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Outline of

The following outline is provided as a topical overview of • Empirical method – science: • Experimental method – The steps involved in order Science – systematic effort of acquiring — to produce a reliable and logical conclusion include: through and experimentation coupled with and reasoning to find out what can be proved or 1. Asking a question about a natural not proved—and the knowledge thus acquired. The word 2. Making of the phenomenon “science” comes from the Latin word “scientia” - 3. Forming a – proposed explanation ing knowledge. A practitioner of science is called a for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be a "". Modern science respects objective logical rea- scientific hypothesis, the scientific method re- soning, and follows a set of core procedures or rules in or- quires that one can test it. generally der to determine the and underlying natural laws of base scientific hypotheses on previous obser- the and everything in it. Some scientists do not vations that cannot satisfactorily be explained know of the rules themselves, but follow them through with the available scientific . policies. These procedures are known as the 4. Predicting a logical consequence of the hy- scientific method. pothesis 5. Testing the hypothesis through an – methodical procedure carried out with the 1 Essence of science goal of verifying, falsifying, or establishing the of a hypothesis. The 3 types of scien- • Research – systematic investigation into existing or tific are: new knowledge. • Controlled experiment – experiment that compares the results obtained from an ex- • Scientific discovery – observation of new phenom- perimental against a control sam- ena, new actions, or new events and providing ple, which is practically identical to the new reasoning to explain the knowledge gathered experimental sample except for the one through such observations with previously acquired aspect the effect of which is being tested knowledge from abstract and everyday ex- (the independent variable). periences. • Natural experiment – empirical study in • – facility that provides controlled condi- which the experimental conditions (i.e., tions in which scientific research, experiments, and which units receive which treatment) are measurement may be performed. determined by nature or by other factors out of the control of the experimenters • – the idea that scientists, in attempting and yet the treatment assignment process to uncover truths about the natural , must as- is arguably exogenous. Thus, natural ex- pire to eliminate personal or cognitive biases, a pri- periments are observational studies and ori commitments, emotional involvement, etc. are not controlled in the traditional sense of a randomized experiment. • – any process that has the aim of augmenting • – draws infer- knowledge, resolving doubt, or solving a problem. ences about the possible effect of a treatment on subjects, where the as- signment of subjects into a treated 2 Scientific method group versus a control group is out- side the control of the investigator. Scientific method – body of techniques for investigat- • – applies the scientific ing phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well method to experimentally examine an in- as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. It tervention in the real world (or as many is based on observable, empirical, measurable evidence, experimentalists like to say, naturally oc- and subject to laws of reasoning, both deductive and in- curring environments) rather than in the ductive. laboratory. See also field research.

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6. Gather and analyze from experiments findings, are amongst the criteria and methods used for or observations, including indicators of this purpose. can be broken into 2 main uncertainty. branches: , and physical science. Each of these 7. Draw conclusions by comparing data with pre- branches, and all of their sub-branches, are referred to as dictions. Possible outcomes: natural . • Conclusive: • Branches of natural science (also known as the nat- • The hypothesis is falsified by the ural sciences) data. • Data are consistent with the hypoth- esis. 3.2 • Data are consistent with alternative hypotheses. Formal science – branches of knowledge that are con- • Inconclusive: cerned with formal , such as those under the • Data are not relevant to the hy- branches of: logic, , science, pothesis, or data and are , and some aspects of . Unlike other incommensurate. sciences, the formal sciences are not concerned with the • There is too much uncertainty in the validity of theories based on observations in the real data to draw any conclusion. world, but instead with the properties of formal systems based on definitions and rules. • Deductive-nomological model

• Scientific modelling – • – study of the theoretical founda- tions of and computation and their im- • Models of scientific method plementation and application in computer systems. (See also Branches of Computer Science and ACM • Hypothetico-deductive model – proposed de- Computing Classification ) scription of scientific method. According to it, scientific inquiry proceeds by formulating • of computation – branch that deals a hypothesis in a form that could conceivably with whether and how efficiently problems can be falsified by a test on observable data. A test be solved on a model of computation, using an that could and does run contrary to predictions of the hypothesis is taken as a falsification of the hypothesis. A test that could but does not • – study of mathemati- run contrary to the hypothesis corroborates the cal objects called abstract or au- theory. tomata and the computational problems that can be solved using them. • Formal languages – set of strings of 3 Branches of science symbols. • Computability theory – branch of mathe- See also: Index of branches of science matical logic and computer science that originated in the 1930s with the study of computable functions and Turing de- Branches of science – divisions within science with re- grees. spect to the entity or system concerned, which typically • Computational complexity theory – embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. branch of the in theoretical computer science and 3.1 Natural science mathematics that focuses on classifying computational problems according to Main article: Outline of natural science their inherent difficulty, and relating See also: Outline of science § those classes to each other • Concurrency theory – In computer sci- ence, concurrency is a property of sys- Natural science – major branch of science, that tries to tems in which several computations are explain and predict nature’s phenomena, based on em- executing simultaneously, and potentially pirical evidence. In natural science, hypotheses must interacting with each other be verified scientifically to be regarded as scientific the- ory. Validity, accuracy, and social mechanisms ensuring • – step-by-step procedure for cal- quality control, such as and repeatability of culations 3.2 Formal science 3

• Randomized algorithms – algorithm • reliability – system approach and which employs a degree of randomness associated service implementation that as part of its logic. ensures a prearranged level of operational • Distributed algorithms – algorithm de- performance will be met during a con- signed to run on con- tractual measurement period. structed from interconnected processors • – practice and study of hid- • Parallel algorithms – algorithm which can ing information. be executed a piece at a time on many • Fault-tolerant computing – property that different processing devices, and then put enables a system (often computer-based) back together again at the end to get the to continue operating properly in the correct result. event of the failure of (or one or more faults within) some of its components • Data structures – particular way of storing and organizing data in a computer so that it can be • – field of computer sci- used efficiently. ence that studies distributed systems • Computer – In computer science • Grid computing – federation of com- and , computer architecture is the puter resources from multiple administra- practical art of selecting and interconnecting tive domains to reach a common goal hardware components to create that • – form of computation in meet functional, performance and cost goals which many calculations are carried out simul- and the formal modeling of those systems. taneously, operating on the principle that large • VLSI design – process of creating inte- problems can often be divided into smaller grated circuits by combining thousands of ones, which are then solved concurrently (“in into a single chip parallel”). • • Operating systems – set of that man- High-performance computing – com- ages computer hardware resources and pro- puter at the frontline of current process- vides common services for computer pro- ing capacity, particularly speed of calcu- grams lation • – device for computation • Computer (networks) – col- that makes direct use of quantum mechanical lection of hardware components and comput- phenomena, such as superposition and entan- ers interconnected by chan- glement, to perform operations on data nels that allow sharing of resources and infor- mation • Computer graphics – graphics created using computers and, more generally, the represen- • – branch of applied tation and manipulation of image data by a mathematics and computer with help from specialized software involving the quantification of informa- and hardware. tion • • – global system of intercon- Image processing – any form of signal nected computer networks that use the processing for which the input is an im- standard Internet protocol suite (often age, such as a photograph or video frame; called TCP/IP, although not all applica- the output of image processing may be ei- tions use TCP) to serve billions of users ther an image or a set of characteristics or worldwide. parameters related to the image • Scientific visualization – interdisciplinary • – part of the Inter- branch of science according to Friendly net; system of interlinked (2008) “primarily concerned with the vi- documents accessed via the Internet. sualization of three-dimensional phenom- • Wireless computing – any type of com- ena (architectural, meteorological, medi- puter network that is not connected by ca- cal, biological, etc.), where the emphasis bles of any kind. is on realistic renderings of volumes, sur- • Mobile computing – form of – faces, illumination sources, and so forth, computer interaction by which a perhaps with a dynamic (time) compo- computer is expected to be trans- nent”. ported during normal usage. • Computational – branch of • Computer security – branch of computer tech- computer science devoted to the study of nology known as information security as ap- algorithms which can be stated in terms plied to computers and networks. of geometry 4 3 BRANCHES OF SCIENCE

• Software engineering – application of a sys- • Relational – collection of tematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to data items organized as a set of for- the development, operation, and maintenance mally described tables from which of software; that is the application of - data can be accessed easily ing to software • Distributed database – database in • – particular kind of which storage devices are not all at- mathematically based techniques for the tached to a common CPU. specification, development and verifica- • Object database – database manage- tion of software and hardware systems ment system in which information is • Formal verification – act of proving represented in the form of objects as or disproving the correctness of in- used in object-oriented programming • tended algorithms underlying a sys- – media and content that uses tem with respect to a certain formal a combination of different content forms. specification or property, using for- • hypermedia – computer-based informa- mal methods of mathematics tion retrieval system that enables a user to gain or provide access to texts, audio and • Programming languages – artificial language video recordings, photographs and com- designed to communicate instructions to a ma- puter graphics related to a particular sub- chine, particularly a computer ject. • Programming – fundamental • Data – process that results in the style of computer programming discovery of new patterns in large data • Object-oriented programming – pro- sets gramming using “objects” • Information retrieval – area of study con- – data structures consisting of data cerned with searching for documents, for fields and methods together with their information within documents, and for interactions – to design applications metadata about documents, as well as that and computer programs of searching structured storage, relational • Functional programming – program- , and the World Wide Web. ming paradigm that treats computa- • Artificial intelligence – branch of computer tion as the evaluation of mathemat- science that deals with intelligent , ical functions and avoids state and learning, and adaptation in machines. mutable data • Automated reasoning – area of computer • Program – field concerned with science and dedicated the rigorous mathematical study of the to understand different aspects of - meaning of programming languages ing. • Type theory – any of several formal sys- • – field that includes tems that can serve as alternatives to methods for acquiring, processing, naive set theory, or the study of such for- analysing, and understanding images malisms in general and, in general, high-dimensional data • – computer program (or set from the real world in order to produce of programs) that transforms source code numerical or symbolic information, e.g., written in a (the in the forms of decisions. source language) into another computer • learning – scientific discipline language (the target language, often hav- concerned with the design and develop- ing a binary form known as object code) ment of algorithms that allow comput- • Concurrent programming languages – ers to evolve based on empir- form of computing in which programs ical data, such as from sensor data or are designed as collections of interacting databases • computational processes that may be ex- Artificial neural network – math- ecuted in parallel ematical model or computational model that is inspired by the structure • – interdisciplinary field and/or functional aspects of biologi- primarily concerned with the analysis, collec- cal neural networks tion, classification, manipulation, storage, re- • Natural language processing – field of trieval and dissemination of information computer science, artificial intelligence • Database – organized collection of data, (also called ), and lin- today typically in digital form guistics concerned with the interactions 3.2 Formal science 5

between computers and human (natural) puter science to assist in solving chemical languages. problems • Computational linguistics – interdis- • Computational – study of ciplinary field dealing with the statis- brain function in terms of the informa- tical or rule-based modeling of nat- tion processing properties of the struc- ural language from a computational tures that make up the . perspective. • Computer-aided engineering – broad us- • Expert systems – computer system that age of computer software to aid in engi- emulates the decision-making ability of a neering tasks. human expert • Finite element analysis – numeri- • – branch of that cal technique for finding approximate deals with the design, , oper- solutions of partial differential equa- ation, structural disposition, manufacture tions (PDE) as well as integral equa- and application of robots tions. • Human-computer interaction – study, plan- • Computational fluid dynamics – ning, and design of the interaction between branch of fluid that uses people (users) and computers. numerical methods and algorithms • – study of algorithms to solve and analyze problems that that use numerical approximation (as op- involve fluid flows. posed to general symbolic manipulations) • Computational – research dis- for the problems of mathematical analy- cipline at the interface between computer sis (as distinguished from discrete math- science and economic and ematics). science • Algebraic (symbolic) computation – re- • Computational – branch of so- lates to algorithms and software for ma- ciology that uses computationally inten- nipulating mathematical expressions and sive methods to analyze and model social equations in symbolic form, as opposed to phenomena. manipulating the approximations of spe- • Computational finance – cross- cific numerical quantities represented by disciplinary field which relies on those symbols. Software applications that computational intelligence, mathemat- perform symbolic calculations are called ical finance, numerical methods and computer systems. computer to make trading, • Computational number theory – study of hedging and investment decisions, as algorithms for performing number theo- well as facilitating the risk management retic computations of those decisions • Computational mathematics – involves • computing (Digital Humani- mathematical research in areas of science ties) – area of research, teaching, and cre- where computing plays a central and es- ation concerned with the intersection of sential role, emphasizing algorithms, nu- computing and the disciplines of the hu- merical methods, and symbolic methods manities • Scientific computing (Computational sci- • Information systems – study of complemen- ence) – tary networks of hardware and software that • () – people and organizations use to collect, filter, involves the development and application process, create, and distribute data of data-analytical and theoretical meth- • Business informatics – discipline combin- ods, mathematical modeling and compu- ing (IT), infor- tational techniques to the study matics and management concepts. of biological, behavioral, and social sys- • tems. Information technology – • – subfield of com- • Management information systems – pro- puter science concerned with - vides information that is needed to man- ing mathematical models and quantitative age organizations efficiently and effec- analysis techniques and using computers tively to analyze and solve scientific problems • Health informatics – discipline at the in- • Computational – branch of tersection of information science, com- chemistry that uses principles of com- puter science, and health care. 6 3 BRANCHES OF SCIENCE

• Mathematics – search for fundamental truths in pat- where these collections satisfy some basic tern, quantity, and change. (See also Branches of conditions Mathematics and AMS Mathematics Subject Classifi- • Lattice theory – partially ordered set in cation) which any two elements have a unique supremum (also called a least upper • Algebra – one of the main branches of math- bound or join) and a unique infimum (also ematics, it concerns the study of structure, re- called a greatest lower bound or meet). lation and quantity. • Order theory – branch of mathemat- • Group theory – studies the algebraic ics which investigates our intuitive structures known as groups. notion of order using binary rela- • Group representation – describe ab- tions. stract groups in terms of linear trans- • Differential algebra – equipped formations of vector spaces with a derivation, which is a unary func- • Ring theory – study of ring–algebraic tion that is linear and satisfies the Leibniz structures in which addition and multipli- product rule. cation are defined and have similar prop- • erties to those familiar from the integers Analysis – branch of pure mathematics that in- cludes the theories of differentiation, integra- • Field theory – branch of mathematics tion and measure, limits, infinite series, and which studies the properties of fields analytic functions • Linear algebra – branch of mathematics • concerning finite or countably infinite di- Real analysis – branch of mathematical mensional vector spaces, as well as linear analysis dealing with the set of real num- mappings between such spaces. bers and functions of a real variable. • Vector space – mathematical struc- • – branch of mathematics fo- ture formed by a collection of vec- cused on limits, functions, deriva- tors: objects that may be added to- tives, integrals, and infinite series. gether and multiplied (“scaled”) by • Complex analysis – branch of mathemat- numbers, called scalars in this con- ical analysis that investigates functions of text. complex numbers • Multilinear algebra – extends the methods • Functional analysis – branch of math- of linear algebra ematical analysis, the core of which is • Lie algebra – algebraic structure whose formed by the study of vector spaces en- main use is in studying geometric ob- dowed with some kind of limit-related jects such as Lie groups and differentiable structure (e.g. inner product, norm, manifolds , etc.) and the linear operators • Associative algebra – associative ring that acting upon these spaces and respecting has a compatible structure of a vector these structures in a suitable sense space over a certain field K or, more gen- • Operator theory – branch of func- erally, of a module over a commutative tional analysis that focuses on ring R. bounded linear operators, but • Non-associative algebra – K-vector space which includes closed operators and (or more generally a module) A equipped nonlinear operators. with a K-bilinear • Non-standard analysis – branch of classi- • Universal algebra – field of mathemat- cal mathematics that formulates analysis ics that studies algebraic structures them- using a rigorous notion of an infinitesimal selves, not examples (“models”) of alge- number. braic structures • Harmonic analysis – branch of mathe- • Homological algebra – branch of mathe- matics concerned with the representation matics which studies homology in a gen- of functions or signals as the superposi- eral algebraic setting tion of basic waves, and the study of and • Category theory – area of study in math- generalization of the notions of Fourier ematics that examines in an abstract way series and Fourier transforms. the properties of particular mathematical • p-adic analysis – branch of number theory concepts, by formalising them as collec- that deals with the tions of objects and arrows (also called of functions of p-adic numbers. morphisms, although this term also has a • Ordinary differential equations – ordi- specific, non-category-theoretical sense), nary differential equation (ODE) is an 3.2 Formal science 7

equation in which there is only one inde- • Affine geometry – study of geometric pendent variable and one or more deriva- properties which remain unchanged by tives of a dependent variable with respect affine transformations to the independent variable, so that all the • Non-Euclidean geometry – either of derivatives occurring in the equation are two specific that are, loosely ordinary derivatives. speaking, obtained by negating the Eu- • Partial differential equations – differ- clidean parallel postulate, namely hyper- ential equation that contains unknown bolic and elliptic geometry. multivariable functions and their partial • Convex geometry – branch of geometry derivatives. studying convex sets, mainly in Euclidean • theory – branch of mathematics space. concerned with probability, the analysis of • Discrete geometry – branch of geometry random phenomena. that studies combinatorial properties and • Measure theory – systematic way to as- constructive methods of discrete geomet- sign a number to each suitable subset of ric objects. that set, intuitively interpreted as its size. • Trigonometry – branch of mathematics that • Ergodic theory – branch of mathematics studies relationships involving lengths and an- that studies dynamical systems with an in- gles of triangles variant measure and related problems. • Number theory – branch of pure mathematics • Stochastic process – collection of random devoted primarily to the study of the integers variables; this is often used to represent • Analytic number theory – branch of num- the of some random , or ber theory that uses methods from math- system, over time. ematical analysis to solve problems about • Geometry – branch of mathematics concerned the integers with questions of shape, size, relative position • Algebraic number theory – major branch of figures, and the properties of space. Geom- of number theory which studies algebraic etry is one of the oldest . structures related to algebraic integers • Topology – major area of mathematics • Geometric number theory – studies con- concerned with properties that are pre- vex bodies and integer vectors in n- served under continuous deformations of dimensional space objects, such as deformations that involve • stretching, but no tearing or gluing. Logic and Foundations of mathematics – sub- • General topology – branch of topology field of mathematics with close connections which studies properties of topological to the foundations of mathematics, theoretical spaces and structures defined on them. computer science and philosophical logic. • Algebraic topology – branch of mathe- • Set theory – branch of mathematics that matics which uses from abstract al- studies sets, which are collections of ob- gebra to study topological spaces jects • Geometric topology – study of manifolds • Proof theory – branch of mathemati- and between them, particularly em- cal logic that represents proofs as formal beddings of one manifold into another. mathematical objects, facilitating their • Differential topology – field dealing with analysis by mathematical techniques differentiable functions on differentiable • Model theory – study of (classes of) manifolds mathematical structures (e.g. groups, • Algebraic geometry – branch of mathe- fields, graphs, of set theory) us- matics which combines techniques of ab- ing tools from mathematical logic stract algebra, especially commutative al- • Recursion theory – branch of mathemati- gebra, with the language and the prob- cal logic and computer science that origi- lems of geometry nated in the 1930s with the study of com- • Differential geometry – mathematical putable functions and Turing degrees discipline that uses the techniques of dif- • Modal logic – type of formal logic pri- ferential calculus and integral calculus, as marily developed in the 1960s that ex- well as linear algebra and multilinear al- tends classical propositional and predi- gebra, to study problems in geometry cate logic to include operators expressing • Projective geometry – study of geometric modality properties that are invariant under projec- • Intuitionistic logic – symbolic logic sys- tive transformations tem differing from classical logic in its 8 3 BRANCHES OF SCIENCE

definition of the meaning of a statement sensitive to initial conditions, an ef- being true fect which is popularly referred to as the butterfly effect. • Applied mathematics – branch of mathematics • that concerns itself with mathematical meth- Fractal geometry – mathematical set ods that are typically used in science, engi- that has a fractal dimension that usu- neering, business, and industry. ally exceeds its topological dimen- sion and may fall between the inte- • – study of statis- gers. tics from a mathematical standpoint, us- • Mathematical – development of ing as well as other mathematical methods for application to branches of mathematics such as linear problems in physics algebra and analysis • Quantum field theory – theoretical • Probability – likelihood or chance framework for constructing quantum that something is the case or will hap- mechanical models of systems clas- pen sically parametrized (represented) by • – application of math- an infinite number of degrees of free- ematics and statistical methods to dom, that is, fields and (in a con- economic data densed context) many-body • – discipline that systems. applies mathematical and statistical • – branch of methods to assess risk in the insur- physics that applies probability the- ance and finance industries. ory, which contains mathematical • – statistical study tools for dealing with large popula- of human and sub- tions, to the study of the thermody- populations. namic behavior of systems composed of a large number of particles. • Approximation theory – study of how functions can best be approximated with • Information theory – branch of applied simpler functions, and with quantita- mathematics and electrical engineering tively characterizing the errors introduced involving the quantification of informa- thereby. tion. • • Numerical analysis – study of algorithms Cryptography – study of of ob- that use numerical approximation (as op- scuring information, such as codes and ci- posed to general symbolic manipulations) phers for the problems of mathematical analy- • Combinatorics – branch of mathematics sis (as distinguished from discrete math- concerning the study of finite or countable ematics). discrete structures • Optimization (Mathematical program- • Coding theory – study of the prop- ming) – selection of a best element from erties of codes and their fitness for a some set of available alternatives. specific application • – study of the • Graph theory – study of graphs, mathe- application of advanced analytical matical structures used to model pairwise methods to help make better deci- relations between objects from a certain sions collection • • Linear programming – mathemati- theory – study of strategic deci- cal method for determining a way to sion making. More formally, it is “the achieve the best outcome (such as study of mathematical models of conflict maximum profit or lowest cost) in a and cooperation between intelligent ratio- given for some nal decision-makers.” list of requirements represented as • Statistics – collection, analysis, interpretation, and linear relationships presentation of data. • Dynamical systems – concept in mathe- matics where a fixed rule describes the • Computational statistics – interface between time dependence of a point in a geomet- statistics and computer science. rical space • Data mining – process that results in the • Chaos theory – study of the behavior discovery of new patterns in large data of dynamical systems that are highly sets 3.2 Formal science 9

• Regression – estimates the conditional health-characteristics and their expectation of the dependent variable causes or influences in well-defined given the independent variables – that is, populations. the average value of the dependent vari- • Multivariate analysis – observation and able when the independent variables are analysis of more than one statistical vari- held fixed. able at a time. • Simulation – Simulation is the • Structural equation model – statisti- of the operation of a real-world process cal technique for testing and estimat- or system over time. The act of simulat- ing causal relations using a combina- ing something first requires that a model tion of statistical data and qualitative be developed; this model represents the causal assumptions. key characteristics or behaviors of the se- • – sequence of data lected physical or abstract system or pro- points, measured typically at succes- cess. The model represents the system sive time instants spaced at uniform itself, whereas the simulation represents time intervals. the operation of the system over time. • Reliability theory – describes the proba- • Bootstrap (statistics) – method for as- bility of a system completing its expected signing measures of accuracy to sam- function during an interval of time. ple estimates (Efron and Tibshirani • Quality control – process by which enti- 1993). ties review the quality of all factors in- • – design of any volved in production. information-gathering exercises where varia- • Statistical theory – provides a basis for the tion is present, whether under the full control whole range of techniques, in both study de- of the experimenter or not sign and data analysis, that are used within ap- • Block design – set together with a fam- plications of statistics. ily of subsets (repeated subsets are al- • lowed at times) whose members are cho- – identifies the values, sen to satisfy some set of properties that uncertainties and other issues relevant in are deemed useful for a particular appli- a given decision, its rationality, and the cation. resulting . • • Analysis of variance – collection of sta- Mathematical statistics – study of statis- tistical models, and their associated pro- tics from a mathematical standpoint, us- cedures, in which the observed variance ing probability theory as well as other in a particular variable is partitioned branches of mathematics such as linear into components attributable to different algebra and analysis. sources of variation. • Probability – likelihood or chance • Response surface – explores that something is the case or will hap- the relationships between several ex- pen. planatory variables and one or more re- • Sample – process of selecting a sample sponse variables. of elements from a target in order • Engineering statistics – Engineering statistics to conduct a survey. combines engineering and statistics • Sampling theory – study of the collection, • Spatial statistics – any of the formal techniques organization, analysis, and interpretation which study entities using their topological, of data. geometric, or geographic properties. • – field that studies the sampling of from a popu- • Social statistics – use of statistical measure- lation with a view towards making statisti- ment systems to study in a so- cal about the population using cial environment the sample. • Statistical modelling – formalization of rela- tionships between variables in the form of • – interdisciplinary field of science mathematical equations that studies the nature of complex systems in nature, , and science. • – application of statistics to a wide range of topics in biology. • Chaos theory – field of study in mathematics, • – study of the distri- with applications in several disciplines includ- bution and patterns of health-events, ing physics, engineering, economics, biology, 10 3 BRANCHES OF SCIENCE

and ; studies the behavior of dy- • Dynamical systems – concept in mathe- namical systems that are highly sensitive to ini- matics where a fixed rule describes the tial conditions. time dependence of a point in a geomet- rical space. • Complex systems and Complexity Theory – studies how relationships between parts give • Operations research – study of the use of ad- rise to the collective behaviors of a system and vanced analytical methods to help make better how the system interacts and forms relation- decisions. with its environment. • Systems dynamics – approach to understand- • Cybernetics – interdisciplinary study of the ing the behaviour of complex systems over structure of regulatory systems. time. • Biocybernetics – application of cybernet- • – study of sets of inter- ics to biological science, composed of acting entities, including computer sys- biological disciplines that benefit from tems analysis. the application of cybernetics: neurology, multicellular systems and others. • – interdisciplinary study of • Engineering cybernetics – field of cyber- systems in general, with the goal of elucidat- netics, which deals with the question of ing principles that can be applied to all types control engineering of mechatronic sys- of systems at all nesting levels in all fields of tems as well as chemical or biological sys- research. tems. • Developmental systems theory – overar- • Management cybernetics – field of cyber- ching theoretical perspective on biologi- netics concerned with management and cal development, , and evolution organizations. • General systems theory – interdisci- • Medical cybernetics – branch of cyber- plinary study of systems in general, with netics which has been heavily affected by the goal of elucidating principles that can the development of the computer, which be applied to all types of systems at all applies the concepts of cybernetics to nesting levels in all fields of research. and practice. • Linear time-invariant systems – investi- • New Cybernetics – study of self- gates the response of a linear and time- organizing systems according to Peter invariant system to an arbitrary input sig- Harries-Jones (1988), “looking beyond nal. the issues of the “first”, “old” or “orig- inal” cybernetics and their politics and • Mathematical system theory – area of sciences of control, to the autonomy and mathematics used to describe the behav- self-organization capabilities of complex ior of complex dynamical systems, usu- systems”. ally by employing differential equations or difference equations. • Second-order cybernetics – investigates the construction of models of cybernetic • Systems biology – several related trends systems. in bioscience research, and a movement that draws on those trends. • Control theory – Control theory is an inter- • disciplinary branch of engineering and mathe- Systems – interdisciplinary field matics that deals with the behavior of dynam- of ecology, taking a holistic approach to ical systems. The external input of a system is the study of ecological systems, especially called the reference. When one or more output . variables of a system need to follow a certain • – interdisciplinary reference over time, a controller manipulates field of engineering focusing on how com- the inputs to a system to obtain the desired ef- plex engineering projects should be de- fect on the output of the system. signed and managed over their cycles. • Control engineering – engineering disci- • Systems neuroscience – subdiscipline of pline that applies control theory to design neuroscience and systems biology that systems with desired behaviors. studies the function of neural circuits and • Control systems – device, or set of de- systems. vices to manage, command, direct or reg- • Systems – branch of applied ulate the behavior of other devices or sys- psychology that studies human behaviour tem. and experience in complex systems. 11

3.3 Social science • Kansas evolution hearings – series of hearings held in Topeka, Kansas, 5 to 12 May 2005 Social science – study of the social world constructed be- by the Kansas State Board of and its State tween . The social sciences usually limit them- Board Science Hearing Committee to change how selves to an anthropomorphically centric view of these evolution and the origin of life would be taught in interactions with minimal emphasis on the inadvertent the state’s public high school science classes. impact of social human behavior on the external environ- ment (physical, biological, ecological, etc.). 'Social' is the • List of about the politics of science – list of concept of exchange/influence of ideas, , and re- books about the politics of science. lationship interactions (resulting in harmony, peace, self enrichment, favoritism, maliciousness, justice seeking, • Politicization of science – politicization of science is etc.) between humans. The scientific method is utilized the manipulation of science for political gain. in many social sciences, albeit adapted to the needs of the • social construct being studied. Science by press release – refers to scientists who put an unusual focus on publicizing results of research in the media. • Branches of social science (also known as the social sciences) 6 3.4 • History of science - History of science in general Applied science – branch of science that applies exist- ing scientific knowledge to develop more practical appli- • History of scientific method – history of sci- cations, including and other technological ad- entific method is a history of the methodology vancements. of scientific inquiry, as differentiated from a history of science in general. • Branches of applied science (also known as the ap- • Theories/sociology of science – sociology and plied sciences) , as well as the entire field of , have in the 20th cen- tury been occupied with the question of large- 4 How scientific fields differ scale patterns and trends in the development of science, and asking questions about how sci- ence “works” both in a philosophical and prac- • Exact science – any field of science capable of ac- tical sense. curate quantitative expression or precise predictions and rigorous methods of testing hypotheses, espe- • – study of the history and cially reproducible experiments involving quantifi- methodology of the sub-discipline of history, able predictions and measurements. known as the history of science, including its disciplinary aspects and practices (methods, • Fundamental science – science that describes the theories, schools) and to the study of its own most basic objects, , relations between them historical development (“History of History and laws governing them, such that all other phe- of Science”, i.e., the history of the discipline nomena may be in principle derived from them fol- called History of Science). lowing the logic of scientific . • History of – history of pseudo- • – colloquial terms often used science is the study of pseudoscientific theo- when comparing scientific fields of academic re- ries over time. A pseudoscience is a set of search or scholarship, with hard meaning perceived ideas that presents itself as science, while it as being more scientific, rigorous, or accurate. does not meet the criteria to properly be called such. • Timeline of scientific discoveries – shows the 5 Politics of science date of publication of major scientific theo- ries and discoveries, along with the discoverer. In many cases, the discoveries spanned several • Disruptive technology – that helps create years. a new market and value network, and eventually goes on to disrupt an existing market and value network • Timeline of scientific thought – lists the major (over a few years or decades), displacing an earlier landmarks across all scientific philosophy and technology. methodological sciences. 12 6 HISTORY OF SCIENCE

6.1 By period 6.2 By field

• History of science in early – history of sci- • History of natural science – study of nature and the ence in early cultures refers to the study of proto- physical universe that was dominant before the de- science in , prior to the development velopment of modern science. of science in the . • – study of nature and the • History of science in Classical Antiquity – history physical universe that was dominant before the of science in classical antiquity encompasses both development of modern science. those into the workings of the universe • – traces the study of the liv- aimed at such practical goals as establishing a re- ing world from ancient to modern times. liable or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses and those abstract investigations known • Natural history – scientific research of as natural philosophy. or , leaning more towards observational rather than experimental • History of science in the Middle Ages – Science in methods of study, and encompasses more the Middle Ages comprised the study of nature, in- research published in magazines than in cluding practical disciplines, the mathematics and academic journals. natural philosophy in medieval Europe. • – history of the sci- • History of science in the – During the ence of ecology. Renaissance, great advances occurred in , • History of – begins in , chemistry, physics, mathematics, manu- the 1930s with the convergence of vari- facturing, and engineering. ous, previously distinct biological disci- plines: , , microbi- • Science and inventions of Leonardo da Vinci ology, and . – Italian , regarded as the epitome • History of physical science of the “Renaissance Man”, displaying skills in • History of nature – describes the most im- numerous diverse areas of study. portant events and fundamental stages in • Scientific revolution – scientific revolution is an era the development of the from associated primarily with the 16th and 17th cen- its formation to the present day. turies during which new ideas and knowledge in • History of astronomy – Timeline physics, astronomy, biology, and chem- • History of chemistry – By 1000 BC, an- istry transformed medieval and ancient views of na- cient civilizations used that ture and laid the foundations for modern science. would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. • Governmental impact on science during WWII – • History of geography Governmental impact on science during World War • II represents the effect of public administration on History of – Timeline technological development that provided many ad- • History of – Timeline vantages to the armed forces, economies and soci- • History of physics – As forms of science eties in their strategies during the war. historically developed out of philosophy, physics was originally referred to as natu- ral philosophy, a field of study concerned 6.1.1 By date with “the workings of nature.”

• List of years in science – events related to science or • History of the social sciences – has origin in the technology which occurred in the listed year. common stock of Western philosophy and shares various precursors, but began most intentionally in • Timeline of scientific discoveries – shows the date the early 19th century with the positivist philosophy of publication of major scientific theories and dis- of science. coveries, along with the discoverer. In many cases, the discoveries spanned several years. • History of science and technology • Timeline of scientific experiments – shows the date • History of scientific method – history of the of publication of major scientific experiments. methodology of scientific inquiry, as differen- tiated from a history of science in general. • Timeline of the history of scientific method – shows • an overview of the cultural inventions that have con- History of – Timeline tributed to the development of the scientific method. • History of 13

• History of criminal justice – Throughout the 8 Scientific history of criminal justice, evolving forms of punishment, added rights for offenders and • Scientific community – group of all interacting sci- victims, and policing reforms have reflected entists. changing customs, political ideals, and eco- nomic conditions. • – a series of changes in science that oc- curred in industrial nations during and after World • History of economics – study of different War II. thinkers and theories in the subject that be- came and economics from the ancient world to the present day. 8.1 Scientific organizations • History of education – development of sys- • tematic methods of teaching and learning. of Sciences – national academy or another dedicated to sciences. • History of law – study of how law has evolved and why it changed. • History of linguistics – endeavors to describe 8.2 Scientists and explain the human faculty of language. • Scientist – practitioner of science; an who • History of marketing – recognized discipline, uses scientific method to objectively inquire into along with concomitant changes in marketing the nature of —be it the fundamental laws theory and practice. of physics or how people behave. There are many • History of parapsychology names for scientists, often named in relation to the job that they do. One example of this is a , • History of – social science a scientist who studies biology (the study of living discipline concerned with the study of the and their environments). state, government, and politics. • – Timeline 8.2.1 Types of scientist • History of sociology – Timeline By field The scientific fields mentioned below are gen- See also: :: erally described by the science they study.

• Agricultural scientist – broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, eco- 6.3 By region nomic and social sciences that are used in the prac- tice and understanding of . 6.3.1 History of science in present states, by conti- • nent Archaeologist – study of human activity, primar- ily through the recovery and analysis of the mate- See – Category:Science and technology by continent rial and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes (the archaeological 6.3.2 History of science in historic states record). • • Science and technology of the Han Dynasty – astronomer is a scientist who studies celestial bodies such as , stars and galaxies. • Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire • Astrophysicist – branch of astronomy that • Science and technology of the Song Dynasty deals with the physics of the universe, includ- ing the physical properties of celestial objects, • Science and technology in the Soviet Union as well as their interactions and behavior. • • Science and technology of the Tang Dynasty Biologist – scientist devoted to the study of living or- ganisms and their relationship to their environment. • Astrobiologist – study of the origin, evolution, 7 Philosophy of science distribution, and future of extraterrestrial life. • Biophysicist – interdisciplinary science that • Philosophy of science – questions the assumptions, uses the methods of physical science to study foundations, methods and implications of science. biological systems. 14 8

• Biotechnologist – field of applied biology • – individual who studies the that involves the use of living organisms scientific field of neuroscience or any of its re- and bioprocesses in engineering, technology, lated sub-fields. medicine and other fields requiring bioprod- • Ornithologist – branch of that con- ucts. cerns the study of birds. • Botanist – discipline of biology, is the science • Paleontologist – study of prehistoric life. of life. • Pathologist – precise study and diagnosis of • Cognitive scientists – scientific study of the . and its processes. • Pharmacologist – branch of medicine and bi- • Ecologist – scientific study of the relations ology concerned with the study of drug action. that living organisms have with respect to each • Physiologist – science of the function of living other and their . systems. • Entomologist – scientific study of , a • Zoologist – branch of biology that relates to branch of arthropodology. the kingdom, including the structure, • Evolutionary biologist – sub-field of biology , evolution, classification, habits, concerned with the study of the evolutionary and distribution of all animals, both living and processes that have given rise to the diversity extinct. of life on Earth. • – scientist trained in the study of chemistry. • – biologist who studies genetics, the • science of genes, heredity, and variation of or- Analytical chemist – study of the separation, ganisms. identification, and quantification of the chem- ical components of natural and artificial mate- • Herpetologist – branch of zoology concerned rials. with the study of amphibians (including frogs, • toads, salamanders, newts, and gymnophiona) – study of chemical processes in and reptiles (including snakes, lizards, amphis- living organisms, including, but not limited to, baenids, turtles, terrapins, tortoises, crocodil- living matter. ians, and the tuataras). • Inorganic chemist – branch of chemistry con- cerned with the properties and behavior of in- • Immunologist – branch of biomedical science organic compounds. that covers the study of all aspects of the im- mune system in all organisms. • Organic chemist – subdiscipline within chem- istry involving the scientific study of the struc- • Ichthyologist – study of fish. ture, properties, composition, reactions, and • Lepidopterist – person who specialises in the preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of study of Lepidoptera, members of an order en- carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and compassing moths and the three superfamilies their derivatives. of butterflies, skipper butterflies, and moth- • Physical chemist – study of macroscopic, butterflies. atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenom- • Marine biologist – scientific study of organ- ena in chemical systems in terms of physical isms in the ocean or other marine or brackish laws and concepts. bodies of water. • Earth scientist – all-embracing term for the sciences • Medical scientist – , applied re- related to the planet Earth. search, or translational research conducted to aid and support the body of knowledge in the • – scientist who studies the solid and field of medicine. liquid matter that constitutes the Earth as well as the processes and history that has shaped it. • – study of microscopic organ- isms. • Glaciologist – study of glaciers, or more gen- erally ice and natural phenomena that involve • Mycologist – branch of biology concerned ice. with the study of fungi, including their ge- • netic and biochemical properties, their taxon- Hydrologist – study of the movement, distribu- omy and their use to humans as a source for tion, and quality of water on Earth and other tinder, medicinals (e.g., penicillin), food (e.g., planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water , , cheese, edible mushrooms) and resources and environmental watershed sus- entheogens, as well as their dangers, such as tainability. poisoning or infection. • Limnologist – study of inland waters 8.2 Scientists 15

• Meteorologist – study of weather • Educational – psychologist whose differentiating functions may include diagnos- • Mineralogist – study of chemistry, crystal tic and psycho-educational assessment, psy- structure, and physical (including optical) chological counseling in educational commu- properties of minerals. nities (students, , parents and aca- • Oceanographer – branch of that demic authorities), community-type psycho- studies the ocean educational intervention, and mediation, coor- • Paleontologist – study of prehistoric life dination, and referral to other professionals, at all levels of the educational system. • Seismologist – scientific study of earthquakes • Biopsychologist – application of the principles and the propagation of elastic waves through of biology (in particular neurobiology), to the the Earth or through other planet-like bodies. study of physiological, genetic, and develop- • Volcanologist – study of volcanoes, lava, mental mechanisms of behavior in human and magma, and related geological, geophysical non-human animals. and geochemical phenomena. • Clinical psychologist – integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the pur- • Informatician – science of information, the practice pose of understanding, preventing, and reliev- of information processing, and the engineering of ing psychologically based distress or dysfunc- information systems. tion and to promote subjective well-being and • Computer scientist – scientist who has ac- personal development. quired knowledge of computer science, the • Comparative psychologist – scientific study of study of the theoretical foundations of infor- the behavior and mental processes of non- mation and computation human animals, especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history, adaptive signifi- • Library scientist – interdisciplinary or multidisci- cance, and development of behavior. plinary field that applies the practices, perspectives, • Cognitive psychologist – subdiscipline of psy- and tools of management, information technology, chology exploring internal mental processes. education, and other areas to libraries; the collec- It is the study of how people perceive, remem- tion, organization, preservation, and dissemination ber, think, speak, and solve problems. of information resources; and the political economy • Developmental psychologist – scientific study of information. of systematic psychological changes, emo- • Management scientist – study of advanced analytical tional changes, and changes that methods to help make better decisions. occur in human beings over the course of their life span. • – person with an extensive knowl- • Evolutionary psychologist – approach in the edge of mathematics, a field that has been informally social and natural sciences that examines psy- defined as being concerned with numbers, data, col- chological traits such as memory, perception, lection, quantity, structure, space, and change. and language from a modern evolutionary per- spective. • – someone who works with theo- • Experimental psychologist – study of behavior retical or applied statistics. and the processes that underlie it, by means of • Military scientist – process of translating national experiment defence policy to produce military capability by • Neuropsychologist – studies the structure and employing military scientists, including theorists, function of the brain as they relate to specific researchers, experimental scientists, applied scien- psychological processes and behaviors. tists, designers, , test technicians, and mil- • Social psychologist – scientific study of how itary personnel responsible for prototyping. people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied • – scientist who does research in physics presence of others. • Psychologist – professional or academic title used by • Social scientist – field of study concerned with soci- individuals who practice psychology ety and human behaviours.

• Abnormal psychologist – branch of psychol- • – study of humanity. ogy that studies unusual patterns of behavior, • Ethnologist – branch of that emotion and thought, which may or may not be compares and analyzes the origins, dis- understood as precipitating a mental disorder. tribution, technology, religion, language, 16 8 SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY

and social structure of the ethnic, racial, • Layperson – someone who is not an expert or some- and/or national divisions of humanity. one who has not had professional training • Communication scientist – academic field that • Gentleman scientist – financially independent scien- deals with processes of human communica- tist who pursues scientific study as a hobby. tion, commonly defined as the sharing of sym- bols to create meaning. • Government scientist – scientist employed by a country’s government • Criminologist – study of criminal behavior • Demographer – statistical study of populations 8.2.2 Famous scientists • – professional in the social science discipline of economics. Main list: Lists of scientists • Geographer – geographer is a whose area of study is geography, the study of Earth’s • – Greek and polymath, a stu- natural environment and human society. dent of and of Alexander the Great. • Political economist – study of production, buy- • – Greek mathematician, physicist, en- ing, and selling, and their relations with law, gineer, inventor, and astronomer. custom, and government, as well as with the distribution of national income and wealth, in- • Andreas Vesalius – Flemish anatomist, , cluding through the budget process. and author of one of the most influential books on • Political scientist – social science discipline human , De humani corporis fabrica (On concerned with the study of the state, govern- the Structure of the Human Body). ment, and politics. • – Renaissance astronomer and • Sociologist – the first person to formulate a comprehensive helio- centric which displaced the Earth from • Technologist the center of the universe. • Architectural technologist – specialist in the • – Italian physicist, mathematician, technology of design and construction astronomer, and philosopher who played a major • Educational technologist – specialist in tools to role in the Scientific Revolution. enhance learning • Johannes Kepler – German mathematician, as- • Engineering technologist – specialist who im- tronomer and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th plements technology within a field of engi- century scientific revolution, he is best known for neering his eponymous laws of planetary , codified by later , based on his works Astronomia • Industrial technologist – specialist in the man- nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Coperni- agement, operation, and maintenance of com- can Astronomy. plex operation systems • Medical Technologist – healthcare profes- • René Descartes – French philosopher, mathemati- sional who performs diagnostic analysis on a cian, and writer who spent most of his life in variety of body fluids the Dutch Republic. • Radiologic technologist – medical professional • – English physicist, mathematician, who applies doses of radiation for imaging and astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and the- treatment ologian, who has been “considered by many to be • Surgical technologist – health specialist who the greatest and most influential scientist who ever facilitates the conduct of invasive surgical pro- lived.” cedures • – pioneering Swiss mathematician and physicist. By employment status • Pierre-Simon Laplace – French mathematician and astronomer whose work was pivotal to the develop- • Academic – community of students and en- ment of mathematical astronomy and statistics. gaged in higher education and research. • Alexander von Humboldt – German geographer, • Corporate Scientist – someone who is employed by naturalist and explorer, and the younger brother of a business to do for the the Prussian minister, philosopher and linguist Wil- benefit of that business helm von Humboldt. 17

• – Charles Robert Darwin FRS (12 February 1809 - 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist.[I] He established that all of life have descended over time from common ancestors, and proposed the scientific theory that this branch- ing pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called .

• – Scottish physicist and math- ematician.

• – Polish physicist and chemist famous for her pioneering research on radioactivity.

• – German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of , ef- fecting a revolution in physics

• Linus Pauling – American chemist, biochemist, peace activist, author, and educator. He was one of the most influential in history and ranks among the most important scientists of the 20th cen- tury. • John Bardeen – American physicist and electrical engineer, the only person to have won the in Physics twice

• Frederick Sanger – English biochemist and a two- time Nobel laureate in chemistry, the only person to have been so. • Stephen Hawking – British theoretical physicist, cosmologist, and author.

9

Science education

• Scientific literacy – encompasses written, numerical, and digital literacy as they pertain to understanding science, its methodology, observations, and theories.

10 See also

• Sci-Mate – open collaboration of scientists using Web 2.0 software to address well known challenges in and • Science Daily – news website for topical science ar- ticles • Science.tv – virtual community for people interested in science

11 References 18 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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