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Home , Bifora (architecture), Charlottenhof Palace, Friedrichswerder Church, Romanesque architecture

Architektur_001-015_GB.qxdArchitektur_001-015 01.02.2006 11.10.2012 10:58 Uhr11:00 Seite Uhr 3Seite 3 (Schwarz/Process Black Auszug)

Jan Gympel

THE STORY OF FROM ANTIQUITY TO THE PRESENT Architektur_001-015_GB_neuArchitektur_001-015 01.02.2006 13.06.2006 10:58 16:32 Uhr Uhr Seite Seite 6 6 (Text black Bogen)

ARCHITECTURE IN ANCIENT Several other questions always arise: Who com- EGYPT 2900–700 B.C. missioned ? Who built them? For whom and for what purpose were they built? What form – a basic need and social act do they take and which materials were used? Not all In ancient Greek the architect was known as the buildings are prestigious affairs aiming to impress “master builder” (“archi-tekton”). Architecture was with their size, volume, style and decorative detail. considered the “mother” of the visual arts, as However, all buildings reflect the spirit of their time, painting and sculpture often developed in the or at least that of the people who commissioned Laying the foundations context of a building project; for example, in the them and the architects who designed them. More form of murals or friezes. Even magical cult cave than any other human creation, a building rep- ANTIQUITY paintings served as decorations for dwellings. resents the social context: building is a social act Unlike all other forms of art, the primary aim of which nearly always takes place in the social arena. AND EARLY architecture was to fulfil the basic human need for It is an expensive activity and therefore dependent security. Buildings provided protection from the on power and wealth. Hence, elaborate buildings weather and wild animals. Thus, it is almost im- tell a lot about the people and activities important to 2900 B.C.–540 A.D. possible to escape the evidence of building activity the ruling group in a given society. wherever people lived. It is no accident that religious buildings have an However, spiritual and intellectual needs also have a important role to play in the . role to play when it comes to building. “The four As history has shown, religion fulfils what is walls” and “roof over his/her head” separate a possibly man’s most important spiritual need, i.e. human being from the surrounding environment the need to bestow (a higher) meaning on exist- and in doing so create something of individual hu- ence, to explain the incomprehensible and insuf- man proportions. Buildings also change the external ferable, to provide prospects of a higher justice for environment in which they stand: the yard, the unatoned wrongs and to offer the comfort of village and the town are artificial environments continued life, rebirth or after death. wrested from nature. Thus, much can be surmised Thus, as well as providing shelter for people, since about the person responsible for a building from the ancient times dwellings have also been built for the way the relationship between the interior and . In keeping with the elevated position of the exterior is presented. Does the building have thick latter, these buildings tend to be more durable and opaque or transparent glass walls? Do the impressive than those erected for mere mortals. entrances, exterior steps, outer courts or fences create a sense of openness or distance?

EGYPT: GREECE: : The Old Kingdom (2850–2052 B.C.): Ca. 560 B.C.: Peisistratos establishes Ca. 750 B.C.: Foundation of Rome. The pharaoh is the absolute hereditary the great Dionysia festivals in Athens 218 B.C.: Hannibal progresses king, initially the incarnation of Horus, with musical competitions and across the Alps towards Rome. the falcon , after the 4th dynasty theatrical productions. son of the sun god Re. Famous 45 B.C.: Julius Caesar sole ruler of 490 B.C.: Battle near Marathon, pyramids built 3rd–6th Dynasty. Sun the . victory of Athens over previously worship official religion. undefeated Persians, rise of Athens 27 B.C.: Emperor Augustus assumes Hieroglyphics and calendars. to major political power. power as Senate-approved The Middle Kingdom (2052–ca. “princeps”. 477 B.C.: Foundation of the Attic 1570 B.C.): Unification of Egypt by maritime alliance as a protective 54 A.D.: Nero becomes emperor. Mentuhotep II of Thebes. force against the Persians. Construction of vast temple 70 A.D.: Conquest and destruction complexes in Karnak, the seat of 443–429 B.C.: The age of Pericles: of by Titus. Athens is “democracy by name; in Amon, principal deity of the land. 79 A.D.: Vesuvius erupts in Pompeii. reality, however, the monarchy of the The New Kingdom (1570–715 first man”. 161–80 A.D.: Marcus Aurelius B.C.): Egypt becomes a leading Roman emperor. power, expeditions to Asia and 431–404 B.C.: Peloponnesian War Nubia, greatest display of power ends the hegemony of Sparta; the 313 A.D.: Edict of ensures under Queen Hatshepsut, greatest Persian Empire emerges as ultimate religious freedom for Christians. extension of the kingdom under victor from the international power 330 A.D.: Byzantium is renamed Tuthmosis III. Temple complexes in struggles. and becomes the Karnak, Luxor, Abu Simbel. 336–323 B.C.: Alexander the Great Christian of the empire. The Late Period (715–332 B.C.): moves to India: idea of world 391 A.D.: Christianity becomes Alexander the Great conquers Egypt supremacy, spreading of Greek Sensuous delight in the use of official religion of the Roman Empire; (332 B.C.). culture. marble: the Venus de Milo. all pagan cults are outlawed.

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TAJ MAHAL The Taj Mahal is a majestic mausoleum, which the Shah Jahan (ruled the main form a pyramid-like link which gives the central building an 1628–58) commissioned in commemoration of his wife Mumtaj Mahal, who upward thrust. This is reinforced by the four corner minarets which do not died in childbirth. The shining white marble building stands outside the garden detract from the dominance of the central mausoleum. The Taj Mahal is strictly of Shahar Bag, as Shah Jahan wanted to be buried in a similar black marble symmetrical on all sides and its transparency gives many nuances of colour with mausoleum which he planned to have built on the opposite bank of the the movement of the sun during the day. Yamuna river. In 1658, he was supplanted by his son Aurangzep who The interior of the mausoleum is defined by the planned procession of pilgrims destroyed his father’s plans and buried him beside his beloved wife in the and the central tomb chamber, which also links the four ancillary rooms on the Taj Mahal. diagonal axes of the building. The burial chamber is covered by a semi-dome, The complex is accessed through a red sandstone gateway which provides a above which the second enormous onion dome rises. The latter is, however, conscious contrast to the white marble of the mausoleum. Having entered the only visible from the outside. A large unused blind space lies between the two complex, the observer faces the powerful mausoleum from a distance. The . building is reflected in a long pool of water in the foreground. The architect of the Taj Mahal is not known by name, a fact which has given rise The Taj Mahal has a square plan with slanting corners. A high tambour supports to speculation. There is also much debate as to the extent to which the Taj the enormous onion dome, which is 28 metres in diameter and 65 metres in Mahal can be seen as a fully independent building of the Indian Moghul height. Each side of the tambour is flanked by a 20-metre-high longitudinal hall tradition, and to what extent it was influenced by the Timuridic mausoleums and (iwan), the frame of which exceeds the ceiling height. Pavilions on both sides of the Persian-Safavidic onion domes.

is decorated with , geometric or floral being reminded of the imaginary world of fairy tales planar ornamentation or with decorative scripts. when they see such buildings. The architecture of These are abstract forms developed because of the the East is ultimately alien to them. This association ban on figurative representation, which are is so deeply rooted that the European and even important in terms of their contribution to the overall Early Christian architecture which was adopted, impression of mosques. All this has proved further developed and propagated by seems sufficient to inspire Western observers to use the alien. Most Westerners would probably identify the terms “fairy tale majesty and beauty” in describing Hagia Sophia, once the greatest Christian , as the most famous and typical works of Islamic art. a mosque – even without the minaret which was la- These terms are revealing. Texts, illustrations and ter added. Islam left its architectural traces in films, which located the stories from “A Thousand Europe. However, its influence on European and One Nights” in medieval-, architecture is reflected almost exclusively in have led to most members of Western civilisation ornamentation.

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CLASSICAL kings and spread throughout along with the GOTHIC IN FRANCE influence of the crown. With its King’s Gallery on 1130–1300 the façade, and as the site of royal and entombment, it lends visual legitimacy to the royal claim to power (like the imperial Romanesque From solid to skeletal structures cathedral). However, it also embodies the It is extremely difficult to put an exact date on the philosophy of society and is an expression of the transition from Romanesque to the Gothic style. political and theological world view of all the Focusing on this world Art historians fondly engage in disputes as to members of the society in question. These people whether should be classified as no longer were involved in the construction of GOTHIC late Romanesque or early Gothic, or perhaps as the fulfilment of a mandatory task, but should belong to a transitional style. Terms such in the conviction that they were working together to 1130–1500 as “Romanesque Early Gothic” have also been erect a symbol of their faith, their town and suggested. The term “Gothic” itself originally had themselves. The pride of the guilds was on display rather dubious connotations: it was used deroga- for all to see. The anonymity of the torily in the 16th century by the Italian painter, was abandoned; portraits of patrons and inscrip- architect and art critic Vasari: the (West) Goths had tions provide numerous reminders of the architects, brought about the ultimate demise of the Roman artists and citizens involved in the project. The Empire and, in Vasari’s opinion, were absolute design of the cathedrals speaks the language of all Barbarians. In some places, the term Gothic ex- social classes – their symbolism, above all the pressed the epitome of contradiction and lack of figures and images, can be understood by taste as late as 1800. everyone from intellectuals to simple people. Even The fact that the Gothic style originated in the Île de if different sectors of society interpret them in France, the area around , is undisputed. This different ways, they still fulfil the same purpose. area was the power base of the Capetians, who had Of the many Romanesque schools of architecture replaced the Carolingians as rulers of the Western in France, some continued to work in the traditional Frankish Empire in 987 with the election of Hugo style up to the mid-13th century. The school in the Île Capet as King. When they succeeded in re-uniting de France developed the style which eventually the country under their rule in the 11th century, this replaced the Romanesque style in France and area became the centre of French cultural and ultimately the entire Western world. The of scientific development. St. Denis near Paris is acknowledged as the building Of all building types, the cathedral is seen to which launched the Gothic style. Between 1140 epitomise to the present day. It and 1144, , the of St. Denis, replaced was the symbol of the new power of the French the old narrow choir with a new one. The new choir

Ca. 1250: Medieval division of the (formulation of the Papal claim to Princes to elect a king in the “liberal arts” into “trivium” world rule). “Golden Bull”. (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics) and 1309: Clemens V transfers the 1378–1417: The Great Schism with “quadrivium” (music, astronomy, Papal see to (“Babylonian opposition in Avignon and arithmetic, geometry). imprisonment of the church”). Rome marks a nadir in papal power. 1254: Royal Chaplain Robert de 1311: Dante starts work on the Divi- 1415: Czech reformer Johann Hus is Sorbon establishes the school of ne Comedy. burned as a heretic. theology in Paris (known as the Sorbonne from the 14th century). 1318: Development of a new 1445: First book printed by Johann system of payment. A law on the Gutenberg in Mainz, . Ca. 1260: According to the theory of transfer of money (giro bank) is alchemy, metals consist of mercury, 1447: Foundation of the Vatican passed in . sulphur and salt and can be library. transformed into each other (with 1339–1453: “Hundred Years War” 1481: Beginning of the in the help of the “stone of wisdom”). between England and France; Joan . The secular ruler must of Arc liberates Orleans and succeeds 1275: Marco Polo reaches Peking. implement death penalty as the in setting up the coronation of church “does not thirst for blood”. Ca. 1300: Pharmacy is recognised as Charles VII as King of France (1429); a profession in Germany, spectacles she is imprisoned by the English and 1492: Discovery of America by are produced in Italy, glass burned as a witch (1431). King Charles V (the Wise, 1364–80) Christopher Columbus; Martin gradually spread, the foot-operated moves to Paris; miniature from Behaim designs the first globe. 1347: Outbreak of the plague in loom is invented, the mechanical the French chronicle by Jehan Europe. clock with stop wheel is invented in Foucquet, 1472. Italy; masses in Bruges, Antwerp, Ca. 1350: Division of the English Lyons and Geneva become very parliament into the upper house 1353: Boccacio completes his important events. (House of Lords) and lower house collection of stories, the Decameron. (House of Commons) which is given 1302: Pope Boniface VIII issues the 1356: Emperor Charles IV confirms right of petition. Papal Bull “Unam sanctam” the sole right of the seven German

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ANDREA PALLADIO architectural beauty, explains what architects like Serlio and Vignola had With Andrea Palladio, made of the Classical orders reached a mature and happy synthesis in the and, most importantly, presents his Republic of Venice, its town of and the own work and its . Veneto countryside during the 16th century. Palladio was already an expert in the Palladio succeeded in linking ancient tradition field when he made his late break- with the humanism of his time in a particularly through as an architect in his early harmonious way, and designed Classical buildings forties. The focal urban building of against the background of his writings. Vicenza, the , was converted in “Palladianism” was so popular that it strongly in- 1549. This marked the beginning of a fluenced the architecture of subsequent periods, new self-awareness for Palladio and for example, English . an economic upturn in the town’s Andrea di Pietro dalla Gondola was born on fortunes. As the basilica was already November 30th 1508 in Padua. At the age of an ancient style building, Palladio had thirteen he started work as a stone mason in the a perfect opportunity to realise his workshop of Bartolomeo Cavazza. Two years later ambitions while giving the Medieval façade a new urban face. He opened it onto the Piazza dei Signori with two- floored loggias behind arcades which, together with the column motif adop- ted from Serlio, gave the building a completely new rhythm. This marked the beginning of a long mu- tually beneficial relationship between Palladio and Vicenza which continued with the construction of some urban . An example of these palaces is Palazzo Chiericati (1550–1609) where he succeeded in creating great Il Rendentore, Venice, 1577–92 Villa Rotunda, Vicenza, 1566–69 urban charm by opening the façade and accentuating the central tract, an he continued his education by studying impression which contrasts strongly with the equivalent of his achievement in opening the under Porlezza in Vicenza. fortress-like rusticated and uniform façades of basilica and palazzos of Vicenza to the square. The He met his most important teacher in 1537 while earlier Renaissance palaces. high point in Palladio’s work is, however, the ideal working on the Villa Trissino in Cricoli. It was However, the building in which Palladio’s art can architecture of the Villa Almerico-Capra in Vicenza. Trissino who inspired him to develop his own be seen at its most daring and original is the It is known as “La Rotunda” and is an exemplary identity as a humanist architect from the roots of country house. He re-interpreted this genre for the centrally-planned building, having a circular domed ancient tradition. It was presumably Trissino who discerning, educated affluent nobility in his area room in the middle and identical sides with gave him the name Palladio which is as elegant as who wanted to combine agricultural activities on extended temple façades. Like the Pantheon and his later work. As a humanist familiar with Neo- their estates with their social lives. Thus he Bramante’s Tempietto, it symbolises complete Platanism, Trissino also referred Palladio to ancient adapted the Roman “villa rusticana” to that of a harmony between man and the cosmos. It was architectural theory, Vitruvius’s Ten Books. “villa suburbana”, as can be seen in the villa ideally suited to the humanists as a refined setting Following Aristotle’s dictum that knowledge Badoer in Frata Polesine, villa Emo in Fanzolo and for the exchange of their ideas. must emerge from individual observation and the villa Barbaro in Maser, all of which were Palladio had reached the height of his career by experience, Palladio undertook not only the- completed around 1560. The farming buildings 1571. Prominent and much in demand, he oretical studies but viewed and surveyed and storerooms are located in wings behind the became Sansovino’s successor as the leading numerous ancient buildings, for example on his loggias, which are symmetrically aligned to a architect in Venice, where he mainly designed trips to Rome between 1545 and 1547. In 1570 he raised central structure. This provides a churches. However, he was unable to recreate his published his own four books on architecture representative entrance to a banqueting hall with ideal of the centrally-planned building in the which continue the great tradition of Vitruvius a on a Classical column order. This rhythm of the Classical order without some and Alberti. In these books, he discusses linking of the main building and garden with shady element of compromise. The traditional plan of the contemporary views of proportion and zones behind the and arcades is the the religious building with its and side , which were dictated by the hierarchy of religious ritual, made it impossible for him to use the preferred central plan. With the façade of San Francesco della Vigna (from 1562 onwards) and San Giorgio Maggiore (1565–75, façade after 1600), Palladio developed intermediary solutions to this problem, paving the way for the construction of his final church, Il Rendentore. The façade powerfully clamps the nave and side with the help of interlocking columns and framed stacked tympana. The refined openness of former buildings is replaced here by a closed sculptural quality, an impression which is repeated in the later Palazzo Valmarana (1566–81) and the façade of the Loggia del Capitaniato (1566–71) in Vicenza, and which points towards the approach- ing . In 1580, the year of his death, Palladio returned to once more with the Teatro Olimpico in Venice. He built a semi-circular arena for the audience for revivals of Classical theatre and an illusionistic Gassenim stage.

Teatro Olimpico, Vicenza, 1580–85

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VERSAILLES

No other , town and garden complex was as exemplary in character during the Baroque as that of Versailles, a suburb located south-west of Paris. In 1623, King Louis XIII commissioned the construction of a small moated . This was still firmly rooted in the Renaissance tradition and took the form of a four-winged complex sur- rounding a square courtyard. The fourth wing was replaced by a low , later demolished when work on the extension of the castle commenced in 1661. This was also the year that Louis XIV, later known as the “Sun King”, assumed power; he remained in office until 1715. This long period of rule represents the of royal power in Europe – with Paris as its political and social centre – and also the beginning of the Enlightenment, which eventually replaced absolutism at the end of the 18th century. Vaux-le-Vicomte castle had been built near Paris by Nicolas Fouquet, the Minister of Finance, and was completed the year the new king came to power. It provided him with a source of inspiration for his own palace. The architect Louis Levau, the Bird’s eye view of the town, palace and garden complexes, a copper engraving from 1700 interior designer Le Brun and the landscape architect André Le Nôtre, all of whom had worked on Vaux-le-Vicomte, were commissioned to work lining of the walls with mirrors created both an to human dimensions. This attitude is also evident in Versailles, where Louis XIV had chosen to extraordinary abundance of light and also, as a in the enormous courtyard in front of the palace locate his new residence. This project was not result of the constantly changing reflections, an and the large cour d’honneur, later extended by merely of immense spatial proportions. Above all, optical confusion and apparent extension of the the addition of two further wings (one designed the brief was to create a symbol of national unity – space into eternity, which was typical of Baroque by Ange-Jacques Gabriel and the other an exact a matter of extreme political delicacy – which illusionism. This room must be imagined as the copy built in the 19th century). The entire palace would convey the greatness of the royal power far backdrop for magnificent Baroque parties lit by complex reached a depth of 407 metres, the aim beyond France. hundreds of candles. It later assumed historical being that it could not be outclassed anywhere Encasing of the old castle was started on the basis importance: the Paris Peace Conference, which else in Europe. of Levau’s plans in 1661. The cour d’honneur was ended with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, Le Nôtre started on the design of the gardens in extended between 1668 and 1671 by the addition started here on January 18th 1919 and ended on 1667. Between the Neptune Basin in the north of two outwardly gradating wings, the ends of June 18th of the same year. and the Orangerie in the south, to which two which were given large temple façades. The The conversion of the terrace to the Hall of Mirrors twenty-metre-wide “Great Staircases of 100 extensive garden elevation was created at the resulted in the transformation of the façade from a Steps” descend, there was a wide surface with same time, its width emerging from the protruding and retracting structure to a uniform regular low hedges. These were clipped in connection with the courtyard wings, which surface, which was barely enlivened by the light patterns known as the “broderieparterre” (from Levau tried to articulate with two corner pavilions central projection. Including the two wings, the the French “broder” = to embroider – nature was (containing the war and peace salons). These garden façade was extended even further to a formed into a decoration in the form of were linked by a terrace above the ground floor, total length of 576 metres. Thus for the most part embroidery patterns). The Latona Basin and Tapis giving even greater emphasis to the first floor as the typical dynamism of Baroque buildings yielded Vert (64 x 335 metres) are located along the main the main floor of the palace and which housed the to an unrelenting, intimidating splendour. In axis which leads away from the palace at a right King’s suite. keeping with Louis XIV’s self-conception as the angle, as is the Apollo Basin (82 x 116 metres) Jules Hardouin-Mansart, who in 1678 replaced embodiment of the state and unrestricted ruler, further down the axis. Lined with topiary and Levau, converted the first-floor terrace into the the design focused exclusively on the desire for clipped hedges, the Apollo Basin surrounds the famous Hall of Mirrors (“Galerie des Glaces”). The representation and relinquished any concessions statue of the Sun God, with whom the King identified, in his chariot pulled by horses and Tritons (sea gods). This basin is the centre of the radial, axial and star system which pervades the entire garden. It is difficult to appreciate this system fully today as the trees are now much thicker and higher than originally planned. The powerful dimensions of the open complex are highlighted by the 1560-metre-long canal which also lies along the main axis. It is intersected by a short transverse canal to the north of which two pleasure palaces were constructed – the Grand Trianon built by Hardouin- Mansart and Robert de Cotte in 1687–88, and the Petit Trianon built in 1764–68 by J.-A. Gabriel. After the death of Louis XIV, the court favoured these palaces as residences over the enormous main palace.

The Hall of Mirrors in the Royal Palace

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ENLIGHTENMENT AND Even monarchs like Friedrich II of Prussia and REVOLUTION Joseph II of Austria, who practised “enlightened ARCHITECTURE absolutism”, were unable to solve social problems through the introduction of reforms such as relati- ve freedom of religion, abolition of torture and the Democracy replaces absolutism establishment of a regulated system of justice. On The intellectual movement of the Enlightenment the contrary, continued survival of the existing developed within the rigid system of rule known as feudal order and the imperative need for funda- The architecture of Absolutism. The new movement aimed to liberate mental change became even more widespread. reason not just philosophy but every aspect of life from The alternative model was devised by philosophers its traditional shackles, and provide a new strictly like John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the CLASSICISM reasonable, “ratio”-based orientation (Rationalism). state theorist Monesquieu, with their ideas of the For the philosopher Immanuel Kant, the aim of the people’s state and the separation of powers. The 1750–1840 Enlightenment was “the exit (= liberation) of man people themselves and not the king should rep- from self-induced nonage”. “Reason, and the resent the nation. State power should therefore critical spirit arising from it, should form the basis on emanate directly or indirectly from them (through which the correctness of every insight is decided, elected representatives), although control and and also provide the basis for all decisions limitation of the power of monarchy by parliament concerning the norms of ethical, political, and social and constitution were initially given some con- behaviour” (Friedrich Schiller “Have faith only in sideration. In order to prevent abuse and decisions your own reason!”). based on the aims of self-glorification, power The Enlightenment, which attracted increasing previously held by the absolute ruling monarch numbers of followers during the 18th century, also was to be divided among three “powers” (legislati- demanded political change, especially as it was ve, executive, judicial). Moreover, all state activity mainly supported by the middle classes. As a result should be based on known defined rules (con- of their activities as intellectuals and traders in stitution, laws) and after a specific period, rulers money or goods, rational thought and action played should be given a renewed mandate by the an important role in the daily lives of the middle sovereign, i.e. the people. It should also be subject classes. In economic terms, they were growing to control by the other powers and, above all, to increasingly important. However, when it came to public criticism, in terms of which, according to the participation in political rule, they were totally Enlightenment, all action and thought had to prove excluded in countries like Germany and France. itself. Behind this was the conviction that a conflict

Australia, New Zealand, the South himself French Emperor in Paris. Seas and Alaska during three Formulation of the Napoleonic Code. expeditions. 1808: Goethe’s Faust (Part 1) is 1773: Middle-class citizens disguised published. Collection of folk songs as Indians destroy a cargo of tea Des Knaben Wunderhorn (The Boy’s from the East India Company in Magic Horn) is published by Achim Harbour, intensifying the von Arnim and Clemens von conflict with the English mother Brentano. country. 1813: Massacre near Leipzig; victory 1776: The American Congress of Prussia, Austria and Russia over declares the independence of the 13 Napoleon I. colonies of the British Crown. 1814: Napoleon abdicates and is Declaration of Human Rights. exiled to Elba. Allied Congress of 1781: Immanuel Kant publishes his is called to remake Europe philosophical treatise “Kritik der after the downfall of Napoleon I. reinen Vernunft” (Critique of Pure 1824: Ludwig van Beethoven Reason). Johann Heinrich Voss “Boston Tea Party” as protest against English import taxes and tea completes his 9th symphony. monopoly on December 16th 1773, coloured lithographic print from 1846. translates Homer’s Odyssey. 1832: Hambach Festival of German 1789: Beginning of the French 1750: Johann Sebastian Bach, the 1764: Johann Joachim Democrats. Revolution with the storming of the composer, dies. Winckelmann’s book “Geschichte Bastille. 1838: Samuel Morse develops a der Kunst des Altertums” (History of 1759: The British Museum in code for the transmission of the Art of Antiquity) is published. 1796: English doctor Edward Jenner is opened (exhibits from messages by telegraph. administers the first vaccine against private collections). 1765: James Watt invents the steam small pox. Ca. 1840: Frédéric François Chopin engine (patented in 1769). The potato 1762: Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s composes his most important piano is used for human consumption in 1797: Senefelder develops theory of state “Du contrat social” works (nocturnes). Europe. lithography (offset printing). (The Social Contract) provides an ideal image of democracy. 1768: James Cook explores 1804: Napoleon Bonaparte crowns

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KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL The small town of Neuruppin north of was the birthplace of two great men of the Prussian Kingdom: the writer Theodor Fontane (1819–98) and the architect (1781–1841). Schinkel learned about Classical architecture, which had been in fashion since the end of the 18th century, at the Berlin Academy of Architecture, where he studied mainly under Gilly (1748–1808). The Greek temple and its character had been (re)discovered as an architectural model just a few years earlier. For example, the Doric temple in Paestum was hitherto unknown and its baseless columns attracted considerable attention. By acknowledging the way in which ancient Greek architecture had elevated consummate beauty to an ideal, while at the same time embodying absolute truth in its functionality, the architecture of the 18th century radically rejected the preceding Renaissance and Baroque eras and began to incorporate these new ideals into teaching. The aim was to replace the organic and corporeal The Schauspielhaus theatre on the Gendarmenplatz square in Berlin, 1818–24 approach to building with the clear cubic forms of classical antiquity. Schinkel was a student at the precise moment when this revolution was taking Schinkel worked in at least three styles Liegnitz Palace beside the Charlottenburg Palace place in architectural history, which for the first simultaneously – the Classical, neo-Gothic and in Berlin. Schinkel’s neo-Gothic Kamenz Palace in time was actually honouring its entire tradition. Romantic. It was, however, his Classical buildings Silesia is rather sombre by contrast. Another famous contemporary of Schinkel’s at the – among the most beautiful built in this style in The most distinctive features of Schinkel’s Altes Berlin Academy was Leo von Klenze (1784–1864), Germany – which brought him most fame. They Museum (Old Museum) beside the Berlin whose importance in is comparable to that combine optimum serviceable functionality with (Pleasure Garden) (begun in 1822) are of Schinkel in Prussia. harmonic clarity, and are consequently viewed as the open staircase, from which the former City On completing his studies, Schinkel travelled in the purest expression of classical antiquity. Palace could be viewed, and the central rotunda – Italy from 1803 to 1805. In addition to designing Of Schinkel’s churches, the Nicolai Church in an excellent example of classical use of space. buildings, not only in the Classical but also , which was originally next to the Palace, The Neue Wache (New Guard House) on the in the Gothic style, he also painted Romantic is still the most impressive. Its powerful dome Forum Fridicianum (1817), which was originally pictures. He designed stage sets for operas like evokes the former beauty of Potsdam. The built for the stay of a company of guards and is the Magic Flute and a range of functional struc- impressive , which was renovated now a memorial to the victims of the Second tures including memorials, bridges and weirs. by Schinkel, was replaced in 1890 by Raschdorff’s World War and the genocide of that period, is also Like most architects of his time, Schinkel’s talents ostentatious edifice. The Friedrichswerder church one of Schinkel’s masterpieces. were multi-disciplinary. in Berlin is still extant and today houses the The Academy of Architecture (begun in 1825), Schinkel’s great period began after the wars of Schinkel Museum. Other churches, such as the which has unfortunately been demolished, was liberation when building recommenced in Prussia, church in the Moabit neighbourhood of Berlin, are a prototype of brick architecture. This building whose territory had been considerably extended built in the Florentine-Romantic style. reflects the processing by Schinkel of impres- following the Congress of Vienna. Schinkel was A large number of Schinkel’s palace designs have sions gathered during a trip to England where he soon appointed court architect, a member of the survived. The project for the Acropolis in Athens, saw factory buildings and weaving shops. In influential architectural division of the Prussian which also involved Klenze and other reputable Schinkel’s opinion, these were nothing more than Public Works Department, and was finally Classicists, is particularly worthy of mention. To be monstrous masses, which had nothing to do with appointed head of the department. His seminal able to build a palace at the original site of the architecture which strove to reach the level of art. influence on Prussian architecture led to the Classical tradition was an enormous challenge for With his designs for the Berlin goods depot of establishment of a kind of “Schinkel school”, the individual disciples of the tradition. The small 1829–32, which included offices for customs and followers of which included Persius, Stüler and Charlottenhof Palace in the grounds of administration and warehouses built along the Strack. in Potsdam is particularly attractive, as is the small Kupfergraben quay in central Berlin, Schinkel showed just how functional buildings should be designed. This row of buildings had a sombre cubic aesthetic, similar to that of the Academy of Architecture. The Schauspielhaus theatre situated on the square in Berlin, one of Schinkel’s most important buildings, is framed by the steep domes of the German and French Cathedrals. The Greek temple façade, which like all the columns, entablature, and gables is taken directly from the antique box of tricks, conceals a building designed on the basis of strictly functionalistic criteria, the individual stereometric units of which consist of several independent parts. Mozart’s Magic Flute, with sets designed by the architect, was staged to mark the opening of the theatre. It is indeed fortunate for Berlin that this valuable building survived the War unscathed.

Academy of Architecture, begun in 1825

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D. Adler and L. H. Sullivan: Guaranty Building, Buffalo, New York, 1894–95 (left); D. H. Burnham and J. W. Root: Reliance Building with so-called “Chicago windows” in form, Chicago, 1890–95 (centre); L. H. Sullivan: Carson Pirie Scott, Chicago 1899–1906 (right)

SKYSCRAPERS The Chicago architectural partnership of Adler and Sullivan represented an When the old “village” of Chicago was destroyed by fire in 1871, it took several optimum combination of talents; Adler was an expert on finance and years to overcome the fear of further catastrophe and start on the construction technology whereas Sullivan was more the visionary. Sullivan would ultimately of a modern business centre with office blocks, department stores and hotels, make a key contribution to the renewal of international architecture in the aided by extensive funding from the urban authorities. The first designs were 1890s. He gave his buildings a radical modern appearance, with their reticent by engineers and very similar, mainly because several technical inventions decoration and large glazed surfaces. In theoretical treatises, he divided the created the necessary framework conditions: i.e. the steel skeleton structure building into the base, shaft and capital, using the Classical column as his and new systems for stone foundations. The new Chicago grew up in regular model. The base or socle was reserved for rows of shops, the business or blocks – buildings with eight or nine floors were described as skyscrapers – residential floors were accommodated in the shaft, and the capital, which was which always complied with the crucial condition of fire resistance. To this were given particular emphasis, contained the building technology. Theorist Emilio added the pioneering inventions of the electric lift, the telephone and tubular Cecchi describes the cool undecorated façade articulation as follows: “The post. For the first time it seemed possible to build to an unlimited height – the skyscraper is no symphony of lines and mass, surfaces and openings, power upper floors which were previously cheaper and less desirable now became and resistance, it is much more an arithmetical operation, a multiplication.” The sought-after and expensive addresses. architecture of the Chicago School was the harbinger of the “new world”.

masonry bands at intervals of four windows were projecting flat roof, there is an almost sealed surface vaguely reminiscent of pilasters. Fire resistance was with bulls’-eye windows which contains the technical guaranteed by encasing its metal frame with cavity equipment. There is some decoration blocks. Bessemer steel, later to play an important but this contributes little to the overall impression of role in the development of construction technology, the building’s exterior. Sullivan’s department store was used for the first time in this metal frame. Carson Pirie Scott in Chicago is similar. Here, By inserting a projecting perpendicular strip of however, he emphasised only the rounded corners masonry between the windows on the Wainright of the building with perpendicular masonry strips. building in St. Louis, 1890–91, and the even more The main floors, which were for retail use, are fitted famous Guaranty building in Buffalo, 1894–95, with wide “Chicago windows”. If one ignores the Dankmar Adler and Louis H. Sullivan emphasised the decoration added in the socle zone, this building vertical thrust of rectangular buildings. Sullivan had already looks like something built in the 1920’s or the following comment to make on the design of a 50’s. Such buildings, whose consistently simple skyscraper: “It must be proud and impressive to the design was derived from constructive conditions and last inch, rise up in joy so that it forms a unit from the functional requirements, gave Chicago the most ground to the roof without a single deviating line.” He in the world at the turn of the repeated his motto “form follows function” until it century. This was most evident in the “Loop”, the became the guiding principle of all of modern business quarter of the city. This approach to the architecture. Thus the functions of different floors construction of skyscrapers became known as the can be distinguished on the basis of the “Chicago School”. However, it did not set a trend. On differentiation of the façade design into socle, shaft the contrary, one of its main representatives – Daniel and capital. The ground and first floors are fitted with H. Burnham – “betrayed” its aggressive modernity large windows and hence are suitable for retail trade. by turning back to a more communicable neo- Above these lies the regular grid of the main floors Classicism, as can be seen in his historical façade which are used as offices. Finally, beneath the design for the Flatiron building in New York.

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GLOSSARY and artisans in the Middle Ages. the ideal in Renaissance Bay Area of a which is architecture. divided from the adjacent bay Central perspective Optical by a band. The bays of a impression whereby parallel Abbey A monastery which is supports. The first stone in an building are counted along the lines converge as they recede run by an Abbot or . The is called the springer; the longitudinal axis. towards a single point on the Abbot’s house which is linked to keystone is the wedge-shaped Window divided by a horizon level with the viewer’s the monastery often has its stone at the highest point or column to form two separate eye (vanishing point). The own which sometimes crown of the arch. The inner arched openings. central perspective and its has its own . curve or surface of an arch theoretical foundation was , blind arch, blind developed during the Early Agora Open space in a Greek forming the concave underside window The elements of an is called the intrados. Most arch Renaissance period. town used as a market-place or arch or window applied to a wall forms are developed from a general meeting place. without any aperture for Chapel Small independent circle or several segments of a space for religious worship or Alternating system of decorative and articulation circle: the round arch is semi- ceremonies which is added on supports Alternation of pillars purposes. Several blind circular, the pointed arch is to a church (e.g. , and columns in the nave of a form a blind arcade. produced from two curves, each palatine chapel, etc.). Romanesque basilica, Bracket A stone protruding with a radius equal to the span Choir technically defined in the from a wall which serves as a Originally the term for and meeting in a point at the top. the elevated area in Christian square plan. base for balconies, figures and Architrave In ancient churches where the divine Abutment Solid masonry arches and is often decorated. architecture and the styles service is sung. The area structure which counteracts the which developed from it, the Buttressing/ / beyond the nave has been lateral thrust of an arch or vault. horizontal lintel of a temple pier buttress Skeleton known as the choir since the Altar A structure on which which lies on the columns and structure which is a particularly 8th/9th century. offerings to a deity are placed or common feature in Gothic is supported by them. The Choir ambulatory A passage sacrificed. The altar in Christian churches. Pier buttresses are architrave itself supports the surrounding the choir which is churches is a table or slab on used in the reinforcement of upper structure. created through the supports, consecrated for the high walls and to counteract Atrium Central courtyard in the continuation of the side aisles celebration of the sacraments. lateral thrust. They are found Roman residential building. In and is usually separated from either on the exterior or along In ancient Roman Early Christian and Medieval the choir by arcades. architecture: semicircular space the side aisles and are linked architecture a courtyard in front (windows) Upper built onto or above an elevated across the roof through the of a church (paradisus). area of the walls of the nave in main space. In Christian flying buttresses. The Ashlar Natural stone which is a basilica which is pierced by architecture: usually buttressing functions by cut into regular rectangular dispersing the lateral thrust windows. semicircular termination of a blocks. rectangular longitudinal from the roof and the vaults. Cloister A passage surrounding structure; important component Axial plan/view/orientation Campanile Free-standing bell a square open courtyard in a of church buildings. (longitudinal plan) Plan based tower in Italian church monastery where the Stations on the axes in a building. An of the Cross are held. Aqueduct Ancient Roman complexes. axis is an imaginary straight line Cloverleaf cf. trichora water conduit whereby the which can be drawn Camposanto Italian name for a town’s water supply was longitudinally or horizontally cemetery. Column figures cf. jamb carried through an open or through a building or part of a Capital Head of column or pillar (figures). concealed water channel building. Opposite of centrally- with ornamental, plant or Column orders Ancient consisting of an elevated planned building. figurative decoration. system of form and proportion masonry or brick structure Balustrade A parapet Caryatid Sculptured female whereby the column, capital, supported on several storeys of architrave and cornice relate in arches. consisting of rows of small figure used as a column to columns (balusters). support an entablature or similar such a way that they have a Arcade The arrangement of member. defined ”order”. The Doric several arches in a row is called Baptistery Independent column has no base and a an arcade. Arcades can be built religious building where Cathedral Bishop’s church in a fluted shaft and a slab as capital. alongside each other or on top Christian are held. The town or city, sometimes called a The Ionic column is more of each other along several water font in which the person minster. slender than the Doric column floors of a building (arcade to be baptised was fully Cell One of the four and it has a base, fluted shaft floor). The triangular area on the emerged stood in the centre of compartments of the and capital which curves in a point above the supports is the room. (cf. vault). snail-like scroll or volute at each called the arcade spandrel. Basilica Hall of commerce and Cella Windowless main end. The Corinthian column Arcaded walk (loggia) Open, justice in the Roman empire. chamber of the ancient temple differs from the Ionic column in vaulted arcaded hall or passage Building type adopted by the which contains the cult image. that it has a richly decorated Christians. In Christian church- capital of leaves and in or in front of a building. A Centrally-planned building building tradition it is a multiple- volutes at the corners. common feature of Italian Plan in which all parts relate to a building with a longitudinal Renaissance palazzos and central point and which is based Colonnade Row of columns axis and a nave which is higher public buildings. on a geometrical figure (circle, with vertical entablature than the side aisles and lit by Arch Vaulted structure in a wall ellipse, square). The Roman (architrave) as distinct from an clerestory windows. opening or hall. The arch offers Pantheon was seen as the arcade. The colonnades in St. the only way in which to span Base The bottom of a column highest achievement in terms Peter’s Square in Rome are a large spaces in stone structures or pillar. of centrally-planned ancient well known example. as it absorbs the load and Bauhütte German name for buildings. The centrally planned Colossal order Column order distributes it among the associations of church builders rotunda with dome embodied whereby the columns rise from

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the ground through several – form found in Romanesque Gallery 1. In (cf. donjon). usually two – floors, sometimes buildings, it has no structural architecture, an upper storey Keystone Central stone of an also called a giant order. The function. over an aisle, opening on to the arch or , sometimes colossal order was developed Early Christian basilica nave, which is used to carved. by Michelangelo and Palladio. accommodate specific groups Church with a longitudinal plan King’s Gallery cf. royal portal. Composite capital A capital and several aisles with a nave in the congregation (e.g. Lacunar Panelled or coffered consisting of combinations of which is higher than the side women, royalty) and, more ceiling, the sunken panels the Classical orders. aisles and clerestory windows importantly in design terms, an of which can be filled in with Corinthian The youngest of above the nave. important feature in the articulation of the wall surface ornaments, colours or paintings. the Classical Greek styles (cf. Enfilade French system of (cf. wall structure). 2. In secular Lantern Circular or polygonal column orders). aligning internal in a architecture, a platform or turret with windows all around it sequence so that a vista is Cornice Horizontal strip mezzanine supported on which crowns a ceiling or vault obtained through a series of projecting from a wall which columns or brackets and opening, usually on top of a rooms when all the doors are differentiates the horizontal overlooking the main interior dome. sections of a building (e.g. open. space of a building, e.g. a Leaded glazing System of socle, floors, roof) from each Entablature 1. The upper part theatre. In Renaissance and glazing whereby the individual other and encloses the of an ancient order consisting of Baroque palaces, a long room, panes which combine to form perpendicular architectural the architrave, frieze and corni- often on an upper floor, for large windows are enclosed elements (e.g. column, pilaster). ce. 2. All of the beams which recreation or entertainment, e.g. with metal strips – a technique Crenellation (battlement) combine to form a ceiling Galerie des Glaces in Versailles. used by the Romans. Parapet with alternating structure. Girder Large beam of wood, Lean-to roof Roof form with indentations or embrasures and Entasis Slight convex curve on iron, steel or concrete. only one slanting surface. raised portions or merlons. Greek and later columns to Groin vault A compound vault Crepidoma Foundations and correct the optical illusion of Longitudinal plan cf. axial usually three-stepped base of a concavity which would result if formed by the perpendicular plan. Greek temple. the sides were straight. intersection of two vaults Lucarne A dormer window. forming arched diagonal arrises Crocket Projecting ornament, Fan vault A vault composed of called groins. Also known as a Madrasa Islamic school in a a number of concave conoidal usually in the form of curved cross vault. Mosque, combined school and foliage, used in Gothic sections springing from the prayer room grouped around a architecture to decorate the corners of the vaulting Hall church Church with a courtyard. outer angles of , spires compartment, often decorated longitudinal plan with aisles of (almost) the same height as the Masonry Structure built using and gables (pinnacle, triangular with ribs which radiate like the natural or artificial stone joined gable). framework of a fan. nave and which often has a single roof covering both the using either mortar or without Crossing Square or rectangular Finial A foliated ornament binding (dry masonry). nave and the aisles. space which is created by the which terminates the peak of a Masonry spur A short piece of Hall choir Choir consisting of intersection of the nave and spire or pinnacle. masonry which projects from a several aisles of the same in a church. Flamboyant style Late Gothic wall. height. Crossing tower A tower which style in France. In Flamboyant Mastaba Ancient Egyptian Haram Columned prayer hall in sits on the crossing of a church. the bars of stonework tomb in the form of a massive a Mosque, the columns of Crossing-square plan form long wavy divisions. brick or stone mound with which initially consisted of palm Common plan in Romanesque Floor, storey A vertical section battered walls on a rectangular trunks. which is based on the of a building which is separated base. The sarcophagal chamber crossing square. One square in by floors and ceilings. Hipped roof A form of roof was deep under the ground which is created when the the nave corresponds to two Flutes/fluting The ridges along below the structure. Developed gables of a saddleback roof are squares half its length in the the shaft of ancient columns. into a Pyramid after the Old side aisles. substituted by sloped roof Kingdom (2850–2052 B.C). Flora/forum Roman market surfaces. In Early Christian times place and assembly place. Mausoleum Name used to the tomb of a martyr in the Illusionism The use of pictorial describe a monumental tomb. catacombs. In the Middle Ages Painting technique techniques to create an illusion Megaron Main hall of the half underground space beneath whereby water-based paint is of three-dimensional space and Greek residence with stove and the East choir of the church applied to lime plaster. Already form on a two-dimensional anteroom. The Greek temple used for the storage of known in ancient times. surface. was developed out of the and as a burial place for by Raphael, Inlay Alternation of layers of megaron. and dignitaries. Michelangelo and Tiepolo are acknowledged as the highest coloured and plain stone; for Merlon Raised portions on a Donjon Central tower in achievements in this technique. example, light and dark marble. battlement or crenellation. French containing living Ionic Second oldest of the quarters (cf. ). Frieze Horizontal band for the Mihrab Focus for prayer in a articulation and decoration of a Classical Greek styles (cf. orders). mosque, usually a niche in the Doric The oldest of the Classical wall. A distinction is made Jamb (sculpture) Surface centre of the qibla wall. Greek styles (cf. orders). between an ornamental frieze created by the oblique insertion Minaret Tall, slender tower Double-ended church plan and a figurative frieze. of a window or portal into a connected with a mosque from Church plan with an East and Gable 1. Triangle which wall. In Gothic and which the muezzin calls the West choir. terminates the narrow side of a , people to prayer. Originally a Drum cf. tambour. saddleback roof (cf. tympanum). portal and window jambs are separate structure, it was later Dwarf gallery A wall passage 2. Triangular area at the top often richly decorated with integrated into the general with small arcading and delicate of windows and portals in sculptures (jamb sculptures). mosque complex and some columns on the outside of a Renaissance and Baroque Keep Defence tower and living mosques were surrounded by building. A popular decorative architecture. quarters in English-Norman several minarets.

APPENDIX 113 Architektur_001-015_GB.qxdArchitektur_001-015 01.02.2006 11.10.2012 10:58 Uhr13:51 Seite Uhr 2Seite 2 (Schwarz/Process Black Auszug)

With contributions by Stefan Breitling, Elke Dorner, Andrea Dreher, Markus Hattstein, Friedrich Wilhelm Krahe, Günter Külzhammer, Iris Lautenschläger, Katrin Bettina Müller, Katja Reissner

Drawings by Christina Melhose

© h.f.ullmann publishing GmbH

Original title: Geschichte der Architektur von der Antike bis heute ISBN 978-3-8480-0416-4

© for the illustrated works, where this is not held by the artists or their estates: Horta, Victor © VG Bild-Kunst, 2013 Lissitzky, Lasar Markowitsch © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Tatlin, Vladimir Evgranowitsch © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Le Corbusier © FLC / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013 Wright, Frank Lloyd © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2013

Editor: Peter Delius Layout: Ulrike Sommer Cover design: Simone Sticker Cover photos: Front cover (from left above to right below): Patricia Hofmeester-Fotolia.com; TMAX-Fotolia.com; afitz-Fotolia.com; wikipedia.de (Mario Roberto Duran Ortiz); Michael Kügler-Fotolia.com; Hölli-Fotolia.com; nito-Fotolia.com Back cover (from left above to right below): Thomas Röske-Fotolia.com; Shen Meng-Fotolia.com; Jolanthe Leiss-Fotolia.com; David H. Seymour-Fotolia.com

© for the English edition: h.f.ullmann publishing GmbH

Translation from German: Susan Cox Production of the English edition: Goodfellow & Egan, Cambridge

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Printed in China, 2013

ISBN 978-3-8480-0415-7

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