Biol. Lett. (2008) 4, 216–219 (Grosholz 2002; Davenport & Davenport 2004). Since doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0599 the major goal of conservation is to preserve native Published online 12 February 2008 species, distinguishing between native and introduced Palaeontology biodiversity can determine whether a species is pro- tected or aggressively removed as an invasive pest. Many human-mediated introductions pre-date detailed Introduced delicacy or biodiversity surveys, so it can be difficult to establish whether some species are native (Grady et al.2001; native species? A natural Wares et al.2002; Burdick 2005). Distinguishing between Holocene colonization events and historic origin of Bermudian human introductions is difficult because such recent dispersal events often lack genetic or palaeontological terrapins supported by evidence. This problem is even more challenging when the species is a highly valued and transportable human fossil and genetic data commodity. The following study investigates such a James F. Parham1,2,*, Mark E. Outerbridge3, problem by integrating palaeontological and molecular Bryan L. Stuart4,5, David B. Wingate6, evidence to unravel the origins of diamondback terra- Helmut Erlenkeuser7 and Theodore J. Papenfuss5 pins (Malaclemys terrapin) on Bermuda. The native terrestrial biodiversity of Bermuda is 1Department of Herpetology, California Academy of Sciences, 875 Howard Street, San Francisco, CA 94103, USA relatively low (Sterrer et al. 2004), substantially 2Museum of Paleontology, University of California, Berkeley, diminished by the destruction of the islands’ natural CA 94720, USA habitats following human colonization in the early 3Bermuda Zoological Society, PO Box FL 145, Flatts FL BX, Bermuda 1600s, as well as major environmental perturbations 4Department of Zoology, The Field Museum, 1400 South Lake Shore associated with changes in sea level over the past Drive, Chicago, IL 60605, USA 2 Myr (Sterrer et al. 2004; Olson et al. 2006). The 5 Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, known extant native terrestrial vertebrate fauna con- CA 94720, USA 6The Bermuda Audubon Society, PO Box HM 1328, sists of a single lizard, the Bermuda rock skink Hamilton HM FX, Bermuda (Plestiodon (formerly Eumeces) longirostris). The first 7Leibniz-Labor fu¨r Altersbestimmung und Isotopenforschung, report of terrapins on Bermuda is from the early Universita¨t Kiel, Max-Eyth-Strasse 11-13, 24118 Kiel, Germany 1950s (see electronic supplementary material). Since *Author for correspondence ( [email protected]). that time, there have been occasional reports from the Humans have greatly altered the natural distri- Mid Ocean Club golf course (figure 1) of terrapins bution of species, making it difficult to distinguish swimming in artificial water hazards and nesting in between natural and introduced populations. This sand-filled bunkers. These earlier records, and the is a problem for conservation efforts because native or introduced status can determine fossil evidence presented below, did not come to the whether a species is afforded protection or perse- attention of the Bermuda Biodiversity Project until cuted as an invasive pest. Holocene colonization after the publication of their report on the status of events are especially difficult to discern, particu- M. terrapin (Davenport et al. 2005). Bermudian larly when the species in question is a naturally terrapins are still only known from two mangrove- good disperser and widely transported by people. fringed anchialine ponds reported there. In this study, we test the origin of such a species, Outside of Bermuda, M. terrapin is known from the the diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin), mangroves and salt marshes of the east coast of the on Bermuda using a combination of palaeontolo- USA from southern Texas to Massachusetts (figure 2). gic (fossil, radiometric and palaeoenvironmental) Given its coastal ecology and saltwater tolerance, and genetic data. These lines of evidence support the hypothesis that terrapins are relatively recent M. terrapin might seem a probable candidate for (between 3000 and 400 years ago) natural coloni- natural dispersal to Bermuda via the Gulf Stream (e.g. zers of Bermuda. The tiny population of Bermu- Meylan & Sterrer 2000; Grady et al.2001; Sterrer et al. dian terrapins represents the second naturally 2004). However, between the early 1800s and the occurring non-marine reptile that still survives on 1920s, terrapins were a highly sought after delicacy. one of the most densely populated and heavily Consequently, terrapins were transported, translocated developed oceanic islands in the world. We rec- and farmed in high numbers to meet the gastronomical ommend that they should be given protection as demand of gourmands (Brennessel 2005; Hauswaldt & a native species. Glenn 2005). Combining this history with the fact that Keywords: introduced species; radiocarbon; turtle; most of the Bermudian herpetofauna is introduced Gulf Stream; Malaclemys terrapin; mangrove (Bacon et al.2006), it remains unclear whether the newly discovered M. terrapin in Bermuda result from a pre-human colonization or are descended from individ- uals once intended for the soup pot. 1. INTRODUCTION A museum specimen of a nearly complete skeleton Human activities impact patterns of global biodiversity of M. terrapin (BAMZ 2006-237-001, see electronic by causing the extinction of populations through habitat supplementary material) from a cave in Bermuda destruction and direct exploitation. Our species has could shed some light on this issue. Owing to the also irreparably modified ecosystems through the inten- fact that it was not buried, this specimen cannot tional and accidental introduction of alien species be integrated into a stratigraphic framework, and Electronic supplementary material is available at http://dx.doi.org/ so its age remains an open question. In order to test 10.1098/rsbl.2007.0599 or via http://journals.royalsociety.org. the origin of M. terrapin in Bermuda, we generate
Received 28 November 2007 216 This journal is q 2008 The Royal Society Accepted 21 January 2008 Bermudian terrapin origins J. F. Parham et al. 217
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 1. (a) A live Bermudian terrapin; (b) BAMZ 2006-237-001, the fossil terrapin from Bermuda. Scale bar, 5 cm. (c) Habitat of the Bermudian terrapin, a mangrove-fringed pond at the Mid Ocean Golf Course.
(a) F (b) H E N O I 25 G L N 24 J K M B I,L, M 20–23 O Gulf Stream 26,27 J, K B A 18,19
D F–I C 14–17 (c)
E 13 Bermuda A A C 2,3 4 5 D 11,12 A 1
6–10 A
Figure 2. (a) Network of mtDNA (haplotypes). Yellow represents haplotypes in the direct path of the Gulf Stream. (b) Map showing distribution of haplotypes from 27 individuals: (1) southern Texas; (2,3) eastern Texas; (4) Louisiana; (5) western Florida; (6–10) Florida Keys (Barracouta Key, Lois Key, Pigeon Key); (11,12) east Florida, FL; (13) northern Florida; (14–17) South Carolina; (18,19) North Carolina; (20–23) Virginia; (24) Maryland; (25) New Jersey; (26) Bermuda. (c) Map of Bermuda showing location of mangrove-fringed anchialine ponds with terrapin populations. radiocarbon dates for this fossil. Radiocarbon dates 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS that postdate the beginning of the nineteenth century, A scale fragment from BAMZ 2006-237-001 was subjected to when terrapins were widely transported as a popular radiocarbon dating (see electronic supplementary material for details). The conventional radiocarbon date was compared to a delicacy, would cast doubt on a natural origin of the calibration curve time to yield a range of possible calendar dates. Bermudian population. As a secondary line of evi- Owing to marine and freshwater radiocarbon reservoir effects, dence, we compare DNA from Bermudian terrapins specimens with a brackish water diet/ecology can give artificially old to a range-wide survey of this species. The shortest dates. There are several calibrations available to correct for this, but calibrations for fluctuating brackish environments, such as the path from USA to Bermuda, via the Gulf Stream, is anchialine ponds (saline, land-locked bodies of water with subterra- from the Carolinas. Since an artificial introduction nean connections to the ocean) that the terrapins inhabit, are could occur from any population, genetic data cannot logistically implausible. Therefore, we use calibrations based on discount anthropogenic translocations. However, exclusively terrestrial and marine diets to bracket the age of the specimen (see electronic supplementary material for details). As genetic affinities to populations far north or south of such, the marine diet calibrations appear to represent a very the Carolinas would argue against a natural origin. conservative youngest estimate.
Biol. Lett. (2008) 218 J. F. Parham et al. Bermudian terrapin origins
Our genetic survey compared approximately 3 kb of mtDNA Pleistocene habitat discontinuity of the islands. Alter- from 2 Bermudian samples to 25 samples from USA populations nating periods of very high and/or very low global sea representing all known subspecies (see electronic supplementary material). Owing to the close similarity among all recovered level every 100 000 years are known to have had major haplotypes (all within 10 nucleotide substitutions), sequence data impacts on all of Bermuda’s habitats. High sea levels were visualized using a network rather than a phylogenetic reduced the sub-aerial landmass to a series of tiny islets tree (figure 2). that precluded the development of a rich terrestrial biota. On the other hand, low sea levels (as recently as 3. RESULTS 18 kyr ago) would have eliminated all shallow marine The oldest calibrated dates are based on the assumption warm water biotas, such as the mangroves favoured by of a terrestrial diet (AD 1222–1276). The youngest the terrapins. During these times, the shoreline was calibrated dates are based on the assumption of a situated well below the Bermuda platform on the steep marine diet range (AD 1427–1620; 1s rangeZAD side slopes of the volcano so no shallow water embay- 1452–1554). Because Bermudian terrapins do not ments could have existed. inhabit a wholly marine environment, we estimate the In combination, the radiometric, genetic and age of the fossil to be sometime before AD 1620. geological data support a Holocene arrival of Our genetic survey of M. terrapin revealed extre- M. terrapin from mainland North America. The final mely low levels of genetic variation (figure 2)as line of evidence refining their age of origin is reported in other studies (Hauswaldt & Glenn 2005). the establishment of continuous suitable habitat Most of the genetic diversity occurs in the mid- on Bermuda. Throughout its range, M. terrapin is Atlantic states. The Bermudian samples most closely restricted to coastal salt marshes and mangroves, but in resemble samples from near the Carolina region of Bermuda terrapins are only associated with mangroves USA (H-J, L, N), though we could not identify the in anchialine ponds. The Bermudian mangroves are exact source population. the most isolated and northerly mangroves in the world and happen to be among the last remaining native forests of Bermuda. According to palynological data, 4. DISCUSSION mangrove vegetation did not become well established The earliest sightings of Bermuda are ca AD 1500, but in Bermuda until 3000 years ago when sea level rose human settlement of the islands did not occur until above the edge of the Bermuda platform creating much later (AD 1609). The conservative radiometric shallow water embayments (Ellison 1996). It is unlikely ages of the fossil sample range from AD 1427 to 1620 that M. terrapin colonization could predate the estab- (assuming an exclusively marine diet). The majority of lishment of this habitat. Therefore, we can predict that this range, including the most likely age range of AD terrapins arrived in Bermuda naturally in the Late 1452–1554 (1s), predates human colonization. The Holocene, sometime between 3000 and 400 years ago. latest possible date (before AD 1620) overlaps with the Based on the available evidence, M. terrapin should earliest colonists (after AD 1609), but terrapins were be considered the second extant native non-marine not widely eaten by European settlers until the 1800s. reptile on Bermuda and only the third known to ever Therefore, the argument for an artificial origin of the inhabit the isolated island chain (besides the extant fossil would depend on a series of non-parsimonious lizard, there is a single Pleistocene fossil of an extinct circumstances: (i) the age of BAMZ 2006-237-001, a terrestrial tortoise; Meylan & Sterrer 2000). The fossil representing a brackish water species, is in the last native status for Bermudian terrapins resolves its decade of the ‘exclusively marine diet’-calibrated esti- uncertain conservation status and should afford it full mates (AD 1427–1620); (ii) the earliest terrapins were legislative protection and appropriate conservation brought to Bermuda 200 years before they were widely measures. eaten by Europeans; and (iii) one of these unusually early terrapins wandered approximately 1 km up hill We wish to thank the numerous kind people and permitting and fell into a small cave opening to perish. A agencies that either collected or facilitated the collection radiometric date within the last 200 years would obviate of terrapins (see electronic supplementary material for most of the implausible events listed above, but the a complete list). We thank P. M. Grootes, M. Huels, antiquity of our recovered ages (between 400 and 600 M. Nadeau, and the Leibniz laboratory team for their AMS years) is more consistent with a natural origin of analysis. Sequencing was conducted in The Field Museum’s Bermudian terrapins. Pritzker Laboratory for Molecular Systematics and Evolution. Carol Spencer and Carla Cicero of the MVZ are The genetic data suggest that the source population thanked for their help with the accession of museum of Bermudian M. terrapin is probably from the Carolina vouchers. Walter Joyce and three anonymous referees region of the mid-Atlantic coast of North America provided helpful comments. This is UCMP contribution (figure 2). This result is consistent with a natural Gulf no. 1965 and contribution no. 140 of the Bermuda Stream-mediated origin, as is known for other Bermu- Biodiversity Project (BBP), Bermuda Aquarium, Natural dian vertebrates (Meylan & Sterrer 2000; Grady et al. History Museum and Zoo. 2001; Sterrer et al.2004). The low degree of genetic differentiation between the Bermudian samples and those in the USA (one or two nucleotides) reveals that M. terrapin is a relatively recent arrival to Bermuda, Bacon, J. P., Gray, J. A. & Kitson, L. 2006 Status and unlike the endemic lizard that is thought to be between conservation of the reptiles and amphibians of the 400 000 and 2 000 000 years old (Olson et al.2006). Bermuda islands. Appl. Herpetol. 3, 323–344. (doi:10. This close genetic similarity makes sense in light of the 1163/157075406778905063)
Biol. Lett. (2008) Bermudian terrapin origins J. F. Parham et al. 219
Brennessel, B. 2005 Diamonds in the marsh. Lebanon, NH: Hauswaldt, J. S. & Glenn, T. C. 2005 Population genetics University Press of New England. of the diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin). Burdick, A. 2005 Out of Eden. New York, NY: Farrar, Mol. Ecol. 14, 723–732. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005. Straus and Giroux. 02451.x) Davenport, J. & Davenport, J. L. (eds) 2004 The effects of Meylan, P. A. & Sterrer, W. 2000 Hesperotestudo (Testu- human transport on ecosystems: cars and planes, boats and dines: Testudinidae) from the Pleistocene of Bermuda, trains, Dublin, Ireland: Royal Irish Academy. with comments on the phylogenetic position of the Davenport, J., Glasspool, A. & Kitson, L. 2005 Occurrence genus. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 128, 51–76. (doi:10.1006/zjls. of diamondback terrapins, Malaclemys terrapin,on 1999.0199) Bermuda: native or introduced? Chelonian Conserv. Biol. Olson, S. L., Hearty, P. J. & Pregill, G. K. 2006 Geological 4, 956–959. constraints on evolution and survival in endemic reptiles Ellison, J. C. 1996 Pollen evidence of Late Holocene in Bermuda. J. Herpetol. 40, 394–398. (doi:10.1670/ mangrove development in Bermuda. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 0022-1511(2006)40[394:GCOEAS]2.0.CO;2) Lett. 5, 315–326. (doi:10.2307/2997587) Sterrer, W., Glasspool, A., De Silva, H. & Furbet, J. 2004 Grady, J. M., Coykendall, D. K., Collette, B. B. & Quattro, Bermuda—an island biodiversity transported. In The J. M. 2001 Taxonomic diversity, origin, and conservation effects of human transport on ecosystems: cars and planes, status of Bermuda killifishes (Fundulus) based on mito- boats and trains (eds J. Davenport & J. L. Davenport), chondrial cytochrome b phylogenies. Conserv. Genet. 2, pp. 118–170. Dublin, Ireland: Royal Irish Academy. 41–52. (doi:10.1023/A:1011584318289) Wares, J. P., Goldwater, D. S., Kong, B. Y. & Cunningham, Grosholz, E. 2002 Ecological and evolutionary conse- C. W. 2002 Refuting a controversial case of a human- quences of coastal invasions. Trends Ecol. Evol. 17, mediated marine species introduction. Ecol. Lett. 5, 22–27. (doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02358-8) 577–584. (doi:10.1046/j.1461-0248.2002.00359.x)
Biol. Lett. (2008) ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
Parham, J. F., Outerbridge, M. E., Stuart, B. L., Wingate, D. B., Erlenkeuser, H. &
Papenfuss, T. J. Introduced delicacy or native species? A natural origin of
Bermudian terrapins supported by fossil and genetic data. Biology Letters.
Discovery of Malaclemys terrapin on Bermuda!
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