"Deviance, Inversion and Unnatural Love:" in Canadian Media, 1950-19701

Kathryn Campbell

ABSTRACT This article examines the representation of lesbians in English Canadian print media in the 1950s and 1960s. The author discusses the increase in media attention towards homosexuality in the 1950s, and explores the portrayal of lesbians in these early articles in relation to the prevailing gender ideologies of the period. RESUME Cet article etudie la facon dont les lesbiennes on ete representees dans la presse canadienne-anglaise des annees 50 et 60. L'auteure discute de I'interet grandissant des medias envers I'homosexualite dans les annees 50 et explore le portrait qu'on a fait des lesbiennes dans ces premiers articles en faisant le lien avec les ideologies genderistes de I'epoque.

"THE LOVE THAT DARES NOT SPEAK controversial, particularly those related to women ITS NAME" (Kinsman 114). Gary Kinsman has argued that Kinsey's studies were the first widespread challenge Prior to 1950, there was a virtual silence on the to heterosexism, and that they had a large influence subject of homosexuality in North American media. on Canadian popular literature on homosexuals Although there were occasional vague references to throughout the 1950s and 1960s. One of the most effeminate male actors and artists, homosexuality important results of Kinsey's work was that it was considered too immoral to be mentioned in the "demonstrated that homosexual activity was media, and some newspapers and television stations widespread in the American population" (Bullough even had explicit policies banning the subject. 176-77). The Kinsey studies also demonstrate an Around 1950, this silence gradually began to increasing interest in sex as a subject for popular be broken. There are a number of reasons for this and media discussion. increase in media attention. First, public discussion Another factor contributing to the increase in of sexuality in general began to increase in this the media visibility of lesbians and men in the period. The Kinsey report on male sexuality was 1950s was the growth of and gay published in 1948, followed by the companion communities in major urban centres. During World study of female sexuality in 1953. These books, and War Two, many people acquired independence others such as Frank Caprio's Female through leaving their families and gaining paid Homosexuality, published in 1954, as well as the employment. Many lesbians and gay men met other Wolfenden Report released by the British homosexuals through military service and factory government in 1954, attracted media attention and work. Historians Alan Berube (1990, 256) and created some public debate on the issue of Donna Penn (1994, 364) have argued that the homosexuality (Kinsman 139-143). Historian Vern independence from families and the opportunity to Bullough has written that, "[fjhough the general live with other women during World War Two public accepted the importance of the [Kinsey] made it easier for some women to live as study," it received a great deal of criticism in homosexuals. Gay communities had existed in academic circles (180). Kinsey's statistics on the cities prior to the 1950s, but there was a rapid frequency of homosexual activity were highly growth in homosexual bar culture and social networks at this time (Kinsman 144). The growth of however, very difficult to determine what impact urban lesbian and gay communities in this post-war these articles had. For many people, these popular era led to increased social visibility, which in turn media articles were their first and only source of led to both increased media attention and increased information about homosexuality. As Gary persecution (Davis and Kennedy 69). Because gays Kinsman notes, "[ujntil recently, people rarely and lesbians were more visible than ever before, encountered visible gays or lesbians. All images they began to be perceived as a threat by society, were those projected by the media and those media and government agencies. These fears about circulating in the popular culture"(29). And as the perceived spread of homosexuality led to an media theorist Marguerite Moritz has argued, increase in violence against lesbians and gays, "[w]hen the news media...represent a topic with usually in the form of street bashings, increased which the mass audience may have little personal harassment and persecution of lesbians and gays by experience, and homosexuality is no doubt in that the police and government, and an increase in category, the message is particularly potent" (157). media articles denouncing homosexuality (Kinsman

2 145-146). HOMOSEXUALITY AS A "SOCIAL The majority of the newspaper and magazine PROBLEM" articles about homosexuality in the 1950s and 1960s referred solely to gay men. Lesbians were The majority of mainstream media articles rarely mentioned, and the term "homosexual," when from the 1950s and 1960s identified homosexuality used in media articles in this period, refers as a "threat" or "social problem." In addition, primarily to men, thus reinforcing the social almost all journalists unquestioningly accepted invisibility of lesbians in this period. When medical explanations of homosexuality, which journalists did refer to lesbians, they would defined homosexuality as an illness or disease. This generally use the term "women homosexuals," or medical model, which developed during the 1920s occasionally "lesbians," although this word was not and 1930s, had become the dominant ideology in commonly used even by lesbians until the mid to academic and popular literature on the subject of late 1960s. The term "heterosexual" is also homosexuality by the 1950s (Khayatt 22). Many of uncommon in these articles. Generally, the word these articles conveyed the notion that "normal" is used to refer to heterosexuality homosexuality was rapidly increasing or References to were also very rare in "spreading." Because homosexuality was usually articles from this period. The only references to viewed as a disease, many journalists made bisexuality, as we understand it today, are in comparisons to plagues and contagious illnesses, relation to someone with both masculine and particularly sexually transmitted diseases. For feminine characteristics, or to homosexuals, example, this passage is taken from an article particularly femme lesbians, who have been published in 1951 in the magazine Canadian Home "cured," or become heterosexual. Even in these Journal, entitled, "The Problem That is Never cases, the individual is generally not defined as Mentioned:" bisexual. Rather, the woman is seen as essentially heterosexual or "normal," but as having been weak, ...although lesbianism is a very different lacking in judgement, or seduced by a "real" matter from venereal disease, there is the same lesbian. need to have more than a vague and horrified Although there were only a handful of articles notion of what it is if we are to understand and on homosexuality published during this period, they help to solve the social problem it presents. were extremely significant. These articles from the (Cameron 12) 1950s and 1960s were among the first explicit public discussions of homosexuality and lesbianism Because homosexuality was perceived as a mental in Canadian media, and undoubtedly influenced illness or a disease, it was considered to be curable. how the public viewed gay men and lesbians. It is, Thus, the popular literature on homosexuality primarily focussed on finding causes and men, the institution of the family, or the postulating possible methods of prevention, and socialization of children. treatment. Finally, as Didi Khayatt has argued: Although lesbians were considered to be "deviant," "abnormal," and "morally diseased," the ...another plausible speculation [for the so-called "homosexual problem," as constructed by invisibility of lesbians] is that men's interest in the media, referred primarily to male women's sexual behavior is frequently limited homosexuality. While lesbians were reviled in the to regulating it to ensure legitimate heirs, to media, they were not considered to be as dangerous control their access to women's sexuality and to society as gay men, and thus received less media labor, and to maximize their own pleasure. attention. Gary Kinsman notes that lesbians were Laws and customs reflect the central position given less media attention partly because, unlike men have reserved for themselves, particularly male homosexuals, their activities were not illegal, in sexual matters. (13) and thus there were no arrests or court cases to report (17). Certainly, lesbians were rarely arrested BUTCHES, FEMMES, AND "GENDER for "indecency" or public sex acts as gay men were. INVERTS" Other reasons for the invisibility of lesbians in the media compared to gay men include the invisibility Although the "social problem" of of women in the media overall, and the popular homosexuality, as presented in the media, was notion that women are basically emotional rather attributed mostly to gay men, journalists also than sexual and thus have no sexuality at all considered lesbians and lesbianism itself to be without men. In a 1966 Chatelaine article, an potentially dangerous. In particular, butch lesbians "expert" is quoted as saying that for lesbians, "U]ust were frequently depicted as sexual predators who as with other women, the emotional-supportive would corrupt "innocent" heterosexual women. A relationship counts more than the sex act" (Wilson news article published in the Globe and Mail in 131). 1963 stated that, "[a] policewoman who ventured in In Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, to the Jukebox Club on Yonge St., which was a which was published in 1953, Kinsey and his hangout for lesbians, was warned she would be colleagues state that, "[i]nterestingly enough, there raped by another woman if she went into the is much less public concern over homosexual washroom" (Warson 13). In many articles from the activities among females [than among males]" 1950s and 1960s, a clear distinction is made (477). Kinsey attributed differences in the public between "active" lesbians, who are aggressive and perception of gay men and lesbians to several "mannish" in appearance, and "passive" lesbians, factors, including the fact that there are fewer who are more traditionally feminine in appearance.3 formal religious sanctions against female These categories of "active" and "passive" were homosexuality than against male homosexuality; borrowed from articles on sexuality and their belief that homosexual activity was less homosexuality published in psychology journals, as common among women than among men; social was much of the other information on taboos against anal sex; public ignorance of lesbian homosexuality imparted to readers of mainstream sexual practices; the fear of paedophilia; and their media (McCreary 63-74). Passive lesbians were finding that many men found the idea of lesbianism usually said to have been seduced by active arousing (485-486). The Kinsey report concluded lesbians, often someone older, more confident and that, "[w]hen a female's homosexual experience more experienced. In this way, butch or "active" interferes with her becoming married or lesbians were characterized as being more sinister maintaining a marriage into which she has entered, and dangerous than their femme counterparts, who social interests may be involved" (486). Thus, appeared less threatening to the status quo, as they lesbianism was only seen as socially important, or did not transgress their assigned gender roles.4 as a potential threat, in the event that it affected Often, informed by the medical model of lesbianism prevalent at the time, journalists did not this fictitious description is seen as a typical portrait accept that feminine-looking women could be of lesbianism clearly shows the misogyny which lesbians at all. These femme or "passive" lesbians informed media representations of lesbianism. In were said to be more easily "cured," or restored to accordance with sexist ideology, masculinity is heterosexuality than "mannish" lesbians. Canadian equated with aggression, and femininity is linked to Home Journal offered the following advice to passivity, ignorance and spinelessness. Any woman parents: who does not display "ideal" feminine characteristics is defined as mannish or a "third ...psychiatric treatment...is easier and more apt sex," and not a woman at all, and any to be successful if it is begun soon rather than feminine-looking woman who has sex with other late. In the special case of lesbianism, its women is assumed to have been seduced or tricked, chances of success are on the whole greater rather than having acted out of free will. As where the tendency is toward a passive role historian Jennifer Terry has written, sexual rather than an active one, and greatest of all initiative was seen as an inherently masculine trait, where there has never been any physical act of so the idea of a sexually assertive, feminine woman unnatural love. (Cameron 105) was inconceivable (32). While femme women were not seen as "real" Chatelaine readers were told that, "[fjemmes lesbians, butch women were not seen as "real" are more pliable and passive, often swinging in and women. Generally, their lesbianism was not viewed out of lesbianism, and sometimes ending up in a as a sexual preference, but as a rejection of normal heterosexual marriage" (Wilson 134). femininity and womanhood. One supposed expert Sometimes femme lesbians were not considered to clearly stated that, "the butch type especially wants be true lesbians at all, since the medical model 'not to be a woman'" (Wilson 104). In articles from dictated that some degree of gender inversion was this period, lesbians were primarily condemned for an inherent characteristic of all lesbians (Terry breaking gender roles, rather than for their sexual 320-21). Rather, these femme women were behaviour, which was generally ignored. Lesbians perceived as merely weak, having been led astray were identified as socially dangerous and mentally by an aggressive lesbian. Femme women were ill because they were seen as unfeminine or a "third frequently portrayed as naive, innocent, and even sex." This explains why femme lesbians were not somewhat stupid. One "passive" lesbian, referred to considered "real" lesbians; lesbianism was seen to as "a pretty little creature," is described in the be primarily about gender, rather than about following way: sexuality. As Terry states, "it was basically assumed that lesbian sexual desire was an effect produced by At first Mary was too innocent to understand the female sex variant's masculinity" (322). Thus, it why Agatha was forever calling her was the lesbian's atypical gender role which was up...[e]ven when Agatha began kissing her as seen as the root of her problem, rather than her a man might, Mary still didn't understand. But sexuality, which was viewed as a symptom of her Agatha dominated her by the force of her gender "inversion" or "confusion." In fact, lesbian personality, and talked her into accepting an historians Madeline Davis and Elizabeth Kennedy unnatural relationship...[Mary] went to live argue that it was around 1950 that the popular and with her as her wife - a submissive and medical definition of lesbianism began to shift. dependent wife, who relies on Agatha not only They argue that prior to the mid 1940s: for her keep but for advice and guidance in everything she does and thinks. ...[g]ender was so identified with sexuality that (Cameron 103) it was not choice of a partner of the "same sex" that indicated homosexuality, but the taking on This passage is said to describe a "composite of the role of the "opposite sex" in the pursuit portrait of many such cases" (Cameron 12). That of sexual relations with the "same sex." (325) SEX RESEARCH AND JOURNALISM: or worked outside of the home could turn her SEARCHING FOR A CAUSE daughters into lesbians. Similarly, a father who was weak or "ineffectual" would not provide a proper As lesbianism was popularly considered to be male role model, and cause his daughter to despise a medical or psychological condition, journalists men and become a lesbian (Wilson 134). One usually got their information on the subject from article informed readers that a girl's father "should doctors, mental health professionals, and other often play the kind of rousing and affectionate so-called "experts." Media articles relied heavily on games with her which stress his masculinity," but this "expert" advice, and quoted frequently from too much of this activity was considered equally books and interviews. By appealing to science and dangerous, as it could turn a girl into a "hardbitten quoting statistics, journalists attempted to establish tomboy" (Cameron 104). This advice to mothers their own objectivity and credibility on the subject served to uphold traditional gender roles, of homosexuality. Medical experts, almost all of heterosexuality and the nuclear family model by whom were male, were considered the authorities suggesting that mothers, and to some extent fathers, on the subject of lesbianism, and the opinions of who did not conform could damage their children. lesbians themselves were rarely even mentioned. Although these articles may seem laughable to Since heterosexuality was assumed to be an readers in the 1990s, similar messages can be found inherent characteristic, journalists frequently in contemporary articles which warn against the endeavoured to explain to readers how lesbianism dangers of single mothers or lesbian mothers was caused. One article stated that, "[f]ree choice is raising children without male role models. also thought not to be a factor except in circumstances such as prisons where normal sex is "REBELLIOUS TOMBOYS:" REJECTING impossible" (Wilson 132). The supposed causes SEX ROLES suggested by psychologists and sexologists and upheld by journalists, included glandular Feminist historians have established that in the abnormalities, genetic disorders, hormonal post-World War Two era, heterosexuality and imbalances, and birth defects. Occasionally, "family life" were vigorously promoted in North traumatic experiences with men were listed as a America, to compensate for the massive social cause, but this is usually attributed to a young changes which occurred during the war and to woman's irrational, paranoid fears, rather than to a promote consumer spending.5 Donna Penn and truly negative experience (Wilson 134 and others have argued that World War Two gave more Cameron 103). However, by far the most frequent women the opportunity to live as lesbians, and the "cause" of lesbianism presented in media articles vigorous promotion of the heterosexual nuclear during this period is parental failure, usually on the family in the media during this period can be seen part of the mother. as a reaction against the social changes which gave Both overprotectiveness and a lack of attention women this kind of independence (219). by mothers were cited as causes of lesbianism, as Heterosexual marriage was presented as the only were too much and too little affection between "normal" situation for women. Gaye Tuchman parents. A mother could be too negative about sex, demonstrates this promotion of compulsory and turn her daughter off men, or she could be too heterosexuality through the mass media: frank and explicit, which would have the same effect. According to the psychological and medical [sjtudying a random sample of issues of literature of the time, appropriate gender role Ladies Home Journal, McCall's and Good modelling by parents was the most important factor Housekeeping, between the years 1940 and in ensuring "normal" heterosexual development in 1970, Helen Franzwa found four roles for children (Terry 336). Media articles informed women: '"single and looking for a husband, readers that a mother who was too overbearing or housewife-mother, spinster, and widowed or dominant, disagreed with or criticized her husband, divorced - soon to remarry." All the women were defined by the men in their lives, or by LESBIANS IN THE "YELLOW PRESS" their absence. (177) Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, tabloid Although I did not undertake a comprehensive newspapers, such as 's Justice Weekly, True survey of the roles presented for women in News Times, Tab, and Hush, frequently printed Canadian media, it is obvious that lesbianism was articles on homosexuality, primarily for the shock not presented as a viable alternative to the value the subject carried (Egan 12). Because of this, heterosexual nuclear family. Rather, heterosexual most of the coverage of homosexuality in the marriage was considered not only the ideal role for so-called "yellow press" was extremely women, but was generally seen as essential for inflammatory, and often fictitious or exaggerated. women's happiness. Unmarried women, when they When gay men were charged with "gross appeared in the media at all, were frequently indecency," and when gay bars were raided, these portrayed as bitter, unhappy, and, most importantly, tabloids printed the names of those arrested, in abnormal. Just as in the American magazines order to capitalize on scandal and sensationalism. analysed by Helen Franzwa, the images of women Although the coverage of homosexuality in the presented in Canadian media, both in articles and tabloids was largely judgmental and lurid, Jim Egan advertisements, were exclusively heterosexual has argued that gay men and lesbians did read those roles. When lesbians were presented, they were papers, and they became very important to the gay either vilified or seen as objects of pity, and of the community, because they were among the few few articles which did discuss lesbianism, most had places in which homosexuality was even an explicit agenda of teaching mothers how to mentioned. Many Canadian gays and lesbians detect and prevent this "disorder" (Cameron subscribed to the newsletters of American 103-106 and Wilson 134). The 1966 Chatelaine homophile organizations, such as The Ladder, One article even suggests that the "butch" lesbian may and The Mattachine Review. However, many be "in rebellion against the social indignities of people were afraid to put their names on mailing women; she sees her mother's way of life as not lists, as these publications were often seized at the desirable, as lacking in respect and independence" border by Canadian customs officials, or else the (Wilson 134). This does acknowledge that women United States Post Office would refuse to deliver suffer "social indignities," but rather than them (Katz 30). Under pressure from Egan, the suggesting that women may truly need more Toronto tabloid Justice Weekly occasionally printed independence and respect, readers were given the articles from these American homophile journals, following advice, in order to prevent their as well as articles and letters written by Egan daughters from becoming lesbians: himself. However, Egan points out that the reason the editors of Justice Weekly agreed to publish the ...a mother can ask herself: have I taught my letters and articles was because they were daughter that being a woman is a fine considered bizarre and scandalous, and not because rewarding thing which carries joy and they were taken seriously by the publishers of the fulfilment, or have I stressed the negative newspaper (120). aspects such as painful childbirth, "giving in" As in the larger newspapers, almost all of the to demanding males, and so on? articles from the tabloids deal with male (Wilson 134) homosexuality rather than lesbianism, but there was one article specifically about lesbians, published in This passage is ambiguous, because while it Flash in 1951. The headline read, '"Women Shun shows that lesbianism was interpreted as a rebellion Us!--Men Scoff At Us!" Toronto Lesbian Tells All! against traditional feminine roles, it is again Can't Help Being 'Different' Is Plea of 'Third suggested that mothers who question their feminine Sexer'!." The article is supposedly written by a gender role to any degree will produce "abnormal" lesbian, under the pseudonym "Sapho" [sic]. The daughters. author points out that lesbianism "is old as time itself," and argues that lesbians "do nobody any instrumental in shaping the way the public viewed harm" and should not be ostracized. She writes that, the subject. As well, these articles were very "[bjefore I was twenty I had read and digested important to gay men and lesbians, as they were Freud, Jung, Havelock Ellis and Kraft-Ebing." This among the only sources of information on background in psychoanalysis and sexology is homosexuality, and for many isolated gays and apparent in her description of lesbianism, which lesbians, possibly their only contact whatsoever reads: with the gay community. The 1950s and early 1960s was the formative period for homophile ...Lesbians fall into three groups: those who organizing in Canada, and many of these early are homosexual because of a glandular activists were influenced a great deal by these deficiency; those who, while normal at birth, media images. For example, it was the biased and become homosexual as a result of a psychic unfair representation of gay men in Toronto's shock, and those who, in maturity, turn newspapers that first incited Jim Egan to write voluntarily to Lesbianism as a release from the letters of complaint, and begin his years of struggle vulgarity and bestiality of men...This latter for lesbian and gay rights. After decades of group is largely made up of prostitutes...[b]ut invisibility, lesbians and lesbianism have become a these girls are not true Lesbians. (Egan 24) popular media topic in the 1990s. In 1993, which was the peak of the "lesbian chic" trend, the Although this description is rather lurid and American television show Roseanne introduced a sensational, it presents essentially the same analysis regularly appearing lesbian character into its plot, of lesbianism published in the more reputable and almost every major North American newspaper newspapers and magazines during this time period. and magazine ran feature articles, in which There is a lengthy description of lesbian prostitutes lesbianism was presented as "fun," "fashionable," in the article, and readers are told about brothels and "trendy." Although the "lesbian chic" articles that cater to female clients: published in the 1990s are less overtly homophobic than articles from the 1950s and 1960s, they are in Because of [prostitutes'] wide experience with many ways informed by the same ideologies. The so-called "normal" sex, these girls frequently articles are still aimed at a primarily heterosexual reach a supremely delicate and fulfilling audience. Lesbians who are white, thin, able-bodied Lesbian technique which it would take a and stereotypically attractive are presented as natural Lesbian years to acquire. They know fashionable and "chic," while lesbians who are less every erotic zone of the female body, attractive, too butch, or too political are either instinctively understand what motions and excluded or denigrated. This is remarkably similar caresses will bring it to the zenith of passion, to the trend in the 1950s, in which "feminine" and are artists in working themselves and their lesbians were given much more favourable partner up to the true, complete Lesbian coverage than lesbians who were "mannish" or orgasm. (Egan 24) "militant." Articles from the 1990s also reveal a preoccupation with the supposed causes of lesbianism, indicating that the essentially CONCLUSION heterosexist assumption that heterosexuality is natural while homosexuality is "caused" has Although there were only a handful of articles remained unchanged. Although there may be which directly addressed lesbianism published in somewhat more tolerance for transgressing gender mainstream media in the 1950s, these articles, boundaries and sex roles in the 1990s than there along with articles on gay men were important in was in the 1950s and 1960s, mainstream media still shaping the discourse of homosexuality in Canadian uphold a heterosexual hegemony, in which and American cultures. Because the articles on homosexuality, although tolerated to a certain homosexuality published in the 1950s were among extent, is still defined as a deviation from the norm. the first to reach the mainstream press, they were By comparing media images of the 1990s with coverage from the 1950s and 1960s, we can see that although the language has changed, the essential message has not.

ENDNOTES

1. The author would like to thank Katherine Arnup for her advice and input into earlier drafts of this paper.

2. See for example, Albert Warson. "Degenerates Parade, Inspector Says: Blames Lack of Public Disgust for Growth of Homosexuality." Globe and Mail, 14 Nov 1963: 13.

3. For examples, see Warson. "Degenerates Parade, Inspector Says" and C.K. Cameron. "The Problem that is Never Mentioned," Canadian Home Journal. Nov 1951: 12, 103- 106.

4. It is important to note that the terms "butch" and "femme" were not commonly used in mainstream or psychological articles in this period. Terms such as "mannish," "masculine," "feminine," "active" and "passive" were more frequently used.

5. See Lillian Faderman, Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth-Century America; and Elizabeth L. Kennedy and Madeline Davis, Boots of Leather, Slippers of Gold: The History of a Lesbian Community for discussion of the changing roles of women in the post World War II period.

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