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PRAGMATIC SINGLES: BEING AN UNMARRIED WOMAN IN CONTEMPORARY JAPAN by Tamiko Ortega Noll BA, Bucknell University, 1985 MPH, University of Pittsburgh, 1999 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of FAS Department of Anthropology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2004 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH FACULTY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES This dissertation was presented by Tamiko Ortega Noll It was defended on April 23, 2004 and approved by Dr. Nicole Constable, Dr. Kathleen DeWalt, Dr. Akiko Hashimoto, Dr. Andrew Strathern, Dr. Keith Brown, Professor, Department of Anthropology Dissertation Director ii Copyright by Tamiko Ortega Noll 2004 iii PRAGMATIC SINGLES: BEING AN UNMARRIED WOMAN IN A CONTEMPORARY JAPAN Tamiko Ortega Noll, PhD University of Pittsburgh, 2004 The concept of an unmarried Japanese woman carries a variety of changing meanings for both women and men. In the past unmarried Japanese women were viewed as a conceptual anomaly vis-à-vis the dominant rhetoric of universal marriage. In contemporary Japan women are marrying later or even choosing not to marry at all. Demographers view the personal actions by unmarried women as cumulatively accounting for a large component of the declining birthrate. Such analysis of vital records has instilled panic among government officials already fearful of the rapidly aging population and its effect on Japan’s future as a nation. In this dissertation I explore how unmarried Japanese women create and sustain their identities despite a public rhetoric that marginalizes, degrades, or even denies their existence as a social category. I argue that unmarried Japanese women are not “parasite singles,” the homogenous entity that the Japanese government and media have portrayed them to be. Nor are they a part of an explicit, organized feminist revolution. Drawing upon social theories which examine the tensions between practice and ideology, agency and structure I argue that unmarried Japanese are responding to a specific set of economic, political, and social conditions in which they find themselves. The cultural dialogue associated with “being unmarried” exposes how the government naturalizes and rationalizes the marital union to support its interests in maintaining productivity of the core (male) workforce, and the reproduction of future Japanese citizens. Based on ethnographic data collected in a city in rural Japan, I discuss how linguistic expressions iv and metaphors create images of “being married,” how normative rhetoric about productivity in relation to women’s life course defines appropriate employment and leisure activities, and how unmarried women’s bodies are a site of state control through contraceptive regulations and other government policies. A focus on the discourse surrounding unmarried women exposes how they are positioned as key players in the maintenance of latent cultural logics regarding the family, work, nation, and reproduction. Even so, through their everyday enactments of “being unmarried,” through resistance and compromise, unmarried women in this local city force and enforce change in the social landscape of contemporary Japan. v TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE...................................................................................................................................... ix 1. Introduction............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1. Background..................................................................................................................... 3 1.2. Research Methods...........................................................................................................5 1.3. Overview of Chapters ................................................................................................... 10 2. Pragmatic Women and Attitudes Toward Marriage ............................................................. 20 3. Labels and Marginality ......................................................................................................... 71 4. Producing Productivity: Work and Leisure ....................................................................... 110 5. Sexual Bodies, Contraception and Gender Ideologies........................................................ 150 6. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 190 APPENDIX A............................................................................................................................. 198 Field Methods ......................................................................................................................... 198 APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................. 201 Statistics .................................................................................................................................. 201 BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................... 223 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Proportion Never Married, Singulate Mean Age at Marriage , Japan: 1920-2000.......... 34 Table 2 Proportions of Currently Married Population, By Age Group and Sex, Japan ............... 35 Table 3 Proportions of Never Married Population, By Age Group and Sex, Japan..................... 36 Table 4 Population Never Married, Married Widowed, or Divorced, as a Percentage of the Total Population of Morioka .......................................................................................................... 37 Table 5 Average Age At Marriage............................................................................................... 38 Table 6 Proportion Employed and the Employment-Status /Occupational Composition of the Employed by Age: Never Married Japanese Women Aged 16-49, 1996.......................... 140 Table 7 Population by Marital Status, Sex, Whether Living with Parents, Japan (1995) .......... 204 Table 8 Labor Force Participation By Age Group and Sex, Japan............................................. 205 Table 9 Contraceptive Methods Used by Currently Married Women (%)................................. 206 Table 10 Contraceptive Methods used by Unmarried Women (%)............................................ 207 Table 11 Contraceptive Methods in the U.S. and Japan............................................................. 208 Table 12 Contraceptive Failure Rates......................................................................................... 209 Table 13 Distribution of Reported Abortions by Age, Japan and the United States, 1976 ........ 210 Table 14 Distribution of Responses to a Question Regarding Priority of Contraceptive Method Features, in Percentages, Tokyo Area Clinic and Hospital Sample, 1975–1976 ............... 211 Table 15 Pregnancy Outcome, by Contraceptive Use, for First and Last Pregnancies for Married Japanese Women of Childbearing Age Ever Pregnant, 1981............................................. 212 Table 16 Proportion of Japanese Women Who Want to Use Low Dose Oral Contraceptives if Made Legally Available...................................................................................................... 213 Table 17 Reasons Given by Japanese Women as to Why They Want to Use Oral Contraceptives ............................................................................................................................................. 214 Table 18 Reasons Given by Japanese Women as to Why They Would Not Want to Use Oral Contraceptives..................................................................................................................... 215 Table 19 Start of Contraception Among Married Women, 1990-1998...................................... 216 Table 20 Experience of Induced Abortion Among Unmarried Women (%).............................. 217 Table 21 Comparison of Ratio of Births of Children Out of Wedlock....................................... 218 Table 22 Proportion of Married and Unmarried Women with a Negative Image Towards Out of Wedlock Births ................................................................................................................... 219 Table 23 Proportion of Married and Unmarried Women Who Would Consider Having an Out of Wedlock Birth..................................................................................................................... 219 Table 24 Reasons for Not Having an Out of Wedlock Birth for Married and Unmarried Women ............................................................................................................................................. 220 Table 25 First Births Conceived Out of Wedlock, Japan ........................................................... 221 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Experience of Sexual Intercourse Among Unmarried Women.................................... 201 Figure 2 Contraceptive Practice Among Unmarried Women..................................................... 202 Figure 3 Rate of Experience of Abortion Among Unmarried Women....................................... 203 Figure 4 First Births Conceived Before Marriage, By Mother’s Age ........................................ 222 viii PREFACE This research would not have been possible without the generosity and support of many institutions and individuals, both in Japan
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