NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2009 — page 1 of 31

Assessment Schedule – 2009 History: Examine a significant historical situation in the context of change, in an essay (90658) Evidence Statement

Achievement Achievement with Merit Achievement with Excellence

Through her / his response to the first Through her / his response to the Through the breadth, depth and / or part of the essay question, the first part of the essay question, the range of the ideas in her / his candidate has described a significant candidate has described in detail response to the first part of the situation in the context of change. a significant situation in the context essay question, the candidate has of change. comprehensively described a significant situation in the context of change. (See content guidelines for examples (See content guidelines for (See content guidelines for of relevant historical information that examples of relevant historical examples of relevant historical could be included in the candidate’s information that could be included information that could be included answer.) in the candidate’s answer.) in the candidate’s answer.)

Through her / his response to the Through her / his response to the Through the breadth, depth and / or second part of the question the second part of the question the range of the ideas in her / his candidate has described the candidate has evaluated the response to the second part of the influence of the situation on people influence of the situation on people question the candidate has comprehensively evaluated the This evaluation should involve influence of the situation on people analysis which may include weighing up the influences that this This evaluation should involve situation had on people, eg analysis and comprehensive positive influences weighed up weighing up the influences that this against negative ones or one situation had on people, eg theory about the influence positive influences weighed up contrasted with another. against negative ones or one theory about the influence contrasted with another. (See content guidelines for examples (See content guidelines for (See content guidelines for of relevant historical information that examples of relevant historical examples of relevant historical could be included in the candidate’s information that could be included information that could be included answer.) in the candidate’s answer.) in the candidate’s answer.) The candidate has structured and The candidate has structured and The candidate has structured and organised her / his information using organised her / his information organised her / his information an appropriate essay format. using an appropriate essay using an appropriate and format. effective essay format. • Introductory paragraph • Relevant, structured and logically • Introductory paragraph • Introductory paragraph sequenced paragraphs • Relevant, structured and • Relevant, structured, and • Conclusion. logically sequenced paragraphs logically sequenced paragraphs • Conclusion. • Conclusion

The candidate has provided an The candidate has provided a argument, ie the candidate has convincing argument, ie the stated a view and supported it with candidate has a clearly articulated relevant and accurate evidence view and has supported it with (probably most evident in the sound reasoning and relevant, evaluative part of her / his essay.) accurate, and significant evidence (probably most evident in the evaluative part of her / his essay.)

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2009 — page 2 of 31

Content Guidelines Topic One: Early Modern England 1559-1667

Topic One: Essay One Describe the practice of courtship and marriage for people in different social groups in England between 1558 and 1667. Evaluate the ways in which marriage and the birth of children affected the lives of people in these social groups.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: • Marriage was one of the most momentous steps in a person’s life. All contemporary writers placed a great stress upon making a careful choice of marriage partner. In practice, most young people sought parental consent for whom and when they should court and marry. Young people were subject to the head of the house and had obligations to their families that lasted beyond when they physically left home or were no longer economically dependent. • There was often a formal process of courtship before marriage. The ideal courtship involved a process of presenting tokens of love such as gloves, engraved coins or carved spoons. If these were accepted, more meetings would take place between the couple. Even when an ideal partner was found, friends and family could interfere to prevent the match, if they felt their interests were threatened. If parental approval was gained, a formal agreement or promise to marry would occur. • Private agreements to marry were discouraged by Church authorities. Difficulties of proof were magnified if there had been no witnesses to the vow of intention to marry. Church court records suggest some women were beguiled by a promise to marry or simply succumbed to sexual desire and were then deserted. Courts tried to enforce ‘liable fathers’ to assume responsibility for children born out of wedlock. An unmarried woman with a child could be a considerable financial burden on the parish. For example, in 1592, John Lingley, a goldsmith, was made to take out a bond of two shillings per week to support a pregnant Elizabeth Phillips. • There was broad agreement that all levels of society benefited if marriages were solemnised in a properly conducted church wedding. Nonetheless, among the governed classes, handfasting and betrothal de futuro were also acceptable. Marriage was regarded literally as a lifetime bond, supposed to last until one partner died. • For the wealthier classes, marriage was a device for cementing or improving family fortunes. A girl could be placed, by her father or guardian, in an arranged marriage at the age of 7. Such arranged marriages were accompanied by a jointure or dowry – a sum of money or land, which was given to the future husband by the bride’s family. Arranged child marriages were not usually consummated until the girl reached puberty. If the prospective husband died after the girl’s ninth birthday, she was able to keep the dowry. A girl could marry at the age of 12, but she needed the consent of her father or guardian. At the age of 14, a girl could agree to marry without her father’s consent. • Even for poor people, marriage was not undertaken without some careful forethought. The expense of a wife and children could put pressure on a poorer breadwinner’s resources. Most couples married in their mid to late 20s. Young men, who were apprentices, could not legally finish their time until they were 24. They could not easily acquire the material possessions and freedom to marry until they reached this stage of independence. • Love and sexual attraction alone were not popularly regarded as sufficient reason for marriage. The age, wealth, social connections and religion of the marriage partner were considered more important factors in the decision. Love could grow after marriage. • Heads of families frequently interfered to prevent unsuitable matches. The most used penalty for disobedience was disinheritance. Incompatibility in families could bring public humiliation and lawsuits. Examples include Bess of Hardwick and Anne Clifford. • While families played an important part in choosing marriage partners, the role of the future husband and wife was also significant – the higher the social level, the greater the parental involvement. Popular writing upheld the value of young people gaining the consent of their parents to a marriage. o Peerage and gentry: − married earliest − shorter courtships − least freedom of choice − greater emphasis on economic matters; less on personal preference. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2009 — page 3 of 31

o Yeomen and husbandmen: − married latest − reasonable freedom of choice

− marrying without parental / family consent could result in a withdrawl of dowry or inheritance. o Artisans, labourers, the poor: − married earlier than yeomen and husbandmen − greatest freedom of choice − greater opportunities for private courtship − least obligation to seek parental advice or consent − parish officials tried to prevent marriages of homeless couples.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: • Marriage was a life-changing decision for both men and women that would initiate a family unit providing for the couple’s economic, sexual and companionship needs and permit the begetting of heirs to inherit the family property. Therefore, marriage was generally delayed until a couple had whatever was required to establish and maintain an independent nuclear family. • Marriage was a significant public occasion and spectacle and the frequent cause of much subsequent financial distress for families. The planning and execution of a ‘suitable match’ was considered the high point of a woman’s life among the peerage and gentry. • Marriage was often defined as the start of a woman’s life, or at least the watershed to which all other prior events had led. A married younger sister would take precedence in the family over an older spinster. In church, married women sat separately and even sometimes dressed or wore their hair differently. • The governing class tended to marry young because they had inherited wealth and planned to secure the next generation of family heirs. The governed class, on the other hand, had to wait until they had amassed or received the means to begin a new family unit (economic conditions and natural disasters could affect this). Periods when late marriage was common tended to reduce the numbers of children born and raise the proportion of unmarried adults. • Marriage could well have a considerable effect on personal wealth and property. It was also the key medium of social advancement. • Childbirth was a risky consequence of marriage, but the wife’s place was thereby elevated in the family – especially as a mother of a son. Women in the governed class often left service to nurture their children. The governing class generally could afford wet-nurses and servants to care for the children so that the wife could return to reproducing further heirs. • For the husband, fatherhood confirmed his headship of an independent family unit, and highlighted that he had the potential to perpetuate the family name and pass on an inheritance. This status entitled a man to the vote in many boroughs. • Breakdown in marriage led to some annulments for the governing class, but more often irregular separations. In England, innocent parties were not allowed by law to remarry. • The doctrine of coverture stated that ‘Man and wife were one person, and that person was the husband’. The wife had few rights over her body in relation to her husband. Wife beating was legal, although society generally disapproved of it. Prosecution for marital rape was legally impossible. • The wife’s earnings belonged to her husband, and she could neither sue nor be sued in a civil action. Any dowry or personal property she inherited became her husband’s unless there were special provisions in the will. A married woman had the right to be maintained by her husband during his lifetime. If she outlived him, she was entitled to a jointure – one-third of his estate if she had children, one half if she did not. • Contemporary examples of the practice of courtship and marriage include Sir Lucius Carey, Mary Boyle, Peg Oxinden, Ralph Josselin, Henry Newcombe, Roger Lowe, or Alice Smith. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2009 — page 4 of 31

Topic One: Essay Two Describe significant features of the English rural economy and any changes to it between 1558 and 1667. Evaluate the impact that the rural economy had on the lives of ordinary people during this time.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:

• England was an agrarian nation, and the rural economy was predominant. • The majority of the population (90—95%) was tied to the land and living in farms and a network of small towns and villages. This proportion did not differ greatly even by the end of the period. • Rural land provided wealth in rents, profits and wages and was the most important employer. There was mixed farming of corn (grain – mostly wheat and barley) and grazing, with meat consumption growing. Labour use was intensive and seasonally conditioned (milking, sowing and harvesting). Wood was coppiced or grown in standards – its maintenance was essential because of the universality of its uses. Mining was a minor, if important, activity. • The rural economy operated only a little above subsistence – the majority of the population lived with little in reserve so that when harvests failed, there were years of poverty and illness. • Food, fuel, clothing and shelter were all provided by local labour and resources. All agricultural production was for local consumption with any (generally small) surplus sold in local markets. The dangers and risks of transporting goods inhibited trading outside the local region. • Agricultural production provided the foundation for virtually all other economic activities. o The agricultural economy was a source of demand for urban services and industrial goods − Towns had important functions as finishers as well as consumers of agricultural products. Some of the larger towns had multiple specialist market areas for fish, meat, horses, cloth, etc. − Industry was largely a myriad of small-scale crafts that employed rural workers at the times when labour demands on farms were less intense. Even the most important industrial trade product (cloth) was based on rural cottage production. Most products were intended for local consumption and agricultural use — scythes, shoes, and stirrups. Most non-mineral raw materials for industry came from the agricultural economy — wool, hides, linen flax and vegetable dyes. o Agricultural production generated capital for investment in other parts of the economy − Most investment in industry and trade came from successful farmers and landowners. o Ownership of rural land acted as a source for status − The rural economy affected the profits of landed wealth. Careful management of one’s estates could increase wealth and social status. Successful farmers had the potential for upward social mobility. • Attempts to improve the rural economy tended to be local and regional rather than national. o Agriculture in many areas was gradually improving with the demand for food and clothing products from a steadily growing population. Fluctuations happened with bad harvests and outbreaks of plague. o Increased amounts of land were brought into production – wastelands, swamps and forests. o The practice of enclosure improved pastoral productivity. o Interest (as evidenced in published writings) about improvements in agricultural practice were beginning. Techniques that could be mentioned were the use of fertilizer (‘denshiring’ marl, and lime), ley farming (a longer fallow period with heavier manuring), water meadowing, growing peas and legumes for soil improvement and winter animal feed crops (turnips and carrots) as a second crop after the grain was harvested. o Some specialisation occurred such as animal fattening and market gardening near urban areas.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: • The rural economy had a number of problems that affected the lives of people. o The growing season was about 5 months. Low temperatures often inhibited growth. Periods of drought could lead to famine. o Poor farming methods tended to drain the fertility of the soil. Cooperation was needed in communities to ensure this did not happen.

o There were conflicts over the use of land – three-field / open field systems, enclosure, use of the manorial courts – that could affect individuals and their capacity to survive. o Access to common pasture was essential to the survival of some farmers. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2009 — page 5 of 31

o The clearing of forests for agriculture created timber crises for the poor – the rights of woodbote, firebote and pannage. o The seasonal labour-intensive nature of agriculture meant communities were highly dependent on each other at times. o Grain supplies were in high demand at times of food crises as the population expanded. This could lead to disorder and rioting when some were starving. • There were generally observable differences in the lives of people who were lowland or highland farmers. o Lowlands: nucleated villages dominated the landscape of the lowlands, often only 2–5 miles apart. Each possessed a resident landlord and a parish church. o Highlands: settlements were more remote and dispersed, with many farmhouses standing alone and subsistence farming more evident. Fewer villages had a resident landlord, and social customs relating to grazing and inheritance tended to be different. • Attempts to improve agricultural production influenced the lives of people o Enclosure and other agricultural changes did subject some agricultural workers to eviction from their tenancy, displacement or unemployment. Candidates may debate the extent of this occurrence, but there were subsequent increases in vagabondage, depopulation in some areas, and a drift to woodlands, fens and urban centres. o The increase in wheat growing was beneficial to the health of the nation, improving the amount of protein in people’s diets. o Cheaper food created a rise in real wages, stimulating a demand for industrial goods, while improved agriculture created more raw materials for industry – wool, hides, linen, flax and vegetable dyes. o Successful entrepreneurial farmers were able to move up into the gentry class. They often bought out smaller neighbours, left legacies of park-like estates, or invested in industry and trade. o The gradually decreasing need for labour in rural areas through the period provided people for towns, and the New World colonies. o Good years for agriculture provided the financial surpluses for trade. By the late 17th century, England exported more food than she imported. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2009 — page 6 of 31

Topic One: Essay Three Describe the nature of the royal prerogative under Elizabeth I, and her management of the Privy Council and the royal court between 1558 and 1603. Evaluate the extent to which Elizabeth manipulated her ministers and favourites.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: • Sir Thomas Smith, one of Elizabeth’s Privy Councillors, observed ‘the prince is the life, the head, and the authority of all things that be done in the realm of England’. The royal prerogative gave her: o power of appointment to all offices, both in State and Church o right of summoning, proroguing and dismissing of Parliament o veto or assent of any act of Parliament o decision-making in religion o command of foreign policy and in wartime o power to dispense or suspend justice, create new courts and appoint judges o authority to mint money or revalue o impose customs duties to regulate trade and commerce o rule by proclamation and raise forced loans. • The monarch and Privy Council formed the chief administrative and executive body that met regularly and travelled around with the royal court. The functions of the Privy Council were: o to advise the monarch on policy o to ensure orderly government and security of the state o to consider petitions from private individuals to the queen o to exercise some judicial functions. • Growth in the amount of business through Elizabeth’s reign is evidenced in the increasing frequency of its meetings from three days per week to daily. Elizabeth did not always attend its meetings, but she was determined to show she was in charge. o She kept the Council small (19 in 1559) and a mixture of peers and gentry. Most of the work was done in small groups of four or five. o She had the ability to pick and trust competent advisers, eg William Cecil. o She expected them to show ability and be completely loyal to her. o She kept accurate notes of meetings and participated in discussions. o She consulted men outside the council, especially foreign ambassadors. o She promoted divisions among her councillors, encouraging them to compete for rewards. o She displayed affection, anger and rudeness. o She was cautious and often delayed making important decisions. • The Royal Court was the centre of political power and culture. Great men at Court strove to gain the ear of the monarch through political argument, competent service, intellectual or cultural brilliance, feats of great daring or physical endurance, and the beauty of their person or their wives. Their patronage of writers, actors, musicians, theologians, and academics that might impress the monarch was also important. Royal favourites potentially could influence crown policy and the flow of patronage. Those who obtained favour at court might gain political office in central or local government, high military command, appointments to bishoprics, judgeships or academic posts, royal sponsorship, or grants of money, land or titles. • The Court as centre of English public life gave lesser men opportunities to meet powerful patrons and have themselves accepted as clients. This ‘second tier’ of courtiers aimed to gain favour from the great men with direct access to the monarch in return for loyalty and support. They sought positions in local and regional government and lower level positions in central government. A patron might also nominate them as MPs, gain them commissions in the armed service, or appointment to well-paid legal positions. These lesser men, in turn, would be cultivated by a lower level of clients, possibly from outside the Court. • The Court operated wherever the Monarch happened to be. For example, Elizabeth would often go on a progress to the southern counties, but most of the time, she resided in one of the great royal palaces such as Whitehall. More than a thousand people generally attended court; and when it was not possible to house everyone, some had to lodge nearby. • Everyone who was permitted to court had access to the Presence Chamber – a great hall in which the monarch would give audience and where all entertainment such as plays, masques, balls and general socializing took place. Access to other parts of the palace depended on status and relationship to the NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2009 — page 7 of 31

monarch. The Monarch had two private rooms, the Privy Chamber and the Bedchamber (although was rarely, if ever, alone in either). Government officials and Ambassadors were entertained here. • On her accession, Elizabeth was a young woman and because of religious conflict and the absence of an heir was at great risk. She used her gender to advantage in both genuine and ‘game’ courtships, making the Court a showpiece of personal monarchy. o She sponsored a cult of Gloriana through display at tournaments, plays and masques and use of the tradition of courtly love. Her court was famed for its splendour and ceremony. o The courtly game of Gloriana was an effective tool of policy for keeping male ambition in check and maintaining a dignified and attractive court image to outsiders. o She spread patronage widely, but not lavishly, and was careful to balance the influence of favourites and ministers, eg Leicester v Walsingham. o She was not extravagant with rewards such as titles eg created few peers. o Elizabeth was successful in developing a positive relationship with her subjects by using competition at Court and distribution of patronage to play off one faction against another, but giving all the hope that they might receive some favour.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: • Elizabeth’s ministers were her privy councillors, often noted for their ability and loyalty in performing their official duties, but not necessarily liked by the monarch, eg Sir Francis Walsingham. Some, like Sir William Cecil, were highly trusted and long-serving (Cecil for 40 years). She kept appointments to the highest levels of government few and well-balanced, permitting continuity and stability in government. • Although all the men who frequented the court were technically courtiers, the role of the traditional favourite was very different to the role of the councillor or minister. For example, Elizabeth generally expected her favourites, like Robert Dudley, to be handsome and athletic companions, flamboyant in dress and manner, who would charm her in the courtly love tradition with flattery, gifts, music, dancing, and words of love and devotion. Married men as well as single men could play this game with the Queen. It was part of the courtly ideal and not necessarily meant to be taken to the personal level. Favourites could expect to receive considerable patronage, but not have a huge influence on government policy. • Elizabeth was careful to spread the available patronage over a wide circle, ensuring there was plenty of healthy competition for it. Her successor, James, was much more extravagant than Elizabeth, with grants of wealth and titles and his favourites dominated access to his person and bedchamber – his position as a foreigner may have compelled him to act this way. • To some extent, Elizabeth may have manipulated and sustained the rivalries between her ministers and favourites to suit her own purposes, but they were just as capable of attempting to influence her for their own ends. o At the start of her reign, the discreet and loyal minister, William Cecil (Burghley), saw Elizabeth’s favourite Robert Dudley (Leicester) as a mere adventurer, who, despite his marriage to Amy Robsart, was determined to woo the Queen to gain power and wealth and start wars for his own purposes. Dudley was handsome, a talented horseman and childhood friend of Elizabeth, but his arrogance caused him to be disliked and distrusted by others. After the scandal of Dudley’s wife’s death (accident or murder?), Elizabeth made it plain she would not marry Dudley, but he was at the centre of preventing any other suitor that Cecil advanced for Elizabeth’s hand in marriage from being successful. Constantly casting Elizabeth as the champion of Protestantism, he sought military command of expeditions to support Protestant rebels in France and the Netherlands. One must also wonder how far Cecil’s fears of losing influence with the Queen motivated his mistrust of Dudley. o Toward the end of Elizabeth’s reign, Robert Cecil, groomed to succeed his father as chief minister, viewed a favourite, Robert Devereux (Essex), as his principal rival. Cecil’s impatience led him to exploit the patronage system as a means to gain prizes for himself and his followers and reduce Essex’s power. Essex was young, dashing and invariably charming around the Queen. He played the Gloriana game to perfection, openly claiming he was jealous of other men at court. He was also eager for military glory in campaigns against the Spanish and to be able to dispense patronage to his friends and relatives. During a heated debate on who should be sent as Lord Deputy to quell the Irish revolt, Essex turned his back on the Queen and she ‘boxed him upon the ear’ for the insult. After a disastrous campaign in Ireland, Essex attempted a rebellion but failed, leaving Cecil supreme.

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2009 — page 8 of 31

Topic One: Essay Four Describe the changes that different monarchs made to England’s foreign policy between 1585 and 1630. Evaluate the ways in which each of these changes influenced the relationship between the monarch and the governing class.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: • From 1558 to 1585, there had been a general decline in relations between England and Spain. England’s economy depended heavily on the export of cloth to Antwerp in the Spanish Netherlands. Through that period, Queen Elizabeth was prepared to allow the Netherlands to be under loose Spanish control in favour of relinquishing it to possible French expansion, which she saw as far more dangerous until the potential threat of a French invasion using Scotland had been contained in 1582. • Council and Parliament called for intervention in the Netherlands and France to show solidarity with the Protestant cause in Europe. Although she had a personal dislike of war and distrust of rebels, Elizabeth aided the Dutch rebels, unofficially sending money and volunteers, and permitted French Huguenots to use England as a base and English Protestants to assist them with munitions and loans. • Elizabeth delayed declaring war against Spain until England’s security was directly threatened in 1585. She knew that England lacked military resources and that war brought crippling expenditure. Although she had a powerful navy, England did not have a standing army and local militias were not necessarily well trained or properly equipped. • The defeat of the Spanish Armada boosted England’s status as the leader of Protestant resistance to the Catholic Counter-reformation. She maintained command of the sea, thwarting further armadas and striking at Philip’s naval bases in Spain and raiding the New World silver fleets through to 1603 without much success. • She also continued her support for the Dutch rebels and French Huguenots. A strong independent Netherlands emerged by 1603, and England gained an ally on the French throne in Henry IV. Even though Henry converted to Catholicism in 1593, Huguenots were guaranteed freedom of worship under the Edict of Nantes in 1598. • Catholic Ireland always had the potential to be used by the Spanish as a base for an invasion of England. Hugh O’Neill, Earl of Tyrone rebelled against the English, made contact with Spain and gained the support of a Spanish army, which landed at Kinsale. Elizabeth was forced into an expensive campaign in Ireland, sending the Earl of Essex and later Lord Mountjoy to repress the rebellion and secure the country. • The costs of Elizabethan foreign policy had been high, but the realm had been kept secure and the Protestant cause in Europe had been advanced. • James’s personal motto was ‘Beati Pacifici’ (Blessed are the Peacemakers). He had a personal distaste for violence and war. His succession to the English throne and the Union of England and Scotland gave impetus to his ambition to be the mediator of European peace through the marriage of his children to Catholic and Protestant dynasties. He realised war was a financial drain on the country. Peace would allow trade to prosper, increasing royal revenue, and could help win trading concessions overseas. • The Treaty of London with Spain (1604) immediately stamped his authority on English foreign policy, and his success in helping secure the Truce of Antwerp between the Dutch and the Spanish in 1609 gave credence to his ambition to be the broker of a general European peace between Protestant and Catholic. • James’s arrangement of marriage of his daughter Elizabeth to the Elector of the Palatinate (a Protestant German prince) in 1613 was received with enthusiasm. However, the later outbreak of the Thirty Years War (1618–1648) and loss of the Palatinate produced intense pressure on James for decisive action to obtain its return and defend the Protestant cause. • His plan to secure a Catholic marriage for his son, Charles, to the Spanish Infanta may have been to bolster his capacity to act as a mediator in the conflict, and obtain a large dowry to pay his debts, but it was anathema to most Englishmen. • The failure of the Duke of Buckingham and Prince Charles to secure the Spanish marriage during their visit to Madrid in 1623 unleashed a wave of public rejoicing. Buckingham and Charles, riding the popular acclaim, then urged action against Spain and the recovery of the Palatinate through a French marriage and military endeavour. • The mismanagement of those expeditions led by Buckingham pushed England into embarrassing disasters and conflict with both Spain and France at the same time.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: • In parliament, Elizabeth was careful to distinguish those subjects that touched on her prerogative rights (such as foreign policy) and could not be freely discussed. Parliament was not meant to be a place of conflict, but one of co-operation. Political stability was the shared objective of Crown and governing class. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2009 — page 9 of 31

• It is possible to argue that the harmony present in the earlier years of Elizabeth’s reign was beginning to leach away after 1585 as a result of the strains of her foreign policy on the nation’s finances. The 1590s were years of dearth, unemployment, forced loans, and repeated calls for subsidies as the Spanish war dragged on. The prolongation and expense of the Spanish war and Irish rebellion made the summoning of parliaments more frequent, and there was resentment over monopolies being used by Elizabeth as rewards for loyal service raising the cost of staple items. The monopolies debate of 1601 was a clear signal of a widespread grievance the governing class was raising in parliament with the intention of forcing a remedy from the crown. • Nonetheless, by the end of 1601, Elizabeth had disarmingly agreed to suspend the offending monopolies and had handled the Spanish armadas, Irish crisis and Essex rising with resolution that belied any image of her authority and popularity decaying. Parliament had also through the 1590s set precedents in increasing the number of subsidies granted to a monarch (two in 1589, three in 1593 and 1597, and four in 1601). Parliamentarians looked back on the last 15 years of Elizabeth’s reign as a golden age in which people and ruler united against all odds, and with divine providence had survived a period of extreme peril from the malevolence of Roman Catholics. These may have been years of severe financial strain, but Elizabethan foreign policy had generally met with approval from the governing class. • On the other hand, foreign affairs were a major contributing factor in worsening relations between the governing class and the Stuart kings. Foreign policy was an unquestioned part of the monarch’s prerogative, but had the capacity to link key issues such as religion, finance and royal authority. When policy was followed that was clearly at variance with the wishes of the majority of the governing class, that policy was bound to become controversial and have major political repercussions. • James was under intense pressure to follow the Elizabethan policy of defending the Protestant cause in Europe. Nonetheless, he was hoping to keep England out of wars there and instead receive the release of the Palatinate as part of the Spanish marriage negotiations. However, a Catholic marriage for Charles engendered hostile reactions. Parliament feared the subjection of England to Spanish ambitions abroad or unwelcome concessions to English Catholics at home. James told the Commons not to discuss foreign policy when he opened the 1621 Parliament. The Commons replied with their Protestation arguing their right of free speech, which James angrily tore out of the Journal of the House. • In a complete turnaround, after the Spanish match failed, James invited the 1624 parliament to advise him on foreign policy – a possible war against Spain. The debates that followed led to the granting of subsidies for a war but spending to be supervised by a Commons committee. Under pressure from Buckingham and Charles, James had reversed his foreign policy and invited parliament to accept the financial responsibility of the war to come. However, by perhaps inadvertently encouraging parliament’s inroads into the royal prerogative, Buckingham and Charles laid the platform for the demise of royal authority that would eventually lead to their own deaths. • After James’s death, Buckingham and Charles made concessions over religion – which was scandalous to most Englishmen – in order to obtain military assistance from the French and the marriage to Henrietta Maria. Catholics were to be granted toleration and Charles’s children brought up as Catholic. The military assistance was not actually forthcoming, and the marriage in 1625 proved initially to be very unhappy. • In 1626, the governing class attempted to impeach Buckingham in the House of Commons, for using subsidies for wasteful military disasters that had not been endorsed by parliament. • Charles ran into conflicts with parliament over mismanagement of foreign policy to the extent England was now at war with both France and Spain, forced billeting to defend England’s south coast and relaxation of recusancy laws against Catholics. After Buckingham’s assassination by an aggrieved soldier, Charles felt parliament was refusing to finance a war to which it had agreed and he decided to rule without it. This caused a breakdown of trust between himself and his governing class that ended in civil war and the loss of his throne.

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2009 — page 10 of 31

Topic One: Essay Five Describe the military situation Charles I encountered at the beginning of the civil war in 1642. Evaluate the extent to which Charles I’s leadership and changes to the military situation he faced were responsible for the eventual royalist defeat by 1648.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: • At the beginning of the civil war, Charles was in an advantageous position. o He was the rightful leader of England, and obedience to him was imprinted on the minds of the populace. o The peers and higher ranked among the governing class tended to support Charles, giving him an initial financial and military advantage. They gave him generous donations and paid their troops out of their own pocket, and several had officer experience from the wars raging in Europe. o He could call on foreign support through his French wife, Henrietta Maria, and the military experience and cavalry units of his nephews Prince Rupert and Prince Maurice. Rupert was to introduce innovative tactics such as the use of earthworks around towns, modified cavalry charges and converging columns of infantry. o He held the North and West, the poorer more sparsely populated section of the country. o He held control of Newcastle’s coal supplies, cutting London off from its main source of fuel. o He initially had a loyal, well-motivated army with professional expertise and a unified command. o He was poised to march on London, blockade it and look to the distress caused to its citizens to bring about a collapse of Parliament’s will to resist. • Parliament: o held the South and East, the wealthier more densely populated parts of the country. This gave them in the long term greater opportunity to equip and raise large armies o held London, the capital city and centre of government, commerce and finance o was in control of most of the ports and could levy customs duties. o had support of the Navy – by blockading ports, they could make it difficult for Charles to get support from abroad o had control of the iron industry of the Weald for making cannon. o However, there was some division amongst Parliamentarians as to their ultimate aim; some sought a negotiated peace with Charles, others aimed for nothing less than the complete military defeat of the King. o Also, initially, Parliamentary armies were made up of amateur soldiers led by commanders who held their position by virtue of the social status rather than military skills. • The war split the nation as a whole. The gentry in twenty counties pleaded with Parliament to allow them to be neutral, but all areas were dragged into the fighting in some way. Both sides recruited as many men as possible, often from the same areas. Initially, they relied on volunteers; later, they had to forcibly conscript. • Desertion was common. Loyalty was to their county rather than King or Parliament. Most were chiefly concerned with the fortunes of their local community, moreso than national politics or the possible outcome of the war. In some counties, armed groups, called Clubmen, organised to try to persuade the Royalists and Parliamentarians to take their war somewhere else, usually without success.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: • Charles made himself commander-in-chief despite his inexperience and often failed to heed the best advice available in the midst of the factions and rivalries surrounding him. He had the initial advantage and failed to use it to take London in 1642–3. The royalist effort became fragmented because Charles was unable to control the conflicting aims and ambitions of his commanders adequately. Some were later to alienate local populations by allowing indiscriminate plundering. Royalist strategy often lacked decisive direction. The hesitation and lack of judgement he had shown all his life, contributed in no small measure to the royalist failure. • His organisation of the war effort was slow to get under way. Initially, Charles was sensitive to the burdens of war in the areas under his control and moderated his demands for resources. He introduced potentially unpopular measures such as impressments and excise duty long after Parliament had done so. By then, his armies were shrinking because soldiers could not be paid. • However, it cannot be said that failures of leadership and administration on the part of Charles were solely responsible for the royalist defeat. Parliament at first had similar weaknesses. What made them so damaging was that they had fewer resources and long-term advantages to squander. With Parliament in NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2009 — page 11 of 31

control of navy and most of the major ports, Charles was never able to make full use of his foreign allies. The expense of war meant he needed to make full use of his initial advantages with a rapid strike. Long term, because of the superiority of its resources, the advantage would move towards Parliament. • Gradually, the military situation changed as Parliament began to organise its superior resources. They established a Committee of Safety to administer the war effort and relied on Lord Lieutenants and county committees to levy compulsory weekly rates (the assessment) and organise defence in the counties. This depended to a large extent on the considerable organisational skill of John Pym to get these separate committees to override their local prejudices and act in unison. The introduction of an excise tax on staple items after 1643 and customs duties laid the basis for a reasonably effective financial structure to the war effort. These taxes were collected in an efficient and, at times, ruthless manner from areas under Parliament’s control. By the latter years of the war, over a million pounds was being raised annually for the Parliamentary war effort. After Pym died, the Committee of Safety was replaced by a Committee of Both Kingdoms, which was more committed to decisively defeating Charles rather than simply coming to a settlement with him.

• The situation was further changed when the battle-hardened Scottish army of over 20 000 men joined Parliament’s side in 1643, once again largely because of Pym. They were promised, in the Solemn League and Covenant, that England would adopt a Presbyterian Church system after the war. They tilted the balance in Parliament’s favour from 1644–46 and secured the north at the Battle of Marston Moor, but victory was still by no means assured or automatic. • The military re-organisation of the parliamentary forces was perhaps the most crucial element in ensuring the eventual royalist defeat. The Self-denying Ordinance 1644 proposed a separation of political and military functions, relieving Essex, Manchester and others of their commands to allow for the establishment of the New Model Army under Fairfax and Cromwell. Men of social status gave way to men of military skill. The new army was to be well-paid, professionally trained and disciplined, and without regional affiliations. It had promotion by merit and encouraged religious enthusiasm and godly discipline. It became an army convinced of the righteousness of its cause and committed to total victory. Its capacity to be a rapid response, formidable fighting unit brought about a complete military victory for Parliament. • Ironically, the existence of this army made the task of establishing a political settlement with the king far more difficult. When Charles surrendered to the Scots in 1645, Parliament paid its debts to the Scottish to take possession of the King and have their forces withdraw from England, ending the first civil war. But Parliament then ordered disbandment of the New Model Army without their pay arrears being settled. This caused the army to move on London and secure custody of the King, making it clear they now expected a role in any political settlement. • However, when Charles escaped and secured Scot and Welsh support for a second civil war in 1648, he made it clear he could not be trusted to accept the verdict of Providence. After Cromwell’s defeat of his forces at Preston, the New Model Army purged Parliament to ensure it could successfully try to execute the ‘man of blood’. His obstinacy and deceit meant negotiation was not an option. Charles’s inadequacies, at least as much as the military strategies of Parliament, had brought about a total defeat of the royalist cause.

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2009 — page 12 of 31

Topic One: Essay Six Describe the changes that occurred to the religious situation in Britain during the Restoration between 1660 and 1667. Evaluate the impact of the Restoration on the lives of religious non-conformists and Roman Catholics.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: • Charles II had promised a degree of religious toleration in the declarations from Breda, but this was not possible in the light of parliamentary attitudes that flowed over from the Interregnum. • After Charles’s return to England, Edward Hyde became Lord Chancellor and was created Earl of Clarendon (1661). He hoped to achieve a lenient religious settlement after the instability of the Civil War and Interregnum that would conciliate the Puritans and be more inclusive and comprehensive, but his wishes were overborne by the militantly Anglican Cavalier Parliament, which passed the unjustly named Clarendon Code. Clarendon himself opposed their enactment; but after their passage, he did work for their enforcement. • There was an intense desire to return to normalcy and the rule of law. For most parliamentarians, Anglicanism, as in the Elizabethan Church settlement, would ensure a return to traditional structures and religious and social stability. The first real legislative onslaught against dissenters came in early 1661 in response to Venner’s Fifth Monarchist rising. • Anglican landed gentry had historically supported the crown, but there remained concerns voiced in parliament at Charles II’s perceived sympathy for Roman Catholicism, especially after his Declaration of Indulgence 1662. They wanted to ensure there was no avenue for popery to revive. • Parliamentarians had a widespread intolerance toward the religious extremes of the Interregnum. Both populist and political forces were motivated towards strictness as any toleration was seen to be a breeding ground for radicalism. Even Presbyterians and moderate independents were tainted by the instability of the period. • The Clarendon Code was, therefore, a group of statutes passed 1661–65 to strengthen the position of the Church of England. o The Corporation Act (1661) required all officers of incorporated municipalities to take communion according to the rites of the Church of England and to abjure the Presbyterian covenant. o The Act of Uniformity (1662) required all ministers and teachers in England and Wales to use and subscribe to the Book of Common Prayer. o The Quaker Act (1662) decreed harsh punishments, including tr