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Home , Bukhara, Emirate of Bukhara, Khiva, Shaybanids, Turkestan, Turkmens

Journal of Critical Reviews

ISSN- 2394-5125 Vol 7, Issue 12, 2020

SLAVERY RELATIONS AND ITS SOURCES IN

1Feruza Tojieva

1Lecturer, Department of History, State University, Urgench, . E-mail address: [email protected]

Received: 04.03.2020 Revised: 06.04.2020 Accepted: 08.05.2020

Abstract In this article, it has been spoken about the essence of relations in Khiva khanate, the emergence and sources of slavery on the basis of written sources. The essence of slavery in Khiva khanate and its role in socio-economic life have been scientifically analyzed and conclusions have been drawn. At the same time, the article provides a scientific analysis of the slave markets and attitudes towards slaves in Khiva khanate.

Key words: slavery, sources of slavery, slave markets, sharia, Shiites, fatwas, Asian mode of production, , crowds.

© 2020 by Advance Scientific Research. This is an open-access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.31838/jcr.07.12.39

INTRODUCTION In short, the main productive force in the khanate was still the The traditions of slavery have long been preserved in the socio- peasants, so slavery was not of primary importance in the economic life of Khiva khanate. However, this slavery did not political and socio-economic life of Khiva khanate. With the reach the level of classical i.e. economic slavery, as in ancient exception of some periods when there were many wars and the Greece and Rome. The main feature of this system of slavery was number of captives increased, the price of slaves was largely high that a slave was seen as an object or a tool of labor, without being and only nobles or self-sufficient families had access to slaves on seen as a human being. Even Plato and Aristotle, considered the their farms. most enlightened people of the ancient world, could not get out of the shell of attitudes towards slaves at that time and Furthermore, the subsequent penetration of did not in part considered slavery as a norm[1]. In particular, Aristotle prevent slavery from reaching the classical level[4]. described slavery as a “speaking tool of labor” in his work It is important to note that many studies on the issue of slavery “Politics”[2]. Slaves had no rights at all and the master of the in Khiva khanate, especially in the Soviet period, have slave could treat him as he wished. There was no punishment for exaggerated the attitude to slavery. We are far from justifying the a slave-owner for killing a slave. slave relationship here, of course. Indeed, while nineteenth- Although slavery was officially abolished in medieval Europe, century Russian, European, or American authors who left only the name was abolished and in practice it was preserved information about Khiva khanate viewed slavery as a disgusting under other names. In , for example, slaves were called custom, slavery existed in various forms in the society in which “холоп (khalop)”. Unlike such slavery, the slavery formed in they lived and was not completely abolished. In particular, was based on patriarchal, i.e. family slavery. Here McGahan’s country, which took part in the conquest of Khiva the slave is treated not as an item, but as a family member. Khanate and provided information about slavery, was 10 years after the end of slavery in the (adopted in 1863 and Slavery did not reach its classical level in Central Asia due to the was active in 1865), but during those years its complications strong collective relations from ancient times and the long- were not completely eliminated[5]. lasting nature of these relations. Because in the socio-economic relations in these areas, in the relations with the land, the Slavery in Russia (slaves were called in Russia as “холоп”) was community played an important role[3]. officially abolished in 1722 by decree of Peter I. Slavery was abolished as a legal institution by a decree of 1746 prohibiting In the socio-economic sciences, such relations were called the the sale or purchase of human beings, regardless of who they “Asian mode of production”. Although this concept was first were. However, this decree also applied only to the central introduced in 1859 by the German philosopher and economist K. regions of Russia. Moreover, such decrees and documents only Marks, it caused a great deal of controversy in the social sciences served the interests of Russian citizens, Orthodox believers. in the 1920s and 1930s and 1960s, but did not find a definitive Because in , the Asian part of Russia, and in other solution. peripheral regions of the empire, slavery continued until the 1950s. If we take into account that the existing krepostnoyness The main feature of the Asian method of production is the (the dependence of peasants on their masters) in the socio- application of land as the state ownership. The special economic economic life of Russia is also equated with slavery by most role of the state stems actually from this. State ownership of land researchers, the decree of 1861 on the abolition of serfdom in merged with the system of rural communities, paving the way for Russia in the true sense was abolished[6]. the operation of this mode of production. In such circumstances, the government is not a separate farmer or craftsman, but a The 1815 resolution of the Congress of Vienna to end the democratic organization of the community, which in turn enslavement of the black population was also largely specific to protects the interests of community members before the state, the African region. Moreover, this decision did not end slavery in that is, the role of the community in this mode of production is Africa at all. Slavery on this continent officially lasted until the separate. We have every reason to say that this method of 1980s (Mauritania’s 1981 Act on the Abolition of Slavery) (in production prevailed in Khiva khanate as well. practice, there are still various forms of slavery in Africa and other parts of the world)[7].

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Slavery was abolished in Brazil in 1888, in Korea in 1894, and in , Caucasians, Indians, and partly Europeans of the Shia in 1910. In Europe, too, slavery in various forms continued sect, people of , Afghans, , Kyrgyz and in practice until the 1980s (the abolition of slavery in Italy in of Sunni sect were also sometimes enslaved. In 1889)[8]. Thus, the problem of slavery in Khiva khanate and the particular, according to Vamberi, in the , attitude to the tradition of slavery in the khanate in general has Indians were forcibly converted first to Islam, then to its Shiite not yet been fully and objectively revealed. sect, and then to slavery[14]. At the same time, some merchants, ambassadors, tourists and representatives of various missions The history of slavery in Khiva khanate, especially in Khorezm, who came to the khanate from these countries were enslaved dates back to ancient times. However, we do not want to dwell on and sold to neighboring countries. There is enough information the history of slavery before the formation of Khiva Khanate. It is in the sources in this regard. In addition, the Bukhara , the th known that from the 16 century, i.e. from the time of Khiva kings of , and the Turkmens, who organized raids on Khiva khanate, the sources began to show information about slavery. khanate, enslaved the Khiva people and the ’s caravans were Indeed, the constant struggle between Khiva and Bukhara sometimes attacked and the caravan traders taken captive. For , two new states that emerged in Central Asia in this example, in the sources of the countries, slaves called century, and the internal struggles within the khanates yurgen, urgen slaves, referring to the inhabitants of Khiva themselves intensified. While the Baburids of began a khanate in the form of Urgench (first Old Urgench, later New struggle for control of the mountainous on the Urgench), one of the largest cities of Khiva khanate (here not south-eastern border of Bukhara, a Safavid state emerged in Iran only slaves but also, ambassadors, merchants, and until the 17th and Khiva and Bukhara khanates began a struggle for control of century it should be noted that the khanate was sometimes called Khurasan bodering both khanates. Other regions and steppes by the same name, including in Russian sources: послы bordering on them had also become a battleground between юргенские, земля юргенская or купцы юргенские and so different tribes and states. It is no exaggeration to say that the on)[15]. rise of the Shiite ideology in Safavid state of Iran was a powerful impetus for the further strengthening of the system of slavery. The first source was the neighboring territories of Iran, the main This is because, as mentioned above, Islam strictly forbade the invasion of the in this direction, and the purpose enslavement of one’s fellow believers, and enslaving the of the march was to capture as many captives as possible and sell “disbelievers” was allowed (even in order to “guide them to the them as slaves. For many Turkmen tribes and clans, these special right path indicated by Allah” or to convert them to Islam). For raids became a source of life, and in the sources these looting the Sunni sect of Islam, the Shiites are considered infidels, and for marches were called “crowds”. The “crowd” invasion also existed the Shiites, the Sunnis are considered infidels. As a result, among the , Dagestanians and other Caucasian peoples. captives captured from the 16th century onwards, as a result of However, in them these invasions were an additional source of the wars with Iran or any raids on the territory of this state for accumulation of additional material wealth only after farming, the next three centuries, were, of course, enslaved[9]. handicrafts and animal husbandry[16]. Only in the Turkmen, these invasions became the main occupation and only then MATERIALS AND METHODS animal husbandry and, in part, farming became an additional The rulers issued special fatwas by Sunni scholars to justify their source of livelihood. Especially after the shameful defeat of the actions. For example, in the 15th century (according to H. king’s army of Iran in 1861, the crowd of Turkmens in the Vamberi in 1500) the scholars of Bukhara, led by Sheikh territories of this state increased[17]. Since the 1990s, many Shamsiddin, issued a fatwa authorizing the enslavement of publications, especially by Turkmen researchers, have described Shiites[10], while the ruler of the Bukharian , the “crowd” as an act that the Turkmens were forced to use to Abdullah II, issued a fatwa in 1586 during his march to protect themselves from invaders such as Iran, Khiva, Bukhara, [11]. It was the Sunni scholars of Herat who in 1611 issued and . is increasingly observed[18]. However, the data a fatwa declaring the Shiites as Kofirs – disbelievers to Allah and of Russian and other sources of that time show the opposite, and allowing them to be enslaved[12]. we see that the “crowd” became the permanent occupation of many Turkmen tribes and clans and the main source of filling the In addition, Russia, one more “place of kofirs” for the khanates, slave markets[19]. was not yet a large enough country at that time, and its southern and southeastern border areas were the scene of increasing So, as mentioned above, as a result of raids on the territories of looting and invasion by nomadic Nogai, Kalmyks, Kazakhs, and Iran, Afghanistan, Russia and the kidnapping of people from Kyrgyz. more precisely, it had become one of the sources of these areas, and sometimes as a result of looting trade caravans, slavery. In particular, A. Jenkinson, who was in the Central Asian many captives were brought and sold as slaves in the slave khanates from 1558 to 1559, freed 25 Russian slaves and markets of Khiva khanate. The cities , Atrek, and brought them to Russia with himself[13]. Gyumushtepa were the main slave markets where captives from Khurasan and Iran were sold, and from there thousands of slaves In general, the constant wars and invasions in this vast region were sent to the four sides for sale[20]. were one of the main reasons for the development of slavery in the countries of the region, and especially in Khiva khanate. The second source of slavery was the southern borders of the Russian state, the steppes and deserts inhabited by Kyrgyz and Territorially and geographically, Khiva khanate had three main Kazakhs, and the lower reaches of the , where Khiva th sources of slavery. During the 19 century, the “crowd” of Khanate troops, Turkmens, and Nogays, Kazakhs, and Kyrgyz Turkmen tribes played a key role in all three sources of these invaded Russia’s border villages and towns and sold captives in captives. This is because almost all the information on slavery in the markets of Khiva. In this direction, especially Russian the sources of this period mentions the piracy of the Turkmen. captives were sold in large numbers[21]. In this direction, too, th th Because in this century, compared to the 16 and 18 centuries, there were special people of Khiva khans, who also brought interstate wars, the struggle for the throne and internal conflicts many “live goods” to the markets of Khiva, to the khan’s palace. in general had significantly decreased. The khan of Khiva himself was also a great slave-holder, and As mentioned above, slavery of one’s fellow believers was strictly hundreds of slaves worked in the palace[22]. forbidden in Islam. However, this rule was not followed much While the abduction of the population from the border areas of during the invasions. Along with the , , Nogai- the and their subsequent enslavement was

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initially considered the main occupation and source of high long distances on foot. They were then divided into groups at the income for the Kalmyks, later such illegal activities were carried robber’s quarters and sent to the slave markets of Khiva, out by Kyrgyz-Kazakhs and Turkmens[23]. Bukhara, and . In order not to resist, not running away, they almost did not feed the captives along the way, constantly In these areas, pirates captured individual travelers, fishermen, using various forms of physical violence and humiliating them. In or an entire village, farmers working in the fields and their particular, Philip Efremov, a Russian officer who had been families, or an entire ship’s crew, and sent them in groups to the enslaved in Bukhara for a long time, recalled that if the fugitive slave markets for sale. Even the bandits relentlessly attacked the captives were captured again, their ears and noses were cut off, military people. For example, in the spring of 1836, an official and they were brutally punished or killed. In order not to run controlling the waters of the Emba River was abducted, and in away, the heels of the captives were cut off and sprinkled with the fall, a small army of 4 artillerymen was captured with all their crushed horse tails. As a result, the prisoner could hardly walk. weapons and ships[24]. However, as noted above, Russian Not all the captives could bear the agony, and many perished th th sources in the 18 and 19 centuries show that slavery in this along the way. Wounded and maimed – prisoners who were direction was not only the result of invasions and looting, but crippled, incapacitated or insane were sentenced to a painful also a way for Kyrgyz and Kazakhs to send their children to death and left in the desert without water and food, alone[31]. In Khivians (all population of Khiva khanate were noted as such in general, the condition of the captives was extremely dire from Russian sources) during the famine, poverty or debt sales were the time of the abduction until it fell into the hands of the buyer. also one of the main sources of human enslavement[25]. Bashkir, , Kazakh, Kyrgyz, and in some cases even Russian RESULT AND DISCUSSION slaves, who were citizens of Russian Empire, were not captured At the same time, Russians were sometimes involved in “hunting by mere invasions or piracy attacks. According to sources, there slaves” and selling them. In particular, Mikhail Zaychikov, a were also rebels, criminals or those who moved to the khanate merchant from , a participant in the Perovsky marches territory for various reasons, fleeing pressure from the Russian from 1839 to 1840, a gold medalist for his services in this march, government. In particular, according to Akulina Stepanova, who was also secretly involved in the slave trade. His servants hired was enslaved in the khan’s palace in Khiva for six years (1835- farmers to work in the merchant’s fields outside the city. Hired 1840), staroobryad people (followers of religious sects formed in farmers worked until the harvest, then arranged a banquet 1667 as a result of the split of the Orthodox Church) opposed to before sending them home, drank well, and deliberately the official Orthodox Church in Russia also lived. According to the intoxicated them. At the agreed time in the middle of the night, former maid, this category of people had special religious monks the Kazakhs attacked and took them captive, and on M. and they maintained their religion. In the khanate they were also Zaychikov’s instructions, they were delivered to familiar slave- allowed to live their traditional way of life[32]. holders in Khiva. From the Khiva slave-holders he took various products and valuable goods of the East in exchange for slaves. According to the sources, the Staroobryads, as well as those who Those crimes of his were discovered after this march, that is, in tried to escape from the tyranny of krepostnoys, and those who 1840, by Russian slaves freed by the British ambassador, R. refused to serve in the army, began to move to the border areas th th Shakespeare. Many of those released knew Zaychikov and said of Central Asia in the late 17 and early 18 centuries. However, they had been sold into slavery by Zaychikov. In Orenburg, as a result of the transfer of these territories to the Russian according to rumors circulating among the population at that Empire and the Kazakh juzes under their rule, some of them time, Zaychikov was not alone in the secret slave trade and there came to Khiva khanate[33]. were many slave traders like him. But it was much harder to Many criminals from Russia, especially military refugees, also expose them at the time[26]. took refuge in the khanate. One such person is Sergey ogha – the The third direction to bring captives to the Khiva slave markets is “artillery minister”, the favorite of the Khiva khan, was the areas bordering the Emirate of Bukhara and Afghanistan, mentioned in the information about P.G. Danilevsky’s mission where the famous Hungarian tourist H. Vamberi’s memoirs who came to Khiva in 1842. Sergey stayed in Khiva voluntarily in mention the enslavement of Herat slaves or the people of 1840, even during the British officer, R. Shakespeare’s liberation , the plundering of Qalai-Nav by the with the of many Russian slaves, in 1842, although G. Danilevsky Turkmens and the enslavement of captives in Bukhara and the promised to take him to Russia, to employ as his consultant and fact that Qalai-Nav was a large slave market like Merv[27]. It is ask to forgive him for his crimes there. clear that not only Bukhara but also Khiva khanate played an Similarly, in 1842, the topographer G.N. Zelenin, who was in important role in this trade. In particular, in many documents Khiva as part of the G. Danilevsky mission, also provides and lists drawn up by the Russian government in the 1950s on information about a Russian (more precisely Tatar) military the abolition of slavery in areas inhabited by Kazakhs and officer who had fled to Khiva. The topographer mentions that this Kyrgyz, Afghans make up the majority of slaves brought from man had a separate house of his own, and that Russian slaves Khiva markets[28]. sometimes gathered there. However, he did not mention the In addition to H. Vamberi’s above data, according to the Russian name of this Russian (the author probably did not mention his researcher V. Masalsky., in the 1930s, the Turkmen plundering name because war criminals could not escape punishment no Afghanistan and Badakhshan intensified to such an extent that matter how many years passed)[34]. the population of these areas, especially Badakhshan, declined sharply[29]. CONCLUSION Thus, the unique political, socio-economic and spiritual society The process of raid for kidnapping was organized in such a way formed in Khiva khanate over many centuries has led to the long- that the future victims were in a state where they did not expect term preservation of the traditions of slavery. While the main any danger at all, when there was no suspicion of anything, when sources of this slavery were, first and foremost, raids and looting, they were not at all ready for protection. Even if there was in some cases forced to sell their children or family members into resistance, the invaders used brutal measures[30]. When the slavery to escape the scourge of poverty, famine, or debt, they robbers captured the captives, they walked non-stop for also filled the slave markets. The existence of slavery and its long hundreds of miles to escape persecution as much as possible. existence in the khanate were partly due to the formation in the Captives were loaded on horses or, in many cases, forced to run

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