Pepperdine University Pepperdine Digital Commons Theses and Dissertations 2012 Uplift: an examination of six African American female educational leaders during the Reconstruction, Segregation and Equal Opportunity Eras Wanda Johnson Clemmons Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/etd Recommended Citation Clemmons, Wanda Johnson, "Uplift: an examination of six African American female educational leaders during the Reconstruction, Segregation and Equal Opportunity Eras" (2012). Theses and Dissertations. 312. https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/etd/312 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by Pepperdine Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Pepperdine Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]. Pepperdine University Graduate School of Education and Psychology UPLIFT: AN EXAMINATION OF SIX AFRICAN AMERICAN FEMALE EDUCATIONAL LEADERS DURING THE RECONSTRUCTION, SEGREGATION AND EQUAL OPPORTUNITY ERAS A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education in Organizational Leadership by Wanda Johnson Clemmons November 2012 Margaret J. Weber, Ph.D. – Dissertation Chairperson This dissertation, written by Wanda Johnson Clemmons under the guidance of a Faculty Committee and approved by its members, has been submitted to and accepted by the Graduate Faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION Doctoral Committee: Margaret J. Weber, Ph.D., Chairperson Robert Barner, Ph.D. Linda Jungwirth, Ed.D. © Copyright by Wanda Johnson Clemmons (2012) All Rights Reserved TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................... viii VITA .................................................................................................................................. xi ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... xiv Chapter 1: Background .......................................................................................................1 Statement of Problem ...................................................................................................... 5 Statement of Purpose ...................................................................................................... 6 Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 6 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................ 7 Assumptions .................................................................................................................... 8 Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 8 Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................................10 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 10 Importance of the Topic ................................................................................................ 11 Definitions of Key Terms ............................................................................................. 13 Literature Search Strategies .......................................................................................... 16 Extent and Nature of Literature .................................................................................... 17 Overview and Organization of the Literature Review .................................................. 17 Theoretical Considerations ........................................................................................... 17 Background of Education for African Americans ........................................................ 18 Reconstruction Era (1866-1877) ................................................................................... 22 The Segregation Era (1877-1953) ................................................................................. 34 The Equal Opportunity Era (1954-present) .................................................................. 47 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 62 Chapter 3: Methodology ...................................................................................................64 Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 64 Research Methodology ................................................................................................. 64 Analysis Unit ................................................................................................................ 65 Instrument ..................................................................................................................... 67 Sample........................................................................................................................... 68 Sample Method ............................................................................................................. 68 Data Collection ............................................................................................................. 69 Human Subjects ............................................................................................................ 70 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 70 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 71 Page Chapter 4: Findings ............................................................................................................73 Fanny Marion Jackson Coppin (1837-1913) ................................................................ 75 Anna Julia Cooper (1860-1964).................................................................................... 94 Nannie Helen Burroughs (1879-1961)........................................................................ 105 Charlotte Hawkins Brown (1883-1961)...................................................................... 120 Dr. Mary Montle Bacon (1942-present) ..................................................................... 133 Joan Faqir (1944-present) ........................................................................................... 133 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 155 Chapter 5: Summary ........................................................................................................157 Reconstruction: The Pioneers ..................................................................................... 158 Segregation: The Expanders ....................................................................................... 160 Equal Opportunity: The Product ................................................................................. 161 Discussion ................................................................................................................... 165 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 167 Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 168 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................171 APPENDIX A: Letter Explaining Study to Contemporary Educators ............................182 APPENDIX B: Dissertation Survey ................................................................................184 APPENDIX C: Interview Questions ................................................................................186 APPENDIX D: Biographical Data Sheet .........................................................................188 APPENDIX E: Informed Consent for Participation in Research Activities ....................189 APPENDIX F: Appointment Form ..................................................................................191 v DEDICATION TO MY FAMILY Johnnie Mae Johnson - Mother, you set an example that any daughter could follow. I know you are looking down from heaven cheering me on! You are my greatest shero. You were a model of a true Woman of God. Thank you for giving me the greatest gift of all—unconditional love. Thank you for teaching me how to uplift my race as well as mankind. I will always love you! Nuoye Sr. - My husband the love of my life for 35 years. You are my “One in a Million” chance of a lifetime when life showed compassion and God sent to me a stroke of love called you. We have battled many storms together. Without you I don’t know where I would be. You are my guardian angel. Thank you for taking good care of me! I will always love you. God is not through with us yet. The best is yet to come! Nuoye