sign in sign up
<<
Home , Kyrgyzstan, Kyrgyz people, Sooronbay Jeenbekov, Uzbekistan, Uzbeks

Undergraduate Journal of Global Citizenship

Volume 4 Issue 1 Article 4

6-1-2021

The - Border: A Legacy of Soviet Imperialism

Liam Abbate Santa Clara University, [email protected]

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.fairfield.edu/jogc

Recommended Citation Abbate, Liam (2021) "The Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan Border: A Legacy of Soviet Imperialism," Undergraduate Journal of Global Citizenship: Vol. 4 : Iss. 1 , Article 4. Available at: https://digitalcommons.fairfield.edu/jogc/vol4/iss1/4

This item has been accepted for inclusion in DigitalCommons@Fairfield by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@Fairfield. It is brought to you by DigitalCommons@Fairfield with permission from the rights- holder(s) and is protected by copyright and/or related rights. You are free to use this item in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses, you need to obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/or on the work itself. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Abbate: The Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan Border: A Legacy of Soviet Imperialism

dispute, particularly in relation to the U.S.- The Kyrgyzstan- rivalry. Uzbekistan Border: Background A Legacy of Soviet Kyrgyzstan is among the poorest of the nations of Central : its per capita is a Imperialism mere tenth of its larger neighbor LIAM ABBATE .1 Formerly a constituent of the Union of the Soviet Socialist , the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic declared independence as Abstract Kyrgyzstan on , 1991. Between 1924 and 1927 Soviet officials drew curly Kyrgyzstan, a small country in , borders for their then-constituent republics, shares a complex border with its neighbor and in the process, they separated groups of Uzbekistan. While these borders were Kyrgyz, , and inhabiting the created during the Soviet era, and were Ferghana Valley:2 home to nearly one 3 drawn by leaders in , in the post- quarter of Central Asia’s population. Soviet years new problems have arisen from Unlike the other former Soviet the complex borders. A number of different republics of Central Asia, Kyrgyzstan has largely experienced since ethnic groups are spread amongst the five independence. Revolutions ousted the Uzbek exclaves and two Tajik exclaves that Kyrgyz presidents in 2005 and 2010; the are located adjacent to Kyrgyz territory. former revolution was peaceful, while the This difficult set of national borders also latter included carnage in its chronology.4 complicates sharing the water that flows thru Furthermore, a competitive election in 2017 the Ferghana Valley. resulted in a peaceful transition from President to his

protégé , without a revolution. However, despite handing over Introduction power, former President Atambayev In this paper, I will analyze the international continues to harshly criticize the actions of border dispute between Kyrgyzstan and his successor. President Jeenbekov has also Uzbekistan, and how the contemporary worked to consolidate his power, as he has Uzbek-Kyrgyz border’s division of the threatened to imprison a political opponent surrounding ethnic groups remains as a of his – – on the charge legacy of the Soviet era. I start by explaining of inciting conflict between the ethnics 5 the complicated border which is the basis for Uzbeks and Kyrgyz. the dispute. I then examine the origins of the Kyrgyzstan lies between Uzbekistan dispute back in the Soviet era, before and in the west and south, China moving on to developments in the dispute in the east, and Kazakhstan in the north. The since Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan gained country is covered in mountains with 88 6 their independence in. Finally, I explore the mountain ranges. These mountain ranges wider geopolitical implications of the separate communities within Kyrgyzstan, contributing to regional differences and

Published by DigitalCommons@Fairfield, 2021 1 Undergraduate Journal of Global Citizenship, Vol. 4, Iss. 1 [2021], Art. 4

national instability.7 The capital of Line Defense, last modified November 16, 2011, is the main population center for northern https://sldinfo.com/2011/11/kyrgyzstan-and-the- Kyrgyzstan, while the between Jalal- -campaigns-logistical-challenges/.).

Abad and comprises the most populated part of southern Kyrgyzstan. As seen in Misaligned Ethnicities in the Ferghana Figure 1, the former lies just South of Valley Kazakhstan while the latter area lies just east While many countries have borders of Uzbekistan; Osh and Bishkek are two that were drawn arbitrarily, Kyrgyzstan’s cities the lie outside of the seven borders are especially problematic. There (regions) and hold an equivalent status as are five exclaves where portions of Uzbek the oblasts.8 territory are completely surrounded by The Ferghana Valley is an area Kyrgyzstan: , , Chon divided among Kyrgyzstan and its Qora/Qalacha, and Jani-Ayil (Halmiyon), as neighbors: Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. The well as two Tajik exclaves.12 At 350 km2, valley’s fertile agricultural land produces a Sokh is the largest of these exclaves, and large amount of food for Central Asia, while according to Baumgartner, has experienced subject to the availability of water.9 The several conflicts between its 50,000 Uzbek twisting borders and narrow stretches of citizens and the guards securing the Kyrgyz land are relics of Soviet rule and continue to border.13 To complicate matters further, cause disputes between Kyrgyzstan and Sokh’s residents are 99% ethnic Tajiks.14 Uzbekistan. Its 10 million inhabitants This mismatch of residency and identity is include ethnic Uzbeks, Kyrgyz, and Tajiks.10 not unique to the Sokh exclave; national However, during the Soviet era, residents borders separate divide ethnic groups of the became accustomed to their ability to cross Ferghana Valley while pushing together the inter-Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR), as other distinct groups (fig. 2; fig. 3).15 the Ferghana Valley lacked the border Furthermore, this disconnect between ethnic controls present in other areas of the Soviet identity and location within national Union.11 boundaries is especially pronounced in northern Tajikistan, where Uzbeks and Tajiks are interspersed16 like chocolate and vanilla in a marble cake.

Figure 2. Political Map of the Ferghana Valley Figure 1. Political Divisions of Kyrgyzstan, map (Sabatar, “Normalization process between.”). from Bigstock (Richard Weitz, “Kyrgyzstan and the Afghan Campaign’s Logistical Challenges,” Second

https://digitalcommons.fairfield.edu/jogc/vol4/iss1/4 2 Abbate: The Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan Border: A Legacy of Soviet Imperialism

Throughout history the Ferghana Valley had been subjected and inhabited by numerous cultures, such as the , , , and Turks, all of which affected the socio-political landscape of the valley.23 In the mid-19th century Tsarist conquered the Ferghana Valley from the of Qo’qon.24 Also known as

Figure 3. Demographics of the Valley , the Khanate was not ethnically- (“Central Asia: Tensions.”). based, but rather was a “dynastic and feudal entity.”25 Ethnic tensions in the region are Many of the issues from the Kyrgyz- nothing new and most recently flared up in Uzbek border and other borders in the 2010 when clashes between the two ethnic region are a product of Russian imperialism groups left hundreds of locals dead.17 The – first in the way of the , and Soviet era infrastructure impacts later by the hand of the Union of Soviet contemporary disagreements over water Socialist Republics (USSR). Before 1924, resources and the border itself. A Soviet- when the creation of the Kyrgyzstan- built network of canals connects the water Uzbekistan border began, Kyrgyzstan and supply systems of Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan had not existed as sovereign and Tajikistan, causing disagreements over states. According to Megoran, there were how much water each of the three “stans” not Kyrgyz and Uzbek ethnic groups quite should receive.18 In general, Kyrgyzstan and the way there are today.26 Before the Tajikistan have an abundance of water but creation of the border in the 1920s, ethnic lack electricity, while Uzbekistan (and identification was not familiar to many Kazakhstan) have excess electricity but a inhabitants of Central Asia.27 The history of scarce amount of water.19 There have been migrations in the region had not provided multiple efforts to improve the water clear, geographically segregated ethnic distribution system in the Ferghana Valley. groups. The Uzbeks, , and The bank funded improvements and likely all descended from the modernizations in Uzbekistan’s water people inhabiting the Uzbek confederation infrastructure from 2010 to 2016.20 of the fifteenth century.28 The origins of the Similarly, the International Water are less clear, but the Management Institute had a project started consensus is that part of the Kyrgyz in 2001 which sought to respect local needs population migrated from southern for water resources and improve the soil to modern Kyrgyzstan in the fifteenth fertility in Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and century, but that another portion of the Tajikistan.21 In 2017, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyz population is descended from Kyrgyzstan were able to agree on a dam on who had arrived in the region long the River, while in 2018, before the fifteenth century.29 When Uzbekistan’s president announced his considered on the basis of language, the support for the in Tajikistan. Tajiks are distinct from the other four large Continued cooperation is possible, provided ethnic groups of post-: the three nations are willing to overlook the the Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Uzbeks, and “deep-seated mistrust”22 that currently ,30 who all speak Turkic exists.

Published by DigitalCommons@Fairfield, 2021 3 Undergraduate Journal of Global Citizenship, Vol. 4, Iss. 1 [2021], Art. 4

languages.31 The , however, practices to disintegrate. In 1993, is a relative of Persian.32 Uzbekistan temporarily closed its border to Kyrgyzstan and introduced its own unique The selected historical currency. Later on, Uzbekistan abandoned designations and used them as the basis for daylight savings time and adopted the ethnicities, by codifying distinct languages, alphabet, all the while Kyrgyzstan kept selecting capitals for the union republics, 37 33 daylight savings and the Cyrillic alphabet. and compiling national historiographies. Disagreements have pitted the Ferghana The ethnicity names created by the Soviet Valley portion of Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Union did not match the self-identification and Tajikistan against the remainder of the of residents of Central Asia: boundary respective countries. During the , the surveyors reported confusion about Ferghana Valley played an important role in matching people to ethnic labels if their own Tajikistan’s civil war,38 providing many labels were not on the official list of Central anti-regime fighters.39 Uzbekistan and Asian ethnonyms. Perhaps most Kyrgyzstan also experienced regional consequentially, the Soviet officials drew instability in the 1990s, in which their borders between the Uzbek Soviet Socialist portions of the Ferghana Valley experienced Republic (SSR), the Kirghiz SSR, and the unrest. During that period, there were other central Asian SSRs. Even after the extremists from the Ferghana Valley who creation of these borders, many residents did executed sporadic attacks in southern not “distinguish between Uzbekistan and 40 34 Kyrgyzstan. Kyrgyzstan”. The situation between Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan became more tense in 1999. In 1999, Uzbekistan closed its A New International Border border for an indefinite amount of time. On Kyrgyzstan’s most important February 13, 1999, President Karimov relations are with its neighbors: Uzbekistan, declared that “Kyrgyzstan is a poor country, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and China, as well and it is not my job to look after the as nearby and . people”.41 In August 1999, The Islamic Uzbekistan has accused both Kyrgyzstan Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) – an and Tajikistan of inadequately protecting organization of “dissident Islamist guerillas their borders, allowing an unlimited flow of headed by Ferghana Valley exiles linked to drugs to travel across the latter two militant Islamist groups in Tajikistan and countries.35 Uzbekistan relied on its Afghanistan”42 – invaded southern authoritarian dictator Karimov to Kyrgyzstan and adjacent areas of Tajikistan. strongly enforce its borders – Karimov died As a consequence of the IMU’s actions, in 2016. Uzbekistan began erecting a fence – which Upon independence in 1991, the is two meters high - along its Ferghana border between Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan Valley border; factories in Uzbekistan were became an international border overnight. required to fire any employees who were Initially, the border was not tangible and the ethnically Kyrgyz. The creation of a respective countries made a minimal effort borderland continued as President Karimov to demarcate the border.36 However, over decreed that all visitors to Uzbekistan the next few years, political and economic staying longer than three days needed a differences between Uzbekistan and visa.43 Understandably, this did not go over Kyrgyzstan caused the lenient border well with Kyrgyzstan, for as Karimov knew

https://digitalcommons.fairfield.edu/jogc/vol4/iss1/4 4 Abbate: The Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan Border: A Legacy of Soviet Imperialism

quite well, most Kyrgyzstan’s residents were national borders could be redrawn by the already struggling economically. countries themselves, allowing the borders to align with the ethnic groups in the valley. It would also be beneficial for the countries The Chinese and the of the Ferghana Valley (Uzbekistan, The other important state actors Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan) if they could interacting with Kyrgyzstan are the U.S. and devise a plan to share the water in the valley. Russia, who vie with China for influence in The situation would also benefit from Kyrgyzstan. The U.S. global Uzbekistan being more understanding of has affected Kyrgyzstan, albeit not as Kyrgyzstan. severely as Afghanistan, and pressured it to 44 Yet, perhaps Uzbekistan is not the strengthen its border security. However, biggest threat to Kyrgyzstan’s well-being. Russia, China, and the U.S. do not place Megoran argues that middle-class Kyrgyz Kyrgyzstan as a high priority, meaning each people worry most about the elites state does not have the goal of eliminating 45 destroying the country. Uzbeks agree, and the influence of the other two. one Uzbek told a researcher that the ‘big Nevertheless, these three major powers have ones,’ or the wealthy elites, “keep gobbling reasons to maintain an interest in [up] [Kyrgyzstan] the way they are at the Kyrgyzstan. moment, the mountains themselves may China has the greatest reason to disappear”.49 This reasoning suggests that worry; its officials fear that instability in the Kyrgyzstan’s income inequality is causing Kyrgyz Republic could contribute to unrest 46 issues that should not be neglected. in China, particularly the autonomous Logically, the residents hope for no territory of which is home to a continuation of the environmental large number of ethnic . Uyghurs degradation that occurred under Soviet rule, and Kyrgyz are both Turkic ethnic groups. although the Soviet environmental damage The U.S.’s concerns regarding Kyrgyzstan persists in Kyrgyzstan50 – and other portions derive from its proximity to Afghanistan: of the former U.S.S.R. This hope of theirs only Tajikistan separates the two countries. opposes any plans to exploit the land and the The short distance separating Kyrgyzstan common people of Kyrgyzstan for the and Afghanistan has allowed the U.S. to use benefits of the wealthier elites. Creating a Manas International Airport in the former 47 more just and equitable society could for its military operations in the latter. The improve the socio-economic stability within U.S. found this arrangement necessary after Kyrgyzstan. Uzbekistan expelled U.S. military officers The first step in decreasing income from its territory in 2005. inequality is to decrease corruption in the Kyrgyz government. If the politicians in Conclusion power ceased imprisoning their opponents The Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan border or purging governmental officials they dispute has taken a century to develop into quarreled with, government transparency something threatening enough to make the and fairness could emerge. If international two neighbors adversaries of one another. aid was permitted to reach the communities The borders as drawn by the Soviets fail to it is intended to benefit, better economic align with the distribution of persons of opportunities could emerge for all residents differing ethnicities; the enclaves only make of Kyrgyzstan. Providing more economic negotiations more difficult.48 Perhaps the opportunities for the economically

Published by DigitalCommons@Fairfield, 2021 5 Undergraduate Journal of Global Citizenship, Vol. 4, Iss. 1 [2021], Art. 4

marginalized residents of Kyrgyzstan is the https://www.britannica.com/place/Central- most promising solution to this border Asia. dispute, because a major source of tension over the Uzbekistan-Kyrgyzstan border is “Ferghana Valley Water Resources the movement of migrants from Kyrgyzstan Management Phase-I Project.” The World to Uzbekistan in search of better-paying Bank. The Group. Last employment.51 Like many border disputes, modified November 30, 2020. this dispute is a proxy: a proxy for the https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects- sources of distress causing residents of operations/project-detail/P110538. Kyrgyzstan to leave their in search of economic improvement in their Geography Now. “Geography Now! lives. Kyrgyzstan.” YouTube. January 24, 2018. Video, 11:32. https://youtu.be/Wo- Bibliography b_MpguLo. Arnold, Katie. “In Kyrgyzstan, Warming Brings Less Water – And More Conflict.” Heyer, Evelyne, Patricia Balaresque, Mark . Last modified November 8, 2018. A. Jobling, Lluis Quintana-Murci, Raphaelle https://www.reuters.com/article/us- Chaix, Laure Segurel, Almaz Aldashev, and kyrgyzstan-water- climatechange/in- Tanya Hegay. “Genetic diversity and the kyrgyzstan-warming-brings-less-water-and- emergence of ethnic groups in Central more-conflict- idUSKCN1NE0BW. Asia.” BMC Genetics 10 (2009). http://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2156-10-49. Baumgartner, Pete. “Tug-of-War: Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan Look to Finally Johanson, Lars. “.” Settle Decades-Old Border Dispute.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. August 11, 2020. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Last https://www.britannica.com/topic/Turkic- modified December 14, 2017. languages. https://www.rferl.org/a/uzbekistan- kyrgyzstan-resolving-decades-old-border- “Kyrgyzstan’s Geographic Challenge.” dispute/28918059.html. Stratfor. October 16, 2012. https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/kyrgyz “Central Asia: Tensions grow in the stans-geographic-challenge. Ferghana Valley.” Stratfor. October 8, 2013. https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/central “Kyrgyzstan’s Neighbours Have Too Little -asia-tensions-grow-fergana-valley. politics, but It Has Too Much.” The Economist. April 17, 2019. Dalbaeva, Alina. “End the Weaponisation of https://www.economist.com/asia/2019/04/17 Water in Central Asia.” International Crisis /kyrgyzstans-neighbours-have-too-little- Group. 15, 2018. politics-but-it-has-too-much. https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe-central- asia/central-asia/kazakhstan/end- Megoran, Nick. “The Critical Geopolitics of weaponisation-water-central-asia. Danger in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan.” Environment and Planning D: Society and The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Space 23, no. 4 (2005): 555-580 “Central Asia.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. doi.org/10.1068%2Fd56j. December 28, 2018.

https://digitalcommons.fairfield.edu/jogc/vol4/iss1/4 6 Abbate: The Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan Border: A Legacy of Soviet Imperialism

Megoran, Nick. “The Critical Geopolitics of the Uzbekistan-Kyrgyzstan Ferghana Valley Border Dispute, 1999-2000.” Political Sanderson, Thomas M. “From the Ferghana Geography 23, no. 6 (2004): 731-764. Valley to and Beyond: A Brief History doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2004.03.004. of Central Asian Foreign Fighters.” Center for Strategic & International Studies. Megoran, Nick. “Rethinking the Study of January 5, 2018. International Boundaries: A Biography of https://www.csis.org/analysis/ferghana- the Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan Boundary.” valley-syria-and-beyond-brief-history- Annals of the Association of American central-asian-foreign-fighters. Geographers 102, no. 2 (2012): 464-481. doi.org/10.1080/00045608.2011.595969.

Sabatar, Akmaral. “Normalization Process between Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan.” The AsiaN. Last modified October 24, 2016. http://www.theasian.asia/archives/96843.

1 “Kyrgyzstan’s Neighbours Have Too Little 12Geography Now, “Geography Now! Politics, but It Has Too Much.” The Economist, Kyrgyzstan.” April 17, 2019. 13Baumgartner, “Tug-of-War: Uzbekistan.” 2Pete Baumgartner, “Tug-of-War: Uzbekistan, 14Geography Now, “Geography Now! Kyrgyzstan Look to Finally Settle Decades-Old Kyrgyzstan.” Border Dispute,” Radio Free Europe/Radio. 15Akmaral Sabatar, “Normalization Process 3Katie Arnold, “In Kyrgyzstan, Warming Brings between Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan,” The Less Water – And More Conflict,” Reuters, last AsiaN, last modified October 24, 2016, “Central modified November 8, 2018. Asia: Tensions grow in the Ferghana Valley,” 4“Kyrgyzstan’s Neighbours.” Stratfor, October 8, 2013. 5Ibid,. 16“Central Asia: Tensions.” 6Geography Now, “Geography Now! 17“Kyrgyzstan’s Neighbours.” Kyrgyzstan,” YouTube, January 24, 2018, 18Katie Arnold, “In Kyrgyzstan, Warming video, 11:32. Brings Less Water – And More Conflict,” 7“Kyrgyzstan’s Geographic Challenge,” Stratfor, Reuters, last modified November 8, 2018. October 16, 2012. 19 Alina Dalbaeva, “End the Weaponisation of 8Geography Now, “Geography Now! Water in Central Asia,” International Crisis Kyrgyzstan.” Group, March 15, 2018. 9Stratfor, “Central Asia: The Complexities of the 20 “Ferghana Valley Water Resources Ferghana Valley,” Forbes, last modified October Management Phase-I Project,” The World Bank, 10, 2013. The World Bank Group, last modified 10Nick Megoran, “The Critical Geopolitics of the November 30, 2020. Uzbekistan-Kyrgyzstan Ferghana Valley Border Dispute, 1999-2000,” Political Geography 23, 21 Kai Wegerich, Jusipbek Kazbekov, and Murat no. 6 (2004): 733, accessed May 31, 2019. Yakubov, “Integrated Water Resources 11Nick Megoran, “Rethinking the Study of Management in the Ferghana Valley,” International Boundaries: A Biography of the International Water Management Institute, Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan Boundary,” Annals of accessed December 6, 2020. the Association of American Geographers 102, no. 2 (2012): 471, accessed May 31, 2019. 22 Dalbaeva, “End the Weaponisation.”

Published by DigitalCommons@Fairfield, 2021 7 Undergraduate Journal of Global Citizenship, Vol. 4, Iss. 1 [2021], Art. 4

36Megoran, “Rethinking the Study,” 472. 23Nick Megoran, “Rethinking the Study of 37Ibid, 473. International Boundaries: A Biography of the 38“Central Asia: Tensions.” Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan Boundary,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 102, 39 Thomas M. Sanderson, “From the Ferghana no. 2 (2012): 471, accessed May 31, 2019, Valley to Syria and Beyond: A Brief History of doi.org/10.1080/00045608.2011.595969. Central Asian Foreign Fighters,” Center for 24Nick Megoran, “The Critical Geopolitics of the Strategic & International Studies, January 5, Uzbekistan-Kyrgyzstan Ferghana Valley Border 2018. Dispute, 1999-2000,” Political Geography 23, no. 6 (2004): 733, accessed May 31, 2019, 40 Sanderson, “From the Ferghana.” doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2004.03.004. 25 Megoran, “Rethinking the Study,” 470. 41Megoran, “Rethinking the Study,” 473. 26 Ibid, 469. 42Ibid, 474. 27 Ibid, 470. 43Ibid, 474. 28 Evelyne Heyer, et al., “Genetic diversity and 44 Ibid, 475. the emergence of ethnic groups in Central Asia,” 45Richard Weitz, “Kyrgyzstan and the Afghan BMC Genetics 10 (2009). Campaign’s Logistical Challenges,” Second Line

29 Defense, last modified November 16, 2011, Heyer, et al., “Genetic diversity.” https://sldinfo.com/2011/11/kyrgyzstan-and- 30 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, the-afghan-campaigns-logistical-challenges/. “Central Asia,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, 46Weitz, “Kyrgyzstan and the Afghan.” December 28, 2018, 47Ibid,. https://www.britannica.com/place/Central-Asia. 48Megoran, “Rethinking the Study,” 476. 31 Lars Johanson, “Turkic Languages,” 49Nick Megoran, “The Critical Geopolitics of Encyclopaedia Britannica, August 11, 2020, Danger in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan,” https://www.britannica.com/topic/Turkic- Environment and Planning D: Society and languages. Space 23, no. 4 (2005): 573, accessed May 31, 32The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2019. “Central Asia.” 50Megoran, “The Critical Geopolitics of 33Megoran, “Rethinking the Study,” 470. Danger,” 555. 34Ibid, 470. 51Megoran, “Rethinking the Study,” 473-74. 35Megoran, “The Critical Geopolitics of the Uzbekistan-Kyrgyzstan,” 742.

https://digitalcommons.fairfield.edu/jogc/vol4/iss1/4 8