Signs of Pictorialism in Aki Kaurismäki's Films

Home , Calamari Union, Elina Salo, Kati Outinen, Lights in the Dusk, Markku Peltola, Sakari Kuosmanen

BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2015 / VOLUME 3 / ARTICLE Article Slowly Moving Bodies: Signs of Pictorialism in Aki Kaurismäki’s Films

JARMO VALKOLA, Tallinn University, Estonia; email: [email protected] 44 DOI: 10.1515/bsmr-2015-0023 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2015 / VOLUME 3 / ARTICLE ABSTRACT Aki Kaurismäki is arguably the best-known Finnish fi lmmaker, owing largely to his feature fi lms such as Crime and Punishment (Rikos ja rangaistus, Finland, 1983), Calamari Union (Finland, 1985), Shadows in Paradise (Varjoja paratiisissa, Finland, 1986), Hamlet Goes Business (Hamlet liikemaailmassa, Finland, 1987), Ariel (Finland, 1988), The Match Factory Girl (Tulitikkutehtaan tyttö, Finland, 1990), I Hired a Contract Killer (Finland/ Sweden, 1990), La vie de bohéme (Finland/France/ Sweden/Germany, 1992), Take Care of Your Scarf, Tatiana (Pidä huivista kiinni, Tatjana, Finland/Germany, 1994), Drifting Clouds (Kauas pilvet karkaavat, Finland, 1996), Juha (Finland, 1999), The Man Without a Past (Mies vailla menneisyyttä, Finland, 2002), Lights in the Dusk (Laitakaupungin valot, Finland, 2006) and Le Havre (Finland/France, 2011). A large body of his work has been made in Finland, but also in countries like France and Great Britain. Besides feature fi lms, he has also made documentaries and short fi lms, as well as musical fi lms with the group Leningrad Cowboys. In a broader context, Kaurismäki has a unique place in Finnish and international fi lm history, as well as in media and communication culture. Kaurismäki’s cultural context includes elements that have been turned into national and transnational symbols of social communication and narrative interaction by his stylisation. The director’s cinematic strategy investigates and makes choices evoking a social understanding of characters that has special communicative value. Kaurismäki’s fi lms have been scrutinised for over thirty years.

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INTRODUCTION photography, pictorialism was a style in the The Finnish (and international) landscape, early 20th century. Pictorialist photogra- urban feelings, time, movements and nos- phy was characterised by techniques and talgic images are bound together in Aki effects borrowed from the graphic arts. In Kaurismäki’s fi lms. The article focuses on the many cases, a pictorialist image came from pictorial narration of his works and the atten- a sharply defi ned negative image; the often tive duration of the fi lmic experience that extensive darkroom manipulations involved works together with his stylistic and compo- in transforming the image from this hard- sitional features. Attention is paid to the way edged reality meant that each print could Kaurismäki achieves specifi c pictorial states be said to be unique. through his audiovisual design, which ena- Generally the photographic dimension bles the viewers to access the visuality of the of stillness is strongly rooted in the essen- shots in a phenomenological way. tial nature of photography itself, and is usu- The method that I employ is ‘cognitive ally understood as a photographic freeze of mapping’, which usually means a combina- a living image. The immobility of the image tion of individual and collective perceptions. increases its expressive strength. However, Cinema can establish a common perception the use of this immobility in a moving media since it expresses the point of view and like fi lm has other consequences. Pictorial style of the fi lmmaker that is then offered stillness in fi lm means that the image itself to the audience. Afterwards, the audiences can appear in a frozen form in the middle interpret it both literally, differently, and of narration, but since it is used in a fi lmic complementarily, changing and contrast- connection, its ‘form’ acquires an additional ing the meanings that have emerged.1 level of meaning. According to Julian Hochberg, the viewer’s In painting, the roots of pictorialism construction of the edited space can be lie in the painting traditions of Western art, compared to cognitive mapping, since a namely in the Flemish, Dutch and German fi lmmaker’s task is to have the viewers pose tradition of landscape painting during the visual questions which they answer (Hoch- 16th century, and in the early natural- berg 1978: 208). In cognitive mapping, indi- ism of pictorialist photography. Since the vidual and social perceptions are combined. 16th century, the question of the pictorial Furthermore, cognitive mapping enables qualities in visual arts has been presented the viewer to practice distinct perceptual as a crucial feature through a variety of and cognitive activities.2 aesthetic strategies that are connected to the asserted ability of art to represent the A MATTER OF APPROACH spatial (and temporal) deployment of char- The relationship between cinema and picto- acters and bodies in space (Hollander 1989: rialism has been overlooked in fi lm research 90–94). for decades. I have been working on this From Renaissance aesthetics to the issue for a long time, and have written on birth of cinema, a painting or sculpture was pictorialism in several publications (Valkola supposed to be linked infl uentially to the 1993, 2000, 2003a, 2003b, 2004, 2007, representation of individual events in his- 2012). Historically, pictorialism has been tory through a certain perspective. Based connected to photography and painting. In on this idea, the artist was responsible for the choices made in the pictorial plane. In 1 For instance, perception is an active and constructive the wake of these processes, pictorialism process. It does not come straight from sensory increased during the era of early fi lmmak- information but is more like a combination of the interaction between sensory information, internal ing. Visual design became part of the fi lm- hypotheses, expectations and knowledge. In this way, making process and new ideas were spread. sensory information forms a basis for larger processes (see Hochberg 1978, Persson 2003). In fi lm studies, pictorialism has 2 As an extension of this, Teresa Castro (2010: 144) has been a slowly emerging subject, consist- called cinema’s exploration of urban space ‘visual mapping’. ing mainly of the general use of the term.

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Still, there have been scholars who have resents a theory and practice of art that taken a closer look at the subject, including is trying to depict the artist’s audiovisual Jacques Aumont, Pascal Bonitzer, Giuliana creations, ideas and thoughts through Bruno, Brigitte Peucker, Ron Burnett, Kristin pictorial expression. In cinema, pictorialism Thompson, David Bordwell and Paul Schrad- can be understood as a tension between a er.3 My approach differs from their points mode of distanced vision (from afar), where of view because, for me, pictorialism rep- objects are presented as forms and fi gures resents a phenomenon that is clearly con- in space, and a mode of vision that appeals nected to fi lm language. In a broader con- to tactile connections on the surface plane text, my interdisciplinary and comparative of the image. approach exists in a variety of theoretical These fundamental ideas have obvi- and other debates dealing with these issues. ously affected the structure of this article, General questions related to the forms of art which is based on style, although this will and their overlapping dimensions provide not be the only aspect to be analysed. In clear pictorial inferences, and also aspire fact, my discourse covers several fi elds of to defi ne the continuities between the dif- study; namely, fi lm studies, history, aesthet- ferent art forms, especially the connections ics, phenomenology, cognitivism and image and linkages between painting, architecture, studies. photography and fi lm.4 It is essential for cinema to produce STYLISING TRANSFERRED views and depict pictorial space; and these MODERNISM spaces (and places) can turn into subjective Contemporary cinema is a pivotal site for memory, a lieu de mémoire, as Pierre Nora pictorial experimentation and Kaurismäki’s has aptly said (1996: xxvii). As a practice of fi lms are an example of this cinematic lay- visualising the depicted space, cinema is out. In his fi lms, the spectators construct a enacted with art, history and the pictorial spatial whole out of the pictorial bits that dynamics of stage setting, set design and are offered to them. In this regard, Kau- depiction of cityscapes. In this regard, cin- rismäki’s classical editing supports this ori- ema follows the legacy of pictorial architec- entation. He uses the process of the viewer ture and landscape painting. This is similar expectation as a part of the fl ow of the on- to the pictorial affections emerging in art screen and off-screen space, connecting studies and adds an important aspect to these spaces with shots reminiscent of a the potentially affective research between question-and-answer game, dealing in this art and cinema. It is also considered in the sense with the aims of classical narration. broader scope of relations in cultural history. Kaurismäki connects the camera position From my viewpoint, pictorialism to editing thereby creating consistency in means an attempt to defi ne the picto- his narration. His fi lms are partly national, rial qualities of narration, suggesting the at least when dealing with Finnishness. overall audiovisual structure of the cin- They are also partly transnational, in the ematic experience. This is comprised of broader sense of how fi lms can ‘experiment associations and connotations at the level and explore new territories, not only spatial, of cinematic narration and the spectator’s but existential, affective, aesthetic, commu- imagination, including the mental aspect nicative, political’, as Laura Rascaroli (2009: of the narrative. For me, pictorialism rep- 190) has effectively said. This article is focused on style, approached in a way that makes it pos- 3 See about pictorialism, Aumont 1989; Bazin 1967: 164–169; Bruno 2002; Bonitzer 1985; Peucker 1995; sible to analyse the style of a fi lmmaker Schrader 1972; Burnett 1995; Thompson, Bordwell from one fi lm to another. Due to the limited 2003; Bordwell 1997; Valkola 2004. 4 Contemporary aesthetics form a continuing basis space available here, I can only focus on for pictorial and other experimentations, the various some fi lms as examples of Kaurismäki’s forms of composition, movement, expression, time and other operations. stylisation. I want to focus on the visuality

47 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2015 / VOLUME 3 / ARTICLE of his style and analyse his pictorial worlds, This is clearly visible in the structures and focusing on the structures of the images images of fi lms like Crime and Punishment and space in his work. This is to say that (Rikos ja rangaistus, Finland, 1983), Calamari I will try to decode Kaurismäki’s pictorial Union (Finland, 1985), La vie de bohème (Fin- narrative, describe his images through forms land/France/Sweden/Germany, 1992), Juha and explain the cinematic devices at work (Finland, 1999) and Man Without a Past there. The structure of this article is also (Mies vailla menneisyyttä, Finland, 2002). based on style, which is the main aspect (Figure 1) analysed here. My discourse is related to fi lm Kaurismäki has explained his ideas con- studies, but it also presents perspectives cerning the fi lm La vie de bohème as follows: related to aesthetics, architecture, photography, painting and contemporary art studies. The characters are from Balzac’s One question about Kaurismäki’s style novels or from Jacques Demy’s deals with the idea of how to pictorially fi lms, tuned up to walk from one refl ect the space of fi lm – space as a social fi lm to another. Their nearest are and spatial practice and as a representa- not forgotten, whether they are tional space related to the images and sym- alive or dead, real or fi ctitious. bols that are attached to it. This is all related This degree of ‘unreality’ and to the act of perceiving, conceiving and belief in fantasy that is con- experiencing the space of fi lm. The starting nected to it – these are the fi nest point for this visual analysis is expressed by qualities of silent fi lms. Art and Rudolf Arnheim in his book Visual Thinking the making of art, these are the as follows: ‘Visual perception is visual think- main things, impressionistic in ing’ (1969: 14). What makes this approach the French spirit. (Von Bagh 2007: especially interesting is the conviction that 140) the cognitive operations called thinking are not the privilege of mental processes above His characters ‘act without words … using and beyond perception but essential ingre- all the classical narrative; he reverses them, dients of perception itself (Arnheim 1969: showing them as natural actions with plain 14). In this regard, perception and think- ups and downs, in which, decidedly, there ing are not separate phenomena, but they is no morality involved … this de-dramati- more likely work together to create the fi nal sation creates a droll evenness’ (Biro 2008: impression of a fi lm. 189). Photography is the celluloid structural Another thing that especially inter- unit of fi lm and Kaurismäki does not hesi- ested me in Kaurismäki’s fi lms is the way tate to explore the photographic dimension the characters move inside the narrative of cinema. He uses ‘photographic immobil- structure. In ordering his sequence of ity’ as a mean of introducing photographic events, Kaurismäki’s perspective is mini- stillness into his narrative. In the same malistic, and this method brings his fi lms sense, he turns his camera into a means for closer to the origins of cinema and takes the pictorial observation of daily life by pro- it further away from its Hollywood evolu- ducing images that are stilled in the photo- tion. By minimising the narrative develop- graphic sense of the word. This effect can ment, Kaurismäki preserves its ‘magic’, a occur not only during a solitary moment, process through which a fi lm can take on but also in the middle of a conversation; for new meaning following the insertion of the instance, in the fi lms Shadows in Paradise fi lmmaker’s initial intention. For Kaurismäki (Varjoja paratiisissa, Finland, 1986), The this method enables him to search for Match Factory Girl (Tulitikkutehtaan tyttö, the conventions and techniques that are Finland, 1990), La vie de bohème, I Hired specifi c to cinema, providing reasonable a Contract Killer (Finland/Sweden, 1990), autonomy and positioning the evolution of Man Without a Past and Lights in the Dusk fi lm in relation to painting and photography. (Laitakaupungin valot, Finland, 2006).

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FIGURE 1. La vie de bohéme (1992).

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This viewpoint means that Kaurismäki disappearance of fi lmic images into the past thinks about his cinema in resonance with and to slow down the narrative process in his characters and fi lm sets. He sets into order to let his images (and sounds) speak of play a variety of aesthetic devices that history and ‘historical reality’, which could be turn fi lm into a medium that investigates potentialised in the present. and echoes the historical past on several levels. In this regard, Kaurismäki injects a VISUALISED CONVERSATIONS melancholic and nostalgic attachment to Kaurismäki’s stylisation changes from one his cinema, connected to a specifi c pictorial fi lm to another, from fi ction to documen- stillness in which the sense of duration is tary, but there are some features that are essential. This is a developed modality in recurring. Generally, the capture of light and which our perception of the single image movement on fi lm is the essence of cinema is made more attentive. Our ‘cognitive and Kaurismäki plays with light and per- mapping’ of details and other essentials ception in his fi lms, going back in time and is aroused in moments when the camera questioning what one sees when watching a holds the image for a while. fi lm. A typical feature of this cinematic recy- This relates to the director’s dissatis- cling in Kaurismäki’s fi lms is the nostalgia faction related to the development of cin- for old objects, which can become a refer- ematic language, which he states clearly: ential practice inside the narrative. In a theoretical sense, this can also mean an infl u- Those, who during the break- ence on memory, and what we as spectators through of sound fi lm said that can share, and what remains and stays with sound will destroy the cinema, us after the screening. Here, I would like to were right. The narration of silent use the French idea of visualisation croisée fi lm had developed into per- (cross-over visualisation), meaning a kind fectness: especially during the of double vision inside a single scene used, beginning of sound fi lm, techni- for instance, when two people meet, or to be cal clumsiness turned it back to enlarged into the whole narrative in a larger fi lmed theatre, which still exists frame.5 In this case, the visualisation has despite its seeming smoothness. temporal dimensions, due to the process of (Von Bagh 2007: 172–173) going back in time. Technically this is close to the old In this regard, Juha is the last silent fi lm of version of the shot/reverse shot structure the 20th century, an authentic piece of work used in classical Hollywood cinema, which that demonstrates its respect for the mas- establishes a graphic continuity between ters of silent cinema. As it pictorially holds the characters, usually in a dialogue. In its shots, it discloses the tensions between silent fi lms this idea of visuality was closer the photographic stillness and fi lmic move- to the meaning. The French scholar André ment. In its landscape images, we can Bazin established the basic ideas behind experience the pictorial stillness in full, this model. According to Bazin, the verisi- especially in the moments when a character militude of the space is important, since the leaves the frame, which is then left open position of the performer (actor) is deter- (and still) for a few seconds to make a last- mined even when a close-up eliminates the ing environmental impression. décor. Furthermore, the purpose and effects This description indicates how these of the cut are always dramatic or psycho- processes are used in Kaurismäki’s cinema logical (Bazin 1967: 31–32). and how the creating of a fi lmic space (and time) resonates at the level of perception and creates a cinematic reality that has historical 5 This is actually my development of the original French attachments. This is further connected to term conversation croisée, which means a double dialogue between the characters in fi lm. See, for Kaurismäki’s pictorial attempt to resist the instance, Bénézet 2014: 127.

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FIGURE 2. Shadows in Paradise (Varjoja paratiisissa, 1986). Matti Pellonpää as Nikander.

FIGURE 3. Shadows in Paradise (Varjoja paratiisissa, 1986). Kati Outinen as Ilona.

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But the modern version deals more ing to continue according to the spaces. In a with the length of the shot. Since Kauris- sense, we are cutting from one space to the mäki has reduced the amount of spoken next and, in this regard, the choices made dialogue in his fi lms to a great extent, the by the fi lmmaker are clearly connected to director is using this dialogue more visually the overall plan of editing a fi lm. The editing and expresses the emotions of characters of the sequences can be planned through through this visual display. A good exam- these ‘environmental images’, gaining new ple is the encounter between the main ground for the narrative to proceed. characters in Shadows in Paradise, where The most remarkable feature of Kau- Ilona (Kati Outinen) and Nikander (Matti rismäki’s fi lms is their tendency to integrate Pellonpää) meet several times during the personal accounts and statements within narration. (Figures 2 and 3) Pictorially, their their narratives in order to leave evidence faces are highlighted and Kaurismäki uses of the fi lmmaker’s existence. When creating eyeline-match cutting and character glance Take Care of Your Scarf, Tatiana (Pidä huiv- as a cue to link the shots. Cutting within a ista kiinni, Tatjana, Finland/Germany, 1994), locale is most likely to be centralised upon the director announced: eyeline-matches and upon shot/reverse- shot patterns. Thus, the classical construc- My camerawork is, in any case, tion of space participates in the hypothesis- a certain puzzle, like moving a forming. Narrative rhythm is created through clothespin that affects the direc- the use and repetition of the director’s tion of the look. This is more a concentration on rhythmic pulses inside the question of editing in which the narration. In Kaurismäki’s case, he produces actors have to have faith that dur- a moment-by-moment pulsating of the nar- ing the editing process their inter- rative and creates expectations of further pretations are honoured. (Von Bagh moments by focusing the pictorial values 2007: 149) expressed at the image-level. Generally, Kaurismäki creates a fi lmic Kaurismäki compels us to think about tableau that includes a specifi c architec- the progress of this kind of performance; tonics of minimalism. This minimalism and how it is experienced as a happening entails a scenography of changing, but in a space where new aspects reveal new in many scenes, ultimately a fi xed, static dimensions and where fi gures are usually and almost motionless view. Kaurismäki’s subordinated to the overall stylisation. In pictorial composition is primarily frontal, this way, Kaurismäki is very attentive to the especially when two persons are involved. duration of the fi lmic experience, to the art Sometimes he also uses other positions of sensibility and to a particular mise-en- and fi gurations to connect the space and scène of audiovisual possibilities. In this the characters. His static camera is con- mode of representation, the physical setting nected to the composed environment and provides the framework, and the structure of often a silent communication develops the performance is derived from the interac- between the characters and the environ- tion of the pictorial traces it leaves within us. ment. Kaurismäki seems to prefer static Conceived in this way, the sequences shots because they can stimulate the spec- created by Kaurismäki comprise the tator; they pictorialise the frame (the com- essence of stylisation. In Kaurismäki’s care- position) and invite the audience to look at fully constructed fi lmic world, the founding the details that might be unnoticed at fi rst of which is based on detachment, time sight. This model also acts as a frame for emerges precisely within the visual unfold- the action, meaning that when the charac- ing of the performers’ attempt to enact and ter leaves the cinematic space, the camera visualise the characters of the narrative often continues to shoot the scene for a few and the viewer’s acknowledgement of their seconds. This makes it possible for the edit- on-going effort to cope with the possibility

52 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2015 / VOLUME 3 / ARTICLE of change in this re-enactment. It is clear, compositional design. In matters of recep- however, that the characters inscribe them- tion, Kaurismäki’s choices affect the way the selves into this phenomenology of spatial viewer makes sense of the structures of his and temporal parameters. Indeed, at the fi lms. Kaurismäki calls on his viewers’ inten- start of the narrative, the performers have tion, their sense of empathy and compassion, the mentality, control and perfection of by touching emotions with his narratives. ‘models’ of a certain ‘history’ connected with Rethinking fi lm language, we can state that their outlook: often they stand motionless the perception of fi lmic narration through and in photographic stillness. But as the cognitive and phenomenological perspective performance unfolds in time, as the ‘living’ should acknowledge the creative possibilities component of the performance deploys of visual composition, framing, extending, itself in the duration of the scene, the move- freezing or fragmentising and, in some cases, ment sets in and the narrative turns into a expand the role of images and sounds into a voyage through space. philosophical argumentation. The audiovisual world of cinema includes its own icons and, in LANDSCAPES OF EMOTION fi lm, the artist’s craft includes both abstract These are Kaurismäki’s aesthetic choices, principles and particular practices and tac- fabricated around the architecture of the tics. In narrative fi lm, this requires an under- landscape with which the characters are standing of materials, especially how they are intimately connected. Kaurismäki’s cine- deployed in structural and stylistic patterns, matic views are steps in the reconfi guration and how the viewer is incited to dynamically of the characters’ existential and emotional develop those temporal patterns during the situation. The director’s handling of these process of narration.6 situations works through the framing of In regard to Kaurismäki’s fi lms, these essentials. The physicality of the exist- are questions of calmly opposed movements, ence is there, and in the visual arts and changes and the eternal passage of time the language of cinema, the recognition of unfolding these phenomena and structur- images can be compared with previously ing our comprehension of the relations un-experienced targets or views with insuf- between human beings and their environ- fi cient information, both of which require ment. Nowhere is this more evident than in more specifi c perception than a familiar The Match Factory Girl where an exploration view. Needless to say, the perception of of the space occurs already in the early images requires some thinking, comparison, moments of the narrative. As the director knowledge, experience and attention. So builds a moving space of shifting composi- far, we might think that, through experience, tions, we as spectators are called to partici- an observer works toward a solution that is pate in it. Stillness and momentary silence highly appropriate and this process leads require us as viewers to be still, to observe, to interpretation. At most, it shows that the watch and have the patience to wait for the process is partly unconscious and that is emerging solutions.7 It allows us to make why an observer sees the target through observations that might normally be left image perception and does not consciously unnoticed. The photographic dimension of consider all of one’s choices. cinema lives in these moments. In this regard, In Kaurismäki’s cinema, we travel with the characters, and their motions become 6 Perception, memory and imagination are keys to the phenomenological approaches to cultural analyses. our emotions with a specifi c connection to 7 The theme of silence, and also loneliness, connects everyday occurrences. His world is composed Kaurismäki’s fi lms with paintings of the American painter Edward Hopper. In his book, American Silences: of still-life combinations, which are framed The Realism of James Agee, Walker Evans and Edward symbolically so that, in some connections, Hopper, Joseph Anthony Ward writes: ‘[S]ilence is also the subject of many of Hopper’s most important they look like slowly moving landscape paint- paintings. Hopper’s paintings are uniquely silent, ings. Kaurismäki has a specifi c ability to ‘ani- conveying a sense of unnatural stillness. The silence is more active than passive’ (Ward 1985: 169). This mate’ these painting-like affections into his applies perfectly to Kaurismäki’s fi lms.

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Kaurismäki’s fi lms also renew our viewing narration and at the level of mental acts, habits by requiring an intense following of the including perception, representation, events and heightening our perceptual acuity. attention and judgment. Kaurismäki is exploring the pictorial dimensions of cinema. His use of ‘pictorial SCULPTING THE FORM stillness’ in fi lm means that the image itself In Kaurismäki’s fi lmic strategy, the narra- can appear in frozen form in the middle of tive path – into which the characters are the image-narration, but since it is used in a sculpted – is transformed into a storyline fi lmic connection, its ‘form’ acquires a sup- depicting mainly Finnish destinies under a plemental level of meaning. This is clearly signifi ed discourse.9 His work confi rms that exemplifi ed in silent fi lms like The Passion cinema has the ability to link the affective of Joan of Arc (Le Passion de Jeanne D’Arc, life of human subjects with their surround- France, 1926) by Carl Theodor Dreyer and ings and to visualise the emotive impact Nosferatu: A Symphony of Horror (Nosferatu, of the environment and the objects. The eine Symphonie des Grauens, Germany, elements of performance in Kaurismäki’s 1922) by Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau, and fi lms are related to theatricality. Juhani Pal- in sound fi lms like Vertigo (USA, 1958) by lasmaa has approached the nature of Kau- Alfred Hitchcock, among others. And this rismäki’s reality with a notion that it ‘leaks’, extended signifi cation is aligned with the and he believes that pictorial production of images through this operational stillness. The aesthetics simultaneously, the reality of the of pictorial stillness are based on under- fi lmmaking and the acting, as standing the motionless being of a single well as the reality of the story, image inside the linear roll of the cinematic [exists] so this split-reality expe- images. The same freeze that controls the rience of the fi lm often makes the photography’s immobile artistry also affects viewer’s consciousness waver the style and existence of paintings. Simi- between external observation and larly, a single painting appears as a frozen, emotional immersion in the story, motionless ‘image’ or as a single ‘photo- and a consequence of this is the graph’. However, the moving features of theatrical nature of the fi lm expe- fi lm – when aligned with immobile imagery rience. (Pallasmaa 2005: 23) – create an extended outcome producing the represented image embedded with pic- Therefore, in this context all the physical torial stillness and duration. This durational elements through which dramatic storytell- aspect of the moving image has the ability ing is possible are included, i.e. the actors, to ‘hold’ the mental attention of the specta- voices, sets, props, lighting, colours, cos- tor longer than usual, and to my mind, this tumes and possible special effects, which is the crucial effect – the presence and are all connected to each other through the existence of a still-life vision through which shooting and editing processes. For exam- we can approach the signifi cance of picto- ple, sets play a major role in Kaurismäki’s rial stillness, especially in cinema.8 fi lms. They create the atmosphere and Based on this, Kaurismäki’s fi lm images of the mood. Consequently, the narrative extends into a perceptive modal- setting is strictly controlled by the director ity that considers the importance of body and is connected with the plot line and the movements, creating a specifi c continuity of development of the story. expression – continuity at the level of fi lm Considering the sets, for example, the Dubrovnik restaurant in Drifting Clouds (Kauas pilvet karkaavat, Finland, 1996) is an 8 In pictorialism, fi lm is also estimated in its intermediality as a phenomenon situated between photographic, architectural and a painting-like 9 Kaurismäki also has fi lms in which non-Finnish approach, mainly to realise the fi lmic conventions and destinies are depicted, fi lms like I Hired a Contract Killer, their connections to other forms of art. La vie de bohème and Take Care of your Scarf, Tatiana.

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FIGURE 4. Lights in the Dusk (Laitakaupungin valot, 2006). Janne Hyytiäinen as Koistinen.

55 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2015 / VOLUME 3 / ARTICLE elegantly stylised location, a space specifi - it possible to hold the spectator’s atten- cally designed for Kaurismäki and a place of tion? The answers vary and there is no ‘an instantaneous confi guration of positions’, defi nitive answer, since a pictorially-minded as Michel de Certeau has defi ned the role of cineaste aspires to fulfi l the requirements a place (1984: 117). Later, in the narrative of for this specifi c occurrence in a director’s Drifting Clouds, when Ilona (Kati Outinen) is oeuvre. Space, time and the movements of working at a shabby bar, the setting straight- the performers and fi lm camera gain new forwardly symbolises her career downfall. meanings and dimensions through this pic- Kaurismäki’s ‘emotion pictures’ examine torially-oriented examination of ideas and the construction of our sense of the space viewpoints.11 This has a lot to do with the of a place, exemplifying the importance of aesthetics of the fi lm form and the atmos- intimacy and physicality in embodying the pheric quality of expression and cinema’s fi lmic eye that controls the fi lmic gaze. We own, very specifi c communication styles. might note that this kind of exploration of It features an understanding of the details the physical world uses our re-collective and context of any art and other infl uences memories and cinematic experiences as a that can introduce emotional cues and their springboard for further revelations in con- psychological equivalences through which necting our inner world of intimate aspira- the spectators work out various stimuli tions to the refl ections of cinema. Moving in their minds. Through these pictorial beyond the physiognomy to make the inner aspects of fi lm’s audiovisual interaction world of a character visible, Kaurismäki uses between images and sounds, fi lmmakers body language as a source of vision. Physical- can develop various stages of expressive ity and intimacy are connected in the images moments; by ‘painting’ and planning them of Crime and Punishment, Shadows in Para- in their minds, staging the pictures and dise, The Match Factory Girl, Juha, La vie de creating montages of images and sounds, bohème, Man Without a Past and Lights in the or montages-in-the-image, through their Dusk. (Figure 4) The labour of emotion in fi lm pictorial angle of visual design. turns into images related to the physiology A structural theme could be involved of passion. In this sense, the body of the per- in a work of art that is suggested by the former is a mapping site. The characters’ way subject matter, but comprised primarily of a of moving around the space where the fi lmic confi guration of perceived forces. For exam- drama unfolds, becomes a readable pattern ple, a cinematic close-up is immediate and of slowly moving bodies that move inside an personal. Close-ups as signs of vision can architectural space.10 There is also the idea of sometimes reveal the psychic contours of perceptual and temporal connections, since, fi lm language. The emotional and dramatic the actions in a pictorial fi lm, for example, do sources can refl ect Rembrandt’s paintings. not correspond to the exact time that it takes As Ron Burnett has maintained, ‘it would for them to develop, but more crucially to the be diffi cult to talk about an image without time it takes to perceive them. also talking about the pictorial essence of At certain moments, a single fi lm can it’ (1995: 68–69). He means that the picto- attain a pictorial state of expression by rial is an essential quality of the image and holding the views (images) long enough to not a simple sense of the visual. The visible make a lasting impression on the specta- in an image is, in this sense, a fragment of tor. Of course, the questions are, how long what is signifi ed since images do not simply will this ‘hold’ continue? And how long is reconstruct reality. They may hint at it, but it is still more like a refl ection. The image 10 Thinking about the signifi cance of bodies and space, presents a relationship among the various there is the discipline of kinesics, the study of levels of meaning. Furthermore, it is a ques- body motions (blushes, shrugs or eye-movements) that communicate. For instance, Ray L. Birdwhistell (1970) has found that 65% to 70% of face-to-face 11 For further theoretical speculation, see, for example, interaction is non-verbal, involving a complex system Merleau-Ponty 1962, Lefebvre 1991, Bronowski 1978, of micro-gestures, which are integral to the study of Perkins 1981 and Roskill 1989. bodies in fi lmic space. 56 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2015 / VOLUME 3 / ARTICLE tion of interaction between the different Related thereto, one could say that continu- elements of the image. Burnett explains, ity editing in fi lm maximises the coherence and consistency between the pictorial [a]s a result, images do not depict space and the spectator’s real space a real that is absent from the (Valkola 2012: 357–361). In Kaurismäki’s photograph and then brought to fi lms images are not simply reproductions life by interpretation or viewing. or duplicates of the real, but new realities, The process is neither mechani- partly because they are responsible for the cal nor linear. There are no prior confi guration of our cognitive mapping, moments outside of the image, which is an important feature of our post- no history that doesn’t at one and or hypermodern times. This demonstrates the same time declare itself as the ability of Kaurismäki’s images to condi- image and as discourse and as tion and determine the perception of the evenly tradition in order to render depicted everyday environment, as well as the psycho-physiological states the perception of the places in his fi lms. of mind, the inward, hidden emo- Continuity is sometimes described tions. (Burnett 1995: 68–69) as the art of implying connections. But it is also the art of avoiding confusing connec- Kati Outinen’s facial expressions in Juha, tions or admitting them very selectively, The Match Factory Girl and Le Havre, with which is usually more diffi cult. The proce- their openly sympathetic intimacy, demand dures that suffi ce to imply a connection a curious and empathetic response. This is may not necessarily rule out alternative, the realm of close-ups in which the viewer and therefore, contradictory connections. is ‘forced’ to share the performer’s feel- Thus continuity is not only constructive, ings. For example, in Juha, the intensity but also prophylactic and precautionary. grows between Marja (Kati Outinen) and Since the spectator uses all the elements Shemeikka (André Wilms) mainly through in shots to relate them, constant vigilance the close-ups of the images and looks is required. Luckily, assumptions derived inside them in a painting-like way. The from context can override several potential experienced immediacy is openly present. confusions. Nonetheless, continuity rules, Visual continuity fl ows carefully in these although simple in their basics, can very moments and the close-up image scale quickly become quite complicated, to the conveys the characters’ emotions with pre- point that even experienced and sophis- cision. The viewer responds with an intense ticated directors can heatedly disagree sharing of the emotions, and a cinematic on how a cut will read. Just like the use of continuity, both structural and mental, language, the craft of continuity is not a unfolds. Cinematic representation involves science but an art. a central, constant and inescapable contradiction. Many three-dimensional, ENLARGING THE IMAGES unlimited spaces appear as one-sided, fl at Consequently, the wider shot scales have and limited spaces; and many separated a distant and relaxing effect on the viewer, moments in time appear consecutively. In usually because the viewer is sharing the essence, fi lmic continuity does not seek to character’s feeling of relative security. Occa- deny these contradictions, but to resolve sionally, Kaurismäki uses this predisposition and surmount them by reconciling the sce- of the viewer to relax by using wider images nic spaces with the screen’s graphic space. to undercut the viewers’ expectations. For In principle, one construes the succession example, in many fi lms the use of landscape of scenic chunks more swiftly when they images tends to neutralise the medium and coincide with one’s real physical space. This long shots at the beginning of a scene when means that the graphic consistency fur- the viewer is lulled into a sense of the space. nishes quick clues to spatial orientations. There is tension in anticipation of a character

57 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2015 / VOLUME 3 / ARTICLE entering the scene. The landscape images image. In the close-up shots, focusing on function phenomenally in creating distance. an object, the viewer frequently shares a Still, one should remember that wider images sudden realisation or wonder with a char- not only convey a character’s (and viewer’s) acter. This use of close-ups is one of the sense of distance, but also suggest a kind of foundations of Kaurismäki’s identifi cation detachment from human problems. In most approach. Since the viewer sees what the of his dramatic scenes, Kaurismäki uses characters see, it is possible to identify with medium or full shots of the characters as a their point of view. As M in The Man Without counterpoint to close-ups. The effect is not a Past fi nally realises that he has lost his to free the viewer from their involvement in memory, the camera provides the viewer the dramatic emotions of the scenes, but to with a close-up, in which he is alone at the set up a visual tension similar to the dramatic centre of the frame. We as spectators go tension that the characters are experiencing. along with him, mentally sharing the discov- For example, in a scene from The ery. This use of the close-up encourages our Man Without a Past, the man referred to tense involvement in the uncertainties of simply as M (Markku Peltola) asks Irma the character. Consequently, this technical (Kati Outinen), a woman from the Salva- device practically demands that we enter tion Army, to visit his humble shack in the the melancholy world of the fi lm. dockland area where he lives. Medium and Closer image scales can be seductive, full shots cover this sequence. Also some causing us to ignore other elements of the profi le images are used. The wider images image. The images can be proportionally of this sequence provide more distance correct, but Kaurismäki quite often changes between the characters. The mood is a kind the perspective for motional accuracy. The of quiet melancholy and Kaurismäki saves close-ups are psychologically appropriate, the close-ups for the closing of the scene. since they convey the signifi cance of these Playing with the images in this scene has views. By enlarging an object of intense a somewhat more complex effect on the interest in proportion to its importance to a viewer. The close-ups in the scene’s open- character, Kaurismäki enables us to share ing involve the viewer with the protagonist’s the very specifi c quality of the character’s emotions. After all, the close-ups depict the thought processes. M in The Man Without characters’ emotions most clearly, but these a Past acts silently, without any great pas- images also prompt questions about their sion, by looking and listening: his diligent motives and set up somewhat ironic com- manners are ‘like a slow river that fi nds its parisons to their earlier behaviour, as well as destination’ (Biro 2008: 190). a curious anticipation of their future actions. Like most long shot images, the camera In any case, the wider images exist in a tense distances us from a character’s motives counterpoint to the close-up approach. and encourages the viewer to consider the While wider images and shots usually character’s emotions in a more functional show characters in action, close-ups cap- light and actions in a more neutral light. At ture their passive reactions. This is crucial most, such images induce a mild curiosity for Kaurismäki since passivity is a form of or a vague phenomenal apprehension in the his characters’ reactions. The viewer shares viewer. Sometimes the close-up revelations this passivity and experiences this fl ow of are meant only for the viewer and, in this emotions connected with the existentialist sense, are withheld from the characters. In attitude of Kaurismäki’s characters. The this situation, our involvement as spectators existentialism includes a form of Nordic is tense, but not always as intimate as when melancholy that entails wider implica- we are directly sharing a character’s emotions since it has been present in the fi lmic tions. This special, private glimpse, withheld narrative from the silent era. Kaurismäki from the characters, maintains the viewer’s manipulates the viewer’s responses to curiosity. More than dramatic irony, such establish the dramatic importance of an privileged views promote a tense curiosity in

58 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2015 / VOLUME 3 / ARTICLE how the characters will react to the knowl- concerns Kaurismäki’s The Match Factory edge. More closely, this power of the close- Girl and explains how his fi lms move in ups to deny the viewer the distance to evalu- time. Kaurismäki’s Deleuzian ‘time-image’ ate carries with it the potential for deception, is a fl uctuating entity, consisting of ele- either self-deception on the part of the ments from various temporal epochs. viewer or character or misdirection by Kau- Consequently, in Kaurismäki’s cinema, the rismäki. Since a close scale image strikes the experienced present of the narration has a viewer’s eye with such concentrated focus, it nostalgic yearning for the past, but the past sweeps the mind towards immediate convic- is not simply located in one’s memory as tion. Generally, images are constructions and an isolated temporal element. It is felt as a basic visual units. Static images are already duration, of which the spectator is immedi- endowed with signifi cance, because they ately aware. At the same time, the present are in the fl ux of changing fi elds and located of a Kaurismäki-fi lm has a specious quality, amid the stimuli that race perpetually since it develops as an interval between the behind and beyond these fi elds. past, and performs as lived duration. In Juha, Juha’s (Sakari Kuosmanen) A scene (Figure 6) from The Match fears are visualised in the point of view Factory Girl: through close and subjective shots of por- tentous images. We can sense the melodra- A family dinner: the father pours matic nature of these views and Kaurismäki vodka fi rst into his glass and then is able to add references to the use of light into his wife’s glass. The daughter and human presence in these moments of the family brings in the plates thereby creating concrete, but still poetically and serves a portion of meat soup spirited, indications to the narrative events. to everyone. They start to eat. His technique of using perceptual patterns Nobody talks and one can feel has a specifi c force – it uplifts the perfor- the power of silence. After they mances and provides an ability to create have eaten, they all go about their and employ nuances and sudden surprises business. Television delivers only to redirect his game of themes and move- bad news: Ayatollah Khomeini, the ments inside the narrative. This provides Iranian leader has died; a gas pipe the ground for the viewers to feel that they in Russia has exploded, resulting are very close to Marja’s character in these in fatalities; at Beijing’s Tianan- moments. Especially in regard to these men Square, tanks have crushed a aspects, the narrative of Juha captures an student uprising, killing many. authentic historical process and idea of an individual destiny seen through concrete and These are images, sounds from Aki Kau- referential refractions. (Figure 5) Many com- rismäki’s The Match Factory Girl. Addressed mon references are derived from the history in this way, the main questions lie in the of silent cinema and familiarity greets us in inscription of the cinematic narration, the plot construction, although it is based personal identities, ambiguity of gestures on a Finnish novel. However, Kaurismäki and expressions, bodily signs and dialogue has moved this storyline into a more or less between individuality and universality. He timeless sphere and invested the narrative asserts a personal imprint on his fi lms. His with a version that has universal appeal. conceptions of the audiovisual possibilities of cinematic narration, with all their picto- TEMPORAL CINEMATIC rial, aural, editing, compositional, acting, ARCHITECTURE setting and lighting possibilities, have had a ‘The narrative of the fi lm does not occur role in both Finnish and international in a particular unbroken epoch, but within perspectives. What is important and the internal and mythical time of the nar- interesting is the fi lm’s particular method rative’ (Pallasmaa 2005: 25). This notion of cueing the viewer to develop certain

59 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2015 / VOLUME 3 / ARTICLE hypotheses and inferences, which will central features of Kaurismäki’s fi lms is his then be tested and refi ned as the fi lm pro- specifi c ability to unite very acute everyday gresses. Art is a kind of mental exercise. realism, a perception of the ‘real’ (shown For me, it is accurate to think of fi lm as a in the objects, setting, dialogue and sound collection of unique aspirations raising of the fi lm) and the world of the fairytale. specifi c historical, social, psychological These contrasting elements, which are and ethical questions and endorsements almost dialectical, are joined together in of cultural representation. The immediacy a very natural way. Kaurismäki’s fi lms are of experience is essential to my approach. I fairytales without exactly being fairytales. think that Kaurismäki’s personal concept of The fairytale element creates a sense of cinematic language is demonstrated in his hope, of wishes and dreams that might fi lms with all the audiovisual and phenom- come true. In The Match Factory Girl, Iris enal experiences linking to the meaningful reads Angelika novels, which her mother levels of his presence. The characters face (Elina Salo) buys for her daughter as a the signifi cance of the everyday, the confl ict birthday gift. When Iris is putting on her between reality and dreams, between soci- makeup and looking at herself in the mirror, ety and their personal freedom, saturated we start to hear a melody called Fairytale with melancholy. Land (Satumaa) sung by Reijo Taipale. After With Kaurismäki, images are full of that, we see Iris sitting on a bench in a wordless, visual constructions, image-like dance hall, waiting for someone to pick her atmospheres and spheres of pre-logical up, but nobody does. thinking. He has the ability to turn fi lm into Kaurismäki’s Finland is a recon- a pictorial observation of the everyday by structed fi lmic entity, fi lled with signs of the producing these ‘stilled’ performances, past, objects and memories. Tangos repre- bringing forth a photographic and archi- sents old Finnish music, introducing nos- tectural vision of fi lm’s potentiality. In talgia and memories, and refl ecting a kind The Match Factory Girl, Kaurismäki uses of lure of the past, fantasy, a special way stylistic and narrative conventions, a pre- to fancy or daydreams of a better future. meditated and recurrent organisation of It is a refl ection of the dialectics between events, and arranges them into repeated seeming necessity and freedom, between and motivated patterns of variations that work and leisure. For Kaurismäki, the past include central identifi able markers of his unfolds too quickly, meaning that it must narrative logic and permanent choices. be slowed down. The scenes of The Match Melodrama plays with silent, understated Factory Girl represent his pictorial attempts patterns. The unfolding of things is con- to compensate for the disappearance of nected to a minimal decoration of spaces, cinematic images into the past. His fi lms clearly making Iris’s (Kati Outinen) presence are declarations of a fi lmic historical reality and thinking prominent. The focus of the with references to the recent and faraway narration is centred on her lonely fi gure and past, concentrating on the remains of it, Kaurismäki’s narrative understanding has and creating a stream of spatial and tempo- clear meanings that vary constantly. This ral fl ux. Kaurismäki highlights a potential- enables the director to use his mind and ised perspective of the present by assess- imagination to create a series of instanta- ing the elements of the past. This recon- neous story actions that are based on his nection is necessary due to the nature of rotational spiral of fi lmic material. fi lm’s connection to perception (Ross 2012: Kaurismäki’s cinematic architecture 118). Our vantage point of a single image is negotiated and embedded onto the very is made more observant in the pictorial surface of the fi lm language and spectator- moments when the camera holds the image ship, involving specifi c fi lmic constructions long enough to create a lasting impression. and interpretations of the physiognomic A sense of duration discloses the tension signs offered by the fi lmmaker. One of the between the ‘photographic’ stillness and

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FIGURE 5. Juha (1999). Sakari Kuosmanen as Juha. FIGURE 6. The Match Factory Girl (Tulitikkutehtaan tyttö, 1990).

61 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2015 / VOLUME 3 / ARTICLE slow moments inside the image. The picto- Any possible shot – high angle, rial dimension is articulated and the move- close-up, pan – conveys a certain ments trigger our mental activity, producing attitude toward a character, a series of thoughts that create the possibili- ‘screen’ which simplifi es and ties to look at pictures, images in a way that interprets the character. Camera is embodied within our comprehension angles and pictorial composition, of their structures. In these moments, a like music, are extremely insidious phenomenology of perception is activated screens; they can undermine a by less narrative-inclined purposes and scene without the viewer’s being a specifi c focus on the structurally active aware of it. A slow zoom-out or forces of the mind. The multivalent expres- a vertical composition can sub- sion in addressing pictorial states is crucial stantially alter the meaning of the here. Kaurismäki is returning to the origins action within a scene. (Schrader of cinema, fi nding a new voice for the ‘silent’ 1972: 67; my emphasis) language of movement.12 Based on Jean Mitry, we can state CONCLUSIVE IDEAS that the image is an objectifi ed percep- Kaurismäki reveals the pictorial dimensions tion related to whatever caused it and with of his work, elaborating, for example, the which it identifi es (Mitry 1988: 31). Conse- structural depth of his visuals, juxtaposing quently, as emphasised by Michael Roemer: the represented fi gures and their movements with the represented screen. The There is something to be learned director observes how art has focused on here about the entire process of these views and brought shifts and trans- perception in fi lm. If we are explic- formation from the bygone era into the itly told something, as we are in present. In Kaurismäki’s works, the fi lm- most pictures, we remain passive maker is attentive to the shifts that allow and essentially outsiders. If, how- the viewer time to read the picture-plane ever, we have to draw our own con- inscriptions. This allows him to be attentive clusions on the basis of evidence to the changes on the surface of the screen presented, as we do in life itself, as a combination of specifi c fi lm-structural we cannot help but participate. We operations. These consist mainly of devel- become actively involved. When oping the horizon of the represented space, we are told something explicitly, featuring the position of the fi gures usually we are in a sense deprived of the in symmetrical groupings toward the cam- experience. It has been digested era. The visible structure of the perspective for us and we are merely informed controls the overall view as it locates the of the results, or the meaning. But viewpoint on the pictorial plane. In many it is experience we are after, even cases, Kaurismäki has also concentrated if it remains vicarious experience. his observation on the central harmonic (Roemer 1964: 19–22) points of the foreground composition. In these lateral movements over the fi lm can- The Match Factory Girl is Kaurismäki’s most vas, the viewpoint of the representation, i.e. Bresson-like fi lm, as Paul Schrader explains: the viewpoint of the camera, becomes the nexus of visual design promoting the status 12 The pictorial dimension of the image occurs in of the central events towards which the surprising contexts; for instance, in the Soviet montage gaze of the viewer is also directed. tradition, used not only by Sergei Eisenstein but also by Aleksander Dovzhenko. In Earth (Зeмля, Ukraine, 1930), Dovzhenko provides pictorial entities, landscape and nature fi gurations that speak for themselves and allow the viewer to access the pictorial emphases of the shots. It also increases the structural activity of the spectator’s perception by pointing out the phenomenological affects of narration.

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REFERENCES Valkola, Jarmo 2000. Aesthetic & Cognitive Perceptual- Arnheim, Rudolf 1969. Visual Thinking. Berkeley, Los ism: Signs, Symbols and Concepts in Art Educational Angeles: University of California Press. Context. Jyväskylä: University of Jyväskylä. Aumont, Jacques 1989. L’oeil interminable: cinema et Valkola, Jarmo 2003a. Interpretation of the Images: peinture. Paris: Librarie Séguier. A Cognitive and Media Cultural Perspective on the Bazin, André 1967. What Is Cinema? Vol. I. Ed. and trans. Theory and Aesthetics of Audiovisual Narration. Reports Hugh Gray. Los Angeles: University of California Press. from Jyväskylä Polytechnic 18. Jyväskylä: Jyväskylä Bénézet, Delphine 2014. The Cinema of Agnès Varda: Polytechnic. Resistance and Eclecticism. London: Wallﬂ ower Press. Valkola, Jarmo 2003b. ‘L’esthétique visuelle de Béla Birdwhistell, Ray L. 1970. Kinesics and Context: Essays Tarr’. Trans. Kristian Feigelson, Jean-Yves Malherbe. – on Body Motion Communication. Philadelphia: Univer- Kristian Feigelson, Jarmo Valkola (eds.), Le temps et sity of Pennsylvania Press. l’histoire: Cinéma Hongrois. Théorème 7. Paris: Sorbonne Biro, Yvette 2008. Turbulence and Flow in Film: The Nouvelle Press, 181–190. Rhythmic Design. Bloomington, Indianapolis: Indiana Valkola, Jarmo 2004. Cognition and Visuality. Jyväskylä: University Press. University of Jyväskylä, Faculty of Humanities. Bonitzer, Pascal 1985. Décadrage. Cinéma et peinture. Valkola, Jarmo 2007. Visual Media Narration: Theory and Paris: Editions de L’Etoile. Analysis. Jyväskylä: Publications of Jyväskylä University Bordwell, David 1997. On the History of Film Style. of Applied Sciences. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Valkola, Jarmo 2012. Thoughts on Images: Bronowski, Jacob 1978. The Visionary Eye: Essays in the A Philosophical Evaluation. Bucharest: Zeta Books. Arts, Literature and Science. Eds. Piero E. Ariotti, Rita Von Bagh, Peter 2007. Aki Kaurismäki. Helsinki: WSOY. Bronowski. Massachusetts: MIT Press. Ward, Joseph Anthony 1985. American Silences: The Bruno, Giuliana 2002. Atlas of Emotion: Journeys in Art, Realism of James Agee, Walker Evans and Edward Architecture, and Film. New York: Verso. Hopper. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. Burnett, Ron 1995. Cultures of Vision: Images, Media & the Imaginary. Bloomington, Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. Castro, Teresa 2010. ‘Mapping the City through Film: From “Topophilia” to Urban Mapscapes’. – Richard Koeck, Les Roberts (eds.), The City and the Moving Image: Urban Projections. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 144–155. De Certeau, Michel 1984. The Practice of Everyday Life. Trans. Steven Rendall. Berkeley: University of California Press. Hochberg, Julian 1978. Perception (Foundations of Modern Psychology). 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. Hollander, Anne 1989. Moving Pictures. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Lefebvre, Henri 1991. The Production of Space. Trans. Donald Nicholson-Smith. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 1962. The Phenomenology of Perception. Trans. Colin Smith. London: Routledge. Mitry, Jean 1988. The Aesthetics and Psychology of the Cinema. Trans. Christopher King. London: Athlone Press. Nora, Pierre 1996. Realms of Memory: Rethinking the French Past. Trans. Arthur Goldhammer, ed. Lawrence D. Kritzman. New York: Columbia University Press. Pallasmaa, Juhani 2005. ‘Spaces of Melancholy and Hope: The Logic of Place and Image in the Films of Aki Kaurismäki’. – Arkkitehti 5, 22–33. Perkins, D. N. 1981. The Mind’s Best Work. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Persson, Per 2003. Understanding Cinema: A Psycho- logical Theory of Moving Imagery. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Peucker, Brigitte 1995. Incorporating Images: Film and the Rival Arts. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Rascaroli, Laura 2009. The Personal Camera: Subjective Cinema and Essay Film. London, New York: Wallﬂ ower Press. Roemer, Michael 1964. ‘The Surfaces of Reality’. – Film Quarterly 18, 1, 15–22. Roskill, Mark 1989. The Interpretation of Pictures. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. Ross, Christine 2012. The Past Is the Present; It’s the Future Too: The Temporal Turn in Contemporary Art. New York, London: Bloomsbury. Schrader, Paul 1972. Transcendental Style in Film: Ozu, Bresson, Dreyer. Berkeley: University of California Press. Thompson, Kristin; Bordwell, David 2003. Film History: An Introduction. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Valkola, Jarmo 1993. Perceiving the Visual in Cinema: Semantic Approaches to Film Form and Meaning. Jyväskylä Studies in the Arts 42. Jyväskylä: University of Jyväskylä.