Allusion, Volume 06 No 01 February 2017, 31-38

Racial Oppression against African American Slaves in Harriette Gillem Robinet’s Forty Acres and Maybe a Mule

Ovriza Dien Kartika Titien Diah Soelistyarini English Department, Universitas Airlangga

Abstract

Children’s literature does not only play an important role in educating young readers but also raising racial awareness. A novel entitled Forty Acres and Maybe a Mule by Harriette Gillem Robinet raises an issue of racial oppression experienced by African American characters. Portrayed as a young boy growing up in era and Reconstruction, Pascal, along with other black characters in the novel had to deal with racial oppression from the white. Thus, this study aimed at examining how racial oppression was presented in the novel by applying African American Criticism. Specifically, the six features of Feagin’s Systemic Racism were applied in order to explain how systemic racism worked and relateed to white economic domination in the novel. This study showed how Pascal and other black characters experienced many kinds of racial oppression that led to stereotype, prejudice, and marginalization that further reinforced the roles of the white as powerful oppressor and the black as the oppressed. Keywords: African American, racial oppression, racism, slavery, systemic racism

1. Introduction cannot be separated from the in America. As slaves, they received terrible treatments and had to struggle for freedom. For more than two centuries, they had been enslaved in order to produce millions of white’s wealth (Feagin 2006, xi). The exploitation of African Americans as slaves was based on the ideology that was very harmful for black people. White colonialism demanded that black Africans perceived the white as more superior and intelligent, while blacks were defined as lazy, unintelligent, and incompetent (Schaefer 2008, 39). African Americans were treated as something less than human, and white people thought black people as savages or beasts. According to Jean R. Soderlund (2005, 55), the tendency of white people to exploit Africans as slaves was rooted from ethnocentrism, hierarchical beliefs, and prejudice against blackness. The white assumed that darker skinned people were inferior hence suitable for enslavement. Their darker skin color was seen as tools for the visible badge of enslavement. As a result, the white discriminated African Americans, which then resulted in oppression. The discrimination and oppression toward African American were not only seen in differences of characteristic and physical appearance from white Americans, but also white domination. African Americans often referred to as minority group because the majority population in United States is white people. In addition, white people have more economic, sociological and political power in America (Spector 2014, 126). Thereof, white people have interest to oppress racial minorities, the black people. Therefore, white Americans become more powerful because of their domination on many aspects. The great power of white Americans causes racial oppression toward minorities. Racial oppression is designed to deny, disregard, delegitimize a certain social group, in which makes their status beneath the oppressor group (Allen 1997, 177). During slavery period, white Americans prohibited black people to have education, decent housing, and public accommodations. They suffered much violence by the slaveholders and police agencies. African slaves labored before dawn until dark, with whips and chains, which mean whites’ control (Feagin 2006, 23). Thus, forms of oppression resulted in privilege to the white Americans. Racial oppression is also portrayed in many literary works including children’s literature. Forty Acres and Maybe a Mule is a historical children’s book written by Harriette Gillem Robinet (1998). This novel

31 Allusion Volume 06 No 01 (February 2017) | Ovriza Dien Kartika; Titien Diah Soelistyarini is very interesting for young readers since it raises racial awareness and adds knowledge of African American during the slavery era. This novel may help children learn about racism and prepare them to face discrimination and oppression toward them. The story focuses on Pascal, the main African American character, who experienced white oppression along with the other black characters. This study only focuses on the oppression resulted from systemic racism practiced by white Americans in order to examine how racial oppression is presented in children’s literature entitled Forty Acres and Maybe a Mule by Harriette Gillem Robinet. Previously, there have been some studies on racism and slavery in literary works, such as Utama (2012) who examines systemic racism in Crash movie, and Sari (2012) who investigates racial discrimination during slavery era in ’s Cabin. Meanwhile, Bickford and Rich’s study (2014) concerns with misrepresentation of slavery in children’s literature. Even though all these studies help to give more understanding of oppression in systemic racism, this study deals more with racial practices and oppression by the whites during slavery and portrayed in children’s literature. Since the novel of Forty Acres and Maybe a Mule deals with racial oppression, this issue becomes the main focus of this study. The novel is analyzed with African American Criticism, specifically Oppression Theory by Joe R. Feagin who explains how the idea of racism and oppression was practiced by white Americans. There are six features in Feagin’s Oppresion Theory, namely white racial frame and its imbedded ideology, alienated social relation (control vs loss of control), constant struggle and resistance, racial hierarchy with divergent group interest, whites’ unjust enrichment, unjust impoverishment and other cost for the oppressed and related racial domination. All these features connected to one thing, i.e. white economic domination that comprises wealth, status, and privilege generation at the expense of racialized “other”. In this qualitative research, Robinet’s novel Forty Acres and Maybe a Mule was used as primary data, while the secondary data were taken from various electronic and printed books, articles, and other scientific publication related to racial oppression. This study focuses on the main character, Pascal, and other black characters who experienced white oppression. By doing close reading on the novel, and highlighting its narratives and dialogues, the study identified the six features of systemic racism 2. Constant Struggle & Resistance: By All Means Available During slavery, African Americans had have struggled and resisted the racism practiced by whites. African slaves sometimes do the resistance as one of expressions of freedom. In addition, African Americans also resisted enslavement through their struggle (Schaefer 2008, 22). In Forty Acres and Maybe a Mule, the story started when Pascal was surprised to meet Gideon, his brother, who came back after running away from his master’s plantation. The struggle and resistance were depicted in the story and shown in Pascal’s perception when he remembered Gideon’s experience. Pascal thought back… Gideon sometimes stuck a burr under a saddle to make a horse throw the overseer, but one day he was caught... He got whipped all the time, but he kept on until Master grew angry and found a buyer. When Gideon found out that he had been sold, he ran away (Robinet 1998, 8) Another evidence portraying Gideon’s resistance was shown when Pascal heard Gideon talking back to a white man commanding Gideon to give up and get back to him. “You ain’t scaring me. I been a soldier and I traveled and I know all about freedom. Nobody owns me now and nobody will... I ain’t doing what no white man tells me, never no more… I be studying to get me forty acres and a mule.” (Robinet 1998, 40). African slaves rebelled on slavery system in many different ways. In the first quotation, Gideon did not fight his master physically or act brutally, but he showed his resistance toward his master on his own way. Gideon kept behaving badly until his master lost his tolerance. As a result, Gideon received violent punishments. Yet, he still had the courage to resist, struggle, and escape from his master’s plantation to pursue his freedom. In the second quotation, Gideon also showed his bravery in resisting a white man. He strongly believed that African Americans would be free from slavery and gain their rights, such as to own

32 Racial Oppression against African American Slaves in Harriette Gillem Robinet’s Forty Acres and Maybe a Mule a farm. Gideon did not allow himself to give up. Instead, he confronted the white man by using some challenging words. Gideon also convinced Pascal and Nelly to escape from their master’s plantation. They hoped for freedom and the “forty acres and a mule” promised by the Freedmen’s Bureau. In their escape, they faced many obstacles such as starvation, tirelessness, and rested hidden in the woods, however they continued ahead (Robinet 1998, 11). Pascal and his family have strong ambition to escape from slavery and belief in their dreams. According to (1999, 274), for slaves running away from plantation or their master’s house is a form of black resistance. They usually hid in nearby woods or visited their relatives on another plantation. Franklin further states that these slaves ran away to escape from harsh punishments, obtain their rights and freedom, or just escape from heavy workload of everyday life under slavery. Furthermore, Feagin (Feagin 2006, 13) states that black resistance, such as slave runaways, rebellions, , and recent civil right movements, are evidences that whites oppressed blacks in the development of sytemic racism. Hence, slaves resisted the oppressor by using different ways because they wanted to be free from slavery and violence. The last portrayal of Pascal and his family’s determination for their freedom is when they planned to somewhere else. Pascal and his family wished for a better life after white people snatched their lands. Pascal said, “They say there be a road going east… Then we ask about Georgia’s Sea Island… We gonna plant them apple trees on a new farm… Ain’t nobody taking away next farm!” (Robinet 1998, 126). Having bad experiences as slaves, Pascal and his family had constantly struggled for their freedom. African Americans lost their freedom as human beings, because of white oppression. They wanted to have a normal life without any oppression and could have their own farm. Pascal and his family desired to obtain social justices because they were treated in social life unfairly. All their struggles and resistances meant everything because they were freed slaves. They had fight for their hard life, wished to live independently without any intervention from whites, and were motivated to obtain freedom. The oppression in slavery era has caused black resistance against the whites. In daily life, a racist structure is already constructed, however, if a person has knowledge about the structure of the oppression, he or she will be able to use his or her knowledge as a tool for the rebellion. In the story, Pascal and Gideon suffered from white oppression, as a result, they had ambition to struggle in order to gain their freedom and happiness. Hence, systemic racism presented in the story of Pascal and his family is an example of African American struggle and resistance. By doing so, African Americans and other colored Americans have contributed to the struggle for their social justice and democracy (Feagin 2006, 31). 3. The White Racial Frame and Its Imbedded Racist Ideology The depiction of white racial frame and racist ideology in the story can be seen in Pascal’s experiences. In his journey to find Freedmen’s Bureau, Pascal thought back about how his master and overseer always stigmatized slaves, “every day white people told colored folks that they were good-for-nothing” (Robinet 1998, 53). Calling blacks as “good-for-nothing” denotes that blacks are worthless and powerless. In addition, Pascal often heard that whites practiced animal calls toward African Americans (Robinet 1998, 30). This showed that whites perceived black as less than human, thus they were not valued as human beings. Many white people believed that people with black or dark skin were subhuman and directed to African or Indian ancestry (Stephen Middleton 2016, 20). According to Abramova (2010, 23), whites thought that they are more superior because African American’s intelligence level is closer in line with that of apes than human being. By referring blacks as “good-for-nothing” or animal-like, whites conjure a strong emotion to negatively stereotype them. This white racial frame closely correlates with discrimination that is practiced repeatedly and habitually in daily life whether consciously or unconsciously (Feagin 2006, 25). Interestingly, since this novel was written by a black woman, the portrayal of black stereotypes in the novel is always accompanied by more explanation that being black is not always bad, stupid or abominate. White people had called slaves dumb and lazy, but most slaves knew better. Pascal worked at the big house and knew how many dumb things white people did. And slaves were always outsmarting the master about egg laying, tools breaking, and pig births. Not even the overseer knew what happened in the fields (Robinet 1998, 14).

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The above narrative shows a positive image of a black child that differs from the way African Americans were commonly portrayed by white authors in the past. According to Larrick (Larrick 1965, 64), in 1960s there were more than 5000 trade books in which white authors presented blacks characters as stupid, uneducated, greedy, and so on. Hence, the positive images of black in this novel can help convince black children that they are as smart as any other children. Comparing black and white, Robinet even claims that blacks are smarter in domestic life and whites do not know better. Furthermore, through her novel Robinet emphasizes that blacks have to be proud of their race because skin color does not determine good or bad race. Instead, good or bad is determined by individual personality. According to Yenika (2008, 89), black authors have the same concern to tell the “TRUTHS” about their experiences of being black with positive self-image and encourage black children to be able to survive in White Western culture. Thus, by portraying black ancestors, black children would be able to have memory of black life in the past and they could have different survival strategies in order to face racism, including black stereotypes. White racial frames have started in early colonial European and American history. By using white racial frame, whites associate stereotypes, bad images and interpretation with black and other colored in various types of discriminatory actions. These stereotypes and discrimination is deeply rooted in the white’s mind since they have been constructed for a very long time (Feagin 2006, 27). 4. Alienated Social Relations (Control vs. Loss of Control) The novel portrays black people as losing control over their life in many aspects. According to Bales and Robins (2001, 28), slaves are described as property or chattel because the slaveholders had right to sell or transfer them to others. The slave trading was recognized as a legal system and had been treated as an economic commodity. Hence, it made slaves lose their cultural, social, personal history, and their future. In the novel, Pascal and Nelly were treated as property and experienced being separated and alienated from their family. As the youngest child, Pascal had five brothers and four of them were sold away. One of his brothers, Gideon, then ran away. Pascal did not know where his other brothers were. Similarly, Nelly was also sold by his master. She said, “I got sold right after my mama died giving birth. I hardly ever saw her and I don’t know what happened to the baby” (Robinet 1998, 13). Pascal’s brothers and Nelly became the property of their masters in slavery system. The slaveholder had a complete control to treat black a commodity and hold the power to control their lives. It happened because white master assumed that blacks were inferior, hence they were suitable for enslavement and being sold. Pascal’s brothers and Nelly lost control of their lives and were alienated from their social relations. This form of white oppression has forced African Americans to behave as desired by the whites. According to Feagin (2006, 21), whites create such social arrangements that result in black Africans or other colored Americans being oppressed group who loses control over their lives. Similarly, Pascal’s brothers and Nelly had no control over themselves to stop them from being separated and alienated from their family. Later on, when Pascal and his family tended their farm very well for several months, the whites still tried to control them by seizing the farm. Mr. Pacherson said to Gideon, “Sorry, but it’s his farm now” (Robinet 1998, 115). Blacks were not allowed to act according to their abilities and had to obey the white. As Feagin (2006, 129) suggests, African Americans were alienated from significance over their economic lives. Feagin (2006, 23) also states that African Americans as target of oppression lost control over many aspects although they had to develop their skills or talents. 5. Racial Hierarchy with Divergent Group Interest. The depiction of racial hierarchy can be seen through Pascal’s perception. He thought, “Inside the walls of slavery they were bought, sold, separated from family, whipped, kept hungry, and sometimes worked to death” (Robinet 1998, 11). White people took as much advantage as possible by oppressing blacks for their own pleasure and wealth. Whites oppressed blacks not only physically but also psychologically. They exploited blacks to work for them from dusk until dawn, and sometimes without feeding them and even letting them dead. In addition, whites separated black families in slavery system,

34 Racial Oppression against African American Slaves in Harriette Gillem Robinet’s Forty Acres and Maybe a Mule so that blacks did not know where their families were and whether or not they were still alive. Those happened because whites desired to increase their wealth for themselves. According to Feagin (2006, 21), the top position of the racial hierarchy in America is the white, while the African American or black people are in the bottom position. It means that white become the dominant ruler in society, while other groups or races are inferior and should obey white rules. The existence of racial hierarchy comes from the belief that some races are more superior than others. Hierarchy of values could be categorized in physical qualities, intellectual and moral qualities of the person or the races (Todorov 2000, 66). Furthermore, in the United States of America, there is some stratification based on groups or race, namely the racial hierarchy. The top position is the white people, who received many benefits and interest, for example, they ordered slaves to work hard in plantation or factories and only gave little payment. Hence, white people achieved ‘respect’ from other races. In addition, white Americans considered their race as an elite group that African Americans and other colored Americans had never been able to attain the privilege and power in American society (Feagin 2006, 22). 6. Related Racial Domination: Discrimination in Various Aspects The existence of racial hierarchy causes racial domination and discrimination toward African Americans in some ways. According to Feagin (2006, 23), racial oppression results in discrimination in many aspects, such as education, law, economic, and many others, toward African American and other colored people. African Americans did not have the same right as whites. During slavery era, slaves were discriminated and forbidden to receive education, hence blacks were categorized as obtuse. In the novel, the depiction of discrimination can be seen in Pascal’s experience in education as there was law prohibiting blacks to obtain education. Pascal explained to Judith that he studied without any people know except master’s mother. Pascal said, “Master’s mother taught me reading, writing, and arithmetic…but it all be secret, cause you remember it be against the law to tech a slave to read or write” (Robinet 1998, 81). The law made blacks powerless since they never achieved any proper education, both formal and informal. If people were detected teaching blacks, they would be put in prison. Whites also prevented blacks from going to school because they feared that blacks could communicate with each other and start a rebellion (Worth 2006, 113). Furthermore, African Americans were prohibited from schools and many other intuitional areas and they endured much violence from white people (Feagin 2006, 23). Hence, white oppression in education had made it impossible for blacks to gain equality with the whites. Blacks had to struggle to achieve their rights, such as in education, and in order to do so they had to do it secretly. Mr. McPherson told Pascal and his family that they could no longer have their farm again because the law ruled that Sherman Lands were only available to white people (Robinet 1998, 114). This shows how the law discriminated and marginalized African Americans. Black Codes kept African Americans powerless as former slaves were not allowed to own a farm because whites were afraid there would be no more labors to work for them. White people limited the freedom of black people and controlled black labors. Clearly, the whites did not believe in equality for blacks in economy and social systems. Hence, Black Codes was a system that gave many advantages for whites and discriminated blacks in all aspects, especially law and economy. Furthermore, Black Codes had ruled unemployed people, peddlers, and gamblers to sign a labor contract. The contract should be approved by a judge, and black servants had to work for white masters. They had to work from sunup to sunset except on Sundays. The white master was allowed to whip black servants under 18 times in order to discipline them. The black servants who ceased before the end of the date of labor contract would be arrested and forfeited their wages (“The Southern Black Codes”). The system of racism portrays the gap between whites and blacks. White domination clearly makes African Americans and other colored people targets of exploitation and oppression that in turn discriminate them in all aspects and cause them to loss control over many aspects in their lives (Feagin 2006, 23). Thus, African Americans could not do anything, even though they received many painful treatments from the whites.

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7. White’s Unjust Enrichment; Other Cost for the Oppressed The novel also portrays white’s unjust enrichment from both white and black points of view. From white’s point of view: Mrs. Bib asked to Pascal, “Now that the slaves are freed, what do they get paid?” However, the white rider answered quickly “We ain’t about to pay Negroes to work when we own them in the first, and we can whip them into working without wages in the second place…We’re shooting the uppity ones and bringing back the submissive one” (Robinet 1998, 30). White people still treated black people harshly even after the Enslavement Period. Whites practiced the oppression and unjust treatment in order to gain benefits. By oppressing African Americans, giving no payment, and having them work, the white people could accumulate larger amount of wealth. Hence, white people practiced unjust enrichment that caused oppression against African Americans. Unjust enrichment from black point of view comes from Pascal’s perspective, as follows: He thought about the tree on the plantation where the overseer whipped slaves. Pascal had had to stretch his arms around that tree, and the man had switched his bare back with hickory sticks. Pascal gritted his teeth. How had he lived through that? (Robinet 1998, 69). Pascal suffered from the violence practiced by the overseer who treated all slaves less than human. According to Feagin (2006, 18), unfair impoverishment and unjust enrichment are significant idea to discuss the problem of exploitative socioeconomic system that happened in the United States of America from the past until now. The exploitation of labor and energy of African Americans and other colored Americans causes excessive enrichment of white Americans and unjust impoverishment of African Americans and colored Americans. 8. White Economic Domination The key features of systemic racism were started from the homicide of Native-Americans and enslavement of African Americans that ultimately led to the white economic domination in America (Feagin 2006, 16). White economic domination is clearly illustrated in Forty Acres and Maybe a Mule. In the novel, Pascal is described as a slave who ran away from his master’s plantation. Then, he and his family asked for forty acres promised by Bureau and farmed on it. However, white people still wanted the abundance of wealth and did not let them have the farm and hoped former slaves would be back on their masters. Mr. McPherson said to Pascal and his family: The Southern whites have caught the ear of President Johnson, it seems. They lived for two hundred years on slave labor, and now they’re suffering from crops poorly planted and no workers for pickings. They want former slaves to return to their plantation fields. (Robinet 1998, 112). White people have enslaved African Americans for a long time and exploited their energy to gain benefits. During Reconstruction period, many slaves ran away from plantation hence the white felt so distress because they could not get much money anymore. As a result, President Johnson decided that blacks still had to work for white people. Therefore, the economic domination was still dominated by white people. Accordingly, Feagin (2006, 9) states that black Americans and other colored Americans had been exploited by the whites for the sake of white’s prosperity, wealth, and status. This exploitation and oppression against the blacks and colored people was driven by the desire to maintain white supremacy. White supremacy is also portrayed in Pascal’s perception, “For many years colored people in America had farmed other people’s land and their work had been stolen, Pascal thought. Now they were free, and their farm had been stolen” (Robinet 1998, 118). Pascal realized that white people took many advantages from the enslavement. After they were free, whites still tried to maintain their domination. Thus, Pascal and his family could not do anything about this situation. This only further proved that white superiority and systemic racism had existed for a long time and these systems were difficult to be abolished. White domination on the enslavement of African Americans produced maximum profit for the white people. White economic domination is the main idea of systemic racism and it had been started for centuries in the United States of America. White economic domination causes the development of the six

36 Racial Oppression against African American Slaves in Harriette Gillem Robinet’s Forty Acres and Maybe a Mule key features, which can strengthen the white economic domination. As shown in the analysis above, these six features are clearly illustrated in the novel through Pascal and other black characters’ experiences as slaves. Until modern day, white domination influences on restricted job, inequitable wages, and forbiddance or marginalization from other economic opportunities constructed by whites (Feagin 2006, 18). 9. Conclusion Based on the analysis of the novel of Harriet Gillem Robinet’s Forty Acres and Maybe a Mule, it can be concluded that white oppression against African Americans had detrimental effect on the lives of African Americans, while on the contrary it contributed big profits for white Americans. White economic domination was strongly maintained by white society for their generations hence they could do everything to oppress and exploit black people. As can be seen in Pascal and his family, they received many inequalities. As for examples: they were whipped all the time during laboring on plantation; they were separated from family because they were considered as commodities; they were discriminated, and they never gained their rights to forty acres of farm. As a powerless race that lived under the white domination, Pascal and his family could not do anything even though white people had oppressed them harshly. Moreover, after analyzing the novel, it is believed that racial oppression closely associated with systemic racism constructed by white people. Many kinds of oppression occur in this story and lead to stereotyping, prejudicing, and marginalizing. In the end, it reinforced the superiority of whites as the powerful oppressors and the inferiority of blacks as the oppressed group. 10. Works Cited Abramova, Iriana. 2010. Resource of Potential of Africa. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences Institute For African Studies. Achufusi, Grace. 1995. "African Literature and African Children: An evaluation of characters in children's books." Springer 171-182. Allen, Theodore W. 1997. The Invention of the White Race Volume Two: The Origins of Racial Oppression in Anglo America. London: Verso. Bishop, Rudine Sims. 2012. "Reflections on the Development of African American Children’s Literature." Journal of Children's Literature 5-12. DeFord, Deborah H. 2006. African Americans during the Civil War. New : Chelsea House. Dictionaries, Cambridge. 2016. Racism. Document. Cambridge, 05 26. Feagin, Joe R. 2006. Systemic Racism. New York: Routledge. Franklin, John Hope. 1999. Runaway Slaves. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hallam, Jenifer. n.d. "The Slave Experience: Men, Women & Gender ." www.pbs.org. Accessed 06 05, 2016. Hicks, Adam. n.d. "African-American Criticism." http://www.misterhicks.net/african-american-criticism.html. Accessed May 14, 2016. Hunt, Peter. 2003. Understanding Children's Literature. New York: Routledge. Jackson, Winston. 1995. Approaches to Methods. Pdf. Canada. John H. Bickford, Cynthia W. Rich. 2014. "Examining the Representation of Slavery within Children’s Literature." Social Studies Research and Practice 66-94. Kevin Bales, Peter T Robbins. 2001. "No One Shall Be Held in Slavery or Servitude: A critical analysis of international slavery conventions." Open Research Online 18-45. Larrick, Nancy. 1965. "The all-white world of children books." Saturday Review 63-65. Lynch, Hollis. 2014. African Americans. 12 16. Accessed 03 29, 2016. Lynch-Brown, Carol. 1999. Essential of Children's Literature. London: Allyn and Bacon. M.Stern, Sheldon. 2005. "The -The Full Story." Acadenic Questions 16-33. Martinez, Elizabeth. n.d. "What is White Supremacy?" www.collectiveliberation.org. Accessed May 30, 2016. Monte, Karthryn l. Bel. 1998. African American Heroes & Heroines. Hollywood: Lifetime Books. Parker, Robert Dale. 2008. How to Interpret Literature: Critical Theory for Literary and Cultural Studies. New York: Oxford University Press. Robinet, Harriete Gilem. 1998. Forty Acres and Maybe a Mule. New York: Aladin Paper. Robinet, Harriette Gilem. 1998. Forty Acres and Maybe a Mule. New York: Aladdin Paperbacks. Robinet, Hrriette Gillem. 1998. Forty Acres and Maybe a Mule. New York: Aladdin Paperbacks.

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Sandra Hinson, Alexa Bradley. 1992. "A Structural Analysis of Oppression." www.strategicpractice.org. Accessed 03 12, 2016. Sari, Grace Yunita. 2012. Racial Discrimination Presented in Harriet Beecher Stowe's Novel Uncle Tom's Cabin. Thesis, Surabaya: Universitas Airlangga. Schaefer, Richard T. 2008. Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society. California: Sage Publications. —. 2008. Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society. California: Sage Publications. Simkin, John. 2015. "Education of Slaves." spartacus-educational.org. January. Accessed May 20, 2016. n.d. "Slave Resistance at work." discoveringbristol.org.uk. Accessed May 2016, 30. Soderlund, Jean R. 2005. "Creating A Biracial Society, 1619-1720." In Essays On African American History, Culture and Society, by William G. Shade William R. Scot, 55-65. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs. Spector, Alan. 2014. "Racism and -Crisis and Resistance: Exploring the Dynamic between Class Oppression and Racial Oppression." Sage 116-131. Stephen Middleton, David R. Roediger, Donald M. Shaffer. 2016. The Construction of Whiteness. Mississipi: The University Press of Missisippi. n.d. "The Southern Black Codes of 1865-66." www.crf-usa.org. Accessed May 30, 2016. Todorov, Tzvetan. 2000. "Race and Racism." In Theories of Race and Racism, by John Solomons Les Back, 64-78. Londom: Routledge. Utama, Nanda Sanjaya. 2012. Systemic Racism in Crash The Movie. Thesis, Surabaya: Universitas Airlangga . Worth, Ricard. 2006. African Americans During Reconstruction. New York: Chelsea House. Yenika, Vivian. 2008. Representing Africa in Children's Literature. NewYork: Routledge.

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