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Body MMG 09-23-2012 V2 Melita Diss FINAL 9-9-12 THEY CAME TO TOIL: NEWS FRAMES OF WANTED AND UNWANTED MEXICANS IN THE GREAT DEPRESSION Melita Marie Garza A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor in Philosophy in the School of Journalism and Mass Communication. Chapel Hill 2012 Approved by: Barbara Friedman, PhD Frank Fee, PhD Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, PhD Zaragosa Vargas, PhD Betty Houchin Winfield, PhD ©2012 Melita Marie Garza ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT MELITA MARIE GARZA: They Came to Toil: News Frames of Wanted and Unwanted Mexicans in the Great Depression (Under the direction of Dr. Barbara Friedman) The onset of the Great Depression in 1929 coincided with pivotal events in US immigration history. These included the first law criminalizing entry into the United States without legal permission, renewed and vituperative national debates calling for the restriction of Mexican immigration, and, in a little known historical episode, the instigation of Mexican repatriation programs, many sponsored by local US governments, that led to an exodus of about 500,000 Mexicans and Mexican Americans. This study comparatively analyzes news coverage of Mexicans, repatriation, deportation, and immigration in independently owned English- and Spanish-language newspapers in San Antonio, Texas, during the deepest recessionary period of the Great Depression, 1929 through 1933. By examining the similarities and differences in newspaper coverage in the state that experienced the most repatriations, this study illuminates how the media’s symbolic annihilation of the Mexican and Mexican American experience during this period contributed to an episode of invisible civil rights history. iii DEDICATION To my parents, Linda Rosa Caballero Hinojosa Garza and Carlos Mario Garza Ortiz, who lived the American dream. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS “There is no creation without tradition; the ‘new’ is an inflection on a preceding form; novelty is always a variation on the past.” — Carlos Fuentes 1928 - 2012 There is also no creation without support and inspiration. My deepest appreciation goes to Dr. Barbara Friedman, who worked thoughtfully and tirelessly to better this dissertation. Gratitude also goes to the other members of my dissertation committee: Dr. Frank Fee, Dr. Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, Dr. Zaragosa Vargas, and Dr. Betty Houchin Winfield. Their outstanding scholarship, precision of thought, and genuine interest in my work were invaluable in my graduate school career. I am also grateful to several financial benefactors: the Triad Foundation and Roy H. Park, whose generosity made my graduate studies possible; the Graduate School of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and J. Walker and Joy D. Smith, whose generosity financed my summer dissertation research; and the gracious funders of the Joseph L. Morrison Award for Excellence in Mass Communication History. Thanks also to Dr. Jean Folkerts, former dean of the University of North Carolina School of Journalism and Mass Communication, who lobbied incessantly on my behalf. Dr. Anne Johnston, the journalism school’s former assistant dean for graduate education, provided important guidance and support. v I extend a special note of gratitude to Dr. Terry Karl, my undergraduate thesis adviser at Harvard College, and my longtime mentor and friend, who unswervingly believed I belonged in graduate school. Finally, I’d like to thank my indefatigable proofreader, my mother. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………. x LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………….……. xi Chapter 1. THE CRISIS: THEY CAME TO TOIL; BUT THEY COULD NOT STAY……1 Introduction……………………………………………………………….... 1 Background……………………………………………………………….... 9 Literature Review…………………………………………………….…….15 Newsroom Processes and the Social Construction of Reality……………...15 News Frames and Media History…………………………………………..23 Research Question………………………………………………………....29 Method……………………………………………………………………..30 The Newspapers…………………………………………………………....37 The San Antonio Express…………………………………………………..38 La Prensa…………………………………………………………………..40 Newspapers in the Great Depression………………………………………43 Selling the News in San Antonio…………………………………………...44 Limitations…………………………………………………………………47 Chapter Outline…………………………………………………………….48 2. 1929: TO PAVE A WAY THROUGH HOSTILE AND BARREN LANDS…..51 Mexican Frames in 1929…………………………………………………...53 vii Patriot Frame: Battling Caciques, Caudillos, and Thugs…………………..54 Pariah Frame: The “Plague” of Repatriates……...…………………………58 Good-Citizen Frame: An Honor Role of Donors…………………………...67 Prescriptive Frame: News the Mexican Community Could Use…………....68 Financial Frame: The Burden and Bounty of Mexican Immigration……….76 Somos Amigos/We are Friends Frame: Sharing the Hope of Prosperity……82 Hierarchy of Color Frame: No Race Other Than the Mexican……………...87 Spanish Nostalgia Frame: Recalling “Heroism Unsurpassed”……………...90 Conclusion……………………………………….………………………….97 3. 1930: A THOUSAND TIMES BETTER OFF WITH MEXICAN LABOR….....99 Patriot Frame: The Nucleus of a Repatriation Movement…………………102 Financial Frame: Immigration Policy for the Southwest Economy………..105 Hierarchy of Color Frame: Inferior to Any Other Race in the World……..112 Somos Amigos/We are Friends Frame: To Know Them is to Love Them...118 Pariah Frame: Confronting Inquisitors and Coyotes………………….……125 Prescriptive Frame: Perpetual Battles and Lands Without Water…………128 Quantification Frame: A Male-dominated Exodus………………………...130 Spanish Nostalgia Frame: Remember the Alamo………………………….135 Conclusion……………………………………………….………………...140 4. 1931: THE TRAGEDY OF THE REPATRIATED………….…………………142 Financial Frame: Taking Jobs from Americans…………………………....148 Quantification Frame: Scientifically Picturing Mexican Immigrants……...152 Patriot Frame: Back to Mexico in a “Little Ford” Car……………………..155 Pariah Frame: Convoys of Misery…………………………………………157 viii Good-Citizen Frame: Giving 2,000 Loaves of Bread……………………...166 Prescriptive Frame: Take It? Or Leave It?....................................................170 Spanish Nostalgia Frame: Catholic, Castilian American Pioneers………...172 Conclusion………………………………………..………………………..179 5. 1932-1933: A New Deal for American Pioneers…………..……………..……..181 Mexican Frames at the Dawn of the New Deal………………………..…..184 Quantification Frame: Enumerating a Problem;.…………………………..186 The Problem of Enumerating Pariah Frame: Starving, Sick, and Naked………………………………….193 Patriot Frame: The Repatriate to the Rescue……………………………....198 Good-Citizen Frame: Constructing an Ethos of Charity…………………...200 Prescriptive Frame: Urging an End to Mexican Repatriation……………...202 Spanish Nostalgia Frame: Restoring a House in Ruin……………………..206 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….212 6. DISCUSSION AND EPILOGUE:……………………………………………....214 Framing Repatriates at the Cornerstone of Myth and Memory……………215 The False Equivalence of Disparately Framed News……………………...220 Symbolic Annihilation: Journalism’s Role in Mediating Reality………….222 Dichotomous News Frames of Spanish-Speaking Immigrants…………….226 Constructing the Mexican Good Citizen Through a News Frame…………229 Invisible Civil Rights History and the Hierarchy of Color Frame…………231 The Hispanic: “The New Negro” and the Old Pariah..…………………….235 BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………….242 ix LIST OF TABLES La Prensa Circulation by Region…………………………………………………..239 x LIST OF FIGURES San Antonio Sunday Newspaper Circulation 1929 to 1934..………………………240 San Antonio Daily Newspaper Circulation 1929 to 1934……..…………………...241 xi Well, I came from my homeland Intending to work In San Antonio, Texas And I could not stay… The Crisis, Sir, the Crisis, Everyone says as they go by… We all look for money And we all love money But the money belongs to Rockefeller and Henry Ford1 --excerpt from La Crisis/The Crisis Mexican folk ballad from the 1930s Chapter 1 The Crisis: They Came to Toil . But They Could Not Stay Introduction In December 1929, Mexican deportee Carlos Espinosa re-crossed the border into Laredo, Texas, and waited on the road for the US Border Patrol to apprehend him. He preferred prison in Webb County, USA, for illegally re-entering the country over unemployment, and presumably hunger, in Mexico, he told the border patrolmen who finally showed up.2 Espinosa was front-page fodder for San Antonio’s Spanish-language daily, La Prensa. “The day a civilized government replaces Mexico’s tyrannical one . .most Mexicans … will return promptly to their native soil,” La Prensa opined. “With the 1 Dúo Latino, La Crisis, The Crisis, recorded March 31, 1932, New York, New York, on Mexican American Border Music: Corridos & Tragedias de la Frontera, Arhoolie Productions Inc., 1994, compact disc. 2 “Un Mexicano Deportado Volvio a Texas Sabiendo Que Le Esperaba La Carcel,” La Prensa, December 8, 1930, 4. repatriation of Mexicans ‘living on the outside,’ competition with North American workers that has lowered salaries will cease.”3 The La Prensa columnist saw Espinosa as the prototypical Mexican, caught between political chaos in Mexico and the demand for cheap labor in the United States, law or no law. The Express editors considered Espinosa less newsworthy, placing a news report of his apprehension on page nine, next to a story about a survey showing brunettes were more popular than blondes.4 The San Antonio Express didn’t consider the broader implications of Espinosa’s predicament, dwelling instead on the surprise of the border patrol. Espinosa’s “capture” on the verge of the Great Depression poignantly
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