Uplift: an Examination of Six African American Female Educational Leaders During the Reconstruction, Segregation and Equal Opportunity Eras

Pepperdine University Pepperdine Digital Commons

Theses and Dissertations

2012

Uplift: an examination of six African American female educational leaders during the Reconstruction, Segregation and Equal Opportunity Eras

Wanda Johnson Clemmons

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/etd

Recommended Citation Clemmons, Wanda Johnson, "Uplift: an examination of six African American female educational leaders during the Reconstruction, Segregation and Equal Opportunity Eras" (2012). Theses and Dissertations. 312. https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/etd/312

This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by Pepperdine Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Pepperdine Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected], [email protected].

Pepperdine University

Graduate School of Education and Psychology

UPLIFT: AN EXAMINATION OF SIX AFRICAN AMERICAN FEMALE EDUCATIONAL

LEADERS DURING THE RECONSTRUCTION, SEGREGATION AND

EQUAL OPPORTUNITY ERAS

A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction

of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Education in Organizational Leadership

Wanda Johnson Clemmons

November 2012

Margaret J. Weber, Ph.D. – Dissertation Chairperson

This dissertation, written by

Wanda Johnson Clemmons

under the guidance of a Faculty Committee and approved by its members, has been submitted to and accepted by the Graduate Faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

Doctoral Committee:

Margaret J. Weber, Ph.D., Chairperson

Robert Barner, Ph.D.

Linda Jungwirth, Ed.D.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

DEDICATION ...... vi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... viii

VITA ...... xi

ABSTRACT ...... xiv

Chapter 1: Background ...... 1

Statement of Problem ...... 5 Statement of Purpose ...... 6 Research Questions ...... 6 Significance of the Study ...... 7 Assumptions ...... 8 Limitations ...... 8

Chapter 2: Literature Review ...... 10

Introduction ...... 10 Importance of the Topic ...... 11 Definitions of Key Terms ...... 13 Literature Search Strategies ...... 16 Extent and Nature of Literature ...... 17 Overview and Organization of the Literature Review ...... 17 Theoretical Considerations ...... 17 Background of Education for African Americans ...... 18 Reconstruction Era (1866-1877) ...... 22 The Segregation Era (1877-1953) ...... 34 The Equal Opportunity Era (1954-present) ...... 47 Summary ...... 62

Chapter 3: Methodology ...... 64

Research Questions ...... 64 Research Methodology ...... 64 Analysis Unit ...... 65 Instrument ...... 67 Sample...... 68 Sample Method ...... 68 Data Collection ...... 69 Human Subjects ...... 70 Data Analysis ...... 70 Summary ...... 71

Page

Chapter 4: Findings ...... 73

Fanny Marion Jackson Coppin (1837-1913) ...... 75 Anna Julia Cooper (1860-1964)...... 94 Nannie Helen Burroughs (1879-1961)...... 105 Charlotte Hawkins Brown (1883-1961)...... 120 Dr. Mary Montle Bacon (1942-present) ...... 133 Joan Faqir (1944-present) ...... 133 Summary ...... 155

Chapter 5: Summary ...... 157

Reconstruction: The Pioneers ...... 158 Segregation: The Expanders ...... 160 Equal Opportunity: The Product ...... 161 Discussion ...... 165 Conclusion ...... 167 Recommendations ...... 168

REFERENCES ...... 171

APPENDIX A: Letter Explaining Study to Contemporary Educators ...... 182

APPENDIX B: Dissertation Survey ...... 184

APPENDIX C: Interview Questions ...... 186

APPENDIX D: Biographical Data Sheet ...... 188

APPENDIX E: Informed Consent for Participation in Research Activities ...... 189

APPENDIX F: Appointment Form ...... 191

v DEDICATION

TO MY FAMILY

Johnnie Mae Johnson - Mother, you set an example that any daughter could follow. I know you are looking down from heaven cheering me on! You are my greatest shero. You were a model of a true Woman of God. Thank you for giving me the greatest gift of all—unconditional love. Thank you for teaching me how to uplift my race as well as mankind. I will always love you!

Nuoye Sr. - My husband the love of my life for 35 years. You are my “One in a Million” chance of a lifetime when life showed compassion and God sent to me a stroke of love called you. We have battled many storms together. Without you I don’t know where I would be. You are my guardian angel. Thank you for taking good care of me! I will always love you. God is not through with us yet. The best is yet to come!

Nuoye Jr. - My son born on Valentine’s Day—the day of love. As you look down from heaven I want you to know you were one of the most loving fathers, respectful sons, and caring human beings I have ever known. Your dedication to your children makes me proud. You were a wonderful example to your friends of how to be a father. You have left us with four beautiful children that will carry your name and legacy on. We will always love you.

Nikiyah - You keep me laughing, son. Your dedication as a father is a reflection of your dad. Continue to use him as your example and God will be pleased. Your future is bright and your star will rise. Pursue the dreams in your heart and you will reach your DESTINY—God’s perfect will for your life.

Nikeen - Who am I going to call—Keen Keen Buster? Son, you are a great husband, son, brother, uncle, and soon to be father! Thank you for supporting me in my projects and in life. You have more ability and creativity in your baby finger then I have in my entire being. USE IT! Don’t sell yourself or your creator short! You are destined to discover a cure for cancer or make a discovery that will benefit all of mankind. I believe in you.

Niquanna - As you know when we sent you away to college, times were really hard for us. But we knew the sacrifice was worth it. I still remember slipping $10 in your hand, crying, and praying to God to take care of you. He answered my prayers. You followed in my footsteps; that always makes a parent proud. But what I am most proud of is how you have dedicated your life to serving underserved students in Watts. They need you. You

vi are an AWESOME educator. Continue to work hard because, as I always say, hard work pays off!

NaShanda - My prayer warrior. I remember when I saw the dream of the Destiny Center on 120th Street—you were only 10 years old. You prayed and God moved. Continue to pray and watch God continue to move! Your dream to finish college will be fulfilled. Your children and family are your first priority. Don’t forget, nothing’s too hard for God. Don’t stop singing your songs, especially No Weapon Formed Against Me Shall Prosper!

NaSheena - Miracle twin number 1. I see so much of myself in you. Your motivation and tenacity will get you through when money is scarce and friends are few. Giving your life to help others is always noble. God knows your heart. Where He guides He provides. Your dream of a non-profit will be a reality! Just keep moving and He will too.

NaReena - Miracle twin number 2. Continue to pursue your dream to become an attorney. Your bear hugs are a sign of how strong you are. Do not let the circumstances of life defeat you. I have no doubt you will achieve your goals. Make us proud!

Nemiah - I know God had you especially designed as the baby of the family. You are one of the kindest and most loving people I know. You have honored your mother and father as God has asked. Thank you for all of your love and care, taking care of dad and me, through the past few years. It is now time for you to reach your DESTINY! Pray and