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Home , History of wine

THEMATIC ROUTES

This tour is sponsored by the Fundación para la Cultura del Vino

Wine Linked both to religious rituals and everyday life, the prerogative of the rich and powerful and consolation of the ill-fated, a vehicle for social Culture in interaction, an object of economic exchange, stimulation for the senses, a wellspring of good health… has always been an important source the Thyssen- of artistic inspiration. It would be hard to understand mankind’s cultu- ral history without wine for it is a gift from Nature that speaks directly Bornemisza to senses, hearts and minds. An acquaintance with this, the most civili - sed of beverages and fruit of an ancient tradition, can lead to new expe - Collection riences in our encounters with other people and places and — also like art — invite us to enjoy life to the full.

Juan Pan-Montojo y Teresa de la Vega This tour examines different aspects of the history of wine while fo - llowing an enjoyable, very special route through the Museum’s perma - nent collection. The pictures along the way span the period between 1509 and 1919, four centuries that start with what we might call local, empirical knowledge of wine making and finish with the birth of today’s and its scientific approach to and .

room 8 one of the most important figures in German Renaissance art, Lucas Cranach LUCAS CRANACH THE ELDER was a firm believer in the ideas of the Kronach, 1472–Weimar, 1553 Reformation. His friendship with Luther, The Virgin with Child with however, in no way deterred him from a Bunch of , c. 1509-10 painting religious scenes for a Catholic Oil on panel. 71.5 x 44.2 cm clientele. Here the artist depicted the Vir- inv. 114 (1936.1) in the foreground, her softly outlined and modelled face recalling Leonardo’s technique of sfumato. Cranach signed the painting on the low wall behind the Virgin with his usual winged serpent sym- bol. Another noteworthy detail is a tiny, almost imperceptible figure climbing up Wine Culture in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection THEMATIC ROUTES 2

the steep path whom some have identified The central role, together with bread, as Saint Joseph. played by wine in the made it an The symbol which most immediate- essential element of worship and for this ly draws our attention, however, is the reason grapes were grown wherever Chris- bunch of grapes in the Virgin’s hand — a tian places of worship were established. reference to the Eucharist and Christ’s In the 13th century, however, the pres- role as the Redeemer. ence of both ingredients together ceased In Christianity, as in Judaism and the to be obligatory for communion among pagan religions of Classical times, the vine common folk and only necessary when was of special significance. Traditions consecration by a priest was required. inherited from and Mesopotamia In this respect, the Protestant reformers and reflected in the describe wine as made no changes yet did recommend that a key symbol of joy, life and fertility and the faithful commune with both while a special gift from God to man. There are sharing the same cup so that all Chris - references to the vine, with its tendrils, tians, even those who lived in areas where leaves and fruit and to and grapes were not grown, would associate wine in many metaphors and parables the symbols connected with the vine with in both the Old and New Testaments: the promise of everlasting life. according to some estimates the Bible In similar contexts, bunches of grapes mentions wine and vines almost four are featured in two other works from the hundred times. Such frequency is due to Collection, both in Room 20: The Holy the fact that the Scriptures were originally Family with an Angel by Jacob Jordaens intended for folk who were familiar with and his workshop (c. 1625‑29) and The the techniques involved in wine growing Holy Family with Saints and Angels and making. (c. 1606‑10) by Joachim Antonisz Wtewael.

room 9 this portrait contains a number of by Charles V a year before this portrait fascinating details: the glass on the window was painted. CHRISTOPH AMBERGER sill is a reference to Schwarz’s background Wine has been traded from the earli- Nuremberg, c. 1505–Augsburg, 1562 as the son of a wine merchant, while a est of times. In a cereal-producing com- Portrait of Matthäus Schwarz, 1542 sheet of paper nearby states the sitter’s munity the bulk of the can be Oil on panel. 73.5 x 61 cm date and time of birth, the date when the consumed locally but this is not the case inv. 4 (1935.1) portrait was painted and Schwarz’s age with wine: “ harvests cannot be at that time — forty‑five years and thirty drunk in the same way as crop harvests days — all entries that correspond to his can be eaten,” said the French historian horoscope, which is featured in the clouds Camille‑Ernest Labrousse (1895‑1988) visible through the window. some decades ago. To this singular character we owe the With the fall of the wine production of an interesting book known production and consumption experienced as the Trachtenbuch (now in the Herzog a marked decline in the West, but did not Anton Ulrich‑Museum, Brunswick). This disappear altogether thanks to the mon- biographical manuscript contains one asteries and local nobles. In line with hundred and thirty-seven illustrations of general trends in trade expansion, wine the most important events in Schwarz’s transactions increased steadily from the life and also tells of the aversion to stud- 16th century, when a revival of Roman ying which led his father to seek him agronomic techniques spread in ways that employment with the family firm as a contributed to changes in cultural and wine taster at the tender age of fifteen. wine growing practices. He subsequently enjoyed a successful As wine merchants came from all social career as accountant to the powerful Fug- levels, Schwartz’s wealthy father, who was ger family of bankers and was ennobled highly-placed in Augsburg, had little in Wine Culture in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection THEMATIC ROUTES 3

common with vintners who drove mules fortunes and modern estates, components or ran taverns. However, in many coun- of mercantile capital which would help tries the industry as a whole can be said pave the way for industrial capital in the to have formed the foundations for large 18th century.

room 6 this magnificent panel formed a his poverty, and remember his misery no triptych whose central motif may have more.” (Prov. 31: 6-7). ANONYMOUS GERMAN ARTIST been a group of free-standing painted Attributed with therapeutic properties, (active in Swabia c. 1515) wooden . The two wing panels wine was also included among the food Saint Elizabeth offering Bread depict Saint Anne, the Virgin and the items distributed to the poor and sick, and Wine to Two Beggars Christ Child (an iconographic theme one of the various reasons for this being (exterior right wing), c. 1515 known as the “Triple Anna” very pop - that many religious institutions, especially Oil on panel. 159.5 x 65.5 cm ular in Germany in the 15th and 16th Mediterranean convents and monasteries, inv. 267.b (1955.2.2.b) centuries) and Saint Elizabeth of Hun- held reserves of wine produced by their gary (who lived in the first half of the own vineyards. Furthermore, wine with 13th century) with her attributes: a small bread was a symbol of the Christian Eu- loaf of bread and a jug of water which charistic and given together combined ma- she offers to cripples who sit at her feet, terial and spiritual salvation. Thirdly, in a and a comb referring to her role as the world without water purification systems, patron saint of those who suffer from where local supplies, particularly in towns ringworm. From the wine and villages, often left much to be desired was a common in the charitable and even helped spread disease, wine was practices of convents and monasteries considered a healthy drink whose purity and on the food lists of hospitals, asylums was guaranteed when certain conditions and hospices, being regarded not as su- were met. Recent studies have shown that perfluous but rather as comforting and adding a certain amount of wine to water nutritious. As the biblical proverb says: (once a widespread practice) can actually Give strong drink unto him that is ready kill the bacteria that cause typhoid fever. to perish, and wine unto those that be of In a Europe without sewers wine played heavy hearts. Let him drink, and forget a major preventive role.

room 11 in christian tradition it is at the Master of the Virgo inter Virgines (c. 1485), Last Supper where with bread wine as- depicts and the Apostles in a late- ANONYMOUS VENETIAN ARTIST sumes its greatest symbolic role at the Gothic setting while in this Venetian can- (active c. 1570) very centre of the rite of the Eucharist. vas the Last Supper has been transferred The Last Supper, c. 1570 As artists often depicted the scene with to an Italian Renaissance palazzo, as is Oil on canvas. 121 x 190 cm settings typical of their own age, it is not evident in both the architectural elements inv. 17 (1934.5) surprising that this one does not coincide in the background and the arrangement historically with that of the original Cena- of the table and servants. And naturally, cle. Thus the panel on the same theme in there would be no lack of wine at any self- Room 3, attributed to a follower of the respecting aristocratic Renaissance table. Wine Culture in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection THEMATIC ROUTES 4

Since Antiquity wine has been an in- and “clean” and “pure” wines (taken dispensable feature of aristocratic ban- without adding water as was the custom of quets. The type of wine, its quality and the lower classes) were generally preferred even ways of drinking it have served to by members of the upper class. establish social distinctions and elites. From the 16th to the late-18th century Although there have been significant was thought to be more suit- changes in the prestige accorded different ed to intellectual pursuits while types of wine, some aspects have remained was recommended for those intending to constant. In the Middle Ages and the Re- engage in physical activity. Claret and red naissance sweet white wines with high wine, especially of the full-bodied kind, alcohol content (especially and however, gradually gained favour with malmsey) were the most favoured at the the aristocracy, especially in countries that best tables. While many of the so‑called did not produce wines of their own. For- “wines of honour” came from overseas, tification with alcohol was a guarantee of the fact of their having been imported preservation, hence the fame of the Porto, denoted luxury in itself. However, exotic Marsala, Madeira and Malaga wines.

room 12 orazio gentileschi, whose work Christian sermons likening the brutal was influenced by the new ideas of Cara- conduct of the drunkard who ignores ta- WORKSHOP OF ORAZIO GENTILESCHI vaggio, produced numerous variations on boos and behaves like an animal to the Pisa, 1563–London, 1639 the same theme, as in this painting with incestuous actions of Lot. Furthermore, Lot and His Daughters, c. 1621–23 its story from Genesis. Having fled Sodom, in the Bible, where wine is considered a Oil on canvas. 120 x 168.5 cm Lot took refuge with his daughters in a basic ingredient in the material and sym- inv. 155 (1977.99) mountain . There, the two girls de- bolic life of Christianity, several passages cided by common agreement and on the strongly condemn drunkenness and exces- suggestion of the elder to make their father sive drinking. drunk and then lie with him so as to ensure However, praise for the consumption the continuation of the line. of wine in moderation can be found in Ignoring the more lurid aspects of the the works of writers and philosophers tale, Gentileschi depicted Lot asleep on like Plato, , , Seneca and the ground between his daughters. Only Apuleius, although they do remind the the wine flask and the gold scallop-shell reader that alcohol can also suppress our cup seem to reflect a certain sexual sym- fear of others, numb our conscience and bolism. One theory states that the word bring out the worst in us. Furthermore, vino is derived from the Sanskrit vana temperance — one of the virtues of Clas- (love) — with which the words Venus and sical tradition and for some Catholics a venera are apparently connected — in a cardinal virtue — has often been equated semantic relationship based on an age-old to moderation in drinking. belief in wine’s aphrodisiac properties This theme inspired another version and that from this original root the Greek of Lot and His Daughters by Bernardo word oinos and subsequently the Latin Cavallino, in the Carmen Thyssen‑Borne- vinum were also derived. misza Collection, which was paired with For many years the story of Lot was his Drunkenness of Noah, another biblical cited as an example of the negative con- passage popular in post‑Trent times as a sequences of unrestrained drinking, with morality story. Wine Culture in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection THEMATIC ROUTES 5

room 12 the connection between the flask of what we might call “folk medicine”, for in the boy’s hand and the cabbages in this as late as 1846 the renowned Spanish hy- TOMMASO SALINI work by the still life specialist Tommaso gienist Felipe Monlau wrote that “Wine Rome, c. 1575–1625 Salini may be a reference to the belief of […] is a basic necessity for many and a Young Peasant with a Flask, c. 1610 Platina (a 15th-century humanist and the condiment and medicine for all.” Oil on canvas. 99 x 73 cm author of a treatise on cookery entitled Here we might also recall the existence inv. 363 (1977.4) On Correct Pleasure and Good Health) that from the 19th century on of wines spe- cabbage was an excellent cure for inebri- cifically intended for medicinal purposes, ation besides being “most efficacious when which were high in alcohol content and mixed with wine for counteracting the contained added ingredients such as herbs bite of rabid dogs.” and spices. Paradoxically wines Indeed, before the 19th century many of this kind did not come under the head- medical texts contained instructions re- ing of “natural wines” and were presented garding those wines most effective in the as good for the health. treatment of the four humours (blood, Wine was also considered an effective phlegm, black bile and yellow bile). Fur- external disinfectant, as, for example, in thermore, among the ingredients in me- the parable of the Good Samaritan diaeval and modern pharmacopoeia a large (Room 14 contains a painting from the number of recipes included measures of workshop of Domenico Fetti based on this red or white wine. A similar case is that Bible story).

room 16 this painting by sebastiano ricci , and . The secret of depicts the marriage of Bacchus (the Ro- wine making may have first reached Egypt SEBASTIANO RICCI man name for the Greek god ) and then via Crete or possibly Asia Belluno, 1659–Venice, 1734 to Ariadne, daughter of King Minos of Minor or Thrace. Bacchus and Ariadne, c. 1691–94 Crete. As the poet Ovid told in the Meta‑ In Greece the celebrations held in hon- Oil on canvas. 94 x 75 cm morphoses, Ariadne had been abandoned our of Dionysus at the time of the grape inv. 341 (1982.34) on the island of Naxos by the ungrateful harvest took the form of popular festivities Theseus, whom she had helped escape attended by large numbers of people. As from the Minotaur’s labyrinth with a ball time passed more Dionysian festivals were of thread, but managed to rekindle her created, characterised by the drinking of joy in the god’s arms. Among the couple’s large quantities of wine and, at the Dio- retinue Ricci included a tiger and a pan- nysian Mysteries, suspension of the rules ther, animals which normally drew Bac- of conventional sexual behaviour. The chus’ chariot, as as other figures com- Dionysian Mysteries were introduced to monly associated with him, including Italy by the Etruscans. Dionysus, known putti, a tambourine-playing satyr and the as Bacchus in the Roman world, and his maenads (also known as Bacchae) who in rituals, called bacchanalia, came to be re- their ecstatic frenzy represent the life force garded as potentially dangerous and the behind nature. festivities were banned by the Roman According to the myth, Bacchus, the authorities. However, they reappeared god of drunkenness, created the vine and frequently throughout the Roman period brought forth from the ground milk, and even later in the barbarian kingdoms and wine — “the delight of mortals” that sprang up after the fall of the Empire, in ’s words — whose intoxicating in spite of the Christian church’s condem- effect freed men from their troubles. Ar- nation and attempted suppression of pa- chaeological evidence, however, suggests gan festivals. Many writers have discussed that wine was first produced — in all the “Bacchic” currents underlying Carnival likelihood accidentally — during the and other popular, ostensibly Christian in the region now formed by festivals. In the Renaissance the figure of Wine Culture in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection THEMATIC ROUTES 6

Bacchus and the bacchanalia as ambiguous In the previous room, Giulio Carpioni’s symbols of the celebration of life (and also Bacchanal (1660‑65) depicts the god in a of depravity) were revived in art and lit- recumbent position wearing a crown of erature and became the subject of numer- vine leaves and surrounded by a group ous works with varying interpretations. celebrating orgiastic rites among ruins.

room 18 this oil painting on copper is the addition of foreign substances (from wa- result of the joint effort of two painters: ter to colouring via different flavours). DAVID TENIERS II and JAN VAN KESSEL I David Teniers II, who executed the scenes The second point was connected with the Antwerp, 1610–Brussels, 1690 with figures, and Jan van Kessel I, who Hippocratic‑Galenic humours and tempera- and Antwerp 1626–1679 painted the decorative borders that frame ments and the therapeutic role of wine as a The Submission of the Sicilian this and another scene in a series of twen- “warm food” in varying degrees that could Rebels to Antonio de Moncada in ty illustrating the exploits of Guillermo bring equilibrium to the humours and 1411, 1663 Ramón and Antonio Moncada, aristocrat- preserve or restore health. In this respect Oil on copper. 54 x 68.2 cm ic Sicilian siblings of Spanish origin. a wine would need to correspond to the inv. 388 (1969.15) The borders framing the historical physiological characteristics of the drinker. episode contain a variety of objects which Until the late-18th century, this basic together form an allegory of the five sens- language of descriptions of wine flavours es: the musical instruments and exotic based on the simple categories of taste, songbirds represent hearing, the contrast beneficial qualities as appreciated by the between the steely gleam of the armour taster, and wine’s potential for adapting and the soft smoothness of the bows and to different people in different situations hangings is a reference to touch, the flow- was maintained. In contemporary texts ers and wreaths are a symbol of smell and it is virtually impossible to find similes the playful cherub holding a glass of wine and metaphors like those we use today to near the two carafes is, of course, an allu- describe the gustatory and olfactory experi- sion to taste. The colour itself makes its ences inherent in drinking wine. It was in own contribution to the visual splendour the 19th century, however, when organic of this work of art by representing the chemists began to take an interest in the sense of sight. substances which actually gave wines their The Greek and Roman writers estab- taste: oenanthic ether or ethereal oils, for lished a basic language for referring to example. At the same time, food and wine the taste of wine which was revived in the critics created a wider vocabulary in an late Middle Ages and commonly used in attempt to describe the organoleptic char- the Renaissance. From that time and acteristics of wines. In Topographie de tous during the rest of the modern age Aris- les vignobles connus of 1816 André Jullien totle’s classification of the categories of introduced new vocabulary which would wine tastes was very similar to what we be re-used during the rest of the century use today — sweet, salty, bitter and sour. by other writers who in turn would add The latter period also saw an increase in supplementary terms in other languages the number of treatises and travel stories and develop literary forms which, rather connected with wines. Furthermore, the than describing flavours, attempted to senses of taste and smell also made it pos- evoke characteristics and their effects on sible to discern whether a wine was excel- the taster. However, the old subjective lent, good, mediocre or bad, and whether categories without additional details or it was suitable for those it was intended descriptions in which the reader placed for and their personal circumstances. This his trust in the acknowledged good taste first point was very important because, of the writer were also preserved. as many wines were short-lived, the first It was not until after World War II, thing to determine was whether a wine particularly from the 1960s on, when a was diseased or had been affected by the much wider vocabulary appeared which Wine Culture in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection THEMATIC ROUTES 7

gradually began to complicate the descrip- goût du vin was published in 1983, initiated tion of flavours and fragrances and analyse the process of creating a broad, objective the concept of objective components in vocabulary that was completed with the wine. Wine makers at the University of introduction of accurate levels for measur- California, Davis, in the 1970s with their ing the gustatory qualities of wines, the Wine Aroma , and the French oe- best-known in this respect being that of nologist Émile Peynaud, whose book Le Robert Parker.

room 20 pomona, the roman goddess of Of all the pictures on this tour, this gardens and orchards, was associated par- painting by Everdingen is one of the few CAESAR VAN EVERDINGEN ticularly with trees and vines; these, that allow us, through the images of the Alkmaar, c. 1617–1678 together with cereal crops, form a “trio” of pruning (an attribute of the god- Vertumnus and Pomona, 1637–40 Mediterranean produce. The patrona po‑ dess’s) and wine leaves, to discuss the wine Oil on panel. 47.9 x 38.9 cm morum or “Lady of the Fruits” is also the production process. Up to the 19th cen- inv. 136 (1983.19) goddess of September, the month when tury, were most commonly used fruit ripens. for cutting grapes, although pruning shears According to Ovid’s Metamorphoses, were also used until mid‑century, when this rather surly young woman rejected the first industrial production systems the advances of her fellow woodland began to appear. Though more precise gods, but Vertumnus, the deity of sea- and easier to handle, pruning shears were, sonal changes, used a ruse to win her over: however, relatively expensive and beyond disguised as an old woman, he went to the means of many families of vintners congratulate Pomona on her fruit trees. or at least too dear to provide every pick- Pointing to an elm tree entwined by a er with one. It should also be remembered vine — the symbol of union between lov- that the harvest had to be brought in ers — he told her the story of Anaxarete. relatively quickly to avoid bad weather Moved by this sad love story, Pomona (rain, frost, etc.) which could severely af- threw herself into his arms and Vertum- fect the quality of the grape and even nus then showed her his true semblance induce premature fermentation with all and won the goddess’s heart. its harmful effects. Thus in terms of man- A very popular theme in Dutch paint- power and despite mechanisation it was ing, this story could be interpreted as a — and still is — a labour-intensive task warning to young people to beware of the often requiring staff to be brought in, wiles of seduction, although it also con- sometimes from far-off places. As each tains a reflection on the illusionist char- grape picker normally had his or her own acter of painting. knife (a multi‑ purpose indispensable for life in the country) the grower was spared the extra expense of providing cut- ting . Wine Culture in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection THEMATIC ROUTES 8

room 22 with regard to this painting, one a drink, water was often mixed in with contemporary writer wrote: “The main the wine. People also turned to “weak DAVID TENIERS II vice of the inhabitants of the Netherlands wine”, i.e. low-quality wine obtained by Antwerp, 1610–Brussels, 1690 is excessive drinking… although what with adding water to crushed grape skins or The Village Fête, c. 1650 the damp, gloomy climate they can to some scraps from the press. Oil on panel. 45 x 75 cm extent be forgiven.” Outdoor festive scenes The success of this type of genre scene inv. 386 (1930.113) with villagers and farmers at leisure in- in the Dutch visual culture of the 16th and dulging in their favourite pastimes of 17th centuries has been associated by some dancing and drinking became very popu- with the art market boom attributed to lar as a genre in the Netherlands during the urban bourgeoisie, who saw contem- the 17th century, as other works in this porary social and moral issues reflected room such as Country Wedding (c. 1649‑55), in such works. Here the theme with its attributed to Jan Havicksz Steen, or Village rough and ready characters drinking Scene with Men Drinking (c. 1631‑35), at- wildly could be interpreted as moralistic tributed to Adriaen Brouwer, also show. criticism of excess and impropriety. De- Wine and were essential at such spite its possible uplifting implications, events for reinforcing social bonds, con- however, the painting has been subject to ducting business transactions or simply other interpretations. having a good time. At one and the same time, such scenes While imported luxury wines stood provide a worldview both utopian and side by side with the best local wines on populist. A comparison with the group the tables of nobles and urban patricians portrait by Franz Hals on the other side of in the pre-industrial age, the common folk the room entitled Family Group in a Land‑ also had “wines” of their own, although scape (c. 1645‑48), might reveal a contrast in this respect the differences between with the more formal language of official areas that produced wines and those that culture, dominated by differences of rank did not were naturally great. Where vine- and privilege inherent in the social order. yards existed, wine consumption was high, Festivals like this implied temporary sus- in some cases because the wine was home- pension of the established order and, grown and not sold on, and in others be- through images of exuberance, commu- cause part of the workers’ wages was paid nity celebration of fertility, growth and in kind. Even then poorer households had abundance, thus remind us of the constant little storage space and paid employment struggle between the Apollonian and the and work in kind were limited to certain Dionysian in behaviour. As the times of the year. Thus, to increase the philosopher William James wrote: “Sobri- amount of wine at hand, avoid drunken- ety diminishes, discriminates and says no; ness and accompany physical labour with drunkenness expands, unites and says yes.” Wine Culture in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection THEMATIC ROUTES 9

room 22 “ m u s i c w a s i n v e n t e d t o b r i n g Here we might recall the existence of a happiness to the spirit, as was wine,” deep-rooted folk tradition in the Mediter- GERRIT VAN HONTHORST wrote Cesare Ripa in his Iconologia, an ranean countries revolving around songs Utrecht, 1592–1656 influential book of emblems written in about the grape harvest that bring together The Happy Violinist, c. 1624 the 16th century. Since time immemorial, love and pleasure and wine along the lines Oil on canvas. 83 x 68 cm each has stimulated the other, as numer- of the Bacchanalia (with lyrics sometimes inv. 194 (1986.21) ous paintings testifying to that combina- “saucy” sometimes “innocent”). There also tion prove. existed more modern types of drinking One of the leading figures of the Utrecht song that were completely masculine in School, Honthorst was responsible for content and tone as the regular customers at the dissemination of Caravaggio’s style the places where they were sung were usu- in Holland. His work is characterised by ally men. A more refined musical tradition paintings full of theatricality and sharp also drew directly on Classical motifs and contrasts of light, which earned him the linked wine with love and even inspiration. nickname “Gherardo delle Notti”. It has Also on display in this room is a paint- been suggested that figures of this type ing by Jan Gerrit van Bronchorst, a disciple could be allegories of the senses, with one of Van Honthorst’s, entitled Young Man representing taste. Furthermore, some playing a Theorbo (c. 1642‑16). It depicts paintings with similar themes form pairs a boy in a hat adorned with what appears with others featuring female figures, set- to be a vine (the plant sacred to Bacchus, ting up a dialogue of gestures involving the god of wine), strumming an instru- a degree of eroticism. ment similar to a Baroque lute.

room 23 famous for his droll genre scenes, many German vineyards were destroyed Jan Steen attempted to combine painting and the status of wine was severely af- JAN HAVICKSZ STEEN with other undoubtedly more lucrative fected in Central Europe. In the “mini Leiden, 1626–1679 pursuits the nature of which, given the ice age” of the 17th century, production Self-Portrait playing the Lute, theme of this self-portrait, is not particu- was affected in many northern regions c. 1663–65 larly surprising. Some years before he of the continent with the same result. Oil on panel. 55.3 x 43.8 cm painted this picture he ran a brewery in There were also significant innovations inv. 373 (1930.110) Delft called The , with little success. in . Hops, which had been used in He then opened an inn in Leiden where brewing since the late Middle Ages, began he also took up brewing beer, as his father to be grown in almost all of the produc- before him had done. tion areas. They increased the life of beer Like wine, beer is achieved through fer- and altered its flavour so that its taste mentation (although with cereals) and has became similar to that of today. Aromas vied with wine throughout European his- were also introduced into the production tory. Although produced all over Europe process, particularly in Flanders and the since Antiquity, in the Middle Ages it was Low Countries, which led to the appear- lower in status than wine and its consump- ance of aromatic . tion fell below it even in countries that From the 17th to the 19th century the did not produce wine. By 1500, wine was beer production process became indus- still the drink of the rich in many regions, trialised, with costs subsequently falling particularly in northern Europe, but its and general quality rising. Distribution consumption had spread to the detriment and marketing networks also grew and of beer in the wine-producing regions and beer finally became the their hinterlands. However, during the par excellence in all the European coun- 17th century — when the future brewer tries north of the wine-growing line. In Steen painted his own portrait with a the late-19th century, a new kind of cater- jug on the table — beer began to regain ing establishment (already widespread ground. During the Thirty Years War, in Central Europe) appeared in some Wine Culture in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection THEMATIC ROUTES 10

Mediterranean countries and became good life as suggested in this self-portrait popular with middle class customers. — in contrast with the melancholy nature Breweries then began introducing beer traditionally ascribed to artists. More into the wine-producing countries and “regulars” at taverns are featured in oth- demand grew considerably in the second er genre scenes from the Collection, as half of the 20th century. in Smokers in an Interior (c. 1637) by This painting has been compared with David Teniers II, or Smoker, by a fol- one of Ripa’s emblems representing the lower of Adriaen Brouwer. Both praise sanguine personality. The lute, jug and the atmosphere of camaraderie fostered book were all in line with the love of the by drinking.

room 23 in this scene, which could well be and conserved its greenery while all else set in a brothel, Ochtervelt placed three around it withered, the erotic connotations JACOB LUCASZ OCHTERVELT figures around a table. One, a woman, sets of wine have much to do with its ability Rotterdam, 1634–Amsterdam, 1682 down a tray of oysters, while a gentleman to intoxicate, its consumption making it Oyster Eaters, c. 1665–69 strums a lute and a lady prepares to pour easier to break conventions and approach Oil on panel. 47.6 x 37.7 cm wine from a jug. Music, wine and oysters others, including on a sexual level. inv. 304 (1930.82) — known in Dutch as minnekruyden (“love For centuries the depressant effects herbs”) as oysters were supposedly an of alcohol on the central nervous system aphrodisiac — all serve to infuse the at- and the euphoria and disinhibition caused mosphere with eroticism. The Latin prov- by drinking were regarded as mysteries. erb “Sine Cerere et Baco, friget Venus,” They were even seen as a gateway to some translates as “Without Ceres [the goddess kind of transcendental state linked to life of food] and Bacchus [the personification and reproduction, as is evident at the Dio- of the disinhibiting effects of wine], Venus nysian Greek festivities and Roman bac- [love] freezes.” chanalia. Although with the spread of The messages contained in carpe diem Christianity most of these traditions fell (seize the day) and memento mori (remem- into disuse, references to the link between ber that you will die) exist side by side in wine, vigour and sexual desire did not paintings in which wine takes the leading disappear from folk tales or even medical role vis-à-vis conviviality. Some such paint- literature. It was precisely for this reason ings warn of the dangers of excess, although that Classical Rome — and well as Chris- their main aim seems to be to exalt the tianity — tended to frown upon women pleasures derived from cheerful company. drinking wine, as it was thought that to Since , the vine has been do so was to compromise one’s virtue associated with fertility and reproduction; and consequently one’s family honour. in many funerary scenes, vines heavy with This negative association returned with leaves and grapes represented resurrection. a vengeance in the campaigns and litera- Osiris, god of nature, death and rebirth, ture of the temperance movements of the was also the god of vineyards. This asso- 19th century which equated immorality ciation with fertility and regeneration is in women with the drinking of wine and also found in many other Mediterranean above all of spirits. religions which attributed wine with a Also in the Carmen Thyssen‑Bornemisza strong sexual charge. But above and be- Collection, Pieter Hendricksz de Hooch’s yond the symbolism so easily attributable painting Interior with Two women and a to a plant that revived every spring to Man drinking and eating Oysters (1681) re-emerge from apparently dead wood explores a similar theme. Wine Culture in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection THEMATIC ROUTES 11

room 27 signed and dated on the knife came to an end in the 17th century. Over (“HEDA 1634”), this composition is the ages wine glasses have been made of WILLEM CLAESZ HEDA notable for its range of grey and brown a wide range of materials and have taken Haarlem, 1593/94–1680/82 tones and stunning representation of tex- many forms. In the Middle Ages, porce- Still Life with Fruit Pie and various tures and tactile qualities — the silvery lain, wood, leather and even bone vessels Objects, 1634 sheen of the cup lying on its side, the soft were used by the common folk, whereas Oil on panel. 43.7 x 68.2 cm whiteness of the tablecloth, and the light nobles and members of the middle class inv. 181 (1958.1) filtering through the glass bowl of golden preferred silver. Many of the silver pieces liquid all allow the artist to explore the that have survived are so large that they effects of transparency and reflection. are thought to have been intended for The brilliant presentation is not only an group use, i.e. for drinking then passing invitation to look at the painting but also round. However, in the 16th century with to “savour” it. the rise of the Venetian workshops, glass By including wine in still lifes like this replaced silver as a material of distinction one, the artist was able to depict a variety and its forms multiplied. of containers of very different shapes, sizes As English glassware developed in the and materials, as for instance the Rummer 16th century, new finer, more slender or Römer glasses so popular in Germany and resistant goblets made their way and the Low Countries throughout the across Europe. Often richly decorated, 17th and early-18th centuries (and also they reflected the legacy of the old silver seen in Jan Jansz Treck’s Still Life with goblets and finest Venetian glassware. Glass of Wine, Pewter Jug and other Ob‑ In the late-18th century, designs for ves- jects). Another popular feature of this kind sels for different types of wine and other of still life was the shell-shaped nautilus drinks began to appear, although specific cup, a Venetian design adopted by glass shapes and sizes of glassware for such manufacturers all over Europe after the purposes were not used commonly until city’s virtual monopoly on such objects the next century.

room 27 the paintings of willem kalf, a master of what came to be known as WILLEM KALF pronkstilleven (“ostentatious still lifes”) Rotterdam, 1619–Amsterdam, 1693 due to their emphasis on sensuality, are Still Life with a Porcelain Bowl and characteristic of the European socio-eco- Nautilus Cup, 1660 nomic order of the time when the modern Oil on canvas. 64.1 x 55.9 cm market economy began to take shape. inv. 202 (1930.37) They brilliantly evoke the wealth accumu- lated by the well-to-do Dutch merchants: again and again Chinese bowls, glasses, nautilus cups and Persian carpets appear in such paintings; luxury goods to which as an art dealer Kalf would have had ready access and which are known to have been lent to him on occasions by collectors. With regard to the possible symbolism inherent in these objects, it has been sug- gested that the open watch on the left alludes to the passing of time, while the grape pips, the remains of the fruit and the broken glass may refer to the fleeting nature of life. The glass of wine is also a reference to the eternal battle against time Wine Culture in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection THEMATIC ROUTES 12

and its ravages, although one positive ef- on the other hand it was a symbol of tem- fect was that time allowed wines to acquire perance and moderation as its juice was their characteristic bouquet. believed to counteract the effects of alcohol. A recurrent element in Kalf’s work is Kalf modulated the lighting through a the half-peeled lemon with its manifold subtle interplay of reflection and irides- interpretations. The spiralling of the peel cence: the light envelops the objects while precariously poised over the edge of the revealing qualities and colours. He softened table contributes to the picture’s sense of the tones of the Venetian glasses and as a dynamism while adding a touch of vivid counterbalance to their delicate appear- colour. This fruit also lent itself to other ance highlighted the shine of the porcelain symbolic interpretations: the rough skin bowl and the texture of the fruit, the result conceals an inner fragrance, while the pe- being a feast for the eyes that also whets rishable body houses an immortal soul; the appetite.

room 28 lépicié’s work, which was exhibited not produce wine and received supplies at the 1775 Salon and received rave re- by sea and cities where wine arrived by NICOLAS-BERNARD LÉPICIÉ views from Diderot, is a celebration of the river, maritime or island customs houses Paris, 1735–1784 virtues of trade and the customs system. were set up where import taxes on wines The Courtyard of the Customs The painting was commissioned by Abbot and spirits and other products could be House, 1775 Terray (who has been identified as the collected. Oil on canvas. 98 x 164 cm clergyman in black) shortly after he was Governments often justified the applica- inv. 219 (1966.2) relieved of his post as contrôleur‑général tion of such duties by arguing that wine des finances and illustrates one view of as a commodity was actually consumed the economic activity in France at the be- in much larger quantities by the rich and ginning of Louis XVI’s reign: wagons that taxation acted as a deterrent to ex- laden with bundles and bales await inspec- cessive drinking. In the 19th century, as tion, wine barrels are being weighed and temperance movements grew stronger, in the foreground three men inspect a taxing alcoholic drinks was presented as case of books. The overall impression is vital to public health campaigns against that, from a mercantile point of view, all alcoholism. The wine-producing countries goods were subject to control. made a distinction between wine, beer From the late Middle Ages to the 20th and , and distilled drinks, consid- century indirect taxes from trade and ering the last more harmful. However, other indirect sources of wealth in Europe throughout history taxing wine has in formed the foundations of royal, aristo- general dictated demand: for instance, the cratic and municipal treasuries. Wine, heavy tariffs on French wines in England which was a common commodity easily in the 18th century paved the way for a traced by tax collectors, was often one of boom in port and sales. On the other a state’s main sources of income and was hand, in some countries the levying since normally taxed not where it was consumed the mid‑19th century of a tax on alcohol but at bridges, ports, gates and other tran- rather than liquid content contributed to sit points used by horses and carts. the decline of fortified wines and the rise In wine-producing countries, as cities of natural wines. were the main centres of consumption, It is interesting to note that this work the authorities often channelled traffic once belonged to the collection of the tycoon through checkpoints where the value of James de Rothschild who in 1868 acquired goods could be gauged and the correspond- Château Lafite, one of the greatest French ing taxes levied. In countries which did vineyards, in the region. Wine Culture in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection THEMATIC ROUTES 13

room 28 the see-saw has been regarded tain wines in the bottle was discovered. as the precursor to one of Fragonard’s Nevertheless, in the 18th century wine JEAN-HONORÉ FRAGONARD most famous works that is now in the continued to be distributed in barrels and Grasse, 1732–Paris, 1806 Wallace Collection in London. In this can- only the richest households used bottles The See-saw, c. 1750–52 vas the artist displayed all the exquisite (often of their own) for storing it. Indeed, Oil on canvas. 120 x 94.5 cm lightness, hedonism and joie de vivre that it was not until the second half of the 19th INV. 148 (1956.13) characterised him by combining subtle century that the practice of bottling and eroticism with a love of nature. further aging the best wines in the cel- The couple in the painting are accom- lar after first aging them in a barrel and panied by two putti and a still life con- subsequently marketing them became sisting of succulent fruit and a bottle of common. The stoutness of the bottles wine (both allusive to games of love). In also led to the appearance of a new type the worldly 18th century women assumed of wine: . greater prominence and acquired more In the second half of the 17th century freedom in their habits. As Princess Palatine the combination of the experiments car- “Liselotte” complained a few years before ried out in the Reims region, such as those this picture was painted: “In Paris today it attributed to Dom Pérignon (regarding is all the rage for ladies to drink like men whom a veritable legend unfolded in the to the point of inebriation and commit all 19th century), and the improvement of kinds of dishonourable acts and excesses.” bottle quality led to the technique of a When the French absolute monarchy second fermentation in the bottle which established the court at Versailles at the in turn led to the invention of sparkling end of the 17th century, the road lay open wine. Champagne became a fashionable for the rise of great French cuisine with drink in the London of the Restoration in all its refinement and luxury. In this con- the 1670s (having arrived with French aris- text we must bear in mind developments tocrats from the Champagne region) and such as the wider use of bottles and corks, subsequently in France in the 18th century which allowed wine to age or mature, for during the regency of the Duke of Orlé- until then bottles were used in homes and ans after the death of Louis XIV in 1715. businesses solely for serving wine that Despite progress during that period, as had been previously stored in barrels or many as half of the bottles of champagne other containers. With breakthroughs in exploded and production was extremely glass and thanks to the spread limited. It was not until the first half of the and redevelopment in the 17th century 19th century when changes in processing, of Venetian glass making techniques in bottling machines and the shape of corks other countries, bottles became stronger and bottles heralded the appearance of the and their production cheaper, making the French industry, whose storage of full bottles in cellars possible. success enabled the méthode champenoise So it was that the potential for aging cer- to be exported to other countries. Wine Culture in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection THEMATIC ROUTES 14

room 36 kirchner was one of the founders large communities of Italian immigrants of the German Expressionist group Die in the United States and Rio de la Plata ERNST LUDWIG KIRCHNER Brücke (The Bridge), so called because preferred to any other. As this Aschaffenburg, 1880–Frauenkirch, 1938 it allowed “the passage from one side to painting shows, Central Europe (Switzer- Alpine Kitchen, 1918 the other” in reference to a desire to break land and Germany) was another destina- Oil on canvas. 121.5 x 121.5 cm away from academic art and strive for a tion for Italian , due in a certain inv. 616 (1983.30) synthesis between the outside world and degree to Italy’s geographical proximity one’s own psyche, i.e. between art and life. and the existing regular trade between The artist’s conscription in World War I northern Italian and Alpine regions. As led to a serious deterioration in his Italy and Spain both exported table wines health and he was declared unfit for they became engaged in a price war over service in 1915. He moved away to the a type of wine intended particularly for Swiss Alps and in summer 1918 rented the mass market and coupage (blending) an alpine cabin in Staffelalp, reproduc- with other foreign wines (especially from ing the interior in this painting through France). In fact they specialised in table loud colours, distorted perspective and wines (Italy even more than Spain) mainly angular lines that reflect the turmoil in because of low demand on both domestic his mind. The figure near the table may markets for quality wines, which made be Kirchner himself. it difficult to consolidate established or In the kitchen is a balloon-shaped bot- exclusive brands. tle of Italian wine with a straw cover. After the creation of the Common This type of bottle, which was known as Market, to Spain’s detriment Italy received a fiasco and had been common in Italy at mid‑term benefits from the special tariffs least since the Renaissance, was used from applied to table wines sold abroad. It was the end of the 19th century to distinguish not until the 1960s that both countries it abroad as Italian table wine, although managed to build up wine industries with most Italian wine was sold in bulk. In products geared to the tastes of the new the 1880s Italy launched a promotional middle class, and it was to be these firms campaign aimed at increasing wine sales which would subsequently produce most abroad in direct competition with Spanish of the quality wines in each country in wines (both countries had a surplus). Italy what was considered a wine making had the edge over Spain as demand from revolution.

room 41 juan gris is hailed as one of the foremost figures of the Cubist movement. JUAN GRIS In this still life he created an interplay of Madrid, 1887–Boulogne-sur-Seine, 1927 warm brown tones combined with colder Bottle and Fruit Dish, 1919 greens and greys. In a letter of 1918 he Oil on canvas. 74 x 54 cm expressed his desire to experiment with inv. 566 (1976.7) natural tones inspired by the landscape in these words: “In the countryside I see such solid and materially sumptuous tones and such perfect combinations that they carry within themselves a far greater force than all the combinations of the palette, and I would like to work with them.” As is usual in Cubism, in a play on words of the kind Cubist artists were so fond of, Gris experimented with typography, ex- ploiting its expressive potential. Le Jour (jour = day in French), could be taken from Wine Culture in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection THEMATIC ROUTES 15

the name of the newspaper Le Journal, but French domination of the international by changing the letters around it could premium wine markets. also mean jouer (to play) or jouir (to enjoy). Moreover, in a process characteristic of In this picture, which was painted soon social differentiation in consumption, the after World War I, Gris juxtaposed a fruit preference of French workers and peasants bowl and two symbols of mass society (as for vins ordinaires helped boost the con- described critically ten years later by sumption of quality wines by the middle Ortega y Gasset in The Revolt of the Mass‑ class. However, increased demand in the es): wine and the newspaper. They are interwar period did nothing to prevent certainly two very different symbols in wine surpluses. In the course of the Great that at that time the press was a mass War grape production increased in the phenomenon in the West while the bottle neutral countries and those outside Europe of wine was seen as a product of mass and with the coming of peace French pro- consumption only in French society. duction also grew. Oversupply led to gov- Although statistics reflect a growing ernment regulation of markets through trend in wine consumption in France in measures such as “controlled designation the course of the 19th century, World of origin” or the creation of price regula- War I marked a significant increase. The tion boards, etc. which have survived to huge mass of poilus (recruits) forced into the present day and have even flourished. conscription by the war was provided By 1919 — when our tour ends — wine with generous supplies of wine by the had become divided into the four major French military authorities. Millions of categories recognised today: quality na- young people returned from the front ac- tural wine, full-bodied, fortified or liqueur customed to a large daily intake of wine: wine, sparkling wine and common or ta- whereas in 1904 per capita consumption ble wine. Within each of these groups, stood at 103 litres per year, by 1922 it except to some extent the last, scientifica- had risen to 136 litres. Supplied by the lly-based viticulture and oenology have making sector — particularly and will continue to provide a far greater of Languedoc — and that of Algeria (and variety of sensations and experiences of in years with bad harvests with wines the type that have bestowed all their di- imported from Spain and Italy), mass versity upon an ancient beverage which consumption of this kind was no obstacle originated in the Mediterranean and is to the development of quality wines or now enjoyed the world over. 16 PLAN OF THE MUSEUM

SECOND FLOOR 1 Early Italian Painting 2 Gothic Painting 3 Early Netherlandish Painting 4 The Quattrocento (Italian art) 5 The Portrait (Early Renaissance) 6 The Villahermosa Gallery 7 Italian Painting (16th century) 8 9 German Painting (16th century) 10 Netherlandish Painting (16th century) 11 Titian, Tintoretto, Bassano, El Greco 12 Caravaggio and the Early Baroque 13 14 15 Italian, French and Spanish Painting (17th century) 16 17 18 Italian Painting (18th century) 19 Flemish Painting (17th century) 20 Dutch Painting (Italianate movements) 21 Dutch Painting (17th century: portraits) A Italian Painting (17th century) B Flemish and Dutch Painting (17th century) C Views and Landscapes Gallery D 18 th-century Painting E-F 19 th-century American Painting FIRST FLOOR G Naturalism and the Rural World H Early Impressionism

22 23 24 25 26 Dutch Painting (17th century: scenes of daily life, interiors and landscapes) 27 Still Lifes (17th century) 28 From the Rococo to Neoclassicism (18th-century painting) 29 30 American Painting (19th century) 31 European Painting (19th century, from Romanticism to Realism) 32 Impressionist Painting 33 Post-Impressionist Painting 34 Fauve Painting 35 36 37 Expressionist Painting (20th century) 38 Expressionist Painting (the Blue Rider group) 39 Expressionist Painting 40 Expressionist Painting (New Objectivity) J American Impressionism K Late Impressionism L Gauguin and Post-Impressionism (1) m Post-Impressionism (2) N German Expressionism o Fauvism GROUND FLOOR P Cubism and Orphism information ticket desk 41 42 43 44 The Experimental Avant-gardes cloakroom 45 The Synthesis of the Modern (Europe) gift shop-bookshop 46 The Synthesis of the Modern (USA) wheelchair lift to basement level 47 48 Late Surrealism. The Figurative Tradition and Pop Art cafetería-restaurant

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