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Gender and Twentieth-Century American Revivalism “THE ROAR OF THUNDER AND THE SWEETNESS OF A WOMAN” GENDER AND TWENTIETH-CENTURY AMERICAN REVIVALISM By Leah Payne Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Vanderbilt University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in Religion May, 2013 Nashville, Tennessee Approved: Kathleen Flake Amy-Jill Levine Jay Geller Dennis Dickerson Copyright © 2013 by Leah Payne All Rights Reserved For Thomas iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION …………………………………………………………………………………………………. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …………………………………………………………………………………. vi LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………………………………………………………………. viii LIST OF FIGURES ………………………………………………………………………………………….. ix INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1 Chapter I. THE IDEAL AMERICAN REVIVALIST …………………………………………….. 32 Making Manly Men ………………………………………………………. 37 The Manly Minister ………………………………………………........... 47 The Womanly Woman ………………………………………………..... 54 A Female Ministry ………………………………………………………... 65 A Profession in Peril ……...……………………………………………... 69 Conclusion …...……………………………………...………………………. 73 II. “WALKING BIBLES”: THE STORY OF FEMALE MINISTRY ….................... 75 The Warring Mother ……………..……………..……………..………… 85 The Bride of Christ ……………..……………..……………………..…… 99 Conclusion ……………..……………..……………………..………………... 117 III. “PANTS DON’T MAKE PREACHERS”: THE IMAGE OF A FEMALE REVIVALIST MINISTER ………………………………………………………………... 119 The “Plainly Attired” Pastor …………………………………………... 126 The “White Clad Los Angeles Soul Saver” ………………………... 132 IV. “A GLORIOUS SYMBOL”: BUILDING A FEMALE WORSHIP SPACE ........ 146 The House of God and the Battlefield …………...………………... 153 The Temple of the Lord ………..........……………...………………....... 158 Conclusion ……..........……………...……………..........……………...…..... 167 V. “THE ROAR OF THUNDER AND THE SWEETNESS OF A WOMAN”: POWER AND GENDER IN REVIVALIST PERFORMANCE ………………..…...….....….. 169 The “Throne of Eloquence” ………………..…...……...…………..…... 173 The Mother and the War at Home ………………..…...……........… 181 The Bride and Her Bridegroom ………….....…...………………...... 196 Conclusion ………….....…...……………………….....…...………………... 213 iv VI. “A REGULAR JEZEBEL”: FEMALE MINISTRY ON TRIAL ………........…...... 215 The Hypnotist ………........………...........……........………........………... 217 Psychopathia Sexualis ………........………...........……..………........… 222 Conclusion ……...........………...............…......…………........………........ 226 CONCLUSION …………………………………………...……………………………………..…...…....... 228 Appendix A. IMAGES……………………………………………….…………………………………..………...... 241 BIBLIOGRAPHY ………………………………………………………...……………………..….……….. 277 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I must first thank Professors Kathleen Flake and Amy-Jill Levine for their advice, critiques, encouragement, compassion, and good humor over the years. I cannot adequately express my appreciation for their contributions to my life academically and personally. In addition, I am very thankful for the time, attention, and care that Professors Jay Geller and Dennis Dickerson gave to me during this project and throughout my graduate career. My doctoral work was made possible by generous grants from Vanderbilt University's Graduate School, the Carpenter Program in Religion, Gender, and Sexuality, and the Vanderbilt University Women and Gender Studies Program. I am also indebted to Jackie Miller and Janet Simonsen at the Foursquare Heritage Center, the Foursquare Church, and the Flower Pentecostal Heritage Center. I made lifelong friends during graduate school, and I would not have been able to complete this project without their support. In particular, I am grateful for the friendship of Jimmy Barker and Katy Attanasi, Meredith Hammons, Lydia Willsky, Keri Day, Klem-Mari Cajigas, Maria Mayo, Mika and Christina Edmondson, Devan Stahl, Derek Axelson, Tamura Lomax, and all of my friends in the 2006 GDR cohort. I am blessed with many supportive friends outside the academy including: Maggie Tappana, Kristi Wenrich, Christie Winchester, everyone at Faith Center Aloha, and Living Way Fellowship. In addition, my work has flourished with encouragement from Pentecostal historians Linda Ambrose and David Roebuck and my fellow students of Pentecostalism at the Society for Pentecostal Studies. vi I wish to thank my allies and friends (new and old) at George Fox Evangelical Seminary and George Fox University including: Paul Anderson, Phil Smith, Sarita Gallagher, Roger Nam, Dan Brunner, Loren Kerns, Cliff Berger, and Susanna Steeg. I also appreciate my students at Vanderbilt Divinity School, George Fox Evangelical Seminary, and George Fox University, from whom I learned much in our classes together. I owe my family a lifetime of gratitude. My mother April Weare took me to the library throughout my childhood, and on those trips I developed an enduring interest in late nineteenth and early twentieth century female pioneers. My father Lowell Weare gave me the gift of his confidence in my intellect, shared with me a passion for history, and gave me my first Aimee Semple McPherson autobiography. My siblings Annie and Michael Weare (and now Amber too) are my closest friends and biggest fans. My parents-in-law Tom and Tammy Payne are kind enough to be proud of me. My great aunt Connie Hyatt provided me with a living example of Western womanhood: tough, smart, accomplished, and funny. I must also thank Moxie the dog for her loyalty and companionship during the long days of writing. Finally, and most dearly, during these many years of graduate study, my spouse Thomas gave me endless friendship, sympathy, humor, inspiration, prayers, proofreading, and cups of coffee. There are not enough words with which to acknowledge his contribution to my life and work. I am overjoyed to share this with him. vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page I.1 Enlightenment Gender Binaries ……………………………………………………………..... 27 1.1 1890s-1920s Gender Binaries ……………………………………………………………….... 46 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page I.1 Aimee Semple McPherson in her “Gospel Car,” 1918 …....…………………….……… 241 3.1 A. B. Simpson at approximately 40 years of age, 1883 ……………………………… 242 3.2 Billy Sunday warming up for a pulpit performance, 1918 ………………………… 243 3.3 Billy Sunday demonstrating his “vigorous” fighting stances, 1914 ……………. 243 3.4 J. Frank Norris and John Roach Straton, circa 1925 ………………………………….. 244 3.5 Miss Camille Gifford, Gibson Girl, 1900 ………………………………………....………… 245 3.6 Maria Woodworth-Etter, circa 1900, circa 1920 ……………………………………… 246 3.7 Maria Woodworth-Etter, circa 1890 ……………………………………………………….. 247 3.8 Red Cross Nurse, from Red Cross Magazine, 1918 ……………………………………. 248 3.9 Aimee Semple McPherson in uniform, circa 1924 ……………………………………. 249 3.10 Aimee Semple McPherson, circa 1933 …………………………………………………… 250 3.11 Aimee Semple McPherson, 1923 …………………………………………………………… 251 3.12 Aimee Semple McPherson, 1933 …………………………………………………………… 252 3.13 Aimee Semple McPherson as Rebecca, 1926 ………………………………………….. 253 3.14 Aimee Semple McPherson as a Southern belle, circa 1926 ……………………… 254 3.15 Aimee Semple McPherson as a Dutch girl, circa 1935 ……………………......…… 255 3.16 Aimee Semple McPherson as a police officer, circa 1924 ………………………… 256 3.17 Aimee Semple McPherson as a farm girl, circa 1930 …………………...………….. 257 3.18 Mary Pickford in Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm, 1918 ……………………………… 258 3.19 May McAvoy in Ben-Hur: A Tale of Christ, 1925 ……………...………………………. 259 3.20 Angelus Temple Marquee, circa 1930 …………………...……………………………….. 260 ix 3.21 Angelus Temple Postcard, 1924 ……………………………………………………………. 261 3.22 Aimee Semple McPherson on trial in The Evening Independent, 1926 ……… 262 3.23 Mary Philbin as Christine Daaé in Phantom of the Opera, 1925 ……………….. 263 3.24 Betty Blythe as Nanette Roland in Nomads of the North, 1920 ………………… 263 3.25 Aimee Semple McPherson in The Morning Leader, 1926 ………...………………. 264 4.1 Typical revivalist tabernacle in Elmore, Minnesota, 1908 ………………………… 265 4.2 The Maria Woodworth-Etter Tabernacle, circa 1900 ……………………………….. 266 4.3 The Maria Woodworth-Etter Tabernacle, circa 1920 ……………………………….. 267 4.4 McPherson in typical holiness revivalist tents, circa 1918 ………………………... 268 4.5 McPherson in typical holiness revivalist tents, circa 1918 ………………………... 268 4.6 Angelus Temple postcard, 1924 …………………………………………………………….... 261 4.7 Angelus Temple interior, circa 1930 ……………………………………………………...... 269 4.8 Angelus Temple interior close-up, circa 1930 …………………………………...……... 269 4.9 Angelus Temple stained glass featuring McPherson ……………………………….… 270 4.10 Grauman’s Million Dollar Theatre, 1918 ………………………………………………... 271 5.1 McPherson and the twelve virgins, 1933 ………………………………………………..... 272 5.2 The Rose of Sharon, circa 1929 …………………………………………………………...…... 273 5.3 Vilma Banky and Rudolf Valentino in The Son of the Sheik, 1926 ………....……. 274 5.4 Aimee Semple McPherson in Cavalcade of Christianity, 1931 ………...…....……. 274 5.5 Mary Pickford, 1929 ………………………………………………………………………....…..... 275 5.6 Aimee Semple McPherson, circa 1931 …………………………………………………...… 275 5.7 Mary Pickford in Coquette, 1929 ………………………………………...…………………… 276 5.8 Aimee Semple McPherson, The Rose of Sharon, 1926 …………………...…………... 276 x INTRODUCTION “Women should eschew such employments as involve (1) much public association or juxtaposition with men on common terms, (2) the addressing of large mixed public audiences, (3) an attitude of effrontery or undue self-assertiveness, (4) a métier ignoring in any way the essential distinctions of sex, (5) the exercise of much muscular strength or nerve.”1 - The Malcontent Woman, by A Discontented Man, 1895 “There is in most of
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