

was 20

mostly populated by the Muslim inhabitants. Muslim the by populated mostly For a number of years during the middle of of middle the during years of number a For h qatr wr nt exclusive, not were quarters The which is which

Damascus, 24, (August,no.3 1992): 383 th

and18

very important for this this for important very

, th and

Centuries:Some 310.

37 r M Lapidus, M. Ira

Outside the the Outside

- CEU eTD Collection Shoolthe ofOriental and AfricanStudies 43 42 41 40 39 al mansions their of famous most the too thus, families, prominent Nineteen conducted. was trade important where bazaars great the to proximity of perhaps, sake, the for families, their with in within mansionsmovednew seventeenerected wallsoldwerenotables thethe city, while of the cent this During Damascenes. prosperous as of numbers fortune great good in the symbolizing rose monuments buildings public and palaces private century, eighteenth the of T buildingsmosques,the bewouldstories.more rarelycomprisedout than of two to addition In schools. religious mosques, and mosques the of most hosted city inner the al learning, with Along century. eighth the since city trade. long for available also were which caravanserais and markets with rich south, the to extended district business main The River. Barada the of bank the on walls inner the of section into turned to fortress, Roman a as served periods previous in which citadel, Ottoman large a city, abreast. walk to men two for enough wide barely a by interconnected and roads main the from removed buildings huddled

he - See, for instance, Shimon Shamir, “Asʿa Sajdi, Grehan, Grehan, SeeGrehan, ʿA Damascenes never refrained from public displays of luxury and power. and luxury of displays public from refrained never Damascenes ẓ 40 m, built from spolia, recently condemned structures, and even monuments which were were which monuments even and structures, condemned recently spolia, from built m, The BarberofDamascus For the wealthy, there wealthy, the For closely quarters, residential dense of comprised were city the within areas Many Within these these Within EverydayLife EverydayLife

the Damascene neighbourhoods often held Sufi lodges. Aside from madrasas and and madrasas from Aside lodges. Sufi held often neighbourhoods Damascene the the residence of the Ayyubid and Ayyubid the of residence the EverydayLife

,28. ,28. walls rose the minare the rose walls , 29 ,

- 30. ,20.

existed

26, no.1 (1963): 1 43 d Pasha al

was the residence of a Damascene governor, Asʿad Pasha Pasha Asʿad governor, Damascene a of residence the was ample opportunitiesample t s - ʿA

of the Umayyad Mosque, the main mosque of the the of mosquemain the Mosque, Umayyad the of Mamluk governors, dominated the northwestern northwestern the dominated governors, Mamluk ẓ 21 m m and Ottoman Rule Damascus in (1743

- Ṣ 39 - 28. āli

Within the northwestern section of the old old the of section northwestern the Within ḥ

īyya, strongly associated with Islamic Islamic with associated strongly īyya,

for thefor k residence in the inner city, and and city, inner the in residence k display

maze of back alleys, alleys, back of maze

wealth and fortune. and wealth 42

41 Over the course course the Over

- 58),” - Bulletin of distance distance be later ury, ury,

CEU eTD Collection 49 48 47 architectureunder the al 46 45 44 architectural large such of commissioning through displaythemselves to way a find sometimes carav madrasas, with along mosques, in constructing initiative the overtook provinces Arab the of notables the century, eighteenth the during monumentslike mosques. However, including sponsored himself, from sultan thewho Istanbul, was it earlier, centuries Two buildings. public many of construction the theirhomes. eighteenth of proud very the obviously were of Damascenes wealthy number and fashionable The large rooms. Damascene a exhibit today museums international the that extent an such to done was it and importance, great of apparently, was, ornamentation Interior city. o construction the of Sufis the by visited often was which ʿAlī, Righteous Fourth the of daughter the Zaynab, Sayyida of shrine the around edifice rec the ordered redecorated, hadHeand UmayyadMosque between 1749 the 1750. UmayyadMosque, near thebuilt veryto was mansion his and bread), of prices the influence substantially to him enabled presumably style. architectural original an of formation the influencing and power, material displaying efficientlymansions, numerous and madrasas, mosques, complexes, several built century, eighteenth the of most throughout time. the at standing still

Hathaway, Sajdi, Hathaway, JaneHathaway, Sajdi, Abdul The The BarberofDamascus, In addition to private residencies, the wealthy population of Damascus commissioned commissioned Damascus of population wealthy the residencies, private to addition In - ai Rafeq, Karim

BarberofDamascus, The Lands,Arab The Lands,Arab 48

f an enormous caravanserai, which was in his honor named Asʿad Pasha Khān. Pasha Asʿad named honor his in was which caravanserai, enormous an f TheArab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516

- ʿA h Poic o Dmsu, 1723 Damascus, of Province The ẓ m family, m also see Schilcher, 107. 108. 45 44 23 21.

ntuto o te od o the to road the of onstruction

A -

h al The 27. ʿd Pasha sʿad

- ʿA ẓ

f m bought houses, orchards, and wheat mills (which (which mills wheat and orchards, houses, bought 22 amily, whose members governed Damascus Damascus governed members whose amily, FamiliesinPolitics,

- - 1800 neas ad fountains. and anserais, 1783 (NewYork: Pearson Lon Biu: hyt, 96, 182 1966), Khayats, (Beirut: 46

The governor commissioned the the commissioned governor The al - Maydān district, and built an an built and district, Maydān 31 - 35.

the Ottoman officials officials Ottoman the 49 gman,2008),

iare would Rivalries - 8. o the For 183. - Khalīfa century 108.

47 ,

CEU eTD Collection 54 53 52 51 50 rever a or avoid, many to However, enough capable rule. was their governor of continuity the to threat a represent This to basis. meant yearly was a practice on office in confirmed were governors the before, centuries the in as and a of title the held usually Shawbak. and Karak and Beirut, ten into split century) sixteenth the (in was which Damascus, of province the of city capital the in time 1.3. watched into distantquarters the byoftowers Sufi theof minarets al and schools uptown,” residential th within landscape trends urban and shifting fashion The the influenced society. within prestige negotiating and power exhibiting orders, thistr Istanbul. from affection as well as Damascus, of society the within prestige much him awardedwhich works, commissioningfrompublic shy away not official did governor’ the of project the 1743), in (built Mosque Qaymariyya the with splendor in competed Khān Pasha Asʿad The works.

Rafeq, Rafeq, Sajdi, IbnBudayr, Rafeq,

among the most the among Who Is Who amongtheIsPowe Who Who The BarberofDamascus, The highest political authority lay in the hands of the governor, who spent most of his his of most spent who governor, the of hands the in lay authority political highest The for stage a as also but it, inhabiting those to home a as only not served thus, city, The The ProvinceThe ofDamascus, The The ṣ anjaqs ProvinceofDamascus, ProvinceofDamascus, HDY easurerwasexecuted in : Jerus : ,32A

ly 52 - 32B.

alem, Gaza, alem, used were used surrounded by a tangle of narrow corridors and alley and corridors narrow of tangle a by surrounded

wazīr 21.

10. 1. 149 .

wālī, nā’ib al wālī, nā’ib

- 53 Other Arabic terms were employed to describe the function, the describe to employed were terms Arabic Other Ṣ 152.See alsoSajdi, rful:City’sHierarchy Briefofthe A Overview afad, Nāblus, ʿAjlūn, Lajjūn, Tadmur (Palmyra), Sidon and Sidonand (Palmyra), TadmurLajjūn, ʿAjlūn, Nāblus, afad,

rvl the rival, s 1159/ h gvros n h mdl o te ihenh century eighteenth the of middle the in governors The 1746. - 23 ct, omn a is etr “reincarnated a center its at forming city, e Shām, kāfil, Shām,kāfil,

51 Daftardār se his deposition, much due to the slovenly slovenly the to due much deposition, his se

The BarberofDamascus,

or or tesrr Fat (treasurer) ḥ ākim . In the eighteenth century, eighteenthInthe . century, 50

ne te governor’s the Under 28. ḥ al ī

- as hc led which ways, - - Falāqinsī. This This Falāqinsī. Ṣ āli ḥ

īyya.

CEU eTD Collection 58 57 56 55 and musketeers, infantry), Tunisian and Algerian (mainly t – city.inner the citadelof membersfrommuchthepraise Christianofthe community withincity. the him brought apparently which Christians, on imposed regulations other all with along tax, poll wealth more amassing of sake the forpriest Damascene devised mainly policy, his enforce to able still was Pasha Asʿad threats, outside as well as struggles, power inner with Faced economy. espe policies, flexible his to due much power, his consolidate to managed Pasha Asʿad rule, his of years first the surrounding circumstances tumultuous of Pashaal perhaps, was, governors of line the inprominent most The century. nineteenth early the al bythe heldintermittentperiods, at city. the within reputation and prestige attaining for occasion another celebration, public grandiose a for chance a provided often ofconfirmation Thedecision state. Ottoman administrationthe of op) ad the and roops),

Rafeq, Ascited inSajdi, Rafeq, Rafeq, the feudal forces, two groups of the janissaries ( janissaries the of groups two forces, feudal the

During the pe the During The governor’s office in D in office governor’s The The The The - ʿA ProvinceofDamascus, ProvinceofDamascus ProvinceofDamascus ẓ m (r. 1742 m(r. The BarberofDamascus dalātiyya, dalātiyya, - chronicler, Mīkh chronicler,

riod between 1725 and 1783, the office of the Damascene governor was, governor Damascene the of office the 1783, and 1725 between riod - 58 1757), the son and for a time the the time afor sonand the 1757),

The governor could primarily rely upon four different types of troops of typesdifferent four upon relycould primarily governor The the

, , 169 , 160 11 deli - 12. - - amascus was located near Sūq al Sūq near located was amascus 180. 169.. ā’īl ā’īl

- irregular trops. Other military units, such as as such units, military Other trops. irregular ,79. ʿA

Burayk ẓ

m family, as was the case with the late eighteenth and eighteenthand late the withcase the was as family, m

24 al

- Dimashqī, yerliyya, mutasallim lāwand the locals, and locals, the

reports that Asʿad Pasha lifted the the lifted Pasha Asʿad that reports cially with regards to provincial to regards with cially (or (or - of Ismāʿīl Pasha. Ismāʿīl of Darwīshiyya, close to the the to close Darwīshiyya, levent 57 kapi kulus kapi

in Turkish in maghāriba maghāriba 55 , imperial ,

In spite Inspite Asʿad Asʿad . – 56

the the A CEU eTD Collection 60 59 the leads he (while absence of title of governors the by employed also was it ce a cause couldThe title province. ofthe governor the viceroyto a serveas Pilgrimage,wasthedeterminedits and by governorstart himself. the dealthe hadwith, governor to wascalled financeandPilgrimage, tour the the duringwhic province, the around tours oftenorganized governors fundingtheit, of sake the For Pilgrimage. periodduringthedescribed by barber. the kulus or openly, drinking like behavior public immoral displaying often chronicle, barber’s the while in makers” “trouble institutions, constant his and governor the of supportive more be would wh soldiers While withoften Kurdishassociated soldiers eigh the in later, be to mariners, foreign for used originally was term

On the Rafeq,

units were only marginally better. The clashes between th between clashes The better. marginally only were units yerliyya One of the most important duties of the governor was to take command of the the of command take to was governor the of duties important most the of One other. each towards adversity strong a displayed times at janissaries of groups two The Next in the hierarchy of power was the was power of hierarchy the in Next muta The ProvinceThe ofDamascus, dawra, o h they collected a speciala hfromcollected localtheythe tribute tax ṣ

arrif originated seeRafeq, w ere ). The importance of the role would become obvious during the governor’s governor’s the during obvious become would role the of importance The ).

opie msl o te oa populace local the of mostlz comprised TheProvince ofDamascus, from enjoying dawra

different areas of the Empire. At times, the times, At Empire. the of areas different dawra 37 -

38. the company of prostitutes. For the barber, though, the though, barber, the For prostitutes. of company the , for instance for ,

usually lasted for a month. It had to had to month.afor It lasted usually 59 ) existedin ) smallnumbers.

ṣ anjaqs anjaqs 21 25 al ),

- - mutasallim mutasallim 22.

dawra or during the periods of interregnum (in the the (in interregnum of periods the during or (although these officials sometimes bore the the bore sometimes officials these (although

. Depending problems the . the on which (or (or - , farms. This tax would be used to befarms.Thiswould taxused to ai kulus kapi musallim ese two groups were not rare rare not were groups two ese

60 teenth

end before the start of endbeforestart the ), whose role was to to was role whose ),

kapi kulus kapi - yerliyya rtain ambiguity, for for ambiguity, rtain were century Damascus, Damascus, century comprised of of comprised figure members members d kapi kapi

as as

CEU eTD Collection 65 64 63 62 61 needed. was this when times of instead act to power the had who deputies, more or one appoint would judge a time, the by conducted be usually would judge this of appointment includin ( jurisprudence of school official the represented circumstances. depended office the of status his in states Rafeq As clear. completely decisions sultan.or thegovernor, of the officials, of assembly full the represented which consultative, Damascus trade. in active more were Christians the while finance of matters the to came it when Christians and Jews on more relied government Ottoman the that notice to interesting is It family. the p the from him distinguish called be sometimes would or the Mutasallims as known be Rafeq, to according would, official this which of case

Literally,“the judge of judges,”[all] meaning the highjudge. Rafeq, Rafeq, Rafeq, Rafeq, kapi kulus kapi ih ead t te fie o rlgos uhrt, h eat irrh ws not was hierarchy exact the authority, religious of offices the to regards With The The The The ProvinceThe ofDamascus, te ertr o Sra Ti jde a smtms called sometimes was judge This Syria. of territory the g – ProvinceofDamascus ProvinceofDamascus, ProvinceofDamascus, daftardār daftardār

were usually chosen by the governor. In certain instances, however, the however, instances, certain In governor. the by chosen usually were the administrative, comprised of notables who tended to the registers, and the the and registers, the to tended who notables of comprised administrative, the 64

janissarieschosewhoperson the would thiscarryout duty. It is important to note the significance of the of significance the note to important is It

or or al rivate treasurers employed by rich households to tend the affairs of of affairs the tend to households rich by employed treasurers rivate - daftarī

on the individual who took the mantle, as well as on the current current the on as well as mantle, the took who individual the on ,

It is interesting to note that note to interesting is It 43. 10 19. 13. al daftardār -

42.

would take care of the provincial treasury. This official official This treasury. provincial the of care take would 63

h Poic o Damascus, of Province The - Shām 26

– 62 o the or ,

the Jews were more preferred as treasurers, as preferred more were Jews the madhab

n diin two addition, In

) of the whole Ottoman Empire, Empire, Ottoman whole the of ) uig h eig the during atrā Dimashq daftardār muftī muftī Ḥ anafī judges, being that they that being judges, anafī aʿyān of Istanbul. From time to to time From Istanbul. of dīwāns uaalm ā bayn mā mutasallim the exact authority and and authority exact the qā wo d who , tet century hteenth

ḍ al ī

ee rsn in present were i odr to order in , - qu iscussed the the iscussed ḍ āt. yerliyya, yerliyya, 65 him in him

The this this ). 61

CEU eTD Collection 69 68 67 66 position strong impressiveanysuccesses. without century, eighteenth the of middle the around later, much only Damascus in influence the While Damascus. group the Fourth the through Prophet Righteous the from stems which bloodline the through informed blood, Mu Prophet the of descendants schools,withapproval the governor. of the the judges, the with case the was As origin. local of were century eighteenth the during function this performing officials All Istanbul. in the of hands laythe in also office thisduty of the out will carry individual who longperiod. respective theirof supporters the Rūmī population. the ofeyes the in and rises the for things, other among responsible, him made which ( inspector market the by observed normally functions the performed also judge

Rafeq, Rafeq, Rafeq, Rafeq, origins, the judges of other schools were chosen from the local populace, most likely by likely most populace, local the from chosen were schools other of judges the origins, t s motn t not to important is It The Since the middle of the seventeenth century, the century, seventeenth the of middle the Since The The The The .

Khalīfa Rafeq notices the different influence this group managed to establish in Aleppo and and Aleppo in establish to managed group thisinfluence different the notices Rafeq ProvinceofDamascus ProvinceofDamascus ProvinceofDamascus ProvinceofDamascus 67 Ḥ

anafī –

. rsl o te cancellation the of result a An individual carrying the title of Antitle the individual carrying

muftī muftī ashrāf ashrāf 69 was considered lower in rank than the judge. The choice of the the of choice The judge. the than rank in lower considered was

, , , , c te infcne f h gop nw a the as known group the of significance the ice

51. 49. 48. 47. ḥ In contrast to the to contrast In lyd n motn rl i Aep, hy tand polit attained they Aleppo, in role important an played ammad, ʿAlī, and Fā and ʿAlī, ammad,

school of law, and they tended to hold on to their offices for a for offices theirto holdon to tendedthey and law, of school

27 of certain stipends formerly received from the the from received formerly stipends certain of muftīs muftīs

Ḥ anafī judges, who often (but not always)had not (but often who judges, anafī ṭ naqīb al naqīb ima. This group shared a kind of a noble a of kind a shared group This ima. of other schools were chosen by their their by chosen were schools other of ʿ ulamā’ - ashrāf

of Damascus did not enjoy a a enjoy not did Damascus of falls in food prices, at least at prices, food in falls

resolved the issues within issueswithin resolvedthe shaykh al shaykh ashrāf ashrāf mu ḥ - tasib – Isl

ical ical the the ām ), CEU eTD Collection 71 70 imperialthe capital, these suppor gaining to addition In welfare. maintaintheir not could alone Istanbul but capital, Ottoman the from support on depended families notable of power The relations. social local 1.4. andcomplex eighteenth the of vision the making habits, and life their into circumstanceswithi political and social both influencing interests, and fashion, trends, its shaped Damascus of people The more. indeed, was, there but discussion, for subjects interesting represented often city the of Politics agai revolt the with case the was as deputies, their and governors to even enough capable sometimes were city the of people The tithes. or taxes, like financialtributes of form the in itself only manifest not did dependence This city. the on greatly depended however, power, Their Damascus. in matters religious riseofal a instance, For city. the within rebellions led others while exiled, were members some which during period, volatile a represented century eighteenth early the group, this of members some For recover. the however, century, eighteenth the of beginning the By janissaries. the of power increasing the simultaneouslywith occurred status their of weakening The sultan.

SeeRafeq, Rafeq,

PeopleTheandCustoms TheirSome Habits and City: Damascenes ofthe Such was the milieu of officials who oversaw and tended to the political, social, and and social, political, the to tended and oversaw who officials of milieu the was Such h Damasc The The - ʿA The ProvinceofDamascus ẓ . ms to power,supported byinhabitants. msto the

ProvinceofDamascus mufti mufti

n bre otn nepee h eet aon hm s ros f hfs in shifts of proofs as him around events the interpreted often barber ene was leading the popular rebellion whic rebellion popular the leading was notables

, 35,81. n the city and its surroundings. I will, thus, steal a swift glance glance swift a steal thus, will, surroundings. itsI and city the n ,77

had to relyfacilitate localhad to actors their thepower. on -

83.

- h arose in Damascus prior to the to prior Damascus in arose h century Damascus more colorful more Damascus century nst the governor Abū governor the nst fo ʿ rc ulamā’ ulamā’ e th e people of the the of people

de managed to to managed po si Ṭ ti awq. t from t

o 71 f

CEU eTD Collection 1836),35. John byPlates Descriptions the With Nature.of from 73 72 even attracted aboutforeigners,attentionthe ofamiably who wrote them: both by Enjoyed city. the surrounding oasis the in organized often picnics, were time free spend to ways favorite the Among visibility. public their enjoyed city the institutionswithin ruling official the functionamong no had they that culture willelements ofillustratethat followingservewellfor background to the the study. habits common many shared century eighteenth the of society Damascene complex The inhabitants. the among developments and networks, new of creation notables, new of rise the with Empire the of cities other a about flux, social about and century, the throughout events the guided dynamics its and same, the stayed never thus, city, the of topography social ever brought authority, non common, the allowed usage its

W. H.W.Bartlett William and Purser, Sajdi, Like their wealthier neighbours, the Damascene common people common Damascene the neighbours, wealthier their Like theofcoolevening. the their in home while masters indolent coffee, their take sip to near, and are smoke,caparisoned, richly murmur, steeds, Arab quick beautiful its to listen house, summer little a in pleasure the banks, toits on recliningusefulwho, Damascenes, loving and precious is course its of fathom every enjoyment; and luxury water for circuitously wanders and rapid, and clear is severalleagueswilderness throughgardensof whosea innumerable River] Barada [The it Jordan, the Like The BarberofDamascus, Patronage was an important means of acquiring political, as well as social prestige, and and prestige, social as well as political, acquiring ofmeans important an was Patronage

- works it keeps perpetually fresh and full: it is a stream that peculiarly ministers to to ministers peculiarly that stream a is it full: and fresh perpetually keeps it works and practices practices and

- closer to the cores of power through a web of boons and favors. The The favors. and boons of web a through power of cores the to closer ,

73 ehfln ftesca topography. social the of reshuffling a stage stage a in later later in

20.

–

Syria, TheSyria, HolyLand, AsiaMinor &c. Illustrated Seriesin a Views of Drawn

in a sense, a common culture. The brief examination of certain certain of examination brief The culture. common a sense, a in of - periods elite people to participate i participate to people elite

intensive social mobility which changed its image along along image its changed which mobility social intensive . As Dana Sajdi states, “the eighteenth century was was century eighteenth “the states, Sajdi Dana As .

Carne,ESQ 29

beneath the shadow of their own trees, or or trees, own their of shadow the beneath (London, Paris & America: Fisher, Son, & Co., &Fisher,America:Son, & Paris (London, women and men, these picnics picnics these men, and women n the city’s contestations over over contestations city’s the n ” 72

fruit Damascus was Damascus – - tress, flowers, and flowers,and tress,

common in the sense the in common of -

seemed to have to seemed social relations relations social ,

like -

many

CEU eTD Collection 78 zāl. Ma 77 76 75 74 Nightingales]. the title the under it figurereligious celebrated. was men and women of beauty the nature, of beauty the about poems to addition In poetry. love and elegies often would men gatherings, socialfrom absent were women IbnBudayr to talents literary own his prevent to amazement, extent an such His of not was century. however, eighteenth the during place took that shifts social as understood writi his in surprised quite appears he least at (or greatly Budayr Ibn surprised activities outdoor these in participation privacy.” was charm their that seems it irresistiblelocalthe to population. indeed, and everywhere, found be could sites Enjoyable appe It

SamerAkkach, “L SeeChapter 3,84. Sajdi, Sajdi, Ma ḍ

SeeBudayr,Ibn ā mā ā ḍ ā lanā ā The BarberofDamascus, The BarberofDamascus, picnics. for locations wonderful many and opportunities ample gave city the that ars For Sajdi, this outdoor culture represents an represents culture outdoor this Sajdi, For The people of Damascus, indeed, enjoyed in poetry as much as its notables. When the the When notables. its as much as poetry in enjoyed indeed, Damascus, of people The ṣ 75 ādafahu’arzāl,thāmin ʿashar fī al Rabīʿ

, thus, providespoem, thus, celebratingshortday: a , hisspent wonderfully

T yawm mithlahu mā sabaqa yā khāl, fī Marjat al Marjat fī khāl, yā sabaqa mā mithlahu yawm he eighteenth century witnessed the witnessed century eighteenth he Oh,people literacy,ofrecord [forit, on day] yourthat malaise vanished.

of the eighteenth cen eighteenth the of Khamr al Khamr

eisureGardens” HDY

Oneighteenththe dayof InDamascenewhere willMarja you notfree find a place, , , 57B. Adayunlike anybefore[today] passed, oh,uncle, 78 Oh,whata Thursday!passedIt withoutmishaps, -

Bābil wa Ghinā’ al wa Ghinā’ Bābil ʿ ng). Abd al Abd 30. 29.

69. 76

h Dmsee abr ans n tog emotions strong in paints barber Damascene The -

Ghanī al Ghanī

tury, compiled an anthology of these poems and published published and poems these of anthologyan compiled tury, rabīʿ al rabīʿ - ’Ākhar rā - Nābul - 30 Balābil [The Wine of Babylon, and the Songs of of Songs the and Babylon, of Wine [The Balābil

- increased social increased ‘ākhar sī, perhaps the most prominen most the perhaps sī, ḥ a al a - “indication of a relative abandonment of of abandonment relative a of “indication Shām mā baqā fīhi maw fīhi baqā mā Shām - bard, ya hal albard, yahal thewentcold away,

compensate with the exchange of of exchange the with compensate

visibility of women, whose whose women, of visibility - ’adab’arrikhūh al

come ḍ

aʿ khāl, millā Khamīs! millā khāl, aʿ

to the surface. the to

t literary and and literary t -

ḍ ī ht he what q ʿankumq CEU eTD Collection 80 79 Fridayp thefor leave them to refused sometimespeople that popular so became Coffeehouses 3). Chapter in word be will there which (of act this with surprise apparent his through traditionalist religious a of image ownhis buildon opportunityto some so highly, music praise to seemed provide coffeehousesmusicians.to had skilled Damascenes the poetry, Like dice. involved and backgammon, like games gather establishments. religious enough, borrow individuals some although capital, reputation great a enjoyed city the around coffeehouses of owners the that suggested be may It Damascenes. represented coffee Yemen, from arrival its Since Damascus. century frequentvisitations,objectsof ofin which will 3. therebe Chapter word of tombsand shrines hosted cemeteries Both UmayyadMosque. the of al findthe would noteworthy

IbnBudayr, Grehan, But picnics did not represent the only form of spending quality pastime in the eighteenth inthe pastime qualityspending ofform only therepresent not picnicsdid But Budayr notices that these Jews sat sat Jews these that notices Budayr distinguishedfiguresboth andcommonersthe and listened them.to incoffeehouses, work to Damascus.started They to Aleppo of cityfrom the arrived [ month that During ings (although mostly, for men) for mostly, (although ings The oasis, however, did not represent the only popular place for the for place popular only the represent not did however, oasis, The EverydayLife

to mention the two largest cemeteries on the outskirts of the city. To the north, one one north, the To city. the of outskirts the on cemeterieslargest two the mention to HDY ,38A. - – Ḍ

a the opening and running of a coffeehouse required a decent amount of of amount decent a required coffeehouse a of running and opening the

,142. ḥ

ḍ a ḥ

Cemetery. Another ancient cemetery, Bāb al Bābcemetery, ancient Another Cemetery. uāā al Jumādā

ht seems what 79

- ofeoss ersne aohr rfre pae for place preferred another represented Coffeehouses

Thānī, which off which d h fund the ed

n ihr tos hn h Muslims the than stools higher on

more interesting, games of chance which often often which chance of games interesting, more 1160/ 31 Ibn

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Seesection 4.4. The next chapter is, thus, committed to the barber Ibn Budayr. Fortunately, the barber barber the Fortunately, Budayr. Ibn barber the to committed thus, is, chapter next The barber emerged to leavebarberto emerged his words

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ḥ saya ‘annahu ʿāma Damascus, and that it will destroy many places, and that the men manytheit that will willand places, anddestroy Damascus, that addathū fī fī addathū

ḥ awādith kathīra min mithla hadhihi al hadhihi awādith mithla min kathīra al - Qāsimī conducts the repairs of grammar within the the within grammar of repairs the conducts Qāsimī ḥ u 56 d th shay u

h bi thu - rijāl sa rijāl

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–

for it was written by a barber, but still fulfilling the same purpose which the the which purpose same the fulfilling still but barber, a by written was it for y served. It is my strong belief, thus, that it is impossible to use the the use to impossible is it that thus, belief, strong my is It served. y ch of the events related within his pages might not have the might not his entered within related pages events the of ch ḥ ty of the barber’s reports is n is reports barber’s the of ty a al mad -

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wa fī hadhihi al hadhihi fī wa

Sacred Things andPleasures: Things Sacred At first glance, this seems to be just another of the barber’s sometimes quite detailed detailed quite sometimes barber’s the of another just be to seems this glance, first At back, shoutingfrom topthehisofand lungs… front the to swaying hands, his clap often would He neighbourhood. Qubaybāt events[ Al as known Ibrāhīm, Shaykh According to the ba the to According . Clapping his hands without pause, he pointed to a particular container saying that he he that saying container particular a to pointed he pause, without hands his Clapping . - vendor. Upon noticing the trader, he s he trader, the noticingUpon vendor. ‘alā yaddayhi wa yamīlu ilā warāihi wa ilā quddāmihi wa yunād bi a‘alā bi yunād wa quddāmihi ilā wa warāihi ilā yamīlu wa yaddayhi ‘alā 1161/ HDY ,49B. 1748]. He was a blessed man, whose father belonged to the faithf the belongedtoblessedman,whose father a Hewas 1748]. - waqa

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- the Eighteenth Century theEighteenth - wallī al wallī Kaykī, a holy, modest, and demented man died during these these duringdied man demented andmodest, holy, a Kaykī, 149 - majdhūb al majdhūb

Religion and Ibn Budayr’s Damascenes of Damascenes Budayr’s Ibn and Religion Chapter 3 Chapter - ṣ ula tarted shouting at him, saying that he wishes to be to wisheshe that saying him, at shouting tarted 59 ḥ

ma min ā’ - khāli‘ al khāli‘

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Qubaybāt wa kāna fi ghālib awqātihighālib fi Qubaybātwa kāna al - Shaykh Ibrāhīm al IbrāhīmShaykh - according to the barber the to according Kaykī happened to pass by pass to happened Kaykī

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IbnBudayr, Shaykh Ibrāhīm al Ibrāhīm Shaykh ety This chapter will examine some aspects of the role which religion had for Ibn Budayr’s Budayr’s Ibn for had religion which role the of aspects some examine will chapter This

of the rest populationofrest ofthe the o would - - - - century barber, as well as of Ibn Budayr’s idea of significance which religion had religion which significance of idea Budayr’s Ibn of as well as barber, century chronicle barber’s the Placing Damascenes. century for commissioning, by piety their express publicly could Damascus century buil who women and men many hosted Damascus century HDY

overview of the Damascenes’ popular religious practices as expressed by the the by expressed as practices religious popular Damascenes’ the of overview ,49B.

- - Kaykī was certainly not unique. According to Ibn Budayr’s reports, reports, Budayr’s Ibn to According unique. not certainly was Kaykī century Damascus. Furthermore, my analysis will highlight some of of some highlight will analysis my Furthermore, Damascus. century

Miracles nveyed by the Damascene barber, underlining also the the underliningalso barber, Damascene the bynveyed ftenbewith powers. rewarded peculiar 60

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it is the combination of practiced custo practiced of combination theis it 152

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- 251. muftis

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scenes, or at least contribute to the overall impression which which impression overall the to contribute least at or scenes, - century Damascenes had a significant role in the barber’s the in role significant a had Damascenes century others - fashioning and negotiating social mobility in the the in mobility social negotiating and fashioning -

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Ra However, ʿAbd al ʿAbd However, Journal ḥ mān swear on the Qur’ān. Upon doing so, the defendant would be free of any any of free be would defendant the so, doing Upon Qur’ān. the on swear mān (London: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 10 1987), Press, UniversityCambridge (London: “TheMysterious Language,ofPower Words: OttomanLaw,Culture Damascusin and (17

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See Mu madal - ḥ 1738 and 1741 and 1738 section4.4. ammad Khalīl al Khalīl ammad Religion also played a significant role in maintaining one’s reputation. Adhering to the to Adhering reputation. one’s maintaining in role significant a played also Religion In - Manīnī. This scholar composed a poem celebrating the beauty of a young man. Upon man.Upon young ofbeauty acelebrating the composedpoem a scholar This Manīnī. Rabī -

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in an unwelcoming position. The young gentleman apparently apparently gentleman young The position. unwelcoming an in merry - Durar fi Aʿyan al Aʿyan fi Durar a o 14, o isac, uamn ah al Pasha Sulaymān instance, for 1743, of May rge for everyone poor during the ceremony organized in in organized ceremony the during poor everyone for rge

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- āuuī 1641 Nābulusī, 167

Charity once more plays an important role for the for role important an plays more once Charity 68

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minAllah 178

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IbnBudayr, 71

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For a more complete list of important shrines and graves in Syria, see Elizabeth Sirriyeh, “’Ziyārāt’Sirriyeh,inofsee ElizabethSyria Syria, gravesshrinesin and of important complete list more a For Christopher Schurman Taylor, Schurman Christopher o zyrt n eivl aacs se ihe Chamberlain, Michael see Damascus, Medieval in ziyārāt For e Ei Gofo, Asā al "Arslān Geoffroy, Eric See o In Aaī see ʿArabī Ibn For ḥ 183 la’ of ‘Abd al ‘Abd of la’ 185

- h cmtr o Bb al Bāb of cemetery The - Visitations of graves graves ofVisitations 140. Da

Of the more important shrines which figure frequently in Ibn Budayr’s chronicle are are chronicle Budayr’s Ibn in frequently figure which shrines important more the Of - - (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2009),178 Press, University(Toronto:Torontoof āus, the Nābulsī, Sarūjī and Ubayy Ibn Kaʿb (although it would appear that the grave of this this of grave the that appear would it (although Kaʿb Ibn Ubayy and Sarūjī ḥ

dā (Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1971), 26. - 1350 ḥ

2 (1979):2 109 - o is name its got Ghanī al Ghanī

(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2002), 118

lue da ad ee Kingsley, Peter and Addas Claude - Dardā. Outside Dardā. 4). - a Nābulusī (1050/1641Nābulusī l

- - Aq 122. - would include prayers, walking around the graves in a procession, procession, a in graves the around walking prayers, include would In the Vicinity of the Righteous: Ziyāra and th and Ziyāra Righteous: the of Vicinity the In iahī Shaykh," Dimashqī,

- ṣ 79, Donald 79, Swenson, ievalIslam - from b oqe ed h gae o svrl atr e martyrs several of graves the held Mosque āb Dimashqī (Ruslān in Damascene dialect) in Damascene Dimashqī(Ruslān

- Ṣ aghīr in Damascus allegedly held the graves where many many where graves the held allegedly Damascus in aghīr

of the walls of the city laycityofthefamous like wallsofgraves ofthesaints the b Da Abū Alexander D. Knysh,

(Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999), 25 (Albany: University1999), Press, ofState York New –

1143/1731),” ḥ 74 dā nylpei o Ilm III Islam of Encyclopaedia

Society,Spirituality, Sacred: the and A Social Scientific - ḥ of 184

us fr h Rd upu: h Lf o Ibn of Life The Sulphur: Red the for Quest - the Companion. In addition, according to to according addition, In Companion. the islam

- 179. See also John SpencerTrimingham, John Seealso 179. - Journal of the Royal the of Journal Ibn ʿArabi in the Later Islamic Tradition: The Medieval in Practice Social and Knowledge - 3/arslan hqf, iā In Rabā Ibn Bilāl Thaqafī, - - Ṣ 120. - al āli - dimashqi

ḥ e Veneration of Muslim Saints, Muslim of Veneration e iyya). , d Gdu Käe, Denis Krämer, Gudrun ed. 186

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Arab Civilization:Arab Challenges and Responses. StudiesHonor in of Constantine K.Zurayk, allegedly hosted the head of Saint John the Baptist, which granted it the beneficence itbeneficence the which granted Baptist, the John head Saint the of hosted allegedly ṣ alla was built. was alla 195

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- Marja and al and Marja , as well as elements of folklore of elements as well as , - century Damascus. The analysis of some some of analysis The Damascus. century - zuhr fī al fī zuhr 214 sky. The following text will examine examine will text following The sky. - Marja and al and Marja - kathīra aghlabīn al aghlabīn kathīra

- - - sīrānnā Takiyya Al Takiyya basātīn wa jalasnā muwajalasnābasātīn

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rijāl wa hadhā shay’ mā ra’aynā wa lā alladhīnam ra’aynāhumwa lā mā washay’ hadhārijāl awla al awla

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TheBarber ofDamascus, 80.

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217

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Grehan, IbnBudayr, Grehan, IbnBudayr, For sakethe of comparison,see al Grehan, 230 Sate Unive (Seattle: 226

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... fa ... Semerdjian, See Elyse Semerdjian, Semerdjian, Elyse See In many instances, the chronicle of the barber shows Ibn Budayr’s great concern with with concern great Budayr’s Ibn shows barber the of chronicle the instances, many In mercyandforgiveness. him grantmay ExaltedGod theminaret], off[thehimself he governmentthrew and today,” this under here pimping or death either is it Islam, of Community “Oh, shouted: he where theHeconductedimam.then death thein hisname own prayer andclimbedminaret, the up shaykh [The matters]. similar in engaged[deeply ears their to down are them of all cause off, him talked and him criticizedthey but matter, this about theminformed andneighbourhood his law] in brother [his and it… want about and him outscolded found He house. his to prostitute a brought [Shaykh wife of brother the that told was I and was this for reason the what asked I In Ibn Budayr records just one occasion in which the Damascene government issued radical radical issued government Damascene the which in occasion onejust records Budayr Ibn - IbnBudayr, - dā fa adhān sa’alnā ʿan sa’alnā ṣ - 1157/ aʿada al aʿada nahāhu ʿan dhalika... fa dhalika...ʿan nahāhu ] then went to the Al the to went then ]

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- - Ḥ

sha’anfa arāda wanaharahu sa b ūu al Yūsuf Ibn assan - Daqqāq Mosque, where he finished his morning prayer with with prayer morning his finished he where Mosque, Daqqāq approached and reprimanded by their neighbours, or expelled or neighbours, their by reprimanded and approached - aqq wa Daqqāq 84. - - al min kānat wa baytihi ilā imra’ jāba zawjatihi akhū anna lanā qīla 234 137. -

yuʿayyibūhuwa See also Abdel Karim Rafeq, “Public Morality in the 18 the in Morality “Public Rafeq, Karim Abdel also See

- Islām al Islām ṣ lā al allā 89 ḍ arabuhu wa kāna min al min kāna wa arabuhu

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ṣ shāghalūhubil w ub 1157/ t hūn wa lā al wa lā hūn t ca ḥ

– ti aa al maʿa

on she was swaying in the middle of the the of middle the in swaying was she 233

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allāt al allāt [sic] Century

(New an

al ilā - - - - CEU eTD Collection 239 238 237 pricesandthe increase inprostitution. See, for instance, Ibn Budayr, 236 235 orig appeals,” the to their reference accepts them to sympathy of out God mankind, of guilt the bear prostitutes the “since that belief popular a through action of lack this explains Rafeq him. against God to appeal to them wish not does he that adding matter, this in intervene to refused however, Pasha, Asʿad visible. so be not would they where them for place specific this solve to pasha the The stores. other andbakeries, coffeehouses, in over slept and alleys, and markets everywhere themselves displaying are women these that complained In walls. city the within soldiers the attract to tended Prostitutes reports. other his in shows Budayr Ibn as exception, an means execution. her to prior case her discussed who officials the for outrageous w gifts, expensive many with her presented they that extent an such to charm her with men and boys entrance to able apparently was Salamūn Damascus. century Events night and daylight during city the walked which prostitutes the of number shouldbekilledsight. on of Damascene These done. was sentence fatwā Damascene The trial. face to away her took and her stopped retinue judge’s The to reproachfulcomments shouted judge thewhen and street,

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hs ere hwvr dd o ls fr ln tm, n te abr fe lmne the lamented often barber the and time, long a for last not did however, decree, This reig e eeuin atr hc te ug ad the and judge the which after execution, her ordering make it more than obvious that prostitutes could find plenty of work in the eighteenth the in work of plenty find could prostitutes that obvious than more it make HDY, HDY HDY ,24A. ,24B. 52A.

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IbnBudayr, IbnBudayr, IbnBudayr, This taxingof prostitutes is notanunprecedented measure. SeeSemerdjian, IbnBudayr, Most of the Damascene people, of course, went about their business with a somewhat somewhat a with business their about went course, of people, Damascene the of Most uh u t h smwa iet ehnss o isig n apyn religion applying and issuing for mechanisms inert somewhat the to due Much HDY HDY HDY HDY 244 ,22A. ,9A ,71B. ,55A.

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- ya’atūn lahubimā’ al - jirād ilā jirād a mysterious black bird, Samarmar, attracted by the water water the by attracted Samarmar, bird, black mysterious a

Communal Processions and Rituals inthe andRituals Processions Communal D imashq, wa imashq,kāna - Chapter 4 Chapter Century Damascus Century - Murādī.See

95 246

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IbnBudayr, In the following text, the reader shall encounter some of the great catastrophes which which catastrophes great the of some encounter shall reader the text, following the In by conducted prayers and rituals of descriptions barber’s the analyzewill I chapter, this In

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Grehan, James On another occasion when Samarmar was summoned in Aleppo, Aleppo, in summoned was Samarmar when occasion another On those particular (in Syrians the of “property” exclusive an is Samarmar that appears It 249 Grehan, “TheLegend of Samarmarthe

The earliest report of the ritual emerges in 1196, when 1196, the in report ritualofemergesthe The earliest

he people of Damascus. It is of worth to mention that Ibn Budayr does not feel it it feel not does Budayr Ibn that mention to worth of is It Damascus. of people he 204(2009), “The Legend of the Samarmar:Syrianc.1500TownsIdentityParadesandLegendCommunal of“The in the the legend could have migrated to Syria from Persian territories, or that it wasit that or territories, SyriaPersianfrom to migrated have couldlegend the

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Al Sajdi, Grehan, ṣ ī oe f h Sfs h was who Sufis the of one rī, Despite its uniqueness and exotic properties, Samarmar was not the only inspiration for for inspiration only the not was Samarmar properties, exotic and uniqueness its Despite - – Murādī, in their nature, local. In addition, they sometimes tended to “lend” their elements to other, “lend”other, local. to theynature, elements into In sometimesaddition, their tended their

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Grehan, exampleAn could be found in Suraiya Faroqhi,Suraiya The illumination of markets and minarets within Damascus was common du common was Damascus within minarets and markets of illumination The 260 The Damascenes, ho Damascenes, The - is cnuy bevr ih ntc, n h eighteenth the in notice, might observer century first

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“TheLegend of Samarmar,”the 119. inhabitants 259

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The barber’sThe hyperbolesfollowsame, expected the pattern. IbnBudayr, barberThe again employes dramatized a narrative.Ibn Budayr, IbnBudayr, marrthe Falāqinsī, celebrated … fa … ḥ eachdays encelebrationof the of them.to īn ession marking the event, as well as in the row of people who brought their children to be to children their brought who people of row the in as well as event, the marking ession - ‘ulamā’ wa al wa‘ulamā’ A similar ceremony was witnessed in the same year, when the treasurer of the city, Fat city, the of treasurer thewhen year, same the in witnessed was ceremony similar A sevenththe for andsingers the theprostitutes, peoplepassion.of the Excellency His the Damascus, and of governor the to Sulaymānthedaytoshaykhs,deputies,[Sufi] thethe second the to Pasha, the third day first the committed He wayawm al ilā - kāna awwal yawm ilā wālī al wālī ilā awwalyawm kāna HDY aghās - ,14B. mashāyikh wamashāyikh - te it t te Christ the to fifth the … maghānīwa al 265

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...wa na IbnBudayr, Th It was the summer of of summer the was It Damascenes is

of the city where the passers the where city the of Arabic term is usually used with regards to the celebration of the birth of the Prophet Mu Prophet the of birth the ofcelebration the to regards with usuallyused is term Arabic With this unusual event, the barber illustrates well the role which religion played in the the in played religion which role the well illustrates barber the event, unusual this With ḥ nu naqūlnu HDY,

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1156/

IbnBudayr, 273

1743 when a crowd of onlookers formed in the streets of of streets the in formed onlookers of crowd a when 1743 - After a number of days, the young Turkish gentleman gentleman Turkish young the days, of number a After 274 by slowed down to watch the procession, and all the barber barber the alland procession, watchthe to down slowed by

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Heghnar ZeitlianWatenpaugh,Heghnar ü leiman (1494 I –

the first Friday following their appointment, for instancefor appointment, followingtheir Fridayfirst the

– in public without the proper headdress demonstrated a kind of a rebellion against against rebellion a of kind a demonstrated headdress proper the without public in

th Ibn Budayr’s text does not contain any reports which should imply attempted attempted imply should which reports any contain not does text Budayr’s Ibn

and 17 espect whichaspublicespect forforwellhadpeople prayers, power the ofvows. as

- th Ṣ

Centuries āli –

1566), ḥ ya n te aslu o In ʿArabī Ibn of mausoleum the and iyya The Image of an Ottoman City: Imperial Architecture and UrbanExperienceOttomanImperialArchitectureinCity: and an of Image The

(LeidenandBoston: Brill, 2004), 275

untilit became considered an alternative site to Umayyadthe became an siteconsidered to alternative f prostitutes, as well as onlookers, who observed observed who onlookers, as well as prostitutes, f 107 ğlu rightly notices that this legend may indicate may legend this that notices rightly ğlu

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al infata layla al amsaka wa ghanam watarjama … fa … ÇığdemKafescıoğlu, an placed a chair in the center of the oratory, and sat on it, commencing the sermon for the the for sermon the commencing it, on sat and oratory, w the of center they the in chair day, a placed fourth the On days. [Al [Mosque]. three for fasted people] [The pub regular participateinonly not didhowever, people, Damascene The the gates of the sky opened [and] pouring water [came out of it], and it was raining raining was it and it], of out [came water pouring [and] abundantlyforthree days openedandnights… sky the of gates the worshippers your of appearedinwest…the Thepeopledispersed wenttohomes.theirWith next and sunset, the front in shame] [to man old goats of meat [Al andsheep. the beef, of lot a brought peasant Every increasing. was Crying Almighty. wit louder became noise the and pray, to started He rain. … - ṣ āmū [alāmū

Al Muqarnas - - ḥ Murādī, āl min jihat al jihat min āl ḥ ṣ ṭ of the Ottomans to legitimize their presence in the newly conquered lands. conquered newly the in presence their legitimize to Ottomans the of

allā bi allā t abw at aba khu aba - nās]thalāthat ‘ayāmal wa fī kharajū SD, - - - ā l 16(1999): 74.

Ḥ Ḥ - ṭ al b nās imam nās “Inthe Imageof OttomanRūm: Architectural Patron a al bat - anbalī] grabbed his beard and said, whining, “My God, do not expose this exposethis not do God, “Mywhining, said, and hisbeard grabbed anbalī] then He imam. an as sunrise after prayer the led and forth went anbalī] mutarjam bi mutarjam I, 68. – - -

- aā bi samā’ maghrib su maghrib ḥ on the example of Shaykh Abū al Abū Shaykh of example the on - alaqwa al kāna

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- - li ā mnaa w dm al dāma wa munhamar mā’ ḥ [sic] ḥ yatihi wa bakā wa qāla yā Allahī lā taf lā Allahī yā qāla wa bakā wa yatihi āb aswad… tafarraqa al aswad…tafarraqa āb ṭ ulūʿ al ulūʿ

a hrʿ f al fī sharaʿa wa - falā 277 - shamsna thumma

ḥ ūn qadūn 108 - yawmal

‘a ḥḍ - aā w itfʿ al irtafaʿa wa daʿā’ .” In the same moment, black clouds clouds black moment, same the In .” - arū jānibarū rābiʿ al ‘ilā - nās wa rajaʿū fa rajaʿū wa nās ṣ - aba ma h supplications directed to God God to directed supplications h - he success of this ritual, as was the the was as ritual, this of success he Mawāhib al Mawāhib ṭ r hlta aā bi ayām thalāthat ar lahu kursī fī wasafī lahukursī an kathīr - age inageSixteenth – mu

– both for the population, and and population, the for both ṣ

n t te Al the to ent ḍ allā an 69, hyh al Shaykh 1699), a - ḥ min almin - ḍ

lamā idhan al idhan lamā jj a al wa ajīj al ṣ - iyām Ḥ - shayba bayna ʿubādik fa fa ʿubādik bayna shayba anbalī. Close to the to Close anbalī. - baqar wabaqar al ṭ an

- lic prayers which which prayers lic al CenturyAleppo and fa - - - - mu aāiā ghazīr layālihā ibtihāl ‘ilā Allah ‘ilā ibtihāl taqaddama - Mu ṣ - allā fa allā maghrib tilka maghrib ṣ allā allā - - - maʿaz wa maʿaz Ḥ Murādī Murādī 276 anbalī anbalī - raqiya ṣ

ā For ḥ ib an CEU eTD Collection Practice Supernatural,” the from H Cristine 2009), Press, University Oxford in Sense,” Ritual on Wittgenstein and Bourdieu, Boston Concepts Approaches, Topics, Issues, Rituals: 279 1800),” 278 H God. the itself.ritual inthe belief as well as questioned, be may piety own one’s conducted, properly ritual a in involved th If Sufi). the case, this (in ritual the in includedbecharismaticmayindividualsFor or icons, sake theof efficacy, occur. expected to is which result, specific a with attributed consciously be to seems actions, of set This goal. causally actions of set learned a as practice ritual defined who Sorensen, ritualto wouldtheput be test. highligh be would populace of behavior the questioned, be would Morality lieelsewhere. must problem the results, immediate Damascus humility.and modesty enough demonstrate to failure their and two misconduct, first their in the lay for attempts inefficient reason the that people the to seemed it and time, third the until answered prayers Their city. the of areas the suburban the at to then twice proceeding Mosque, prayed Umayyad crowd The conducted. were rain for prayers consecutive three 1663),

ae Grehan, James For the discussion, see William S. Sax, “Agency,” and J. Podemann Sorensen, “Efficacy,” in in “Efficacy,” Sorensen, Podemann J. and “Agency,” Sax, S. William see discussion, the For This particular understanding of a ritual conforms with studies of Legare, Sax, or or Sax, Legare, of studies with conforms ritual a of understanding particular This of characteristic important an betrays This In : Brill, 2006). See also William S. Sax, S. William also See 2006). Brill, : International Journalof Middle East S (NewOxfordYork: University 1992),Press, 140 is reputation, especially regarding his power over elements and other aspects of his his of aspects other and elements over power his regarding especially reputation, is another case during the seventeenth century (during a particularly dry winter of 1662 of winter particularlydry a (during centuryseventeenth the duringcase another –

278 h pwr f h rta isl i uqetoal. f h pae de nt yield not does prayer the If unquestionable. is itself ritual the of power the

Sre Voec ad oil mgnto i late in Imagination Social and Violence “Street

Cognition 279

Shaykh al Shaykh

4 n. (uy 21) 1 2012): (July, 1 no. 24, ted, and the mystical properties of the shaykhs involved in the the in involved shaykhs the of properties mystical the and ted, . Legare and Andr and Legare . - Ḥ e desired effect does not occur, despite all of the actions actions the of all despite occur, not does effect desired e tudies , ed., Jens Kreinath, Jan Snoek, and Micael Stausberg (Leiden and (Leiden Stausberg Micael and Snoek, Jan Kreinath, Jens ed., ,

“Ritual and the Problem of Efficacy,” and Johannes Quack, “Bell, Quack, Johannes and Efficacy,” ofProblem the “Ritualand anbalī had a lot at stake when he shouted out his plea to his plea out shouted hewhen stake at lot had a anbalī h Polm f iul Efficacy, Ritual of Problem The

35, no. (May,2 2003), 218. 109 - 142.

communal prayers in the eighteenth the in prayers communal -

é 5 ad ahrn M Bell, M. Catherine and 15,

L. Souza, “Evaluating Ritual Efficacy: Evidence Efficacy: Ritual “Evaluating Souza, L. - alk n Otmn aacs ( Damascus Ottoman and Mamluk

d Wlim . a (Oxford: Sax S. William ed. related to a certain a to related iul hoy Ritual Theory, Ritual

were not not were Theorizing - c. c. century century 1500 – –

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IbnBudayr, Although this seems unusual, the order order the unusual, seems this Although Al Other natural catastrophes also spurred the spurred natural also Other catastrophes The governor of Damascus of that period, ʿAbd Allah Pasha Al Pasha Allah ʿAbd period, that of Damascus of governor The - Budayrī, 281

HDY lre rw gtee i te oqe ad on the soon, and mosque, the in gathered crowd large A HDY ,91B

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the to fast and pray and fast to muftī - Mu 1171/ ṣ , and noise and crying filled the whole structure. For structure. whole the filled crying and noiseand , all ā Mosque, famous for its power to make prayers prayers make to power its for famous Mosque, ā 110 1758, a wave of catastrophic earthquakes struck struck earthquakes catastrophic of wave a 1758,

people to conduct prayers so as to improve the improve the asprayersconductto so to people

part Umayyadofthe part Mosque. , according to the manuscript, the to according , mu’adhdhins - Na ṣ r –

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IbnBudayr, Ibn

Their prayer was not answered this time. Light tremors of the ground drove the crowd to to crowd the drove ground the of tremors Light time. thisanswered not was prayer Their the for preparation ritual the that seems It The supreme authority of a religious ritual in the form of a communal prayer can also be also can prayer communal a of form the in ritual religious a of authority supreme The Budayr, HDY HDY ,92B ,92B.

93B. ʿ ad Pasha decided to turn to more practical measures this time. As was was As time. this measurespractical more to turn to decided Pasha ad xt season the number of locusts gradually increased to outrageous outrageous to increased gradually locusts of number the season xt Shaykhabout Al Asinreport the unprecedented barber, accordingpoverty.the to ,

- Daqqāaq Mosque, while the people demonstrated humility demonstrated peoplethe while Mosque, Daqqāaq 111 camps in the open, where they stayed until the the until stayed they where open, the in camps 282

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… wa… zāda qad …ka IbnBudayr, IbnBudayr, e Izca Weismann, Itztchak See But there was no end to the locusts the to end no was there But - annaal – 43(2004): 306. See alsoAl

shaykhsal of i apae ta te nrae in increase the that appeared it , HDY, HDY - nās lamnās yajtamiʿminhu shay’. 288

,35B - 36A fujūrwa al the led shaykh the flags, fluttering and drums of sound the by Followed ps. The ritual ritual The ps. 285

r was considered a branch of the Rifāʿiyya order order Rifāʿiyya the of branch a considered was r

- - - 36A. 37B. Ṣ āli Sf Bohrod i Sra n Ire: Cneprr Overview,” Contemporary A Israel: and Syria in Brotherhoods “Sufi

ḥ - fisqwa al īyya formed a procession, followedformedloud īyyaprocession,a by andsoundof thedrums

- Budayrī, a was l - Ṣ Daily - - 286 ghurūr…wa al āli ayd Zya, hr h asked he where Zaynab, Sayyida ʿ successful. The joy of the people made them leave their their leave them made people the of joy The successful. adiyya order, ‘Ibrāhīm al order, adiyya

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their numbers were still increasing “as though the though “as increasing still were numbers their 112

ubr o lcss olwd h ices in increase the followed locusts of numbers

- ghilā’…wa al HDY

, 91. ,

287 284 - shurūr.

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‘aswāq wa‘aswāqma IbnBudayr, SeeTaylor, … ‘akhta … Once again, t again, Once - …most of the women are unveiled, and the daughters of passion, who are the whores, whores, the are who passion, of daughters the and unveiled, are women the of …most al Shaykh evildoers, and nobodything…a says while arethe in griefrighteous andagony… durin markets and alleys the circulate Mu HDY, ṣ r al r allā

37B. Inthe Vicinity ofthe Righteous HDY - nisā’ qad nisā’ ‘hum al ‘hum ride a horse over their backs. The dervishes would remain unharmed and stand stand and unharmed remain would dervishes The backs. their over horse a ride Mosque to pray for the destruction of locusts. Their prayer was a lament of the the of lament a was prayer Their locusts. of destruction the for pray to Mosque -

Jabāwī employed every device he had at his disposal. Amidst the desperate desperate the Amidst disposal. his at had he device every employed Jabāwī ,37A. en masse en he prayer along with its result its with along prayer he 289

dālātiyya wadālātiyyaal The procession stayed there during the day, proceeding to circle around around circle to proceeding day, the during there stayed procession The

bā ḥ at, wa banāt al wa banāt at, represented the first line of defense against natural disasters. Like Like disasters. natural against defense of line first the represented dawsa.

- fusāq 290

- of the citadel. There, in the center of the city, the Sufis Sufis the city, the of center the in There, citadel. the of , 130. , hawā wahawāhum hs iul a uuly efre b te Saʿadiyya the by performed usually was ritual This

wa lā ‘a wa lā g night and day, followed by the by followed day, and night g dles and lanterns shone over the shaykh’s followers shaykh’s the over shone lanterns and dles - Maydān, followed by the sound of drums, entered entered drums, of sound the by followed Maydān,

113 ḥ ad yatakallam biyatakallamad

seems to be unquestionable. It was the people people the was It unquestionable. be to seems

[sic]

al - sh li k kāt dā’irātlayl kāt - qīl wa qāl… waal waqāl… qīl dalātiyya an wanihār - ṣ āli 291

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Ibn CEU eTD Collection 293 al see century,nineteenth the in like lookedprayer this how about details more For family.mourning the of request 292 power the sites mystical the shadows their in hid wings Samarmar’s blessing. divine of source miraculous a represented now tombs whose deceased, since long those and living still those thei fueled Damascenes The Damascene inhabitants. of strata all by accepted was which folklore wide a demonstrated Damascenes however overtonesare, Religious affiliation. religious and status social their of regardless together, the drawn inhabitants of number large a about writes Budayr Ibn walls, city the within authority of instances manifest greatest the of some During religious. as classified fully be cannot which celebrations of midst the in even felt be could presence its that common so element an Damascus, of populace the for factor unifying great a represented an ledrebellion.which to outright factors finallytheit becameof one military proportions that the great and population the among Suf of forms certain abolish to 1739), Damascus, of governor one of attempt the that therefore, surprise, nois in.It pride take somethingto undoubtedly, was, practices religious of corpus this eighteenth barber’s the of definition the forms part in which element an represented they that stated be might it Indeed Damascenes’tradition. Conclusion:IbnReligion4.5. Budayr’s and -

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293

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292

spurred dissatisfaction of such such of dissatisfaction spurred Damasc For the city’s inhabitants inhabitants city’s the For dy, em o have to seem udayr, - ene Bustanjī (r. 1738 (r. Bustanjī

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Daily Events Daily population a wl a of as well as , - et goal. Their other role was to preserve sense rolecertain agoal.was Theirother to et century Damascus. On the one hand, the people of the the of people the hand, one the On Damascus. century

to such an extent that they represented a reflexive reflexive a represented they that extent an such to might imply the twofold role of the public rituals rituals public the of role twofold implythe might 115

a variety of other elements of local (and (and local of elements other of variety a ʿ Arabī, but this tomb stood within the the within stood tomb this but Arabī, Ottoman regions called upon the bird bird the upon called regions Ottoman

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as a a as CEU eTD Collection en have to rumored places of employment and humility, the from required acts ritual these living blessings, represented divine who of saints sources and shayks Sufi the by led Often misery. their from people energy divine the summon to ritual a or prayer a included often which necessary was act an such need a such if inhabitants, presents the for available remain would it which from position a itself chronicle Budayr’s Ibn by covered future religion the of form The generations. for left and down wrote barber the which Damascenes the of practices informal and peculiar more some about information with reader the supplied pages Its Damascenes. inhabitants. eighteenth its and Damascus historians’ of city of the about focus information more uncovering the research, in remain to manuscript barber’s the for worthwhile seems it and is, text barber’s the in figure which briefings and reports other of analysis thorough became state inofthe society periodand thebetween than government Damascus1763 during and 1741 Damascus Before Damascus This study offered an overview of some re some of overview an offered study This al Shihāb barber, Damascene The h Dmsee cud rw pn hi rc rlgos ops hnvr hy fe they whenever corpus religious rich their upon draw could Damascenes The apparent in the previous pages. However, the scope of this study does not allow a a allow not does study this of scope the However, pages. previous the in apparent itself.

still , of great importance for the scholarship dedicated dedicated scholarship the for importance great of ,

Modernity: Popular Religious Practices as a Part of a of Part a as Practices Religious Popular Modernity: . Great catastrophes which shook the city required serious serious required city the shook which catastrophes Great . practiced by the population of Damascus in the span of years years of span the in Damascus of population the by practiced Damascene Tradition Damascene was

placed within within placed - Conclusion Dīn A Dīn 117

ḥ

mad Ibn Budayr had much more to say about about say to more much had Budayr Ibn mad iiu aisadpatcso h barber’s the of practices and habits ligious

the context of everyday life everyday of context the ough power to ensure the ritual’s ritual’s the ensure to power ough

Daily Events. Events. Daily inhabitants for salvation of the the of salvation for to the Middle East, East, Middle the to

The analysis of of analysis The full obedience, obedience, full , claiming for for claiming , re - action century century lt that that lt s , CEU eTD Collection a at Aimed together. Damascenes the populationthe dependon. could of rest the whom figureson become to order in pietyof display traits to rulers theirof expected population wider the for importance of be notables to city’s seemed the of Piety part. their on neglect serious of sign a as questioned piety own with popularity much enjoy not did who people the hand, other the On that. shows clearly quite Budayr Ibn self way. possiblebest the in display themselves to practiceshimforwere cohisand of modes own his and about wrote he addition, In practice informs he which in reports writes and religion, and morality towards attitude traditionalist a maintains barber The practices. religious informal and texts normative of corpus written imperialprovidedby theintellectual elite. the from them detach to impossible seems it that deep ingraine were practices such All gain. monetary find to attempting success individual’s an secured which incantations offered city the of saints The success. - dreams of divine inspiration. The barber wri barber The inspiration. divine of dreams representation, as well as the depiction of other famous figures, or the writer’s loved oneswriter’sfigures,famousthe or of depictionother the as aswellrepresentation, The Damascenes would Damascenes The o inseparability this of example excellent an as serves Budayr Ibn barber The Communal rituals and religious celebrations had the power to unite a large number of of number large a unite to power the had celebrations religious and rituals Communal s. The barber fasted during holy months, listened months, holyduring fasted barber The s. n oit o te abrs eighteenth barber’s the of society in self , for instance, a loved one, heal an injury, or increase the supplicant’s supplicant’s the increase or injury, an heal one, loved a instance, for , - representation how deeply intertwined the formal and informal religious religious informal formaland the intertwined deeply how representation the graves, freshlyindug appear that snakes master, hismiracles of

reach for their religious traditions when it would be necessary necessary be would it when traditions religious their for reach - inhabitants. specific goal, such rituals would also participate in the the in participate also would rituals such goal, specific

118

Religion had a strong significance in the acts of of acts the in significance strong a had Religion d deep within the Damascenes’ traditions Damascenes’ the within deep d

tes withou tes - century Damascus could often find their their find often could Damascus century

h researcher the –

to preachers, to

h pol dpce b In Bud Ibn by depicted people the t exclusion, demonstrating through through demonstrating exclusion, t

about about and studied with studied and i on religious own his f formal f muftīs when when – ayr ayr

so so – .

CEU eTD Collection 294 which countries, European the with contact intensified an witnessed Levant and East Middle inwhichinregionprevailed the modernity.century the to prior histo enable will corpus cultural practices religious the into research the makes whichvalues, cultural and traditioncommon of inhabitants The inhabitants. city’s the of corpus cultural inhabitantdefineofcertainaan area. formed ʿUthmānunderrule (r.64 theof Homs of made Qur’ān the people of copies the original the of while one be Hani, to believed was Ibn what carrying processions saint, local a of grave the at ceremonies infestations locust the over properties local acquire might legends certain how illustrate to well serves Samarmar of legend The Damascus. orig which elements other or power, of places saints, local of areas universal seem eleme its of some and Empire, Ottoman the of regions other from elements borrowed many included century eighteenth the in Damascenes the by observed practices and customsof scope have might be could folklore,elementstheof ofcorpus which vast fromaoften formed.woulddraw Thesepractices identity communal a of sense the which upon foundation the building of process

Grehan,„The Legend of Samarmar,“the 119 . Still, these. practicesoften would Approximately half a century after the last years described in Ibn Budayr’s work, the work, Budayr’s Ibn in described years last the after century a half Approximately wide the inform andperpetuate servedto Damascenes the of practices religious Popular

exis t – ed

eiicn o smlr rcie osre i mn dfeet geographical different many in observed practices similar of reminiscent

- wi

invaluable. Examinations of the various elements which constitute this this constitute which elements various the of Examinations invaluable.

o te ae purpo same the for thin and around Damascus even throughout throughout even Damascus around and thin course course

4 of time. Samarmar was summoned in Damascus to f to Damascusin summoned was Samarmar time. of - 656). rians to assemble a clearer overview of the circumstances circumstances the of overview clearer a assemble to rians

294

also demonstrate also - 120.

Such rituals served to perpetuate localperpetuate to andSuch servedto ritualstradition se, the inhabitants of Latakia organized communal communal organized Latakia of inhabitants the se,

119

a localinclusiona throughthe character, the city were, in a sense, united by by united sense, a in were, city the

inated on the territory around around territory the on inated several centuries. The entire entire The centuries. several

forms of their popular popular their forms of end off the the off end nts nts CEU eTD Collection 99 99 (Cambridge:Cambridge1983), UniversityPress, 295 developmentsWorldwithinArab the coherent a assemble to attempt day present the in can researcher the him, like chroniclers and Budayr, Ibn of Because nineteenth the which of out peculiarities its of Midd all the and world on Eastern light cast behind left they volumes rich The scholars. of generations future illuminates periods, previous alon barber, The heritage. contemporaries, al like families the movement, ce a half than More culture. and language supported who Christians, many of comprised were press printing the t employed who intellectuals Arab the of generations of content the of reminiscent sense, a in seems, content journals,magazineswith more publishtheir ease.andthoughts Newspapers, and appeared, their to intellectuals and scholars enabled which press, printing the of use wider a was East Middle gradually - 100. For the authors of the al the of authors the For

ruh mr cags o h Aa lns Aog h invtos brought innovations the Among lands. Arab the to changes more brought 295

propagated the unification of the Arabs on the basis of a shared cultural cultural shared a of basis the on Arabs the of unification the propagated

- utn fml, e Abr Hourani, Albert see family, Bustānī g with other chroniclers of the eighteenth century, as well as those of of those as well as century, eighteenth the of chroniclers other with g mr complex more , the

certain - unity of the Arab lands established on the basis of common common of basis the on established lands Arab the of unity Bustānīs since their time and through nineteenthsincethrough andthetheir time century. set o ti rc clua hrtg, rsrig t for it preserving heritage, cultural rich this of aspects ,

or -

102. For Zaydān,seeStarkey,For 102.

authors like Jurjī Zaydān who were the were who Zaydān Jurjī like authors mg of image ntury before the rise of the Islamic reformist reformist Islamic the of rise the before ntury 120

Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age 1798 Age Liberal the in Thought Arabic the he barber’s chronicle. The first first The chronicle. barber’s he atr which factors Moder - century reforms arose. arose. reforms century n Arabic LiteratureArabic n precipitated reforms’ reforms’

to the the to - 1939 , 23, , the le le

CEU eTD Collection al PublishedArabic: in sources al Shihāb Budayr, Ibn Unpublishedsources ــــــــــــــــــــ Henry. Maundrell, John. Green, Publishedother languages:in sources al al al - - - - Qāsimī, Mu Qāsimī, Mu Murādī, Mīkhā’īl. Dimashqī, A Budayrī, Sab Lebanon] and Damascus of Events Karīm.al Saʿad Damascus:Dār 1762. 1959. A by Edited Damascus] BeattyDublin. Chester ArLibrary3551/2, ilā Theather, 1703. Theather, 1736. Map. a and Notes with illustrated Whole The Wife. Christian his withhim carrying returnedSyria, to Flanders, and Spain Yearsin many Christianity for a The Adventures Also Surprising Historians. the own of their from Account Collected An Libanus, Added, Mount is Inhabiting which Maronites To Syria. of Parts Neighbouring the and Cities, Damascus:Dār al Ma a Pearls -

Shāmiyya [The Dictionary of Occupations in Damascus]. in Occupations of Dictionary [The Shāmiyya . ṭ aa 17 [h Diy vns f aacs rm h Ya 14 t 16]” MS 1763].” to 1741 Year the from Damascus of Events Daily [The 1176 Sanat ānū. Damascus: Dar Qutayba,Damascus:Dar 1982. ānū. baʻahal Hawādith Dimasq al DimasqHawādith

In the redaction of Mu ofredaction In the A Jou A ḥ ḥ ḥ ammad Saʿīd, Jamāl al Jamāl Saʿīd, ammad a al mad ma Khalīl ammad og h Ntbe o te Eighteenth the of Notables the mong - rney from Aleppo to Damascus with a Description of Those Two Capital Capital Two Those of Description a with Damascus to Aleppo from rney 1154 ʻĀmirah, 1883. ʻĀmirah, ḥ Jo A a ʿza ʿb al ʿAbd ʿIzzat mad : -

Ṭ Dīn A Dīn - āīh al Tārīkh Ḥ lās,1988. - 1175/1741 re Fo Aep t Jrslm t atr .. 1697. A.D. Easter at Jerusalem to Aleppo From urney allāq. allāq. ḥ

. mad. “ mad.

ik al Silk - nd Tragical End of Mostafa, a Turk, who, after professing professing after who, Turk, a Mostafa, of End Tragical nd Yawmiyya [Dhe Daily Events of Damascus] 1154 Damascus] of Events Daily [Dhe Yawmiyya aāih Dimas Hawādith -

hm a unn A Trk Mkāī al Mīkhā’īl Tārīkh Aw Lubnān, wa Shām

ḥ - 1762. 1762. ammad Saʿīd al Saʿīd ammad Ḥ - - - Bibliography Dīn, 1997. Dīn, awādith Dimashq al Dimashq awādith

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n h rdcin f Mu of redaction the In 1192 121 -

Qāsimī, and Khalīl al Khalīl and Qāsimī,

1257/1782

h - al q Qāsimī. Edited by A by Edited Qāsimī.

Century] - - amya [ Yawmiyya an al Qarn - - Shām Yawmiyya min Sanat 1154 Sanat min Yawmiyya Shām 1841 . .

- or volumes. Four A by Edited

Thānī ʿAshar [A String of of String [A ʿAshar Thānī ḥ Edited by Edited - ma Sʿd al Saʿīd ammad ʿA T ẓ he Daily Events of of Events Daily he m, ḥ London: W. Mears, Mears, W. London: mad ʿIzzat ʿAbdal ʿIzzat mad - Qāmūs al Qāmūs aā al Bayān - Ẓ iahi [The Dimashqi ḥ āfir al āfir mad Ghassān Ghassān mad

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