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Non-Lucid Dreamers Actualize Volition As Ego Ex- Ecutive Capacity by Engaging in Problem Solving Miloslava Kozmová Boston, Massachusetts

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Non-Lucid Dreamers Actualize Volition As Ego Ex- Ecutive Capacity by Engaging in Problem Solving Miloslava Kozmová Boston, Massachusetts Volition in non-lucid problem-solving dreams I J o D R Non-lucid dreamers actualize volition as ego ex- ecutive capacity by engaging in problem solving Miloslava Kozmová Boston, Massachusetts Summary. Within the already-investigated described nocturnal cognitive problem-solving phenomenon (Kozmová, 2008, 2012, 2015), the goal of this exploratory study was to determine the contexts in which non-lucid dreamers engage in problem-solving by voluntary actions and behaviors and to characterize volition and its range in kinetic (motile) and com- municative (expressive) modalities. The 979 cross-cultural operationally defined problem-solving dreams were analyzed by the method of grounded theory. The analysis of individual occurrences of problem-solving behaviors and actions as volition-based executive skills (ego executive capacity) in addition to other types of cognitions, yielded a total of exem- plary 54 dreams with contexts of self-preservation, intrapersonal situations, and interpersonal relationships. The initial emergent cross-state characterization of volition in non-lucid problem-solving dreams calls for reappraisal of neurophysi- ological theories that did not yet consider the existence of volition as an executive skill that is sustained or could emerge during non-lucid dreaming. Keywords: Volition, problem-solving, executive function, executive skills, higher order cognition, ego executive capaci- ties, non-lucid dreaming, grounded theory 1. Introduction apparent especially when dreamers encounter particularly vexing situations that require problem-solving (Kozmová, In 1855, the French Académie des Sciences Morales et Poli- 2015). tiques posed the following question that focused on the psy- Earlier considerations and studies demonstrated the exis- chology of consciousness within the realm of nocturnal life: tence of problem-solving in non lucid dreams (e.g., Glucks- “What mental faculties subsist, or stop, or change consider- man, 2007; Glucksman & Kramer, 2004; Greenberg, Katz, ably during sleep?” (df. Hervey de Saint Denys, 1867/1977; Schwartz, & Pearlman, 1992; Greenberg & Pearlman, 1975, cited in Schwartz, 2000, p. 56). Ever since, regarding non- 1983). Wolman & Kozmová (2007) conceptualized problem- lucid dreaming during which dreamers remain unaware, on a solving as part of the executive process belonging to ra- continuum, of the existence of the external world (van Eden, tional thought processes in which any time the non-lucid 1913), researchers have already elucidated as subsisting in dreamer uses his or her own capacities for mental actions dreaming several mental phenomena of waking life. These and reaching conclusions, the act of volition is involved (p. mental capacities include higher order cognition, including 841) and it accompanies these nocturnal mental acts. Vo- self-reference; reflective awareness; self-reflection; speech; lition, in this case, is understood as a mentally “pursuing reflectiveness; meta-cognition; and various cognitive pro- a self-selected goal” (Kozmová, 2012, p. 58) and it is the cesses, such as planning and decision-making, and execu- also the core of problem-solving during nocturnal non-lucid tive skills (e.g., Cicogna, Cavallerro, & Bosinelli, 1991; Ka- dreaming. In addition, in the described multilayered noctur- han, 1994; Kahan & LaBerge, 1996, 2011; Kozmová, 2012; nal cognitive problem-solving phenomenon, its three direct Kozmová & Wolman, 2006; Meier, 1993; Purcell, Mullington, modalities (executive thought, using emotions, and behav- Moffitt, Hoffmann, & Pigeau, 1986; Snyder, 1970; Wolman & iors and actions; Kozmová, 2008, p. ii) “represents a variety Kozmová, 2007). of dreamers’ attempts to resolve the situations in the sense Other waking-life phenomena with cross-state occurrenc- that the dreamer, with his or her own authority (as a person es, such as emotions (e.g., Schredl & Doll, 1998), have been or self in the role of a decision-maker and actor), reacts to found in non-lucid dreaming also as continuing (for review, the situation” (p. 83). This direct, deliberate problem-solving see Nielsen & Carr, 2011). The continuity of experiencing and strategizing in the cognitive domain—the dreamers’ use emotions connected or integrated with cognition becomes of any of the eight identified executive thought processes during a dreamer’s experiences experience—is considered as “building blocks of volitionally pursuing a self-selected Corresponding address: goal” (Kozmová, 2012, p. 58). It is the also the core of prob- Miloslava Kozmová, Ph.D., 72 Westland Avenue, #101, lem-solving. This collection of mental actions has been de- Boston, MA 02115, USA. fined and exemplified (as a taxonomy) while accompanied Email: [email protected] by volition within the immediacy of non-lucid dreams in the form of dreamers’ intellectual and cognitive “attempts for Submitted for publication: September 2016 resolution of dilemmas within immediacy of their dreams” Accepted for publication: April 2017 (Kozmová, 2012, p. 51). 30 International Journal of Dream Research Volume 10, No. 1 (2017) Volition in non-lucid problem-solving dreams I J o D R Yet, despite the richness of the abovementioned research dreams (e.g, Domhoff, 1996, 2011; Glucksman, 2007; Hall, studies that examined higher order cognition’s elements 1951). Despite this lack of knowledge, while approaching of waking consciousness as cross-over mental capacities the contemplation of these illustrative dreams in a prima subsisting in non-lucid dreaming consciousness, the voli- facie manner (first impressions), one might notice that the tion remains only partially explicated as far as its intellectual dreamer reports experiences of some undetermined threats and cognitive capacities (Kozmová, 2012). The comprehen- and problems. She makes decisions and thus becomes en- sive and inclusive research of volition as one of the most im- gaged with problem-solving activities within spontaneously portant and intriguing experiences, mental capacities, and arising, unplanned, and uncalled-for circumstances brought phenomenological features of consciousness that abounds about by the dream. The dreamer actively proceeds to han- in waking life (Farthing, 1992) remains enigmatic and almost dle ongoing difficulties by using her self-awareness and vol- absent from scientific discourse. untary variety of self-initiated strategies, actions, and evalu- The additional rudimentary beginnings of quantitative ative and appraising thoughts. Even her lack of a critical consideration of volition in dreaming can be also seen in reflective quality of distinguishing conscious states of wak- the concept of “choice” (Kahan & LaBerge, 2011), or in its ing and dreaming (e.g., Rechtschaffen, 1978) did not seem retrospective occurrence investigated with quantitatively to prevent her from using initiative, strategizing, and taking based questionnaires in various states of consciousness charge (Kozmová, 2008) that demonstrates the intactness (Dresler et al., 2014). Yet, besides the already-mentioned of her nocturnal mental faculties: The dreamer, in addition executive ego capacities accompanied by volition (Koz- to using feelings and thoughts, actively pursued goals, de- mová, 2012), the additional descriptive consideration of termined the course of events with her capacities for vocal how else and when could volition come about or become expression and other actions to deal with the situations and actualized in non-lucid problem-solving dreams is missing thus demonstrated intentionality and volition (Purcell, Mof- from the scholarship of consciousness studies. The fact that fitt, & Hoffmann, 1993, p. 214). volition as a richly endowed experience exists, though, is Because, as seen in two anecdotal illustrations, at least illustrated by the following anecdotal examples that depict one dreamer expanded her volition beyond its accompani- the dreamer (both dreams are part of a research archive col- ment of decision-making (Kozmová, 2012), there is an indi- lected for the previous research studies; Kozmová & Wol- cation that volition might be sustained (Hervey de Saint De- man, 2006; Wolman & Kozmová, 2007), the experiences of nys, 19867/1977) in more than one aspect (Kozmová, 2012) her volition, and its additional range. This scope of volitional in the non-lucid dreaming state. Prior to stating hypotheses mental activities came into its existence under the strained and research questions, it seems fruitful to review propo- and curiosity-driven difficulties that the dreamer decided to sitions and conceptualizations about volition in non lucid deal with and problem-solve: dreaming and in the waking states of consciousness. 1. Now I saw the bug sitting on top of the open shoebox. The top was facing inside out. I thought the bug escaped. Conceptualization of Volition in the Psychology of It flew around me, landed on the ground. I stepped on Non-Lucid Dreaming Consciousness it. I was stepping on it with my tennis shoes, and I was trying to aim a hard step at the bug so I would kill it. It Even though the previously mentioned dreamer, while did not want to die. I was applying pressure and it did asleep, became an agent, an originator, a volitional deci- not do much good; the bug was getting out from under- sion-maker, and an initiator with instrumentality of thought neath my tennis shoe and escaping. After all that stomp- and action (Grand, 1982), on phenomenological grounds ing, it started to change; it changed twice, from black Hobson (2009a) asserted that “most experienced dream
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