Chapter 10: Qualitative Field Examples of Field Research Research

„ Topics Appropriate to Field Research „ Studying the Satanists (Randall Alfred, 1976) „ Subject: The Church of Satan based in San Francisco „ Special Considerations in Qualitative Field „ Time period: 1968 - 1973 Research „ Became a member of the church, was given administrative as well as magical responsibilities, and was appointed to „ Some Qualitative Field Research Paradigms the “ruling” body of the church „ Life in the streets (Liebow, 1967) „ Conducting Qualitative Field Research Conducting Qualitative Field Research „ Subject: Street life of African Americans „ Strengths and Weaknesses or Qualitative Field „ Made friends with the subjects, recorded what they said, did, and the related contexts Research „ Went to places where the subjects would go „ Helped the subjects by given legal advice „ Research Ethics in Qualitative Field Research

What are the topics appropriate for What are the elements of social life that field research? are appropriate to field research?

„ Attitudes and behaviors best understood in a „ Practices: talking, reading a book natural setting. „ Episodes: divorce, crime, illness „ Encounters: people meeting and interacting „ „ Social processes over time. „ Role: occupations, family roles „ Relationships: friendships, family „ Groups: cliques, teams, work groups „ Organizations: hospitals, schools „ Settlements: neighborhoods, ghettoes „ Social worlds: "wall street", "the sports world“ „ Lifestyles (subcultures): urban, homeless

What are the various roles of the What is reactivity? researcher in field research?

„ Complete participant „ Reactivity „ The researcher's identity and purpose are not known to The problem that the subjects of social research may those being observed in the compete participant role. react to the fact of being studied, thus altering their „ Participant-as-observer behavior from what it would have been normally. „ The researcher fully participates the social activity, but behavior from what it would have been normally. people being studied know the researcher's identity. „ Reactivity becomes an issue when the researcher has „ Observer-as-participant the role of “participant-as-observer” or “observer-as- „ The researcher identifies himself and his purpose, has some interaction but not extensive participation. participant” because in these two cases subjects know „ Complete observer they are being studied. „ The researcher is a complete observer of a social situation „ Reactivity affects the validity of the research. without becoming a part of it.

1 What are the major field research What are the major field research paradigms? paradigms? - Continued

„ Naturalism „ Case studies „ Approach to field research based on the assumption that an objective „ In-depth examination of a single instance of some social phenomenon, social reality exists and can be observed and reported accurately. such as a village, a family, or a juvenile gang. „ The extended case method „ Ethnography „ Technique in which case study observations are used to discover flaws „ A report on social life that focuses on detailed and accurate description in and to improve existing social theories. rather than explanation. „ Institutional ethnography „ Ethnomethodology „ Research technique in which the personal experiences of individuals „ An approach to the study of social life that focuses on the discovery of are used to reveal power relationships and other characteristics of the implicit, usually unspoken assumptions and agreements. institutions within which they operate. „ Grounded theory „ Participatory action research „ Approach to social research in which the people being studied are „ An inductive approach to the study of social life that attempts to given control over the purpose and procedures of the research; intended generate a theory from the constant comparing of unfolding as a counter to the implicit view that researchers are superior to those observations. they study.

What are some important aspects of How to preparing for field work? the process of field research?

„ In most cases, fill in your knowledge of the „ How to prepare for the field? subject by doing a literature review. „ „ How to do sampling in field research? „ Discuss the group you plan to research with an „ How to conduct qualitative interviewing? informant.

„ What are focus groups? „ Develop an identity with the people to be studied: complete participant – complete „ How to record observations? observer and roles in between „ Realize that your initial contact with the group can influence your observations.

How to do sampling in field How to conduct qualitative research? interviews? – Seven stages

„ Nonprobability sampling is common because a 1. Thematizing: clarify the purpose of the interviews sampling frame is usually not available. Any of the and the concepts to be explored following methods can be used. 2. Design: lay out the process through which you will „ Quota sampling accomplish your purpose „ Snowball sampling 3. Interviewing: do the actual interviews „ Deviant cases: Find people different from the rest of the group. 4. Transcribing: create a written text of the interviews „ Problem with generalizability: 5. Analyzing: determine the meaning of the material „ As with all non-probability sampling, one can never know to the topic under study how representative the sample is . As such , generalizability becomes an issue. 6. Verifying and checking facts: check the reliability and validity of the material 7. Reporting: tell others what you have learned

2 What are the advantages of focus What are focus groups? groups?

„ Focus group is a group of subjects interviewed „ Able to capture real-life data in a social environment together, prompting a discussion. Able to capture real-life data in a social environment „ Flexible „ The technique is frequently used by market researchers, who ask a group of consumers to „ High face validity evaluate a product or discuss a type of „ Speedy results commodity, for example. „ Low in cost „ Typically 12-15 people are brought together in „ May bring up issues researchers have not thought a room to engage in a guided discussion of the about research topic.

What are the difficulties and How to take field research notes? disadvantages of focus groups?

„ Less control than individual interviews. „ Don’t trust your memory. Take notes while „ Data can be difficult to analyze. you observe. „ Moderators must be skilled. „ Take sketchy notes in the field and rewrite them later, filling in the details. „ If more than one group is used on the same topic, difference between groups can be „ Record everything. troublesome. • Things that don't seem important may turn out to be significant. „ Groups are difficult to assemble. „ Realize that most of your field notes will not „ Discussion must be conducted in a conducive be reflected in your final project. environment.

What are the strengths of field What are the weaknesses of field research? research?

„ Permits a great depth of understanding. „ Qualitative and not appropriate for statistical

„ Flexibility - research may be modified at any descriptions of populations. time. „ Has potential problems with reliability since

„ Inexpensive field research methods are often personal.

„ Has more validity than surveys or experiments. „ Has potential problems with generalizability because samples are quite often not randomly selected.

3 Think about these questions: Is it ethical? Sample Article „ To talk to people when they don't know you will be recording their words? „ Salari, Sonia M. & Melinda Rich (2002). Social and „ To get information for your own purposes from people you environmental infantilization of aged persons: hate? Observations in two adult day care centers. „ To see a severe need for help and not respond to it International Journal of Aging and Human directly? Development. „ To be in a situation but not commit yourself „ Literature review: wholeheartedly to it? „ Societal treatment of old age as a “second childhood”, especially in „ To be strategic in your relations with others? total institutions, which can cause “self mortification (loss of self identity)”. „ To take sides or avoid taking sides in a factionalized „ Social infantilization can lead to a loss of identity, lowered status, situation? decreased sense of self efficacy, social marginalization, and „ To "pay" people with tradeoffs for access to their lives and humiliation, which will further lead to social responses such as minds? withdrawal, aggressive behaviors, adoption of lowered sense of responsibility and even child-like behavior. „ To "use" people as allies or informants in order to gain entrée to other people or to elusive understandings?

„ Theoretical framework: „ Mode of observation „ Goffman’s total institution leading to self mortification „ Non-participant observations „ Research questions: „ Two researchers „ What are the social interaction patterns of elderly „ Total of 80 hours of observation, approximately 40 persons in the two adult day care centers? at each location „ How do differing levels of infantilization in the social „ Observations occurred within a four month period and environmental settings of the centers lead to varying at random times and days, ranging from 7:30am to atmospheres which require adaptation on the part of 6pm Monday through Friday. elderly clients? „ First center observations in 1989, second center „ Do these adaptations have an impact on the client social observations in 1996 interaction patterns? „ Entry into the center: author contact to the center director

„ What are observed? „ Results:

„ Social interaction patterns „ Center A has a great deal of infantilization

„ Verbal and non-verbal „ Language and behavior examples

„ Client to staff, staff to client, client to client, staff to „ 47 group activities recorded, 74% had some form of staff infantilization

„ Formal activities recorded and counted „ Open style bathroom

„ Infantilization „ Center B has more adult-appropriate speech/ „ Speech behavior patterns and physical environment

„ Behavior „ Language and behavior examples

„ Activities „ 59 group activities recorded, 24 had some form of „ Social environments (bathroom facility as an example) infantilization

„ Private bathroom

4 Read this research article more Try this exercise: carefully:

„ Suppose you are interested in power relationships in hospital „ Salari, Sonia M. & Melinda Rich (2002). Social and settings (e.g., between doctors and nurses, etc.). That is, you suspect doctors have the most power, much more than other environmental infantilization of aged persons: medical professionals. Observations in two adult day care centers. „ Answer the following questions about the power dynamics in a International Journal of Aging and Human medical setting: Development „ How would you study power dynamics in a hospital setting from each of the four roles of the field observer (in 4 separate studies, obviously). „ Think about the process the researchers used. What Explain each scenario. role did they play? Were there ethnical concerns? „ Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of studying power dynamics from each of these 4 roles. Could other modes of observation be used for this „ Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of examining the issues of power topic? What would be the pros and cons of using this dynamics with field research as opposed to surveys. Make sure you include the issues of reliability and validity. method? Are the results generalizable?

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