Social Psychology

OUTLINE OF RESOURCES

Introducing Social Psychology Lecture/Discussion Topic: Social Psychology’s Most Important Lessons (p. 853) Social Thinking The Fundamental Attribution Error Lecture/Discussion Topic: Attribution and Models of Helping (p. 856) Classroom Exercises: The Fundamental Attribution Error (p. 854) Students’ Perceptions of You (p. 855) Classroom Exercise/Critical Thinking Break: Biases in Explaining Events (p. 855) NEW Feature (Short) Film: The Lunch Date (p. 856) Worth Video Anthology: The Actor-Observer Difference in Attribution: Observe a Riot in Action* Attitudes and Actions Lecture/Discussion Topics: The Looking Glass Effect (p. 856) The Theory of Reasoned Action (p. 857) Actions Influence Attitudes (p. 857) The Justification of Effort (p. 858) Self-Persuasion (p. 859) Revisiting the Stanford Prison Experiment (p. 859) Abu Ghraib Prison and Social Psychology (p. 860) Classroom Exercise: Introducing Cognitive Dissonance Theory (p. 858) Worth Video Anthology: Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment* The Stanford Prison Experiment: The Power of the Situation* Social Influence Conformity: Complying With Social Pressures Lecture/Discussion Topics: Mimicry and Prosocial Behavior (p. 861) Social Exclusion and Mimicry (p. 861) The Seattle Windshield Pitting Epidemic (p. 862) Classroom Exercises: Suggestibility (p. 862) Social Influence (p. 863) Student Project: Violating a Social Norm (p. 863) Worth Video Anthology: Social Influence* NEW Liking and Imitation: The Sincerest Form of Flattery* Obedience: Following Orders Lecture/Discussion Topic: Obedience in Everyday Life (p. 865) Classroom Exercises: Obedience and Conformity (p. 864) Would You Obey? (p. 864) Wolves or Sheep? (p. 866) *Titles in the Worth Video Anthology are not described within the core resource unit. They are listed, with running times, in the Lecture Guides and described in detail in their Faculty Guide, which is available at www.worthpublishers.com/mediaroom.

851 852 Social Psychology

Lecture/Discusion Topic/Critical Thinking Break: Milgram Returns . . . This Time on TV! (p. 864) NEW Classroom Exercise/Student Project: Applying Research on Conformity, Obedience, and Role Playing (p. 866) Worth Video Anthology: Milgram’s Obedience Studies* Obedience and Authority: A Laboratory Demonstration* Group Behavior Lecture/Discussion Topics: Deviance in the Dark (p. 867) Understanding Terrorism (p. 868) Groupthink (p. 868) Classroom Exercises: Deindividuation (p. 867) Group Polarization (p. 867) The Wisdom of Crowds (p. 869) Feature Films: Lord of the Flies and Deindividuation (p. 867) Twelve Angry Men (p. 869) Worth Video Anthology: Schachter’s Affiliation Experiment* The Wisdom of Groups* Social Relations Classroom Exercise: Social Transmission of a Narrative (p. 870) Student Project: A Personal Cultural History (p. 869) Prejudice Classroom Exercises: Subtle Prejudice and the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (p. 871) Positions of Privilege and Institutional Racism (p. 872) Institutional Discrimination (p. 873) Belief in a Just World (p. 873) Ingroup Bias (p. 874) Classroom Exercise/Student Project: Measuring Stereotypes (p. 871) Feature Film: Crash (p. 871) Worth Video Anthology: Prejudice* NEW Attitudes and Prejudicial Behavior Hidden Prejudice: The Implicit Association Test* Being Gay: Coming Out in the 21st Century* Aggression Lecture/Discussion Topics: Workplace Violence and the Conditional Reasoning Test of Aggression (p. 875) UPDATED Genocide (p. 876) Relational Aggression in the Media (p. 876) Do We Need to Vent Our Rage? (p. 877) Classroom Exercise: Defining Aggression (p. 874) Feature Film: In Cold Blood (p. 877) Worth Video Anthology: Competition and Aggression: Testosterone at Work* Attraction Lecture/Discussion Topics: Speed Dating (p. 878) The Mere Exposure Effect (p. 879) What Is Beautiful Is Good (p. 879) Physical Appearance and Election Success (p. 879) Lecture/Discussion Topic/Critical Thinking Break: All the Right Moves? (p. 880) NEW Classroom Exercises: Using Personal Ads to Teach Interpersonal Attraction (p. 877) Assessing Friendship (p. 880) The Pairing Game (p. 881) Matching, the Contrast Effect, and Relationship Satisfaction (p. 882) The Passionate Love Scale (p. 883) Love Styles (p. 883) Social Psychology 853

The Trust Scale (p. 884) The Minding Scale (p. 884) Solitude: Bane or Blessing? (p. 885) Feature Films: Beauty and the Beast and Physical Attractiveness (p. 879) Speed and the Two-Factor Theory of Passionate Love (p. 882) Worth Video Anthology: Interpersonal Attraction: Clothes Make the Man* Love: The Mind-Body Connection* Altruism Lecture/Discussion Topics: Case Studies in Helping (p. 886) UPDATED Europeans Who Helped Jews Escape (p. 888) Classroom Exercise: Why Do People Volunteer? (p. 887) Student Project: A Random Act of Kindness (p. 888) Worth Video Anthology: Takooshian’s Psychology of Bystanders* Bystander Apathy: Failing to Help Others in Distress* Whom Do We Help?* Conflict and Peacemaking Lecture/Discussion Topics: Five Dangerous Ideas (p. 889) The Dual Concern Model of Social Conflict (p. 890) The Jigsaw Technique (p. 891) Classroom Exercise: The Missiles Game (p. 890) PsychSim 5: Social Decision Making (p. 889)

RESOURCES inconsistent with our expressed attitudes. Powerful evil situations can overwhelm good intentions. Introducing Social Psychology Culture provides a broader social context that Lecture/Discussion Topic: Social Psychology’s Most affects our behavior. For example, our standards for Important Lessons promptness, frankness, and clothing vary with our cultural situation. To introduce social psychology to your class, you might 4. Personal attitudes and dispositions also shape present some of its “big ideas.” In his bestselling social behavior. Our inner attitudes about politics, the psychology text, David Myers identifies the specialty’s poor, and the physical environment influence six overarching themes. They include the following: our actions. Personality traits—for example, our 1. We construct our social reality. People are strongly optimism and conscientiousness—also affect our motivated to find the causes of everyday social behavior. We are both the creatures and creators of behavior and thereby make it predictable and our social worlds. controllable. Both our beliefs about others and 5. Social behavior is biologically rooted. Everything ourselves affect our actions. Because we think dif- psychological is simultaneously biological. Brain ferently at different times, our reactions to the same areas enable our experience of love, aggression, person and the same situation vary. and helping. Social support strengthens the disease- 2. Our social intuitions are often powerful but some- fighting immune system; social ostracism elevates times perilous. Our thinking occurs on two levels: blood pressure. one conscious and deliberate, the other unconscious 6. Social psychology’s principles are applicable and automatic. Both conscious and unconscious in everyday life. Social psychological research thoughts shape our fears (is the world dangerous?), provides significant insight into important social our impressions (is she trustworthy?), and our problems such as prejudice and aggression. It offers relationships (does he love me?). These intuitions many ideas about how to know ourselves better and powerfully shape our social behavior. At the same to improve our interpersonal relationships. Social time, our social beliefs are susceptible to predict- psychology’s principles have application to able error (e.g., the fundamental attribution error, improving human health, to understanding judicial overconfidence, the self-serving bias). procedures, and to maintaining our physical 3. Social influences shape our behavior. We are social environment. animals with an inherent need to belong. Thus, we Myers, D. G. (2010). Social psychology (10th ed.). New are responsive to our immediate contexts. Some­ York: McGraw-Hill. times, the social situation leads us to act in ways 854 Social Psychology

Social Thinking recalls that at times “It seemed I was better off dead than living through” Devlin’s abuse. He states, “Most The Fundamental Attribution Error people would say their greatest fear is dying, but that’s Classroom Exercise: The Fundamental Attribution not mine. I would have to say my greatest fear is prob- Error ably not being understood.” The fundamental attribution error is the tendency of You can introduce the fundamental attribution error observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to under- by replicating the findings of Richard Nisbett and his estimate the impact of a situation and to overestimate colleagues, who discovered that people often attribute the impact of personal disposition. To illustrate, you other people’s behavior to their dispositions while might cite the case of the American freelance journalist giving environmental reasons for their own behavior. Jill Carroll, who was held captive in Baghdad for 82 That is, with our own behavior, we are sensitive to how days in early 2006. Early in her captivity, her kidnap- behavior changes with the situation. pers gave the United States just 72 hours to release all Distribute two copies of Handout 1 to each student. female prisoners in Iraq. If the demand was not met, the Have students complete the scale twice, once for a group said it would kill Carroll. In a video made before former teacher (or some prominent public figure, say, her March 30 release, Jill praised her captors as “good Hillary Clinton) and once for themselves. After they people fighting an honorable fight” and denounced the have completed both forms, have them count the num- United States. Many observers disregarded the situ- ber of times they circled “depends on the situation” on ational pressures on Carroll and concluded that she was each rating sheet. A show of hands will demonstrate a a traitor. Later she explained, “During my last night greater tendency to attribute the other person’s behav- in captivity, my captors forced me to participate in a ior to personal disposition, while attributing their own propaganda video. They told me I would be released behavior to the environment. Ask students why this if I cooperated. I was living in a threatening environ- may be the case. ment, under their control, and wanted to go home alive. We tend to attribute causation to the focus of our So I agreed.” Carroll went on to state, “Things that I attention, which is different when we are observing was forced to say while captive are now being taken by than when we are acting. When another person acts, some as an accurate reflection of my personal views. our focus is on that person, who thus seems to cause They are not.” whatever happens. When we act, however, the environ- Public reaction to the case of Shawn Hornbeck, ment commands our attention and thus seems to explain the kidnapped Missouri boy who was held captive for our behavior. Michael Storms demonstrated that if more than four years before being freed on January 12, perspectives can be reversed, attributions also change. 2007, provides another vivid example of the fundamen- In a clever experiment, students were told to talk with tal attribution error. Shawn was riding his bicycle near each other while television cameras, placed next to his home in Richwoods when Michael Devlin, a pizza each, recorded the conversation. In addition, observers restaurant manager, tied his hands behind his back and sat beside the students. Afterward, each observer and forced him into his car in fall 2002. Only after a wit- actor was asked to estimate whether the actor’s behav- ness observed Ben Ownby also being kidnapped did ior was caused more by personal characteristics or by authorities go to Devlin’s apartment and discover both the situation. As expected,­ the observer attributed less boys. The public wondered why Hornbeck had made no importance to the situation than did the actor. But what effort to escape. if perspectives were reversed by having each watch Hornbeck explained, “Nobody has the right to the videotape recorded from the other’s point of view? judge anybody, and people see it in their power to judge Attributions were also now reversed. The observer me. They don’t know what I went through. . . . From attributed behavior more to the situation, the actor more Day One, he had the gun. He had the power. I was to personal characteristics. powerless. There wasn’t a day when I didn’t think he Conclude your discussion with the following was just going to kill me.” For the first month of cap- example of the actor-observer difference in perception. tivity, Devlin taped Shawn’s mouth shut and tied him to In 1979, rock fans were waiting to get into Riverfront a futon whenever he left the apartment. At one point, he Coliseum for a concert by The Who. When the took the teen to a remote area and began to strangle him Coliseum doors were finally opened, people stampeded before promising he’d let him live if he would never try and several were trampled to death. Time magazine, to run away. The 17-year-old needed therapeutic help which had reported the tragedy, later received a letter to cope. from an outside observer and one from an actor partici- After his capture, Devlin pleaded guilty to kidnap- pant. To whom does each attribute the cause? ping, sexual assault, and attempted murder. Shawn Social Psychology 855

The observer: reputation on campus. Furthermore, students may The violently destructive message that The Who and have selectively perceived and recalled your behav- other rock groups deliver leaves me little surprised that ior to fit their initial impressions. they attract a mob that will trample human beings to 3. Responses to Handout 1 may be used to demon- death to gain better seats. Of greater concern is a respect- strate the actor-observer difference in perception. ed news magazine’s adulation of this sick phenomenon. To illustrate, you will need to disclose your self- The actor: ratings on these characteristics. You probably will While standing in the crowd at Riverfront Coliseum, I most frequently report, “It depends on the situa- distinctly remember feeling that I was being punished tion.” Differences between your ratings and those for being a rock fan. My sister and I joked about this, of your students may be examples of the funda- unaware of the horror happening around us. Later, those mental attribution error (they are wrong) or, if your jokes came back to us grimly as we watched the news. perceptions are more favorable, examples of a self- How many lives will be lost before the punitive and inhuman policy of festival seating at rock concerts is serving bias (you are wrong). outlawed? 4. Agreements between you and your students’ judg- ments serve as instances of successful perception. Keen, J. (2008, September 25). Teen recounts ’02 abduc- Many of these reflect inferences made from physi- tion ordeal. USA Today, p. 3A. cal appearance (a wedding ring to infer marital Moore, M. (2006, April 2). Former hostage feared cap- status, facial wrinkles to infer age, clothing to infer tors. The Grand Rapids Press, p. A3. favorite color, to name a few). Nisbett, R. E., Caputo, C., Legant, P., & Marecek, J. 5. One result of this exercise is that students will (1973). Behavior as seen by the actor and as seen by the become aware of their implicit personality theories. observer. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, We all have theories about which traits are corre- 27, 154–164. lated; which traits characterize persons of a particu- lar age, gender, or occupation; and what causes Storms, M. D. (1973). Videotape and the attribution specific behaviors. Most generally, person percep- process: Reversing actors’ and observers’ points of view. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27, tion is an active process in which we go beyond the 165–175. information given. Lashley notes several benefits of this exercise. NOTE: Read the next exercise for an alternative use of Students acquire a better understanding of person per- Handout 1. ception, they come to appreciate the relevance of this process to their own social interactions, and, last but not Classroom Exercise: Students’ Perceptions of You least, they get to know their instructor better. If you are feeling courageous, ask students to use Lashley, R. (1987). Using students’ perceptions of their Handout 1 to give their impressions of you. Also ask instructor to illustrate principles of person perception. them to judge such characteristics as your age and mari- Teaching of Psychology, 14, 179–180. tal status; favorite kind of music, food, and color; ideal vacation and hobbies; state of birth; and number of Classroom Exercise/Critical Thinking Break: Biases in siblings. Have your students anonymously turn in their Explaining Events judgments; prepare a summary tally and use the next We are all often biased in the way we explain why class period to discuss the results. things happen, or the outcomes of certain events. We Robin Lashley suggests that you use the exercise to overestimate the influence of personality and underesti- illustrate the following principles of person perception. mate the influence of situations on individuals’ behav- 1. Students’ responses often reveal strongly stereo- iors. This is the essence of the fundamental attribution typed thinking, specifically the “teacher stereo- error. Researchers have shown that we also tend to type.” Lashley notes that students judge the typical display a self-serving or egocentric bias in our evalua- teacher to be a married, conservative, introverted tion of events, so that we give ourselves more credit for individual who prefers dark colors, sedentary hob- positive outcomes than we give to other people; we also bies, and structured vacations. Other stereotypes tend to affix blame for negative outcomes on external surface as well—for example, those based on age, or uncontrollable factors (see Campbell & Sedikides, gender, and physical attractiveness. 1999). The self-serving bias results from our desire to 2. First impressions are often important. In justifying maintain high self-regard and tends to be magnified their judgments, students will often refer to events in situations in which the outcome is perceived to be occurring early in the semester. In fact, students particularly important and when we are particularly may have already formed impressions from your focused on ourselves. 856 Social Psychology

1. Think about the news coverage for a recent elec- viewed criminality and alcohol dependence in this way: tion cycle (at any level: local, state, or national). “You got yourself into this mess, now get yourself out.” Con­sidering all the debates, issues, and controver- Helpers simply exhort people to assume responsibility sies covered in the media for the recent election, for their problems and to work their own way out. identify an example of the fundamental attribution In the compensatory model, people are not seen error and one of the self-serving bias. If you cannot as responsible for problems, but they are responsible remember specific examples, generate your own for solutions. Jesse Jackson once stated, “You are not examples of what could have happened. responsible for being down, but you are responsible for 2. Identify at least two variables that you think might getting up.” People need the resources or opportunities reduce the occurrence of the fundamental attribu- that the helper may provide. Nonetheless, the responsi- tion error and the self-serving bias. Explain how bility for using this assistance rests with the recipient. you think those variables might influence their In the medical model, people are seen as respon- occurrence. sible for neither the problem nor the solution. Helpers say, “You are ill and I will try to make you better.” Campbell, W. K., & Sedikides, C. (1999). Self-threat magnifies the self-serving bias: A meta-analytic integra- This approach, of course, characterizes the health care tion. Review of General Psychology. 3, 23-43. system in all modern societies. Helping involves pro- viding treatment and care. Feature (Short) Film: The Lunch Date (Davidson, 11 In the enlightenment model, actors are seen as minutes) responsible for problems but as unable or unwill- Produced by Adam Davidson, this program won the ing to provide solutions. They are viewed as needing 1990 Oscar for the best short film. It provides a won- discipline. Helping means earning their trust and giv- derful introduction to social perception, errors in social ing them guidance. Alcoholics Anonymous explicitly thinking (including the fundamental attribution error), requires new recruits both to take responsibility for and the power of first impressions. The film is a simple their past history of drinking (rather than blaming it account of a middle-aged White woman’s walk through on something or someone else) and to admit that it is a large urban railroad station. As she navigates through beyond their power to control the drinking without the the station to her departing train, she comes face-to- help of God and the community of people who were face with her own prejudices regarding Black men and formerly alcohol dependent. homeless people. The program powerfully illustrates Brickman suggests that each of these models has principles of perception illustrated earlier in the course, some deficiency in terms of effective helping and cop- including top-down processing and the effect of expec- ing. For example, the potential deficiency of the moral tations. You could use this to either open or conclude model is that it can lead its adherents to hold victims your discussion of social psychology. Begin the class of leukemia and rape responsible for their fate. Those discussion by asking your students what went through advocating the compensatory model may alienate the their minds as they followed the story. For example, people they help: The recipients may come to see them- what judgments were they making about the primary selves as having to solve problems they did not create, characters who appear in the story? The film is thereby developing a rather negative, even paranoid, available online at www.youtube.com/watch?v= epuT- view of the world. The deficiency of the medical model ZigxUY8 or on the Cinema16-American Short Films is that it fosters dependency, causing people to lose the DVD, which can be purchased at www.cinema16.org/ ability to do something that they once did well. The dvd.php?dvd=3. possible drawback of the enlightenment model is that it can lead to a fanatical or obsessive concern with certain Lecture/Discussion Topic: Attribution and Models of problems and a reconstruction of a person’s entire life Helping around the behaviors or the relationships designed to help him or her deal with these problems. Finding dispositional versus situational causes for poverty and unemployment can have important conse- Brickman, P., Rabinowitz, V., Karuza, J., Coates, D., quences for our attitudes and actions. Philip Brickman Cohen, E., & Kidder, L. (1982). Models of helping and and his colleagues have suggested that whether and coping. American Psychologist, 37, 368–384. how we help someone in need depend largely on our answers to two important questions: Who is responsible Attitudes and Actions for the problem? Who is responsible for the solution? Lecture/Discussion Topic: The Looking Glass Effect In Brickman’s moral model, actors are held respon- When we are keenly aware of our attitudes, they are sible for both problems and solutions. They are most more likely to guide our actions. For example, if we are in need of proper motivation. Traditionally, we have Social Psychology 857 made to feel self-conscious, we are truer to our it; the pill can have unpleasant side effects, but these convictions. occur infrequently). Subjective social norms are pre- Researchers have cleverly made participants self- dicted from her perceived expectations of others close conscious by installing mirrors in the laboratory. For to her weighted by her motivation to comply with them example, Edward Diener and Mark Wallbom noted (e.g., her parents want her to take the pill and she wants that nearly all college and university students say that to please them; her church opposes it, but she considers cheating is morally wrong. But do they follow their its views outdated and cares little about them). Accord­ stated principles? Diener and Wallbom had students ing to Fishbein and Ajzen, attitudes toward the behav- work on an anagram-solving task that was presumably ior and subjective social norms predict one’s behavioral an IQ test. They told them to stop when a bell sounded. intentions (the subjective probabilities of how one Left alone, 71 percent cheated by working past the intends to behave), which in turn determine behavior. bell. However, for students made self-aware by work- The model has been successfully applied in pre- ing in front of a mirror, only 7 percent cheated. Stacey dicting a variety of behaviors. For example, in one Sentyrz and Brad Bushman found that people who can study researchers attempted to predict whether pregnant see their reflections eat less unhealthy food than those women would breast-feed or bottle-feed their babies. who can’t see themselves. They asked students to try Through questionnaires they measured the women’s full-fat, low-fat, and fat-free cream cheese. Participants­ attitudes toward the behavior (Did they believe that in a room with a mirror ate less of the full-fat spread breast-feeding established a closer mother-baby rela- than did those with no mirror. The researchers also tionship? How important is that?), subjective social asked grocery shoppers to taste full-fat, reduced-fat, and norms (What did the woman’s husband prefer? How fat-free margarines. Those snacking over a mirrored motivated were they to follow their husbands’ wishes?), tabletop ate less of the fatty type. Bushman reports that and behavioral intentions (Did they intend to breast- he has installed a mirror on his own refrigerator door. feed?). The researchers found that the correlation of these factors with actual postbirth breast feeding was Diener, E., & Wallbom, M. (1976). Effects of self- awareness on antinormative behavior. Journal of 0.77. Research in Personality, 10, 107–111. Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior extends the model of reasoned action to incorporate another vari- Haugen, P. (1999, May/June). The looking glass effect. able, namely, perceived behavioral control. The devel- Psychology Today, 24. opment and testing of the theory of reasoned action Sentyrz, S. M., & Bushman, B. J. (1998). Mirror, mir- assumes that the behaviors studied were under full ror on the wall, who’s the thinnest one of all? Journal of volitional control. Clearly, that is not always the case, Applied Psychology, 83, 944–949. and Ajzen argues that taking into account the actor’s perceived ability to carry out the behavior of inter- Lecture/Discussion Topic: The Theory of Reasoned est contributes to the accuracy of predicting behavior. Action Researchers have compared the theory of planned You can extend your discussion of the conditions behavior with the theory of reasoned action for 10 under which attitudes guide actions by introducing behaviors chosen to represent a range with respect to Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen’s influential theory personal control (from “getting a good night’s sleep” of reasoned action. The theory states that two major to “taking vitamin supplements”). The results indicated predictors of behavior are attitudes toward the behav- that inclusion of perceived behavioral control enhanced ior and subjective social norms. A person’s attitude the prediction of behavioral intention and the behavior toward a behavior is a function of the desirability of itself. the possible outcomes weighted by the likelihood of Madden, T. J., Ellen, P. S., & Ajzen, I. (1992). A com- those outcomes. Subjective social norms reflect one’s parison of the theory of planned behavior and the theory perception of whether significant others approve of the of reasoned action. Personality and Social Psychology behavior weighted by the motivation to conform with Bulletin, 18, 3–9. those expectations. So, in predicting a woman’s use of Taylor, S., Peplau, L., & Sears, D. (2006). Social psy- birth control pills, one would take into account her atti- chology (12th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice tude (Does she think that taking the pill is the right step Hall. for her?) and subjective social norms (Does she think her parents, husband, friends, church want her to?). Her Lecture/Discussion Topic: Actions Influence Attitudes attitude toward taking the pill would be a function of the desirability of the possible outcomes and the likeli- One of social psychology’s most significant findings hood of their occurring (e.g., avoiding pregnancy is is that action shapes attitude, a principle that can be very important, and the pill is nearly certain to prevent illustrated further in class. For example, the low-ball 858 Social Psychology technique, a device presumably used by some new-car tive dissonance theory, the exercise provides an impor- dealers, demonstrates the powerful effects of action tant reminder that psychology is not merely common on attitude. After a customer has signed on to buy a sense. It is our vulnerability to the hindsight bias that new car because of its very low price, the salesperson makes research findings seem obvious—that is, they are reports that the sales manager won’t agree because obvious only after we learn the results. “we’d be losing money.” Reportedly, more customers­ Present the following scenario. stick with their purchase, even at the higher price, than Suppose you had volunteered to participate in a psy- would have agreed if the full price had been disclosed chology experiment on campus. Upon arrival, you were from the start. In one investigation of the technique, seated at a table and asked to undertake a series of dull, introductory psychology students were asked to par- meaningless tasks for about an hour. Afterward, the ticipate in a laboratory experiment at 7:00 a.m. Only experimenter convinced you to extol the virtues of the 24 percent of those asked came. When students agreed tasks you had performed by describing them to other to participate without knowing the time and then were potential participants as highly worthwhile, interesting, asked if they would come at 7:00 a.m., 53 percent of and educational. You were paid either $1 or $20 to do those who had been asked showed up! this. Suppose you were then asked to privately rate your Brainwashing, a technique first used on American enjoyment of the tasks on a questionnaire. After which prisoners during the Korean war, also demonstrates amount do you believe your actual enjoyment rating of the tasks would be higher—$1 or $20? how attitudes may follow actions. The captors would have the prisoners write a series of essays, each one Students can provide their answers either by a representing a more serious attack on the U.S. govern- show of hands or by writing them down. Give the col- ment. Slowly the writer’s attitude would become con- lective results in class before disclosing the research sistent with his words. In his delightful book Influence, answer. Osberg reports that almost all students will Robert Cialdini gives numerous examples of how other intuitively indicate the $20 payment. Finally, report compliance professionals use the written statement to that Leon Festinger and James Carlsmith found that shape attitudes. The Amway Corporation, for example, those receiving $1 rated the tasks as more enjoyable promotes sales by asking its personnel to set individual than those paid $20. Explain that the authors used the sales goals and then record them on paper: “Whatever concept of cognitive dissonance to explain this finding. the goal, the important thing is that you set it . . . and Those who received only $1 presumably had insuf- write it down. There is something magical about writing ficient justification for their behavior, which led to dis- things down . . . when you reach that goal, set another, sonance, which, in turn, produced a change in attitude and write that down. You’ll be off and running.” about the tasks. Similarly, some home party sales companies have Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. (1959). Cognitive conse- used a “write-it-down” technique to counteract legisla- quences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and tion that allows customers a few days to cancel their Social Psychology, 58, 203–210. order. By having the customer rather than the sales- Osberg, T. (1993). Psychology is not just common person fill out the original sales agreement, they push sense: An introductory psychology demonstration. them to commit to the purchase. As one encyclopedia Teaching of Psychology, 20, 110–111. company official noted, this change alone has proved to be “a very important psychological aid in preventing Lecture/Discussion Topic: The Justification of Effort customers from backing out of their agreements.” Cognitive dissonance theorists have predicted that The actions-shaping-attitude principle may also working hard to attain a goal makes the goal more operate in the “50 words or less” testimonial contests. attractive than the same goal obtained with no effort. Why do manufacturers of toothpaste, breakfast cereal, Robert Cialdini applies the principle to fraternity haz- and chewing gum pay thousands of dollars to a con- ing ceremonies. During the traditional “Hell Week,” testant who composes a short personal statement that pledges are run through a variety of activities designed begins, “Why I like…”? To get as many people as pos- to test their limits of physical exertion, psychological sible to go on record as favoring the product. Saying is strain, and social embarrassment. Too often, the results believing! are tragic. One pledge was told to dig his “own grave.” Cialdini, R. B. (2009). Influence: Science and practice After he complied with orders to lie flat in the hole, the (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. sides collapsed and suffocated him before his future fraternity brothers could dig him out. Another pledge Classroom Exercise: Introducing Cognitive Dissonance choked to death after repeatedly trying to swallow a Theory large slab of raw liver soaked in oil. A third broke a Timothy Osberg suggests a classroom exercise in which bone in each foot when he was required to keep his feet he asks students to predict the outcomes of research on under the rear legs of a folding chair while the heaviest cognitive dissonance. In addition to introducing cogni- fraternity brother sat down and drank a beer. Social Psychology 859

Despite efforts to eliminate dangerous hazing prac- numbers,” says Aronson, “but we can be sure of the tices, they persist. Why? It may be that they promote relative difference.” commitment to the group. As a result of their efforts, Aronson, E. (1997, May). Adventures in applied social new fraternity members may find the group more psychology: How to convince sexually active teenagers attractive and worthwhile. Elliot Aronson and Judson to use condoms. Paper presented at the annual meeting Mills (1959) tested this idea. They found that college of the American Psychological Society, Washington, DC. women who had to endure a very embarrassing initia- tion ceremony to gain access to a sex discussion group Lecture/Discussion Topic: Revisiting the Stanford convinced themselves that their new group and its dis- Prison Experiment cussions were extremely valuable—even though the ini- The results of the Stanford Prison Experiment have tial discussion was extremely dull. Coeds who did not often been interpreted as showing that powerful social go through an initiation were much less positive about situations can induce normal young men to behave the new group. cruelly. Philip Zimbardo claimed, “The value of the Aronson, E., & Mills, J. (1959). The effect of severity of Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE) resides in demon- initiation on liking for a group. Journal of Abnormal and strating the evil that good people can be readily induced Social Psychology, 59, 177–181. into doing to other good people within the context of Cialdini, R. (2009). Influence: Science and practice (5th socially approved roles, rules, and norms, a legitimizing ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. ideology, and institutional support.” Thomas Carnahan and Sam McFarland investi- Lecture/Discussion Topic: Self-Persuasion gated whether students who selectively volunteer for a Elliot Aronson has used principles of cognitive dis- study of prison life possess dispositions associated with sonance theory to get sexually active teenagers to use abusive behavior. Using a newspaper ad that was virtu- condoms more regularly. Although most teens know the ally identical to Zimbardo’s ad, they recruited students benefits of condoms, only a fraction use them consis- for a psychological study of prison life. A control ad tently. “Most of us engage in hypocritical behavior all that simply deleted the reference to “prison life” also the time because we can blind ourselves to it,” argues sought to recruit volunteers for a psychological study. Aronson. “But if someone comes along and forces you Com­pared with their counterparts, those who volun- to look at it, you can no longer shrug it off.” teered for the study of prison life scored significantly In his study, he recruited 72 sexually active college higher on measures of aggressiveness, authoritarianism, students to help design an AIDS-prevention program to Machiavellianism, narcissism, and social dominance. be used in high schools. Two groups of students were They also scored lower on empathy and altruism. asked to make videotapes explaining the dangers of Carnahan and McFarland admit that the impli- AIDS and the benefits of condoms. Aronson told them cations of their study for the SPE remain uncertain. they were role models and, to help them prepare their Nonetheless, the findings do suggest that a reinterpreta- presentations, reminded them of the dire facts they had tion of the classic study in terms of person-situation often heard before. Afterward, he had some of the stu- interactionism rather than a strict situationist account dents form separate groups to brainstorm why people seems reasonable. Individuals typically interact with do not use condoms when they should. They were situations in much more complex ways than passively encouraged to talk about the times they failed to fol- adopting and enacting ascribed roles. We spend our low their own rules. “In effect, what our research does lives selecting to be in some situations while avoid- is to rub people’s noses in their own hypocrisy, and ing others. Because those similar to us are more likely that’s painful to confront,” says Aronson. A third group to select our same situations, together we mutually did not make the video; they simply brainstormed why reinforce the very qualities and behaviors that initially people do not use condoms when they should. brought each of us to the situation. The findings of The results were striking. Immediately following the present study suggest that the individuals who vol- the experiment, far more of those in the “induced- unteered to participate in the SPE may be those with hypocrisy” group bought condoms than did those who pre-existing qualities related to abusive behavior. As just made the videos or who just brainstormed. Even a group, they may well have intensified one another’s more dramatic were the differences three months after readiness to act abusively. At the same time, note the the experiment. Aronson found that 92 percent of those authors, their analysis does not discount the power of in the hypocrisy group said that they had been using a prison simulation or of a real prison to contribute to condoms without fail. In contrast, only 55 percent of abusive behavior. those who had just made the videotape and 71 percent Drawing in part on the Carnahan and McFarland of those who had only brainstormed reported doing so. findings, S. Alexander Haslam and Stephen Reicher “Because of self-reporting, we can’t be sure of those also challenge the “banality of evil” thesis, that is, the 860 Social Psychology idea that ordinary people commit atrocities without can make even good apples go bad. Other social psy- awareness or choice. They suggest that perpetrators chological processes, including social perception and of tyranny more typically act thoughtfully, creatively, social relations, sometimes can lead to cruelty. and with conviction. They cite three important social In comparing his famous Stanford Prison with dynamics that assist us in understanding the psychologi- the prison in Iraq, Philip Zimbardo states, “It’s not cal bases of human evil. that we put bad apples in a good barrel. We put good First, as Carnahan and McFarland demonstrated, apples in a bad barrel. The barrel corrupts anything that those who tend to be more authoritarian and socially it touches.” The following factors seem important in dominant are drawn to hierarchical institutions (e.g., understanding the cruelty. Nazism). Moreover, the more extreme the actions of • A prison is a place of enormous power differen- these institutions, the more extreme are the individu- tial. Guards have total power over prisoners who als who are drawn to them. The ideology of the social are powerless. Unless there is strict leadership institutions resonates deeply with the person’s needs, and oversight that prevent the abuse of power, the longings, desires, and fears. power differential fosters abuse. Second, people are transformed by their group • Aversive experiences predispose one to anger and membership. Not only do we join the groups we like aggression. Guards were understaffed and over- but we come to like the groups we join. Similarly, if worked. They feared personal attack and sought what people understand about their groups leads them revenge for the maiming and deaths of their com- to join them, it is also true that what people learn about rades. For a few guards, boredom predisposed them their groups change the way they understand them- to seek amusement and diversion. selves. Moreover, when individual beliefs are consistent • A novel environment without established norms for with group norms, people are more likely to act on their acceptable behavior lead us to look to others for convictions (group polarization). This is especially rel- direction, especially to those in charge. Both guards evant, argue Haslam and Reicher, in the case of expres- and prisoners were trapped in an alien, unfamiliar sions of stereotyping, prejudice, and callousness that setting that had neither a common language nor might otherwise be muted. People with authoritarian culture. When given vague orders to help “break tendencies become mobilized and energized when the the will, bend the resistance of the inmates,” guards group sanctions oppression. obeyed authority. Third, those with authoritarian views gain influence • “Peer modeling” also helps to define reality. When when others, including those who hold less extreme a few soldiers took the lead in abusing prisoners positions, go along with them or at least do not actively and establishing “appropriate” standards for behav- sabotage or resist them. Tyrants need to have social ior, the rest followed. influence. Sometimes, as the social context changes, • A “macho” culture was established, in which group those who were previously marginal become arbiters conformity pressures led both male and female of group values. Thus they can assume positions in guards to comply and thereby maintain group which they define for other group members what is camaraderie. right and what is wrong. They become leaders who gain • Dehumanization of the prisoners as animals or the power to influence events through their influence scum was made easier in Iraq because of the over others. As leaders, they do not simply exploit the foreign language and customs. In addition, the changed social context, they transform the social con- inmates had a different appearance, little opportu- text to broaden their influence. nity to bathe, and lived under unsanitary conditions Carnahan, T., & McFarland, S. (2007). Revisiting the (in Stanford Prison, the guards said they hated the Stanford Prison Experiment: Could participant self- prisoners because they were so foul—after prevent- selection have led to the cruelty? Personality and Social ing them from washing). Psychology Bulletin, 33, 603–614. • A “we” versus “they” mentality existed. Guards Haslam, S. A., & Reicher, S. (2007). Beyond the banality were not acting against their fellow Americans (or of evil: Three dynamics of an interactionist social psy- even against Iraqis they encountered in the street). chology of tyranny. Personality and Social Psychology They viewed their victims as “the enemy.” Bulletin, 33, 615–622. • The mechanics of “moral disengagement” were evident. In this process, normally moral people Lecture/Discussion Topic: Abu Ghraib Prison and temporarily detach themselves from principle and Social Psychology reframe evil behavior as necessary and even wor- Rather than being an example of a “few bad apples” thy. Some minimized or underestimated the harm- practicing abuse on helpless victims, Abu Ghraib prison ful consequences of their actions by relabeling or may more accurately illustrate how a toxic environment sanitizing it as “all fun and games.” Social Psychology 861

• Deindividuation of the guards diffused responsi­ In a third study, the researchers utilized a new bility and undermined self-restraint. The self- dependent variable—monetary donations to Clini­ reinforcing pleasure of acting impulsively while Clowns, an organization that visited and entertained observing others doing the same trapped guards in hospitalized children. Some research participants were the “Mardi Gras Moment.” mimicked; others were not. They were then ushered • Unresponsive bystanders, who had private con- into another room by the same experimenter or by a cerns, did not openly disagree or challenge the new one. Explaining that the university was conduct- immoral behavior going on in the prison. ing research for CliniClowns, the experimenter asked the participants to complete a brief survey that included American Psychological Association. (2004, May). How psychologists can help explain the Iraqi prisoner abuse. questions about the organization. Before leaving the Re­trieved from www.apa.org/pubinfo/prisonerabuse. room, she identified two padlocked boxes for placement html. of the questionnaires and, if the person chose, a dona- tion to CliniClowns. (Earlier, the participants had been Social Influence paid for participation in the study.) Again, the results indicated that the mimicked participants donated sig- Conformity: Complying With Social Pressures nificantly more money in both the new- and the same- Lecture/Discussion Topic: Mimicry and Prosocial experimenter conditions. Behavior In summary, the studies indicate that mimicry Unconsciously mimicking others’ behavior, postures, increases prosocial behavior that is not limited to the and voice tones helps us feel what they are feeling. In mimicker. The researchers suggest that mimicry may short, mimicry is part of empathy. The most empathic have general adaptive value by strengthening social people mimic—and are liked—the most. Rick van bonds. Baaren and his colleagues have studied additional con- van Baaren, R. B., Holland, R. W., Kawakami, K., & sequences of mimicry in an effort to learn more about Knippenberg, A. V. (2004). Mimicry and prosocial its adaptive value. They wondered whether mimicry behavior. Psychological Science, 15, 71–74. might foster prosocial behavior. In their initial experiment, they asked research par- Lecture/Discussion Topic: Social Exclusion and ticipants to react to a series of specific advertisements Mimicry that were part of an ongoing marketing study. During Those most eager to fit in with a group are especially the task, the experimenter mimicked the posture of half prone to unconscious mimicry. What about those who the participants, copying their body orientation (e.g., have experienced social exclusion? Are they more like- leaning forward), the position of their arms, and the ly to mimic in an effort to meet their threatened need to position of their legs. The experimenter did not mimic belong? the other half of the participants. After leaving the room Jessica Lakin and her colleagues note that social to retrieve materials for the next part of the study, the exclusion has devastating psychological, emotional, experimenter returned and, upon passing a participant, and behavioral consequences. Excluded individuals are “accidentally” dropped six pens that were on top of strongly motivated to affiliate with others, even though several papers. If the participants did not pick up the they may have lost the resources to do so. In two stud- pens within 10 seconds, the experimenter picked them ies, the research team explored whether nonconscious up herself. Results showed that participants in the mim- mimicry of other individuals might help excluded indi- icry condition were significantly more likely to help by viduals address threatened belongingness needs. picking up the pens. In their first experiment, the researchers sought to To determine whether mimicry leads to a generally determine whether excluded people were more likely more prosocial orientation or whether it simply creates than included people to mimic an interaction partner. a special bond between the mimicker and the mimicked, Participants played online Cyberball with three confed- van Baaren and his colleagues conducted a second erates of the researchers. Participants in the inclusion study. The procedure was the same, except that a new condition received the ball as often as the other players. experimenter entered the lab, presumably to administer Those in the exclusion condition received the ball only the second part of the study. The first experimenter had at the beginning of the game and then were left out. already left the room when the second person arrived Measures indicated that the manipulation successfully and proceeded to drop the pens. The mimicked partici- elicited feelings of exclusion. In a second task, both pants were again more helpful. This finding suggests included and excluded people interacted with a female that mimicry can produce a diffuse prosocial orientation confederate, who steadily swung her foot throughout that transfers to other people. the interaction. Results indicated that excluded partici- 862 Social Psychology pants mimicked the partner more than did included the pitting—from cosmic rays to sandflea eggs hatching participants. in the glass—most of the discussion centered on pos- In a second experiment, Lakin and her colleagues sible radioactive fallout from H-bomb testing earlier in assessed whether individuals excluded by an ingroup, the year. A few newspaper reporters wrote of the pos- selectively (and unconsciously) mimic a confederate sibility of mass hysteria: Given the suggestion, people who is an ingroup member more than a confederate were perhaps for the first time looking at rather than who is an outgroup member. As the researchers explain, through their windshields. On April 16, reports to the selective mimicry following exclusion would mean that police dropped to fewer than 50; by the 18th, no more mimicry is flexible and strategic despite the fact that it calls were received. Shortly thereafter, the governor occurs without conscious awareness or intent. asked the University of Washington Environmental In contrast to the first experiment, female partici- Research Laboratory to investigate the pitting. Their pants were given information about the people who report? No evidence of pitting that could not be excluded them. In the “ingroup exclusion” condition, explained by ordinary road damage. they knew that the other players were all women. In the What caused the mass hysteria as well as its quick “outgroup exclusion” condition, they knew all the other demise? Nahum Medalia and Otto Larsen suggest that players were men. After playing Cyberball with either the windshield pitting epidemic may ironically have three men or three other women, the participants inter- relieved the anxiety associated with the H-bomb explo- acted with either a woman (an ingroup member) or a sions. How? First, it focused the anxiety on a narrower man (an outgroup member) confederates of the experi- area of experience—windshields. Second, the doom and menters. The researchers hypothesized that elevated disaster that many experts­ had predicted was now over. mimicry would occur when the female participants Third, the responses to the threat—calling the police, were excluded by the ingroup (women) and the con- covering the windshields, appealing to the president— federate in the second task was also a member of the gave people the feeling they were doing something ingroup (a woman). The results clearly confirmed this about the danger that threatened. hypothesis. Moreover, an independent analysis indicat- Medalia, N. Z., & Larsen, O. N. (1958). Diffusion and ed that the need to belong rather than other needs, such belief in a collective delusion: The Seattle windshield as those for self-esteem, for meaning, or for personal pitting epidemic. American Sociological Review, 23, control, was closely related to the increase in mimicry. 180–186. Lakin, J. L., Chartrand, T. L., & Arkin, R. M. (2008). I am too just like you: Nonconscious mimicry as an auto- Classroom Exercise: Suggestibility matic behavioral response to social exclusion. Person­ In addition to the exercises on suggestibility provided ality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 816–822. in the Consciousness and the Two-Track Mind unit of these resources, Donald McBurney suggests an unfor- Lecture/Discussion Topic: The Seattle Windshield gettable (even hilarious) classroom demonstration that Pitting Epidemic requires a bit of stage presence and practice. Although Among the most interesting examples of human sug- McBurney uses it in teaching sensation and perception, gestibility to present in class are cases of mass hysteria. it is equally applicable to social psychology. If you Students find the “Seattle Windshield Pitting Epidemic” think you need a cover story, you can tell your class particularly fascinating. On March 23, 1954, Seattle that you’ve just read something quite remarkable about newspapers reported damage to automobile windshields an earlier topic and want to share it with them. in a city 80 miles to the north. In the following days Begin by reminding students that the nose is and weeks, damage was reported closer to Seattle. On incredibly sensitive to odor. Ethyl mercaptan provides April 14, reports of damage to windshields came from one vivid example. As little as 10 parts per billion is a small town only 65 miles away and then from a naval detectable in air. Because of its low threshold, it is the station just 45 miles from Seattle city limits. Before chemical added to natural gas to give it its character- night fell on April 15, 242 persons phoned the Seattle istic odor. Explain that chemicals like ethyl mercaptan Police Department to report damage to more than 3000 smell very different depending on their concentrations. automobiles. At higher concentrations, ethyl mercaptan smells quite Typically, the damage was described as pitting foul. Odor thresholds vary depending on individual sen- marks that grew into bubbles the size of a thumbnail. sitivity and even the circulation of air in a room. (All Some residents covered their windshields with floor these statements are true.) mats or newspapers, others kept their cars in their Now take a plastic lab bottle (of water) from a box garages. The mayor of Seattle finally made emergency and place it on your desk about six feet from the first appeals to the governor and to President Eisenhower. row of students. Say something like, “Perhaps I Although different explanations were offered for shouldn’t be doing this but pure ethyl mercaptan was Social Psychology 863 readily available from our chemistry department. A normative and informational influence can also be dis- single drop could make the room uninhabitable for the cussed. Similarly, Darhl Pederson and his colleagues rest of the day.” Turn your face and carefully remove demonstrated conformity to a social norm. When some- the bottle cap. Explain, “Because weak concentrations one else was present in a public restroom, 90 percent of smell different, it may not smell like natural gas, but women washed their hands. If no one else was present, have some other smell. Also, air currents being what only 16 percent did so. they are, someone in the back of the room may smell it Montgomery, R. L., & Enzie, R. F. (1971). Social influ- before those closer to the front. Please raise your hand ence and the estimation of time. Psychonomic Science, when you think you detect it.” Nod or say “okay” when 22, 77–78. someone raises his or her hand. If people are sitting in rows or you have a fairly large class, you can recognize Pederson, D., Keithly, S., & Brady, K. (1986). Effects nonexistent hands without being caught. Move away of an observer on conformity to handwashing norm. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 62, 169–170. from the bottle so you don’t have to tolerate the odor! After a quarter of the class have raised their hands, Student Project: Violating a Social Norm return to the bottle to take a breath. In reaching for it knock it over in the direction of your students. Many Solomon Asch demonstrated that most people will yield will gasp! Retrieve the bottle, take a drink from it, to the majority opinion even when it conflicts with their sprinkle it over nearby students, pour it on yourself. own. Most of us believe that we are different. When After the howls of laughter have ended, tell your class asked how we would respond in the Asch experimental that you have just demonstrated the power of sug- situa­tion, we predict we would resist group pressure gestion. You might add that neighbors of crematoria and stick to what we know is right. We underestimate often complain about the odor but only because they the power of social forces. David Myers has elsewhere see smoke from the chimney. Conclude by noting that suggested that students may feel the potency of social everything you said about smell was true; the only situations by imagining themselves violating some less deception was that you used water instead of ethyl than earthshaking norms: standing in the middle of a mercaptan. Your students will never forget the day you class, greeting some distinguished senior professors by spilled ethyl mercaptan in class! their first names, munching popcorn at a piano recital, wearing shorts to church. Classroom Exercise: Social Influence Stanley Milgram has described a class project you might try with your students. He asked his students to Robert Montgomery and Russell Enzie’s time-interval- violate a simple social constraint—to get on a subway estimation exercise provides the basis for an excellent (or city bus) and ask another passenger for his or her classroom demonstration of social influence. Have the seat. Students who tried found the task to be nearly students take out a blank piece of paper. Tell them to impossible. One graduate student reported: “I just remove their wristwatches and caution them not to look couldn’t go on. It was one of the most difficult things I at the clock or count to themselves. Then tell the class: ever did in my life.” I am going to give you a time interval that I want you to Unconvinced, Milgram tried himself. He estimate. I will say “Begin” at the start and “Stop” at the approached a seated passenger but the words, he said, end of the interval. Then I want you to write down how “seemed lodged in my trachea and would simply not long you think the interval was. emerge. I stood there frozen, then retreated, the mission unfulfilled.” After several unsuccessful attempts, he Montgomery suggests 45 seconds as a good interval. finally choked out the request: “Excuse me, sir, may I After students have written down their judgments, go have your seat?” “Amazingly,” Milgram reported, “the on to a second trial. Use the same interval as before. man immediately stood up and gave me his seat!” But Students will not realize it’s the same. Then ask stu- the experience wasn’t over. In taking the man’s seat, dents to give their responses orally, one by one, as you Milgram observed, “I was overwhelmed by the need write them on the chalkboard. Now collect the papers to behave in a way that would justify my request. My and record the responses from the first trial on another head sank between my knees . . . I actually felt as if I section of the chalkboard. It will immediately be clear were going to perish.” Not until he left the train did his that the written judgments have much greater variation tension dissipate. than those given orally. Milgram concluded that this simple experiment As Montgomery notes, this demonstration of social demonstrated several social principles. First, enormous influence naturally leads to a consideration of the clas- inhibitory anxiety ordinarily prevents us from breaking sic research by Muzafer Sherif and Solomon Asch. The social norms. Second, we have a powerful need to jus- “why” of social influence and the distinction between tify our actions after violating a norm. Third, the power 864 Social Psychology of immediate circumstances on our feelings and behav- men wear more blue than women, and they rarely wear ior is immense. pink (i.e., overwhelmingly more blue than pink). For Have your students try violating some other social the neither pink nor blue categories, women and men norms—for example, boarding a bus and singing out are about the same. Snyder concludes, “Color sex con- loud, facing the rear of an elevator with passengers on formity is alive and well on college campuses today.” it, sitting in the empty chair at an occupied table in a Snyder, C. R. (2003). “Me conform? No way”: Class­ restaurant. Students should note their own reactions, as room demonstrations for sensitizing students to their well as those of observers, and report back to class. conformity. Teaching of Psychology, 30, 59–61. Myers, D. G. (2008). Social psychology (9th ed.). New Clas]sroom Exercise: Would You Obey? York: McGraw-Hill. Milgram described his experiment, in which he asked Tavris, C. (1974, June). The frozen world of the famil- participants to punish a stranger with increasingly high- iar stranger: A conversation with Stanley Milgram. er levels of shock, to 110 psychiatrists, college students, Psychology Today, 71–73, 76–80. and middle-class adults. He asked, “How far would you go in shocking the learner for incorrect responses?” Obedience: Following Orders The average estimated response of all three groups was Classroom Exercise: Obedience and Conformity about 135 volts (the first lever in the “strong shock” C. R. Snyder reports a number of classroom demonstra- category). When the groups were asked to guess how tions for sensitizing students to their own conformity. other people would behave, virtually everyone respond- For example, when discussing conformity, Snyder ed that no one would proceed to the end of the shock includes the phrase, “Bring an Empty Soda Can to panel. In fact, the psychiatrists estimated about 1 in Class!” Alternatively, the class period before you cover 1000; they thought most would stop when the learner Milgram’s studies, ask students to bring an empty first indicated pain. soda can the next time. While describing the design of An effective way to introduce the Milgram study Milgram’s study, casually ask students to place the can is to have students predict how they would respond in their left hand. After presenting Milgram’s findings, in such a situation, how the average student would ask how many are sure that they would not shock the respond, and how the actual participants responded. learner to the highest 450-volt level. Virtually all stu- Hand­out 2, designed by John Brink, lists the 30 volt- dents will raise their hands. Then ask everyone to raise age levels on Milgram’s shock generator and identifies his or her left hand, whereupon most of your students their level of intensity. Describe Milgram’s proce- will be holding up an empty soda can. After about 30 dure, then distribute the handout and have students seconds ask, “Why do you have those soda cans in mark what their response would be. Virtually all will your left hands?” After looking at each other across underestimate. You will also surely find evidence for the classroom, one will eventually say, “You told us to the self-serving bias, as students will predict that they bring the cans.” themselves would disobey earlier than would the aver- Two additional conformity demonstrations use age student. Then report Milgram’s actual results. Five clothing. In the first, simply ask for a group of about participants stopped at the last lever in “Intense Shock”; 10 volunteers to come to the front of the classroom. eight more disobeyed in the “Extreme Intensity” cat- With the students standing in line, it becomes clear egory; one stopped at “Danger: Severe Shock”; and the that the majority are wearing “the uniform” (a T-shirt remaining 26 obeyed to the end. and blue jeans). Class discussion is likely to become Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority. New York: animated as students argue whether this behavior repre- HarperCollins. sents conformity. Snyder suggests a second demonstra- Lecture/Discussion Topic/Critical Thinking Break: tion that involves clothing colors. At birth, females are Milgram Returns…This Time, on TV! wrapped in pink terry cloth and males in blue, and these become each gender’s colors. Snyder suggests placing a In early 2010, French TV aired a documentary about 2 x 3 (Female/Male x Pink/Blue/Neither) matrix on an an experiment modeled after the famous Milgram obe- overhead or the chalkboard. Ask the women in class to dience studies. In this event, psychologists recruited stand and count the number wearing a pink shirt. Place people to participate in a supposed pilot for a new the result in the appropriate box. Also count the number television “game show” called Le Jeu de la Mort (The wearing blue and place the result in the matrix. Finally, Game of Death). This was just a ruse for the experi- count those who are wearing neither pink nor blue and ment. In the game show, “contestants” were selected record the result. Follow the same routine for the men. from the show’s audience to ask questions of another Snyder reports that women wear more pink than men player. The other player, unbeknownst to the contestant, and about the same amount of pink as blue. Conversely, was actually an actor and confederate of the psycholo- gists conducting the experiment. Social Psychology 865

The ruse for the experiment was quite elaborate. studio audiences? For parents of children watching The “show” was hosted by a glamorous, attractive television at home? woman, the sets mimicked a real television show stu- Crumley, B. (2010, March 17). The Game of dio, and the (real) audience participated (they gave their Death: France’s shocking TV experiment. Retrieved feedback by chanting “Punishment!”). As the game December 23, 2010, from www.time.com/time/arts/ show progressed, it was the contestant’s job to “punish” article/0,8599,1972981,00.html, the other player for wrong answers by delivering a jolt of electricity (up to 460 volts). When this happened, the de Moraes, L. (2010, March 18). Reality show contes- tants willing to kill in French experiment. Retrieved player screamed and became more and more agitated December 23, 2010, from www.washingtonpost.com/ until he eventually slumped over. There was, of course, wp-dyn/content/article/2010/03/17/AR2010031703594. no electricity or pain. It was an act. html. In Milgram’s experiments, 63 percent of the partic- ipants eventually obeyed the authority figure to admin- Lecture/Discussion Topic: Obedience in Everyday Life ister what they thought were real electrical shocks to Students may suggest that Milgram’s studies are arti- another person. In the French TV experiment, a shock- ficial and have little relevance to everyday life. In ing 80 percent of contestants complied with the game’s response, you might cite a study by Charles Hofling “rule” and delivered the “shocks.” Only 16 of the 80 and his colleagues. Nurses in 22 different hospital participants refused to go on. You and your students wards received a phone call from a new physician they can read about this experiment and view video clips knew to be on the staff but whom they had not yet met. from the documentary at several websites, including The caller said, “This is Dr. Smith from Psychiatry BBC News (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8571929.stm) calling. I was asked to see Mr. Jones this morning, and and articles in Time magazine and the Washington Post. I’m going to have to see him again tonight. I’d like The show’s producer, Christophe Nick, reportedly him to have had some medication by the time I get to created the program to expose the risks of reality TV the ward. Will you please check your medicine cabinet and the abusive power of a television studio with its to see if you have some Astroten?” The nurses found cajoling host, audience pressure, and the allure of win- the medication; the label stated that the maximum nings. As you might expect, the documentary stirred daily dose was 10 milligrams. In each case, when she up a lot of controversy in the public at large and also reported back to the doctor, he said: “Please give Mr. among psychologists and researchers. Jones a dose of 20 milligrams. I’ll be up in 10 minutes This social experiment is a great context in which to sign the order, but I’d like the drug to have started to discuss the topics of persuasion, obedience, and con- taking effect.” The requested dosage was clearly exces- formity. It is also highly relevant to the topic of ethics sive, the drug was not on the ward stock list clearing it in psychological research and its application to every- for use, and hospital rules prevented medication orders day life (see the resource Lecture/Discussion Topic, to be given by phone. Nonetheless, 95 percent of the “Research Ethics,” p. 61). Have your students read the nurses started to give the medication. Their reason for Time article and watch some videos from the documen- obedience? The nurses later reported that such orders tary (also titled The Game of Death) before answering had been given before and that the physicians became the following questions. angry if the nurses disobeyed. 1. What ethical issues did the psychologists who cre- Steven Rank and Cardell Jacobson reported a ated The Game of Death and recruited participants much lower level of compliance when the drug in ques- for the “show” have to consider? What responsibil- tion was familiar to the nurses (Valium) and when the ities did the psychologists have to the “contestants” nurses had a chance to consult with someone about and to the audience? the dosage. When people are more knowledgeable and 2. What elements of the “show” did they specifically when they have social support, they may be more likely manipulate to maximize obedience among the to resist authority. “contestants”? How did each of these manipula- An experiment similar to Hofling’s was conducted tions influence obedience? some years ago by high school history teacher Ron 3. Did the producers “stack the deck” to ensure obe- Jones. He began the “Third Wave Movement” to show dience? What kind of “control conditions” were students how people might have become Nazis during included for comparison? If none were included, World War II. Initially, he required students to stand at what kind(s) of control group(s) would need to be attention in a unique new posture and to follow strict included? new rules. For example, they had to stand beside their 4. What is the importance of the results of this experi- desks when asking or answering questions and to begin ment for reality TV producers worldwide? For each statement by saying, “Mr. Jones . . .” The students 866 Social Psychology did as they were told. Next, they had to shout slogans general, the shock level remained in the 45- to 60-volt such as “Strength through discipline!” and “Strength range. Martin Safer reports that university students who through community!” Jones created a unique salute for are aware of Milgram’s initial findings regularly over- class members in which the right hand was raised to estimate these freely chosen levels of shock. In effect, the shoulder with fingers curled. The salute served as they have drawn the wrong conclusion—that partici- a way of distinguishing insiders from outsiders. The pants are wolves, not sheep. new organization quickly grew from 20 to 100 mem- Safer, M. (1980). Attributing evil to the subject, not the bers. Jones issued membership cards and told students situation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 6, to report fellow members who failed to obey any rule. 205–209. Twenty students pointed accusing fingers at their peers. Finally, Jones announced that the “Third Wave” was Classroom Exercise/Student Project: Applying a “national movement to find students willing to fight Research on Conformity, Obedience, and Role Playing for political change.” A rally was organized and 200 April Bleske-Rechek describes a small-group activity students attended. At the rally, after the students had that challenges students to apply the research on con- obediently saluted and shouted the familiar slogans, formity (Asch), obedience (Milgram), and role play- Jones explained the real reasons for the Third Wave ing (Zimbardo) to everyday life. (Clearly, the exercise Movement. Like the Nazis, he observed, “You bar- could be extended to other important social psychologi- gained your freedom for the comfort of discipline.” cal concepts.) Although she designed it as a classroom Gibson, J., & Haritos-Fatouros, M. (1986, November). exercise, it would also work well as an out-of-class The education of a torturer. Psychology Today, 50–58. project. Hofling, C., Brotzman, E., Dalrymple, S., Graves, N., After presenting the basic research findings and & Pierce, C. (1966). An experimental study in nurse- having students read the relevant text material, she chal- physician relations. Journal of Nervous and Mental lenges small groups of four or five to design a simple Disease, 143, 171–180. study to test whether the effects replicate in a real-life situation. A copy of Handout 3, which is given to each Rank, S., & Jacobson, C. (1977). Hospital nurses’ com- pliance with medication overdose orders: A failure to student, provides details of the assignment. After the replicate. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 18, groups are given about 25 minutes to design their stud- 188–193. ies, they act them out in class. Skits are typically very brief, 2 to 3 minutes in length. Depending on the size Classroom Exercise: Wolves or Sheep? of your class, you may need an additional class period Students often draw the wrong conclusions from the for performance or simply allow some groups to turn in Milgram results. They assume that human nature is evil their written materials for credit. and that people will be cruel if given the opportunity. Bleske-Rechek describes group projects that illus- Attributing participants’ responses to their evil dispo- trate students’ creativity and involvement. In one skit, sitions, however, misses the point of the experiment, students demonstrated the power of social roles. Over which is that participants were sheep, not wolves. The a series of several days, they illustrated how the pattern Milgram study demonstrates that people obey, not of interaction between two employees changed dramati- that they are evil or that they enjoy seeing innocent cally as a result of one’s promotion to vice president of people suffer. In an alternative procedure designed by the company. At first, they interact as equals, then the Milgram, without any coercion from the experimenter, vice president comes to exercise complete control over the teacher (the participant) could select any shock lev- his subordinate. In this specific situation, the students els on the generator. As in the original study, the learn- suggested that the variables of age, personality, and er made 30 errors. Describe this alternative procedure gender would likely influence role performance. to your students and ask them to make the following In a second skit, eyewitnesses to a mugging dis- three predictions while looking at the scale on the shock agreed on the details of the crime. A female eyewitness generator (see Handout 2). conformed to the group when she found herself alone on one important detail. Students suggested that being —On average, what shock level do you think the questioned alone or in front of the group, having one teacher chose for the learner? other supporting eyewitness, or being related to the —What shock level do you think the teacher chose victim would likely affect rates of conformity in this for the learner’s thirtieth (last) mistake? situation. —What percentage of teachers do you think even- Bleske-Rechek, A. L. (2001). Obedience, conformity, tually set the shock at 450 volts? and social roles: Active learning in a large introductory Under these conditions, Milgram reports that only psychology class. Teaching of Psychology, 28, 260–262. one participant pressed the maximum shock and in Social Psychology 867

Group Influence and draw attention away from oneself. The result is deindividuation in which people abandon their normal Feature Film: Lord of the Flies and Deindividuation restraints. The outcome may be vandalism, orgies, or (Audio Brandon, 3:30 minutes) riots. Situations that foster arousal and anonymity lead to a Does deindividuation always bring out hostility and loss of self-awareness and self-restraint. This deindi- aggression? Not necessarily. Have your students imag- viduation leads to uninhibited behavior, ranging from ine themselves as participants in a study by Kenneth food fights in dining halls to city riots. The causes and Gergen and his associates. effects of deindividuation are dramatically illustrated The researcher ushers you into a chamber that is in a brief clip from the feature film Lord of the Flies. either fully lighted or totally dark, except for a tiny red Begin 65:26 minutes into the film with Jack’s raucous light over the door so that you can find your way out if party on the beach. Under cover of darkness and face- you want to leave the experiment. He says, “You will paint, the boys are rendered anonymous. Aroused by be left in the room for no more than an hour with some Jack’s chants of “Kill the Beast,” the boys spot distant other people, and there are no rules as to what you Simon returning down the mountain after having locat- should do together.­ At the end you will leave the room ed a dead parachutist. Leading the charge, Jack mis- alone and will never meet the other participants.” Then takes his fellow comrade for the beast and his followers you and seven strangers of both sexes spend the next 60 brutally assault him. The tragic 3:30-minute scene ends minutes together. with Simon’s corpse floating in the water. What will happen? In the original experiment participants who spent an hour in a lighted room sat Classroom Exercise: Deindividuation around making light conversation. In contrast, the David Dodd introduces deindividuation by asking people in the dark talked less, but about more important students to write down their response to this question: things. Ninety percent intentionally touched someone “If you could do anything humanly possible with com- and half hugged another. Very few disliked the experi- plete assurance that you would not be detected or held ence; in fact, most volunteered to return without pay. responsible, what would you do?” Students are asked to Anonymity had released intimacy. turn in their answers without any identifying informa- Gergen, K. J., Gergen, M. M., & Barton, W. H. (1979, tion. After you briefly explain the causes and effects of October). Deviance in the dark. Psychology Today, deindividuation, read the responses aloud to the class. 129–130. The entire demonstration­ should take about 15 minutes. What responses are you likely to obtain? After Classroom Exercise: Group Polarization examining the data from several classes, Dodd estab- Handouts 4a and b provide a good way to intro- lished 11 content categories: aggression, charity, duce group polarization. Two different dilemmas are academic­ dishonesty, crime, escapism, political activi- described, and students must decide how to respond to ties, sexual behavior, social disruption, interpersonal each. Before class, make twice as many copies of the spying and eavesdropping, travel, and a catch-all handout as you have students. At the beginning of the “other” category. Answers were also categorized as class, distribute one to every student. After they have prosocial, antisocial, nonnormative (violating social responded to both dilemmas, collect the handouts. Tell norms but without specifically helping or hurting oth- them that now that they are familiar with the materials, ers), and neutral (meeting none of the other three cate- you will distribute the second copy. Then break them gories). The most frequent responses were criminal­ acts into groups of four or five and have them discuss the (26%), sexual acts (11%), and spying behaviors (11%). dilemmas until they reach a consensus. Finally, have The most common single response was “rob a bank,” each student respond again to each dilemma by writ- which accounted for a hefty 15 percent of all responses. ing down his or her answer. Collect the second set of Results revealed that 36 percent of the responses were responses. antisocial, 19 percent nonnormative, 36 percent neutral, Before the next class, compute the average scores and 9 percent prosocial. on the “before” and on the “after” responses. For effi- Dodd, D. (1985). Robbers in the classroom: A deindivid- ciency, scores of the groups that were formed can be uation exercise. Teaching of Psychology, 12(2), 89–91. ignored. The average response on the Henry dilemma will show a risky shift; the average response on the Lecture/Discussion Topic: Deviance in the Dark Roger dilemma will show a conservative shift. Asking Social facilitation is the tendency to be aroused by the students to explain these apparently contradictory presence of others; in social loafing the presence of oth- findings will stimulate a lively discussion. Show how ers diminishes feelings of responsibility. Both effects the results demonstrate the group polarization effect: may occur in group situations that foster anonymity Discussion strengthens the opinions that group mem- 868 Social Psychology bers held before discussion. The recommendation for Individuals who reach the second floor and still Henry starts out risk-prone (he seems to have little to perceive grave injustices experience anger and frustra- lose) and becomes more so, whereas for Roger it begins tion. Leaders can readily influence them to displace with caution (he has a family to support) and ends up their aggression onto an “enemy.” Those individuals more cautious. who develop a readiness to physically displace aggres- Why does group polarization occur? Both informa- sion and who actively seek opportunities to do so, tional and normative influences are at work. As David eventually leave the second floor and climb more steps Myers and Helmut Lamm explain, group discussion in an effort to take effective action against perceived produces a pooling of ideas, most of which favor the enemies. dominant perspective. Group members are exposed On reaching the third floor, they are gradually to more ideas than they had individually considered, engaged by the terrorist organization to adopt their and this support for their position tends to strengthen morality. Terrorism is seen as a justified strategy. The it. Furthermore, it is only natural for people to want to organization thus persuades recruits to become disen- evaluate their opinions in comparison to those of others. gaged from morality as it is defined by government Because most people want to be perceived favorably, authorities (and often by the majority in society) and they express stronger opinions when they discover that engaged in the way morality is constructed by the ter- others share their views. People typically think that rorist organization. What others see as “terrorism” is other people will be less supportive of the socially pre- depicted as “martyrdom.” Potential recruits find them- ferred tendency than they are. When discussion begins, selves engaged in the extremist morality of isolated, they find that others are more extreme (in the socially secretive organizations dedicated to changing the world preferred direction), and so they shift, giving stronger by any means. expression to the same preference. By the time the person has reached the fourth floor, he or she has little or no opportunity to exit alive. One Myers, D. G., & Lamm, H. (1975). The polarizing effect of group discussion. American Scientist, 63, 297–303. category of recruits consists of those who will be long- term members. They become part of small cells, each Lecture/Discussion Topic: Understanding Terrorism numbering four or five persons with access to infor- In discussing group polarization, you may want to mation only about other members in their own cells. explore the idea that it plays a role in terrorism. Fathali A second category of “foot soldiers” are recruited to Moghaddam defines “terrorism as politically motivated carry out violent acts and to become suicide bombers. violence, perpetrated by individuals, groups, or state- Interest­ingly, the entire training and implementation of sponsored agents, intended to instill feelings of terror the terrorist act may take no more than 24 hours. The and helplessness in a population in order to influence recruited individual is given much positive attention decision making and to change behavior.” He concep- and treated as a kind of celebrity by the recruiter (who tualizes the terrorist act as the final step on a narrowing stays constantly by his or her side) and by a charismatic staircase in which the options available to frustrated cell leader. perpetrators gradually decrease. On the fifth floor, recruits are trained to sidestep The foundational, ground floor is occupied by mil- any inhibitory mechanism that might still prevent them lions of people who experience injustice and relative from injuring and killing both others and themselves. deprivation. Fraternal deprivation, the feeling that one’s They now believe that all outside the group, includ- group is being treated unfairly, is central. It is most ing civilians, are the enemy. Differences between the likely to arise when group members feel that their path ingroup and outgroup are exaggerated. Those carry- to a desired goal, a goal that others have achieved, is ing out the acts may also be convinced that attacking blocked. Images of affluence and democratic lifestyles civilian targets will spark observers to recognize the enjoyed by other people have fueled such feelings of “truth” and revolt against authorities. Because victims deprivation among vast populations throughout the seldom become aware of the impending danger before world. the attack, they are unable to behave in ways that might Individuals climb to the first floor and try different trigger inhibitory mechanisms in the perpetrator (e.g., doors in search of solutions to what they perceive to be establishing eye contact, pleading, crying). unjust treatment. A key question is whether doors will Moghaddam, F. M. (2005). The staircase to terrorism: A open to talented persons motivated to make progress psychological explanation. American Psychologist, 60, up the social hierarchy. If people do not see possibili- 161–169. ties for such mobility and cannot adequately influence the procedures through which decisions are made, they Lecture/Discussion Topic: Groupthink keep climbing the staircase. To prevent groupthink, Irving Janis made the following recommendations. Social Psychology 869

1. One or more members should be assigned the role the actual weight of 1198. (Having students judge the of devil’s advocate. number of mini-jelly beans in a large jar allows you 2. Occasionally, the group should be subdivided. to replicate this finding in class!) Today, Google has Have the subgroups meet separately and then come become a dominant search engine on the Internet, often together to discuss differences. leading us to what we want in less than a second. How? 3. After the group seems to have reached consensus, By using the wisdom of the crowd, a Google search have a “last-chance” meeting in which each mem- returns the web pages that are most valuable and places ber is encouraged to express any remaining doubts. them at the top of the list. Page rank is determined by 4. Call in outside experts to challenge the group’s the frequency and location of keywords within the web views. page, by how long the web page has existed, but most 5. Have each group member air the group’s delibera- important, by the number of other web pages that link tions with trusted associates and report their to that page. In effect, each link to a page counts as a reactions. vote and the masses decide the ordering of the pages Janis, I. L. (1982). Groupthink. Boston, MA: Houghton the Google search returns. Mifflin. Surowiecki suggests that four key qualities make a group wise. First, it needs to be diverse, so that people Classroom Exercise: The Wisdom of Crowds are bringing different pieces of information to the prob- A description of groupthink leads to the point that lem. Second, it needs to be decentralized so that no two heads are better than one in solving some types of one at the top is dictating the group’s answer. Third, it problems. Indeed, none of us is as smart as all of us. needs a way of summarizing people’s opinions into one David Myers provides some specific examples of two collective verdict. Finally, the people in the group need heads being better than one. Consider this specific anal- to be independent, so that they pay attention mostly to ogy problem (one you might present to your students): their own information, and do not worry about what Assertion is to disproved as action is to everyone around them thinks. a. hindered. Myers, D. G. (2010). Social psychology (10th ed). New b. opposed. York: McGraw-Hill. c. illegal. d. precipitate. Surowiecki, J. (2004). The wisdom of crowds. New e. thwarted. York: Doubleday.

Most students fail when answering alone, but get it Feature Film: Twelve Angry Men (United Artists, 95 right (thwarted) after discussion. Research has indicated minutes) that if only two members of a six-person group are This film provides an excellent conclusion to the dis- initially right, two-thirds of the time they convince the cussion of group influence (and if you wish, to the rest. However, if only one person is right, he or she fail course). Starring Henry Fonda, it is the story of the to convince the group three-fourths of the time. deliberations of a jury on a murder case. At the begin- More generally, Myers notes that when group ning, 11 favor conviction. By the end of the film, these members freely combine their creative ideas and differ- jurors have reversed their judgments, and a verdict of ent perspectives, the result is effective group problem acquittal is brought to the judge. solving rather than groupthink. This holds not only While the film may be specifically applied to a dis- in the laboratory setting but also in everyday life. For cussion of minority influence, it really deals with all the example, two weather forecasters come up with a pre- principles of social influence, most strikingly those of diction that is better than either makes working alone. conformity. If you wish, you can also review principles In the TV game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire, of perception, thought, and memory with the showing the contestant is given one chance “to ask the audi- of this film. In fact, a good alternative to a final exam ence.” More often than not, the group offers wisdom is to have students apply all the psychology they have superior to the contestant’s intuition. learned to an understanding of this fascinating film. In The Wisdom of Crowds, James Surowiecki gives delightful examples of how when information from Social Relations many, diverse people is combined, the group becomes smarter than almost any of its members. He opens with Student Project: A Personal Cultural History a 1906 weight-judging competition that British scientist In introducing social relations, you might encourage Francis Galton observed. A total of 800 fair-goers tried students to engage in some self-reflection in a brief to guess the weight of an ox after it had been slaugh- written report or in small-group discussion. Paul B. tered and dressed. Galton found that the mean of all the Pedersen suggests that students respond to one or more individual guesses was 1197 pounds, just one less than 870 Social Psychology of the following questions in describing their own per- In a classic 1945 study, Allport and Postman sonal cultural history. showed a research participant a picture of a streetcar scene. Among the passengers was a Black man convers- 1. Describe the earliest memory you have of an expe- ing with a White man carrying a knife in his belt. The rience with a person or people of a cultural or eth- participant was asked to describe the scene to another nic group different from your own. person, who in turn recounted it to a third, and so forth. 2. Who or what has had the most influence in the for- The typical story told by the last person had, as a cen- mation of your attitudes and opinions about people tral theme, a Black man holding a knife. The story was of different cultural groups? In what way? altered to fit the social expectations­ and stereotypes of 3. What influences in your experience have led to the the participants. development of positive feelings about your own On the basis of their study, Allport and Postman cultural heritage and background? reported three major perceptual distortions in the trans­ 4. What influences in your experience have led to mission of information! With leveling, the perceiver the development of negative feelings, if any, about drops certain details because they do not fit his or her your own cultural heritage or background? cognitive categories or assumptions; with sharpening, 5. What changes, if any, would you like to make in the details of the story that are consistent with the val- your own attitudes or experiences in relation to ues and interests of the observer are emphasized; with people of other ethnic or cultural groups? assimilation, padding and organization are used to make 6. Describe an experience in your own life when you the central theme fit the participant’s expectations. feel you were discriminated against for any reason, Sheldon Lachman uses the “telephone game” we not necessarily because of your culture. all played as children to demonstrate social transmis- 7. How do you feel you should deal with (or not deal sion of a simple narrative. During a regular class lec- with) issues of cultural diversity in American ture, a short story is whispered from one student to society? another until all members of the class have participated. If students submit written reports, ask them to indi- With a class of 30 to 35 students, the process is easily cate on their paper whether you may read their respons- com­pleted in a 50-minute session. es (anonymously, of course) in class. If you choose to At the beginning of the class, students count off discuss these questions in class, it is important to use in order and place their number at the top of a blank volunteers. That is, students should not feel pressure to sheet of paper. Take the first student out of the room disclose their responses if they are reluctant to do so. (or out of earshot) and ask her to listen closely to the They should share their thoughts only to the extent they story because she will have to write down all she can feel comfortable. remember on her sheet of paper. Proceed to read the To encourage reflection on cultural influence more following. generally, Pedersen suggests some additional questions Three men, masked and armed with pistols, robbed for open discussion in class. the Glenwood State Bank yesterday at 9:30 a.m. They 1. How would you describe your culture? escaped in a Ford two-door bearing a 1971 Connecticut 2. Who was the most significant culture teacher in license plate, taking $647 in coins and $2,190 in five- your life? dollar bills. A lieutenant in the Marines claims he saw the car going north at noon yesterday. 3. How has your culture changed over time? 4. Are you aware of how your culture has changed After she has completed writing, she is to whisper you? her written report to the second student, who repeats the 5. How many different cultures do you belong to? same steps. At the end of the period, write the story on the board beside the story written by the last student. Source: Paul Pedersen. 110 experiences for multicultural learning (pp. 240–241). Copyright 2004. Reprinted by Collect all of the story transcriptions and place them in permission of the American Psychological Association. order. You can analyze them for the distortions identi- fied by Allport and Postman or, better yet, type and Classroom Exercise: Social Transmission of a duplicate the protocols for analysis in class. Examples Narrative of sharpening,­ leveling, and assimilation will be obvi- Gordon Allport and Leo Postman’s work on the psy- ous. chology of rumor provides an excellent extension of a Lachman, S. J. (1984). Social transmission of a simple discussion of social relations. The investigators found narrative. Presentation at the 92nd Annual Convention that people perceive and remember information in of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, ways that are consistent with their assumptions and Ontario. expectations. Social Psychology 871

Prejudice story spans are a number of subplots and characters, including two car thieves who philosophize on society Classroom Exercise/Student Project: Measuring and race; a racist veteran police officer, who angers his Stereotypes idealistic younger partner; a highly successful Black Handout 5 demonstrates one way in which contempo- television director and his wife, who must deal with rary researchers measure stereotypes. Respondents are blatant racism; a Hispanic locksmith, who hates vio- asked to estimate the percentage of people in a target lence, and his young daughter; and a Middle Eastern group who possess a particular trait. (Students can also immigrant shopkeeper, who buys a gun to protect use the handout to measure the stereotypes of their his business. As Amy Hackney of Georgia Southern peers.) Although any target group can be used, “men” University has noted, this popular film provides excel- and “women” would be good initial choices because lent illustrations of both explicit and implicit prejudice. the specific items reflect communal (1, 4, 8, 10, 12, Thus, students could profit from watching the entire 15) and agentic (or assertive) (2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 13, film. 14, 16) factors (Eagly & Steffen, 1988). Have students One scene is particularly useful for introducing a respond twice (once for “men” and once for “women”) discussion of automatic prejudice. In fact, it provides a and compare their ratings for specific items, as well as real-life parallel to research on “race-influenced percep- their mean ratings for each factor. If you like, you can tions” in which psychologists have found that people compute the ratings for your class and present them at more often mistakenly shoot targets who are Black the next session. Carol Lynn Martin found that visitors than they do their White counterparts. The relevant to the University of British Columbia perceived North clip begins at 1:26:40 minutes (within DVD scene 19, American men as almost twice as likely as women to be “Miscommunication”) and runs to 1:30:35 minutes. In assertive and dominant and roughly half as likely to be introducing the clip, you might note that earlier in the tender and compassionate. Interestingly, however, when film young police officer Tommy Hanson (played by the male visitors were asked to describe themselves, Ryan Phillippe) has demonstrated strong disgust with they were only slightly more likely than the female visi- his older partner’s explicit racism. Now, while off duty, tors to describe themselves as assertive and dominant he demonstrates his racial tolerance by offering Peter, and were slightly less likely to describe themselves a Black hitchhiker, a ride. In the course of their brief as tender and compassionate. Although self-perceived conversation, Hanson misinterprets Peter’s laughter as differences between the sexes seem to be very small, ridicule and his reaching into his pocket as an effort stereotypes are strong. It is important to point out to to retrieve a gun. He reflexively shoots and kills his students that stereotypes are beliefs but not necessarily passenger and, upon realizing his horrible mistake, dis- prejudices. Stereotypes may support prejudice, but then poses of the body along the expressway. again one may believe, without prejudice, that men and women are “different yet equal.” Classroom Exercise: Subtle Prejudice and the If you use other target groups with Handout 5—for Ambivalent Sexism Inventory example, ethnic categories—you may also want to ask The subtlety of prejudice can be illustrated with what percentage of people in general possess each trait. Handout 6, the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory designed By dividing the student’s estimate of the target group by Peter Glick and Susan T. Fiske. The authors make by his or her estimate of the percentage of people in the important point that positive feelings toward general who possess the trait, one obtains a diagnostic women can go hand in hand with sexist antipathy. ratio. This indicates how much the student believes the Thus, they have presented a theory of sexism formu- trait distinguishes the target group from people in gen- lated as ambivalence toward women. eral. Both hostile and benevolent sexism are presumed Eagly, A., & Steffen, V. (1988). A note on assessing to be “legitimizing ideologies,” that is, beliefs that serve stereotypes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, to justify and maintain inequality between groups. To 14, 676–680. score the inventory, students should reverse the num- Martin, C. L. (1987). A ratio measure of sex stereotyp- bers (0 = 5, 1 = 4, 2 = 3, 3 = 2, 4 = 1, 5 = 0) placed in ing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, front of items 3, 6, 7, 13, 18, and 21. An overall mea- 489–499. sure of sexism is found by adding, then taking an aver- age of the numbers placed in front of all 22 items. The Feature Film: Crash hostile sexism score is found by averaging the numbers Los Angeles provides the setting for this Oscar-winning in response to items 2, 4, 5, 7, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 18, film that highlights a variety of social psychological and 21. The benevolent sexism score is found by aver- principles and processes, most notably stereotyping and aging the numbers in response to items 1, 3, 6, 8, 9, 12, prejudice. Interwoven into the mere 36 hours that the 13, 17, 19, 20, and 22. In each case, scores can range 872 Social Psychology from 0 to 5, with higher scores reflecting greater Classroom Exercise: Positions of Privilege and sexism. Institutional Racism Glick and Fiske report that hostile and benevolent Sandra Lawrence provides a powerful experiential sexism consistently emerge as separate but positively exercise that challenges White, middle-class students correlated factors. In addition, there are three separate to see their privileged position and to question their benevolent sexism subfactors. These include protective assumptions about the less privileged. Lawrence sug- paternalism (e.g., women ought to be rescued first in gests that White undergraduates tend to view racism emergencies), complementary gender differentiation as synonymous with personal prejudice and thus rarely (e.g., women are purer than men), and heterosexual consider racism as deeply rooted in systems of advan- intimacy (e.g., every man ought to have a woman tage. Institutional racism typically leads to inequalities whom he adores). More generally, benevolent sexism in resources that the more privileged have trouble see- is defined as a set of interrelated attitudes in which ing. At the same time, they blame the less privileged as women are stereotypically placed into restricted roles. It responsible for their own unfortunate circumstances. is typically based on the idea that man is the provider, The exercise requires that you prepare packets of and woman is his dependent. materials that small groups of four or five students will Research indicates that, relative to nonsexists, use to create a mobile. Some packets contain minimal ambivalent sexist men spontaneously categorize women materials, say, a 12-inch wooden dowel, a single coat into liked and disliked subtypes, traditional versus non- hanger, two pieces of construction paper, and a spool traditional, good sexy versus unattractive or “deviant” of thread. Other packets contain additional materials sexuality. Some women are put on a “pedestal” and oth- with the most lavish consisting of, say, 3 dowels, 2 coat ers are placed in the “gutter.” Findings also indicate that hangers, string, fishing line, precut wire, 10 pieces of hostile sexism as measured by the Ambivalent Sexism colored paper, felt-tip markers, crayons, pipe cleaners, Inventory predicts less favorable attitudes toward streamers, scissors, ribbon, pom-poms, glue, and tape. women in a nontraditional role (career women), where Begin by dividing your class into small groups benevolent sexism predicted favorable attitudes toward and giving them 15 minutes to compose a working women in a traditional role (homemakers). By habitu- definition of a concept related to social psychology, ally typing women, sexists can maintain both their for example, social justice, equity, or peacemaking. As positive and negative beliefs about women without each group works on reaching consensus, place a packet experiencing conflict. of materials in close proximity to the group. After 15 Glick and Fiske conclude that while benevolent minutes, instruct each group to use the next 30 minutes sexism is a kinder and gentler form of prejudice, it is to use the materials provided in their packet to create a pernicious because women, as well as men, are more mobile representation of their definition. At the end of likely to accept it, especially in cultures in which the mobile construction period, ask the students to dem- women are highly threatened by men. Both hostile and onstrate their finished products to the class. Conclude benevolent prejudice appear to be cross-culturally prev- with one open-ended question, “What was it like for alent; this finding suggests that these ideologies arise you to participate in this exercise?” An additional fol- from structural aspects of male–female relations that are low-up assignment can ask students to reflect in writing common across human groups. about their experience. More recently, Glick and his colleagues report that Lawrence reports that groups with minimal stereotypes about men also come in contrasting pairs— re­sources not only feel frustrated but, noticing the lav- for example, ambivalent sexism toward men includes ish materials of the more privileged groups, complain benevolent attitudes of men as powerful and hostile to one another about the unfairness of the exercise. attitudes toward men as immoral. Those who endorse Feeling robbed and cheated, they are often reluctant to benevolent sexism toward women also endorse benevo- display their creation knowing they could have done lent sexism toward men. These complementary and better had they been given better resources. Later, supporting views may provide an important justification these students note that by having momentarily stood for the status quo in gender relations. in someone else’s shoes, they gained a new perspective Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2001). An ambivalent alliance: on the real privilege they enjoy in society. In contrast, Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifi- those in the privileged groups are unlikely to notice the cations for gender inequality. American Psychologist, 56, inequality of resources. They recognize the difference 109–118. only in follow-up discussion when the less privileged Glick, P., Lameiras, M., Fiske, S. T., Eckes, T., Masser, share their feelings. In fact, initially, the wealthy won- B., Volpato, C., et al. (2004). Bad but bold: Ambivalent der about the motivation, creativity, and organizational attitudes toward men predict gender inequality in 16 skills of the poorer groups. In later reflections, they nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, explain how the demonstration “surprised,” “rattled,” or 86, 713–728. Social Psychology 873

“jolted” them into a better understanding of the advan- (those who were inducted), those who scored high on tages they receive because of their positions in society. the scale ran counter to this pattern. They resented the “losers” more than the “winners.” Other studies have Lawrence, S. M. (1998). Unveiling positions of privi- lege: A hands-on approach to understanding racism. also suggested that high scorers may have a tendency to Teaching of Psychology, 25, 198–200. derogate innocent victims. In the classic test of the just-world hypothesis, Classroom Exercise: Institutional Discrimination students come to the laboratory to participate in a study presumably on the perception of emotional cues. By You can extend your coverage of prejudice with a what appears to be random choice, one of the partici- class discussion of how institutional practices, as well pants, actually an accomplice of the experimenter, is as individuals’ attitudes, perpetuate social inequality. selected to perform a memory task. She is to receive a Susan Goldstein designed Handout 7 to facilitate stu- painful shock for each error she makes; the other partic- dent understanding of how institutional forces contrib- ipants are to observe and note her emotional response. ute to social oppression. After watching her receive a number of painful shocks, Form small groups of five or six students and they are asked to evaluate her along several dimensions. then give each group a copy of Handout 7. Ask them How do they respond? With compassion and sympathy? to answer the questions in regard to each of the exam- No. The results indicate that when the observers are ples. Each group should select a member to report its powerless to alter her fate, they tend to reject and deval- answers back to the full class. ue her. Subsequent research has suggested that this is After discussing answers to the specific examples, particularly true of those who have a strong belief in a you might conclude the exercise by asking the class just world. whether institutional discrimination always involves JWS scores have been positively correlated with prejudicial intent. Why or why not? Also, ask students authoritarianism and with favorable attitudes toward how institutional practices may both reflect and rein- Congress, the Supreme Court, the military, and big force prejudicial attitudes. business. Positive correlations also exist between JWS Goldstein, S. B. (1994, August). Teaching the psy- scores and trust in other people’s sincerity, belief in an chology of prejudice and privilege: Opportunities for active God, and an internal locus of control. active learning. Paper presented at the 102nd Annual Lakshmi Raman and Gerald Winer reported that Convention of the American Psychological Association, some adults believe physical illness can be a payback Los Angeles, CA. for bad behavior. In their study, 239 college students were presented with a case study in which a person Classroom Exercise: Belief in a Just World contracted a mysterious, deadly illness. The patient Melvin Lerner’s just-world hypothesis states that we was described as having lied, cheated, and engaged in all need to believe in a just world in which people get other immoral behavior. Depending on precisely how what they deserve and conversely deserve what they the vignette was presented, between 19 and 44 percent get. This belief may contribute to prejudice in which of participants agreed that a person could become ill we blame victims for their own fate. Handout 8, Zick because he or she was bad. Even victims themselves Rubin and Letitia Anne Peplau’s Just World Scale may attribute their serious illness to bad choices. Just (JWS), provides a good introduction to just-world weeks before his death from pancreatic cancer, actor theory. Scores on it seem to predict a variety of social Michael Landon stated, “I think I have it because for attitudes and behaviors. To calculate their belief in a most of my life, though I was never a drunk, I drank just world, have students reverse their individual scores too much. I also smoked too many cigarettes and ate on items 1, 4, 5, 8, 10, 13, 16, 17, and 20. That is, a lot of wrong things. And if you do that, even if you after completing the scale, they should change 0 to 5, think you are too strong to get anything, somehow 1 to 4, 2 to 3, 3 to 2, 4 to 1, and 5 to 0 for these ques- you’re going to pay.” tions. Then they should add up the numbers in front Lerner has suggested that the desire for justice is a of all 20 items. Total scores can range from 0 to 100, two-edged sword. Under certain circumstances, it may with higher scores indicating a stronger belief in a just make one more sensitive to the reality of injustice and world. For comparison purposes, note that the scores more likely to correct it. For example, when victims of Boston University undergraduates were slightly have been portrayed as having relatively finite, man- below the midpoint, whereas those of Oklahoma State ageable needs so that providing help will successfully University students were slightly above. restore justice, high JWS scorers have been more will- The JWS was initially tested in relation to the 1971 ing to help than low JWS scorers. Rubin and Peplau national draft lottery of 19-year-olds, which determined suggest that belief in a just world may motivate willing- the order of induction into the armed forces. Although ness to help when the help is relatively easy to give, most students expressed sympathy for the “losers” 874 Social Psychology when helping does not run counter to firmly entrenched Linda Isbell and James Tyler of the University of social attitudes such as preexisting prejudice against Massachusetts at Amherst describe another classroom Blacks or women, and when the altruistic behavior has exercise that demonstrates how easily ingroup biases the sanction of authority. can be created simply by categorizing others. The activ- Although just-world beliefs may promote the desire ity requires you to create a slide or overhead containing for justice to be restored, they are more often associated at least 250 randomly scattered dots. Inform students with the claim that the world is already just. Opposition that they will be shown a figure containing numerous to affirmative action programs are thus sometimes the dots and that their task is simply to estimate how many product of perceiving affirmative actions as violating dots are present. Forewarn them that the figure will norms of justice and fairness. And the more people appear only briefly, so counting the dots will be impos- endorsed just-world beliefs before September 11, 2001, sible. Briefly add that the task has been shown to be the more distressed they felt and the more they desired associated with differences in personality. Display the revenge after the terrorist attacks. dots on a large screen for just 10 seconds and have stu- dents write their estimate at the top of Handout 9. Kaiser, C. R., Vick, S. B., & Major, B. (2004). A pro- spective investigation of the relationship between just- Because students tend to underestimate the actual world beliefs and the desire for revenge after September number of dots, Isbell and Tyler suggest telling them 11, 2001. Psychological Science, 15, 503–506. that there are fewer dots than the figure actually con- tains. This ensures creating roughly equal groups of Lerner, M. (1980). The belief in a just world. New York: “overestimators” and “underestimators.” After revealing Plenum. the number of dots, have students circle either “I am Raman, L., & Winer, G. (1999, August). Evidence for an underestimator” or “I am an overestimator.” Finally, immanent justice reasoning in adults. Poster presented have students complete Handout 9; using a scale from at the 107th Annual Convention of the American 0 (not at all) to 10 (extremely), they should judge the Psychological Association, Boston. extent to which each of several positive and negative Rubin, Z., & Peplau, L. A. (1975). Who believes in a just traits describe an underestimator and then do the same world? Journal of Social Issues, 31, 65–89. for an overestimator. Collect their response sheets and between classes calculate the mean ingroup and out- Classroom Exercise: Ingroup Bias group judgments. Isbell and Tyler found that students Mentally drawing a circle that defines “us” promotes gave higher ratings to ingroups than to outgroups. At an ingroup bias that excludes “them.” Even an arbitrary the same time, they did not disparage the outgroup— us-them distinction leads people to show favoritism to that is, even the outgroup ratings were more positive their own group when dividing rewards. than negative. Jon Mueller suggests a simple classroom exercise Present the results to your class. It will naturally that illustrates how easy it is to fall victim to ingroup lead to a discussion of the role that ingroup favoritism bias. Simply divide the class on the basis of some can play in stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. arbitrary characteristic, making sure that at least one- Isbell and Tyler note that while many, if not most, third of the students are in a given group. Mueller students are aware of the purpose of the demonstra- often uses wearing sneakers as the defining variable. tion (i.e., the impact of arbitrary categorization on (Wearing of laced versus nonlaced shoes is a good social attitudes), strangely it does not eliminate ingroup alternative.) When you have defined the groups, have favoritism. They observed that, in addition to promot- them sit together. Ask the sneaker group to compile a ing discussion of ingroup bias, this somewhat puzzling list of reasons why those in the nonsneaker group are incongruity led students to examine the numerous ways not wearing sneakers. Similarly, the nonsneaker group in which effortful attempts to alter behavior may be should make up a list of reasons why members of the short-circuited by implicitly held beliefs. other group are wearing sneakers. Isbell, L. M., & Tyler, J. M. (2003). Teaching students Mueller reports finding a similar pattern each time about in-group favoritism and the minimal groups para- he does this. Each group begins by listing neutral rea- digm. Teaching of Psychology, 30, 127–130. sons (e.g., they are wearing sneakers because they have Mueller, J. (February 11, 1995). Teaching about preju- a PE class next hour), which become more deroga- dice and discrimination. Teaching in the psychological tory (e.g., they are wearing sneakers because they are sciences (TIPS Online Discussion Group). sloppy people). If the groups overhear each other’s less complimentary reasons, the hostility heightens. At the Aggression end of the exercise, the groups should share their lists. Classroom Exercise: Defining Aggression Students quickly learn how easily we categorize and develop ingroup bias. Ludy Benjamin, Jr., has designed an exercise that pro- vides an excellent introduction to the study of aggres- Social Psychology 875 sion. It demonstrates how the term aggression has a company, Edgewater Technology. The shootings host of subtle meanings, making it difficult for people likely stemmed from an IRS order to seize part of to agree on a definition. Distribute Handout 10 and his wages to pay back taxes. allow students about 5 minutes to complete the ques- • Fired employee Robert Harris fatally shot five tionnaire. Collect the papers, shuffle, and redistribute to people at a Dallas-area car wash. the class so that each student gets a copy. This allows • Copier repairman Byran Uyesugi killed seven your students to report­ on someone else’s responses and people at Xerox in Honolulu. eliminates possible embarrassment. Record the data on • Truck driver Alan E. Miller fatally shot three the board by asking for a show of hands for each co-workers at a Pelham, Ala., office. circled item. Total agreement on any item will be rare • Former day trader Mark Barton killed nine people and typically occurs only on items in which there seems at two Atlanta brokerage offices and later commit- to be clear intent to harm. ted suicide. Discussion should begin with those items on which • Jason Rodriguez allegedly killed one person and there is greatest agreement and proceed to those on wounded five at an Orlando, Fla., architectural and which the class is evenly divided. As Benjamin points engineering firm where he had worked. out, the 25 statements are diverse and are intended to Many employers are naturally now fearful about span the full gamut of issues relevant to aggression: how a worker will react when given unwelcome news. harm to living versus nonliving things (9 and 23), For example, software firm Mindbridge requires at accident versus intention (8 and 21), self-defense (3, least two company officials to be present whenever an 13, and 14), duty or job responsibility (3, 4, 19, 20, employee is fired or disciplined. The room must have and 22), self-injury (24), killing for sport (17 and 25), an outside phone line and a manager with a portable etc. Attempt to get students to make comparisons. For phone watches until the worker drives away. Nine states example, items 16 and 17, as well as 1 and 25, distin- have passed laws that permit an employer to seek a guish between killing for food and killing for sport. temporary restraining order on behalf of a worker expe- Many will argue that the latter but not the former con- riencing threats or harassment. In effect, an employer stitutes aggression. Eventually introduce the text defi- can prevent someone from coming into the workplace, nition—“Aggression is any physical or verbal behavior e-mailing, or having any contact. Increasingly, employ- intended to hurt or destroy”—and apply it to the items. ers want to know how much they are at risk and what The exercise will naturally lead to a consideration warning signs to watch for. of the causes of aggression. Is aggression an instinctual Industrial psychologists Michael McIntyre and drive? What are the physiological and psychological Larry James of the University of Tennessee have spent influences on aggression? Do we learn aggression, and several years developing the Conditional Reasoning if so, how? What effect does mass media violence have Test that predicts worker aggression. Handout 11 con- on the viewer? tains two sample questions. Benjamin, L. T. Jr. (1985). Defining aggression: Obviously, one cannot directly ask job applicants An exercise for classroom discussion. Teaching of whether they have a bad temper or even if they feel that Psychology, 12(1), 40– 42. they are often mistreated. Thus, the test is designed as a series of reasoning questions, each of which has one Lecture/Discussion Topic: Workplace Violence and the answer designed to appeal to the aggressive worker, Conditional Reasoning Test of Aggression who, according to McIntyre, is often cynical and para- More than 572,000 nonfatal violent crimes—rape, rob- noid, has a short fuse, attaches great importance to his bery, or assault—occurred against individuals age 16 own power, and would rather get even than get along. or older while at work in 2009, according to the Justice For both items, “D” is the aggressive answer. The first Department Bureau of Justice Statistics. is consistent with the aggressive person’s tendency to Among the worst workplace shootings have been be cynical or suspicious of other people’s motives and the following: actions. The second is based on the aggressive respon- dent’s preference for retaliation over reconciliation and • Amy Bishop, a biology professor at the University interest in not being victimized or perceived as weak. of Alabama at Huntsville, killed three biology pro- In following more than 2000 test-takers, McIntyre fessors and wounded another three. One theory is and James found that applicants who had consis- that the shooting was the result of a recent tenure tently picked the aggressive answers had performance denial. problems on the job, including late arrivals, chronic • Software tester Michael McDermott killed seven absenteeism, walking off the job, or arguing with co- people at a Wakefield, Mass., Internet consulting workers and superiors. The test, McIntyre suggests, 876 Social Psychology would have identified McDermott who killed seven ing all of humanity by destroying the victims. Staub co-workers on December 26, 2000. Although he had suggests that a society can be transformed by a reversal no criminal record, he mirrored the profile of a rage- of morality. Killing others becomes the right, moral prone employee. He was an uncommunicative loner, his thing to do. job performance had slipped, he had a poor attendance The most important source of genocide, suggests record, and he was grappling with serious financial and Staub, is the way the “other” is devalued. When the personal problems. He was the type of person the test devalued group is relatively successful such as were the was designed to identify. The full test is available from Jews in Germany or the Tutsis in Rwanda, seeing them Pearson Assessment at 888-298-6227 or talentlens.com/ as lazy, unintelligent, or generally inferior does not fit. en/employee-assessments/conditional_reasoning_ Instead, they are viewed as manipulative, exploitative, pricing.php. A complete test kit for $231.00 includes 25 dishonest, and morally deficient, characteristics that test booklets, manual, answer sheets, and scoring key. have brought them wrongful gains at the expense of the dominant group. They are seen as a threat to the surviv- Armour, S. (2002, May 9). Employers fight violence. USA Today, p. 3B. al of one’s own group. Ironically, group self-concepts of superiority and of weakness and vulnerability can Hireright. (2011, April 25). Latest workplace violence coexist and make genocide more likely. statistics reveal importance of background checking. A history of violence between two groups gives Retrieved October 19, 2011, from www.hireright.com/ rise to an especially intense form of devaluation; Staub blog/2011/04/latest-workplace-violence-statistics-reveal- labels it an ideology of antagonism. This is a percep- importance-of-background-checking. tion of the other group as an enemy. An integral com- Miller, C. T. (2001, January). Predicting workplace ponent of one’s group identity includes enmity toward violence. Health News. Retrieved May 15, 2002, from the other. And anything good that happens to the other http://drkoop.com/news/stories/2001/jan/hs/12_ group inevitably inflames hostility. The ideology pro- workplace.html. claims that the world would be a better place without the other. Lecture/Discussion Topic: Genocide Staub also notes that, in most cases of genocide, “Genocide,” states Ervin Staub, “is the attempt to exter- the society has been characterized by strong respect for minate a whole group of people.” He argues that it is authority. The political leadership and economic elite a form of evil that evolves as part of a long process of frequently spearhead the evolution toward violence. escalating hostility. They propagate a destructive ideology, work to main- For both individuals and groups, the evolution of tain differences in power and status, and create paramil- evil begins with the frustration of basic human needs itary organizations that become instruments of violence. and the development of destructive modes of need ful- Well-established democracies are unlikely to engage in fillment. Difficult life conditions—including intense genocide. Truly pluralistic societies allow a broad range economic problems or political conflict, great social of beliefs and views that are likely to be self-correcting. changes, or their combination—can profoundly frustrate Finally, Staub argues, the passivity of bystanders the satisfaction of fundamental human needs. Rather fosters the continued evolution of violence into geno- than uniting together to deal with them effectively, cide. Passivity by members of the population where the people form subgroups that turn against one another. violence is occurring and by outside groups and nations Feeling helpless on their own, individuals turn encourages the perpetrators. External bystanders often to their group for identity and help. They scapegoat continue commercial, cultural, and political relations other groups and create destructive ideologies—hope- with a country that engages in violence against an inter- ful visions of a future social reality with no enemies to nal group and thereby expresses its tacit acceptance. In serve as obstacles to its fulfillment. Such ideologies, the worst case scenario, external observers actively sup- claims Staub, are almost always part of the develop- port the perpetrating group. ment and evolution of genocide. Staub, E. (1999). The roots of evil: Social conditions, Actions begin to shape beliefs. The violence that culture, personality, and basic human needs. Personality evolves over time produces changes in the perpetra- and Social Psychology Review, 3, 179–192. tors that make more harmful actions possible. People justify their actions by blaming the victim. As their Lecture/Discussion Topic: Relational Aggression in the initial devaluation of the other group intensifies, they Media come to see their victims as less than human and begin Research has demonstrated that observing filmed physi- to exclude them from the moral realm. Moral principles cal aggression tends to desensitize people to cruelty and are replaced by “higher values,” such as protecting the prepares them to act aggressively when provoked. Other purity, goodness, life, and well-being of one’s own research findings indicate that media effects extend to group; creating a “better” society; and finally, improv- Social Psychology 877 sexual violence. Ask your students, “Do you believe viewing physical and relational aggression in the media: other forms of aggression are portrayed by the media? Evidence for a cross-over effect. Journal of Experimental If so, do they have an effect on viewers?” Social Psychology, 44, 1551–1554. Sarah Coyne and her colleagues examined the Toppo, G. (2008, September 16). Meanness appears to impact of observing relational violence on viewers. rub off on viewers. USA Today, p. 4D. Relational violence can take different forms, ranging from spreading rumors about another to threatening Lecture/Discussion Topic: Do We Need to Vent Our social exclusion. Do filmed portrayals of relational Rage? violence make viewers relationally and even physically Both Sigmund Freud and Konrad Lorenz argued that aggressive? aggression is an instinctive drive. One way to control In their study, the researchers asked 53 college violence, then, is to periodically drain off the pent-up women to watch one of three video clips, featuring energy through safe activities, ranging from painting to either physical aggression (a knife fight from Kill Bill), competitive sports. The catharsis hypothesis is present- relational aggression (a montage from Mean Girls), or ed as a lecture/discussion topic in the Emotion unit in no aggression (a séance from the horror movie What these resources. If you did not discuss this controversial Lies Beneath). After the participants completed a brief issue earlier, you may wish to do so now. survey, they were allowed to leave. Immediately outside the laboratory room was Feature Film: In Cold Blood (LCA, 33 minutes) another researcher who asked if they would like to participate in a second study involving reaction times. This gripping film will be suggested in the When they agreed, the researcher acted rudely by tell- Psychological Disorders unit in these resources as use- ing them to hurry, and then, when the participants ful for discussing the insanity defense or as an intro- hesitated, she said, “Great! This is really going to screw duction to antisocial personality disorder. It may also things up!” be shown to launch a discussion of the psychology of After the researcher left the room, the participants aggression. The role of aversive experiences and learn- took two tests that are often used to assess aggres- ing in shaping aggression is vividly illustrated in the sion. One enabled them to deliver a sharp noise to the actions of Perry Smith, the main character. researcher by pushing a button (physical aggression); the other asked them to complete an evaluation that Attraction supposedly was going to be used to decide whether the Classroom Exercise: Using Personal Ads to Teach researcher should be hired (relational aggression). Interpersonal Attraction The results indicated that those who viewed clips Linda Isbell and James Tyler suggest an effective class- from Kill Bill and Mean Girls reacted in similarly room exercise to introduce students to the research on aggressive ways. They turned up the sharp noise deliv- interpersonal attraction. It also enables you to review ered to the researcher louder than the control group. and reinforce the literature on mate preferences, if you They also gave the researcher lower scores on the discussed it earlier. evaluation form than the control group did. Coyne and Before students have read about attraction, have her colleagues concluded that their findings provide them prepare a personal ad that includes a description evidence for a generalization or cross-over effect of of a romantic partner they would like to meet, as well viewing media violence. Viewing one form of violence as a very brief description of themselves. They should can influence the manifestation of other forms. work alone. Although they should omit their name (to Coyne suggests that parents pay greater attention ensure anonymity), they should note their gender and to relational violence and perhaps even push to make it the gender of their ideal partner. (Isbell and Tyler pro- part of movie and TV ratings. She concluded, “Every­ vide one caveat—using this exercise in smaller classes one’s concerned about violence in the media, as they makes the protection of anonymity more difficult). should be, but we’re missing out on lots of violence out Give students 5 minutes at the end of class to com- there. We need to look at these other types of aggres- plete the exercise and hand it in. This will enable you to sion because we know they’re having an effect on briefly scan their ads between classes. You will prob- aggression.” ably want to separate out those that divulge personal Coyne is now studying reality TV shows that are identity or that you may deem inappropriate (e.g., refer- filled with instances of relational violence. She worries ences to explicit sexuality). that young children in particular are vulnerable. It’s At the next class session, randomly distribute the “almost always portrayed as justified, almost always ads so that it is highly unlikely class members will portrayed as rewarded,” she says. receive their own. Select students to read aloud the ad Coyne, S. M., Nelson, D. A., Lawton, F., Haslam, S., they received. Immediately after each reading, focus Rooney, L., Titterington, L., et al. (2008). The effects of 878 Social Psychology attention on the qualities that the writer was searching beyond her desire for the typical man and beyond the for in a partner, as well as the qualities that the writer desire of other women for Tim. Speed-dating proce- offered. (You may want to record brief notes on the dures also enable researchers­ to explore interpersonal chalkboard by gender.) processes such as reciprocity­ of liking. Such reciprocity In introducing interpersonal attraction, you may can emerge in two ways: dyadic reciprocity refers to want to review gender differences in mate preferences. the desire that two individuals share uniquely with each Students may recall that in studying worldwide mate other, and generalized reciprocity refers to the tendency preferences, men, more than women, preferred physi- for individuals who generally desire others to be desired cal features suggesting youth and health. In contrast, in return. One recent speed-dating study indicated a women more than men preferred mates with resources positive dyadic-reciprocity effect (if Mildred romanti- and social status. The Nature, Nurture, and Human cally desired Tim more than she desired the other men, Diversity unit in these resources also reported on com- he desired her more than he desired the other women) monalities in mate preferences. For example, both men and a negative generalized-reciprocity effect (if Mildred and women report kindness and understanding, intelli- romantically desired the men at the event more than the gence, good health, and an exciting personality as attri- other women did, those men desired her less than they butes that they look for in a potential mate. desired the other women at the event). These effects In discussing attraction, note similarities and differ- held for both men and women and suggest that unselec- ences between students’ stated preferences and relevant tive romantic desire smacks of desperation and turns findings on the psychological chemistry of liking and people off. loving. A second advantage of speed-dating procedures is that it allows investigators to study the dynamics of Isbell, L. M., & Tyler, J. M. (2005). Using students’ personal ads to teach about interpersonal attraction and initial attraction between two individuals who could intimate relationships. Teaching of Psychology, 32, plausibly pursue a meaningful romantic relationship 170–172. in the future. Researchers can study such dynamics in real time (rather than with retrospective reports or with Lecture/Discussion Topic: Speed Dating hypothetical scenarios) and with regard to future dat- Researchers have begun using speed dating as a vehicle ing behaviors. One study examined the well-publicized for studying influences on people’s first impressions finding that men prefer physical attractiveness in a mate of potential romantic partners. Eli J. Finkel and Paul more than women do, and women prefer good earning W. Eastwick provide a helpful review of the scien- potential in a mate more than men do. Speed-dating tific power of speed-dating procedures. Speed dating, procedures enable us to ask whether these differences in they note, enables researchers to examine the open- stated preferences translate into preferences for actual ing moments of romantic attraction with supercharged partners. Interestingly, meta-analyses of the behaviors efficiency. Specifically, they indicate that investigators exhibited during and following speed-dating events who use speed dating are able to (a) study dyadic pro- found no reliable gender differences in the degree to cesses, (b) examine real relationships in real time, and which speed-daters’ judgments of physical attractive- (c) enjoy strong external validity. ness or earning prospects inspired interest in their dates. The first advantage of speed dating is that it This finding raises the important question of whether allows researchers to study both members of a given individuals have accurate introspective access to their dyad simultaneously. Because most empirical pro- preferences in a live romantic context. cedures examine romantic attraction from only one A third advantage of speed-dating procedures is person’s perspective, they fail to capture essential that they exhibit stronger external validity than do many dyadic features of romantic-attraction dynamics such other highly controlled studies of romantic attraction. as the uncertainty and evaluation apprehension that Unlike laboratory studies, which involve relatively both individuals frequently experience during the small samples, speed dating is pursued by millions of course of the interaction. A heterosexual speed-dating people, giving researchers access to large numbers of event attended by 20 men and 20 women involves 400 people. One study, for example, employed a diverse separate interactions. This efficient accumulation of sample of 10,256 real-world speed daters. Interestingly, dyadic interactions enables psychologists to distinguish it revealed that speed-dating partners’ preferences are among three different reasons why Laura might experi- driven more by generally agreed upon mate values ence sexual desire for Tim following the speed date: (e.g., physical attractiveness, intelligence, exciting per- (a) Laura tended to have a crush on all the men at the sonality) than by idiosyncratic, say, similarity-based event (she has low standards), (b) all the women at the characteristics. In addition, they are motivated more by event tended to have a crush on Tim (he is consensu- observable characteristics such as attractiveness, age, ally desirable), or (c) Laura experienced some unique and height than by less observable characteristics such “chemistry” with Tim that stimulated her desire for him as education, religion, or the desire to have children. Social Psychology 879

The size and diversity of the study’s sample make these hideous beast who must win another’s love before his findings particularly compelling. twenty-first birthday or remain a beast all his life. The The reviewers also note some potential limitations clip ends with the hopeless, despondent prince retreat- of speed dating. Romantic relationships that begin in ing into himself and wondering, “Who could ever come other settings, for example, at work, church, the beach, to love a beast?” After showing the clip, pose the ques- or on the subway may be different from those that tion: To what degree do we judge people on the basis of emerge from speed dating. A second potential limita- their physical appearance? tion, note the reviewers, is that speed dating may actu- ally fail to foster romantic attraction. Fortunately, pre- Lecture/Discussion Topic: What Is Beautiful Is Good liminary evidence suggests that speed dating may be an Students are fascinated by research on the importance especially effective means of introducing people who of physical attractiveness to liking. The importance of subsequently pursue follow-up dates with each other. physical attractiveness is not limited to dating relation- Finkel, E. J., & Eastwick, P. W. (2008). Speed-Dating. ships. For example, college students judged an essay Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 193– written by an attractive author to be of higher quality 197. than one by an unattractive author. Similarly, simulated juries conferred less guilt and punishment on physically Lecture/Discussion Topic: The Mere Exposure Effect attractive defendants than on unattractive defendants. Two humorous anecdotes illustrate how familiarity Ralph Keyes has found that the average salary of more breeds fondness rather than contempt. Several years than 17,000 middle-aged men was positively related to ago, the Associated Press carried the following story their height. Every inch over 5’3” was worth an extra from Corvallis, Oregon: $370 a year in salary, so it appears that if you walk tall, A mysterious student has been attending a class at you’ll carry a fatter wallet. Oregon State University for the past two months envel- The physical attractiveness stereotype (what is oped in a big, black bag. Only his bare feet show. Each beautiful is good) extends to adults’ evaluation of Monday, Wednesday, and Friday at 11 o’clock in the children. In one study, for example, more than 400 morning, the black bag sits on a small table near the fifth-grade teachers evaluated attractive children as hav- back of the classroom. The class is Speech 113—Basic ing greater intelligence­ and scholastic potential than Persuasion. . . . Charles Goetzinger, professor of the unattractive children. And as early as nursery school, class, knows the identity of the person inside. None of children themselves are responsive to the physical the twenty students in the class do. Goetzinger said the attractiveness of their peers. It has been suggested that students’ attitudes changed from hostility toward the black bag to curiosity and finally to friendship. parents may implicitly teach the physical attractive- ness stereotype through the bedtime stories they read In 1972, a small coastal town in Ecuador was their children. Physical deformities and chronic illness confronted with the question of how to deal with their often symbolize inner defects. The villain in Peter Pan, new mayor, Pulvapies. Pulvapies was fairly elected, Captain Hook, wore a prosthesis. Cinderella’s mean beating his nearest opponent by a comfortable margin. stepsisters were ugly. Hansel and Gretel were victims There was one problem, however. Pulvapies was a foot of an arthritic witch. Pinocchio’s nose lengthened as deodorant! During the municipal election, the manufac- his integrity slipped. Is it possible that the more recent turer thought it would be clever to post billboards and heroes your students grew up with—such as Shrek, distribute flyers simply saying: “For mayor: Honorable E.T., and the Cookie Monster—who are scary yet lov- Pulvapies.” Little did he realize that his honorable able, will serve to weaken the physical attractiveness deodorant would actually be elected. stereotype? Myers, D. G. (2010). Social psychology (10th ed.). New Feature Film: Beauty and the Beast and Physical York: McGraw-Hill. Attractiveness (Disney, 2:21 minutes) You can effectively introduce the research literature Lecture/Discussion Topic: Physical Appearance and on physical attractiveness with a brief clip from the Election Success feature film Beauty and the Beast (available on DVD). Does facial appearance affect one’s likelihood of win- The opening 2:21 minutes of the film relate the spoiled ning an election? Alexander Todorov and his colleagues prince’s negative reaction to the physical appearance at Princeton University sought to answer that question. of a beggar woman who asks for a night’s lodging in They had 800 volunteers look at black-and-white exchange for a rose. In spite of her warning that “looks photos of U.S. House and Senate winners and losers can be deceiving,” he twice refuses her request. When from elections in 2000 and 2002, and the compet- she is transformed into a beautiful enchantress, he tries ing candidates before the 2004 contest. After seeing to reverse himself but without success. He becomes a 880 Social Psychology each face for less than a second, the participants were left wrist; and the speed of movement in the right knee. asked to judge intelligence, likability, age, competence, Good dancers appeared more vigorous. They used larg- trustworthiness, charisma, attractiveness, and familiar- er movements, and more of them, in the head/neck and ity. Very familiar faces of candidates such as Hillary torso, and faster bending and twisting of the right knee. Clinton, John Kerry, and John McCain were eliminated Consider sharing this study with your students and from consideration. And if a participant recognized a having them discuss the relevance of the investiga- candidate’s face, the judgment for the relevant pair was tion to the other information presented by the textbook excluded. In short, judgments had to be made only on author about attraction. Ask your students to address facial appearance and could not be influenced by any the following questions: other information. The results indicated that the candi- 1. The female participants in the study merely rated date perceived as more competent was the winner in 72 the avatars as being good or bad dancers. Is this a percent of Senate races and 67 percent of House races. good measure of attraction? Why or why not? So what facial features affect judgments of com- 2. Is dancing the only means by which human men petence? Researchers describe the trait as being less attract women? To what other kinds of male behav- “baby-faced.” A round face, large eyes, small nose, iors could the researchers apply their movement high forehead, and a smaller chin are baby-faced fea- analysis methodology in order to study female tures. Competency is associated with facial maturity, attraction? which is characterized by a lower forehead, smaller 3. Other than the variables intentionally studied by eyes, and a stronger/broader chin. This perception even the researchers, what additional variables might affects well-known politicians. For example, when possibly have influenced the results they reported images of former presidents Ronald Reagan and John in this article? F. Kennedy were altered to give them more babylike features, “their perceived dominance, strength, and cun- An excellent summary of the study can be found ning decreased significantly.” In Britain’s 2001 election online at the LiveScience site: www.livescience.com/ for Prime Minister, William Hague, who lost to Tony culture/men-dance-moves-attract-women-100907.html. Blair, had a “baby-face.” You can click on a link in the article to see examples of bad and good dance moves. Moreover, the com- Todorov, A., Mandisodza, A. N., Goren, A., & Hall, C. C. (2005). Inferences of competence from faces pre- ments posted by readers at the conclusion of this article dict election outcomes. Science, 308, 1623–1626. include numerous suggestions for additional research and identify several possible confounding variables that Lecture/Discussion Topic/Critical Thinking Break: All the authors themselves did not consider in their research the Right Moves? design. Across the animal kingdom, males are known to use all Neave, N., McCarty, K., Freynik, J., Caplan, N., sorts of antics to woo females. Dancing, fluttering, and Hönekopp, J., & Fink, B. (2010). Male dance moves that moving their bodies is a part of this attraction ritual. catch a woman’s eye. Biology Letters. Published online But which moves are the “right” moves that success- before print September 8, 2010. DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2010. fully attract female attention? Recent research published 0619. by a team of British and German scholars gives us some ideas about what women like and don’t like, at Classroom Exercise: Assessing Friendship least in the human species. You can readily extend your discussion of social attrac- Using an elaborate set up of cameras and reflective tion to a consideration of the specific features of friend- markers, the researchers recorded the body movements ship. Handout 12 contains sample items from Ruth of 19 male volunteers who danced to a recording of Sharabany’s Intimate Friendship Scale. Each of the rhythmic music (similar to what you might hear at a statements in the scale introduces a different dimension dance club frequented by young people). The record- of close friendship: ings were “transcribed” electronically, and a computer 1. Frankness and spontaneity. The relationship used the recordings to create featureless gender-neutral includes honest self-disclosure of strengths and avatars. The animated avatars were then viewed by weaknesses, as well as frank feedback about the some 30 heterosexual women who simply rated the other’s actions. dancing movements as being either good or bad. The 2. Sensitivity and knowing. Understanding and empa- key dance moves of each good set of movements were thy counterbalance frankness. recorded and analyzed. Results revealed a specific pro- 3. Attachment. Closeness and liking produce feelings file of moves that were most attractive to women: the of connection to the friend. size of movements of the neck, trunk, left shoulder and wrist; the variability of movement in neck, trunk, and Social Psychology 881

4. Exclusiveness. Unique qualities in the relationship and construct validity. Journal of Social and Personal lead to its elevation over other relationships. Relationships, 11, 449–469. 5. Giving. Friends provide each other with material goods, as well as social support. Classroom Exercise: The Pairing Game 6. Imposition. Friends stand ready to seek and accept You can extend your discussion of attraction with an each other’s help. activity that demonstrates the matching phenomenon, 7. Common activities. Friends enjoy time spent namely, the well-established finding that men and together in joint activities. women tend to choose as partners those who are a 8. Trust and loyalty. Friends can hold each other’s “good match” in attractiveness and other traits. Created disclosures in confidence and will defend each by Bruce J. Ellis and Harold H. Kelley, the pairing other from outside attack. game works best with groups of about 18 to 25 people Beverly Fehr summarizes the survey literature on but still can be used with somewhat larger or smaller friendship with a helpful definition. Friendship, she groups. Students need room to move around, so it’s suggests, is a “voluntary, personal relationship, typi- best to do the activity with desks pushed aside or in cally providing intimacy and assistance, in which the some open area. two parties like one another and seek each other’s com- Begin by having students stand in a circle around pany.” Sharing (intimacy) and caring (assistance) seem the perimeter of the room. Each individual is randomly to be central, perhaps even the defining, features of assigned a number over some range, say, 1 to 25. The friendship. number should be on one side of an index card and Are there universal norms to follow in maintaining handed face down to the person so he or she cannot see friendships? Michael Argyle and Monika Henderson it. Students must not look at their numbers but rather asked adults in various countries to indicate which hold them up against their forehead so the number is of 43 possible friendship rules they would endorse. plainly in view for everyone else in class. Give the class Interestingly, Japanese participants endorsed the fewest, the following instructions: participants from Britain and Hong Kong the most. 1. Do not at any time look at your own number or tell Overall, the researchers found the following rules anyone else what their number is. to be strongest. 2. Your task is to pair off with another student. You 1. Volunteer help in time of need. will receive a reward for this (usually candies or 2. Respect the friend’s privacy. imaginary monetary values). The amount of your 3. Keep confidences. reward is equal to your partner’s number. 4. Trust and confide in each other. 3. The offer to form a pair is made by extending your 5. Stand up for the person in his or her absence. hand to another person, as if to offer a handshake. 6. Don’t criticize each other in public. The other person can then choose either to accept 7. Show emotional support. or reject your offer. 8. Strive to make him/her happy while in each other’s 4. If your offer is accepted, then stand together with company. your partner at the edge of the room. 9. Don’t be jealous or critical of a friend’s other 5. If your offer is rejected, then continue looking until relationships. you have formed a pair. 10. Be tolerant of each other’s friends. Give the signal to begin, and, as Ellis and Kelley 11. Share news of success with the other. explain, the process proceeds swiftly and vigorously. 12. Don’t nag. Most approach those with the highest numbers who in 13. Seek to repay debts and favors and compliments. turn select partners with the highest numbers. A similar When people compare their current and former process occurs with those who remain until, finally, friendships, they remember following the rules of only a few people with low numbers remain. They friendship less regularly in the latter than in the former. “settle” for each other. Before they leave the perimeter of the room, have each student guess his or her number Argyle, M., & Henderson, M. (1984). The rules out loud. of friendships. Journal of Social and Personal A simple survey of the class will show that most Relationships, 1, 211–237. partners are reasonably well matched in terms of their Fehr, B. (1996). Friendship processes. Thousand Oaks, exchange value. (The intraclass correlation between CA: Sage. the paired values, Ellis and Kelley report, is typically about .70). Point out to your students that the matchings Sharabany, R. (1994). Intimate friendship scale: Conceptual underpinnings, psychometric properties, parallel what happens in everyday life. We pair off with those who match us in attractiveness and other traits. 882 Social Psychology

In class discussion, ask students how they arrived head and following the same instructions as the other at the pairing with their partner. Some are likely to students. All volunteers are given the opportunity to describe a maximization strategy. They began by seek- re-pair and, once again, indicate their relationship satis- ing the most attractive (having the highest number) and faction. Repeat this same process three times with suc- continued searching until someone would accept them. cessive students entering with the queen, king, and ace. Others are likely to describe an equalization strategy. Thus, a total of four contrast persons will enter the They learned quickly that their number was low (some- demonstration. one may have laughed at them), so they sought another In seeking to pair up, each student will ask the person of low value who would have them. Both strate- nearest high-value cardholder to be his or her partner. gies lead to matching. High-value cardholders get a lot of attention and turn What happens in everyday life? You might note down low-value cardholders. By the end of the pair- that the pairing game demonstrates how a fair and equi- ings, students are likely to match up perfectly (e.g., the table distribution of matching on desirability can occur six of clubs with the six of hearts). This occurs because even though individuals all selfishly try to obtain the students with higher cards will form pairs initially most attractive partner they can. Ask students to explain (remember they can also change partners as often as the game’s implications for understanding the develop- they want to), and those with lower cards will be turned ment and function of self-esteem. Students are likely down until finally another student wearing a low card to have found themselves quite accurate in judging the (who is also being turned down) accepts partnership.­ value of their own number at the end of the game. Ask, The pairs support the matching hypothesis or similarity “Do we all carry around a sense of our own value? principle. When the contrast person is introduced, stu- How does this perception develop through social inter- dents will sever their current relationship in an attempt action?” Ask your class how the development of realis- to pair with the new card. Relationship satisfaction tic self-appraisals might quicken the matching process. tends to go down after each newcomer arrives, even Ellis, B. J., & Kelley, H. H. (1999). The pairing game: A among those pairs who are not severed. classroom demonstration of the matching phenomenon. Lewis and Gurung note that while the exercise viv- Teaching of Psychology, 26, 118–121. idly demonstrates matching, it can make other impor- tant theoretical points even if students do not pair up Classroom Exercise: Matching, the Contrast Effect, and perfectly. For example, if a “7” pairs with a “king,” it Relationship Satisfaction demonstrates how unequal pairings can occur when a Brian Lewis and Regan Gurung have modified the person commits to the relationship, even at the expense pairing game just described to incorporate additional of the relationship’s value. Commitment can override lessons regarding social attraction. Their demonstration the preference for alternatives and thus exchange theory involves social exchange theory, the contrast effect (the does not tell the whole story of relationship formation effect of more attractive and available partners), and and maintenance. relationship satisfaction and dissolution. Lewis, B. P., & Gurung, R. A. R. (2003). Mixing, match- Lewis and Gurung used 16 volunteers in their dem- ing, and mating: Demonstrating the effect of contrast on onstration. For this number of students you will need relationship satisfaction. Teaching of Psychology, 30, two series of playing cards, two through seven (hearts 303–306. and clubs), as well as index cards and pencils for each volunteer. Tell students that the exercise will illustrate Feature Film: Speed and the Two-Factor Theory of relationship decisions that typically occur over a series Passionate Love (Universal Studios, 6:30 minutes) of years. Ask for volunteers to stand and clear the space Elaine Hatfield uses the two-factor theory of emo- around them. Give each student a playing card, face tion—physical arousal plus cognitive appraisal—to help down with the instructions to take the card and tape it explain the intense positive absorption in another that to their foreheads so others can see it. Next tell them characterizes passionate love. Many action movies fol- to walk around and try to pair with another student, low a story line that involves a man and a woman who maximizing their total card value. They may ask only do not at first know each other going through a harrow- one question, “Will you be my partner?”; the answers ing series of events. Typically, they experience fear and can only be yes or no. They can change partners as excitement together and by the end of the movie have often as they like. After 5 minutes, ask them to stand in fallen madly in love. You can introduce the two-factor their pairs. Write the pairs of values on the board and theory of passionate love, including Donald Dutton and ask each volunteer to privately write down on an index Arthur Aron’s swaying footbridge study, by showing card, using a scale from 1 (not at all) to 7 (extremely), the last 6:30 minutes of Speed (available on DVD). satisfaction with their “relationship.” After Los Angeles SWAT cop Jack Traven disposes of Next, introduce a “contrast.” This is another bomb expert Howard Payne on the top of a racing train, student from the class with a jack on his or her fore- Social Psychology 883 he descends into the railcar to rescue Annie who he all gender differences were found in passionate love, finds padlocked to a handrail. Although the train is now although men do seem to love more passionately in the out of control, Jack decides to risk his life in an effort early stages of the relationship. For both genders, pas- to save Annie. Unable to stop the conductorless train, sionate love increases as the relationship goes from the he finally accelerates it in the hope it will leap the track early stages of dating to deeper levels of involvement, at an upcoming curve. Emotion reaches a fevered pitch but then levels off. as the racing train finally jumps the track and crashes. Hatfield, E., & Sprecher, S. (1986). Measuring pas- The end scene finds Jack and Annie safe in each other’s sionate love in intimate relationships. Journal of arms. “You didn’t leave,” cries Annie gratefully. “I Adolescence, 9, 391. Reprinted by permission. didn’t have anywhere to go just then,” responds Jack. He then adds, “I have heard relationships based on Classroom Exercise: Love Styles intense experiences never work.” Annie answers, Sociologist John Alan Lee and psychologists Clyde “Then we’ll just have to base it on sex.” First terrified, Hendrick and Susan Hendrick have described six types then amused, onlookers watch the couple’s passionate of love, which are assessed in Handout 14. Completion­ embrace as the film ends. of the survey, which is the Short Form of the Love Classroom Exercise: The Passionate Love Scale Attitudes Scale, will provide students with a good intro- duction to their model of love. Scores are obtained for Elaine Hatfield distinguishes two types of love: tempo- each of the following subscales by simply totaling the rary passionate love and more enduring companionate numbers before the relevant items. love. With William Walster, she defines passionate love as “a state of intense longing for union with another. A. Eros (Items 1–4) represents passionate love. Reciprocated love (union with the other) is associated It focuses strongly on physical attraction and with fulfillment and ecstasy. Unrequited love (separa- sensual satisfaction. Erotic lovers look for rap- tion) with emptiness, anxiety or despair. A state of pro- idly developing, emotionally intense, intimate found physiological arousal.” relationships. They tend to idealize their lovers Handout 13 is Elaine Hatfield’s Passionate Love and are willing to take risks. Scale (PLS). It was designed to assess the cognitive, B. Ludus (Items 5–8) is love practiced as a game emotional, and behavioral components of passionate or pleasant pastime for mutual enjoyment. love. Students simply add up the numbers circled to Love is a series of challenges and puzzles to obtain scores for the following components and sub- be solved. This type of lover dates several components: partners and moves in and out of love affairs A. Cognitive components: quickly and easily. He or she refuses to make 1. Preoccupation with the partner (Items 5, 19, 21) long-range plans. Ludus is wary of emotional 2. Idealization of the other or of the relationship intensity from others. (Items 7, 9, 15) C. Storge (Items 9–12) is a caring, concerned 3. Desire to know the other and be known (Items friendship that is based on similar interests 10, 22) and pursuits. The love is evolutionary and may take time to develop. Lovers desire a long-term B. Emotional components: relationship based on mutual trust. For those 1. Attraction to the other, especially sexual attrac- who practice this love, the most appealing tion (Items 16, 18, 29) aspect of the relationship consists in making a 2. Negative feelings when things go awry (Items 1, home and raising a family together. 2, 8, 20, 28, 30) D. Pragma (Items 13–16) is a love that goes shop- 3. Longing for reciprocity (Item 14) ping for a suitable mate. All it asks is that the 4. Desire for complete union (Items 11, 12, 23, 27) relationship work well, that the two partners 5. Physiological arousal (Items 3, 13, 17, 26) be compatible and satisfy each other’s basic or C. Behavioral components: practical needs. Relationships are based on 1. Actions toward determining the other’s feelings satisfactory rewards rather than romantic (Item 24) attraction. 2. Studying the other person (Item 4) E. Mania (Items 17–20) is possessive, depen- 3. Service to the other (Items 6, 25) dent love. Lovers are insecure and are fearful of being rejected. Mania is associated with Research indicates that PLS scores are significantly high emotional expressiveness and disclo- correlated with Zick Rubin’s Love and Liking scales, sure, but low self-esteem. The typical manic satisfaction with the overall relationship, and satisfac- lover yearns for love, yet anticipates that the tion with the sexual aspect of the relationship. No over- relationship will be painful. He or she tries to 884 Social Psychology

force the partner into greater expressions of partner changes, you will continue to be responsive and affection. caring. F. Agape (Items 21–24) is all-giving, selfless, In scoring the scale, responses to items 3, 5, 6, nondemanding love. Lovers sacrifice their 8, 12, 13, 15, 16, and 17 are reversed. That is, 1 is own interests in favor of their partner’s and changed to 7, 2 to 6, 3 to 5, 5 to 3, 6 to 2, and 7 to 1. give without expecting a reward. They are For a “predictability” score add 1, 3, 8, 11, 13, and not happy unless the partner is also happy. 18. For “dependability,” add 2, 5, 7, 9, 15, and 17. For Prepared to share all they have, they are vul- “faith,” add 4, 6, 10, 12, 14, and 16. nerable to exploitation. Rempel and Holmes suggest that an overall score exceeding 110 indicates a very trusting person. Such Research suggests that men and women may have persons feel that they are involved in a very successful different love styles. Women tend toward a more car- relationship and that their love for their partner is very ing, practical love with an element of possessiveness. strong. Negative behavior by the partner is not taken as Men are more interested in the passionate, game- evidence of a lack of love or caring. A score below 90 playing kind of love. This may suggest that the com- indicates low trust. In particular, such people express mon view of women as romantic and of men as practi- less love for their partner and are less inclined to see cal is wrong. Research suggests that, compared with their relationship as one of mutual giving. A score women, men not only fall into love more quickly but between 90 and 110 reflects “hopeful” trust. These out of love more slowly. Thus, women are more likely people expect their partner to act in a relatively pleas- than men to break off a marriage engagement. ant, helpful, and accepting manner, though they are less Hendrick, C., & Hendrick, S. S. (1986). A theory and confident than the trustful group. The hopeful person is method of love. Journal of Personality and Social someone who wants to see the best but is perhaps afraid Psychology, 50, 392–402. to believe it. Hendrick, C., Hendrick, S. S., & Dicke, A. (1998). The love attitudes scale: Short form. Journal of Social and Rempel, J., & Holmes, J. (1986, February). How do I Personal Relationships, 15, 147–159. trust thee? Psychology Today, 28–34.

Livermore, B. (1993, March/April). The lessons of love. Classroom Exercise: The Minding Scale Psychology Today, 30–34, 36–39, 80. Ask your class, “What factors promote enduring, satis- Marsh, P. (Ed.). (1988). Eye to eye: How people interact. fying love relationships? What can partners do to main- Topsfield, MA: Salem House Publishers. tain and enhance their relationship connection?” Myers, D. G. (2005). Social psychology (8th ed.). New John Harvey and Julia Omarzu provide one answer York: McGraw-Hill. in their minding theory of relationships. Handout 16 is their Minding Scale. The minding theory of relation- Classroom Exercise: The Trust Scale ships suggests that certain types of perceptions and Besides equity and self-disclosure, trust is a key ingre- expectations are key to satisfying close relationships. dient of loving relationships. Handout 15 is the Trust First, a person seeks to build a foundation of Scale created by John Rempel and John Holmes, who knowledge about his or her partner. Items 2, 6, 9, 11, suggest that predictability, dependability, and faith are 13, and 15 measure the knowledge component of the three fundamental elements of trust. “minding.” Reverse the numbers (1 = 6, 2 = 5, 3 = 4, Predictability is the ability to foretell your partner’s 4 = 3, 5 = 2, 6 = 1) you placed in front of items 9 and specific behavior, including both the things you like 11, then add the numbers for all six items. Scores range and dislike about it. Predictability implies consistency. from 6 to 36; the mean for 152 students was 27.73, Of course, consistency will not build trust if the behav- with no gender difference. As a relationship develops, ior is primarily negative. The sense of predictability mutual self-disclosure leads partners to feel increasingly must be based on the knowledge that your partner will comfortable sharing their thoughts and experiences. The act in generally positive ways. focus is less on self-expression and more on eliciting The feeling that your partner is a dependable per- information about the other. Moreover, as circumstanc- son is based on the emerging sense that he or she can es change, partners stay attuned to each other. be relied on when it counts. These judgments depend Second, partners must be willing and able to accept heavily on how your partner responds in situations in what they learn about each other. Items 1, 4, 7, 8, 14, which you might feel hurt or rejected. Has he or she and 18 compose the acceptance component of “mind- been a supportive and understanding listener in the ing.” Reverse the number you placed in response to past? statement 18, then add the numbers for the six items. Faith enables you to go beyond the available evi- Scores again range from 6 to 36, with a mean score of dence and to feel secure that, regardless of how your 25.07. Again, there is no gender difference. This accep- Social Psychology 885 tance includes respect for the differences in opinions, expressed a desire to be alone and felt in control of the values, and habits that inevitably occur. Such respect situation. Negative episodes were more often associ- prevents partners from falling into a pattern of criticiz- ated with a loss of personal control and aloneness. Long ing each other, which impairs and often destroys concludes that the experience of most negative episodes relationships. can be summarized as loneliness. In contrast, positive Third, minding theory states that the attributions episodes were more varied. Expressed benefits ranged partners make for each other’s behaviors can support or from increased self-understanding, self-renewal, and handicap intimate relations. Items 3, 5, 10, 12, 16, and creativity. Positive episodes were also rated as more 17 assess the attributions that partners make. Reverse spiritual than were negative episodes. the number in response to statement 16, then add the Long and his colleagues identified nine types of numbers for the six items. Scores range from 6 to 36, solitude drawn from the descriptions that research with higher scores reflecting a tendency to provide participants provided. Your class might consider how more favorable attributions. The mean is 24.24, with many of these they share. Seven are positive: anonym- women scoring slightly higher than men. Partners who ity (and the freedom associated with it), creativity, inner give each other the benefit of the doubt are happier in peace, intimacy, problem solving, self-discovery, and their relationship and are more likely to remain together spirituality. One is negative (loneliness) and one is neu- for longer periods of time. tral (diversion). In their theory, the authors make clear that these • Solitude as anonymity: Because you are alone, behaviors and thinking patterns must be reciprocal. you may act in whatever ways you feel like at the That is, both partners must be committed to pursuing moment, without concern for social niceties or knowledge, acceptance, and positive attributions for the what others might think. relationship to thrive. In addition, these expectations • Solitude as creativity: Being alone stimulates novel and perceptions must have continuity. Over time, part- ideas or innovative ways of expressing yourself, ners must continue to find out about each other, respect whether actually in art, poetry, or intellectual each other’s individuality, and engage in positive pursuits or whimsically in daydreaming with a attributions. purpose. Harvey, J. H., & Omarzu, J. (1997). Minding the close • Solitude as diversion: You fill the time alone by relationship. Personality and Social Psychology Review, watching television, reading a book, surfing the 1, 223–239. Internet, or engaging in other distracting activities. Harvey, J. H., & Omarzu, J. (1999). Minding the close • Solitude as inner peace: While alone, you feel relationship: A theory of relationship enhancement. New calm and relaxed, free from the pressures of every- York: Cambridge University Press. day life. • Solitude as intimacy: Although alone, you feel Omarzu, J., Whalen, J., & Harvey, J. H. (2001). How well do you mind your relationships? A preliminary scale especially close to someone you care about, for to test the minding theory of relating. In J. H. Harvey & example, an absent friend or lover, or perhaps a A. Wenzel (Eds.), Close romantic relationships: deceased relative (such as a beloved grandparent); Maintenance and enhancement (pp. 345–356). Mahwah, the absence of the person only strengthens your NJ: Erlbaum. feeling of closeness. • Solitude as loneliness: You feel self-conscious, Classroom Exercise: Solitude: Bane or Blessing? anxious, or depressed; you long for interpersonal We are social animals. Does that mean time spent contact. alone, separate from family, friends, and co-workers, • Solitude as problem solving: Aloneness provides is necessarily a negative experience? To explore the opportunity to think about specific problems or the nature of solitude you might ask your class, as decisions you are facing, and you attempt to come Christopher Long’s research team did, to describe two to some resolution. episodes of solitude, one positive and one negative. • Solitude as self-discovery: By focusing attention Ask volunteers to share their accounts either in the con- on yourself, you gain insight into your fundamen- text of a small group or in full-class discussion. tal values and goals and you come to realize your Long reports that events leading to positive and unique strengths and weaknesses. negative episodes are similar in many respects. Both • Solitude as spirituality: While alone, you have can be fueled by a felt need to examine one’s priorities. a mysticlike experience, for example, a sense of Solving a problem, contemplating the past, and hope transcending everyday concerns, of being a part of for the future also characterize both types of experi- something grander than yourself; such experiences ences. However, important differences also exist. In the are sometimes interpreted within a religious con- case of positive episodes, Long’s research participants text (e.g., as being close to God), but they also can 886 Social Psychology

be entirely secular (e.g., as being in harmony with before an explosive rush of flames engulfed the a social or natural order). room. Johnston was hospitalized with first- and second-degree burns to his face, hands, and arms. Source: PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOL­ OGY BULLETIN by Long et al. Copyright 2003 by 2. Frederick T. Smith rescued Paul D. Knight from Sage Publications Inc. Journals. Reproduced with per- burning, Daleville, Virginia, April 7, 2010. Knight, mission of Sage Publications Inc. Journals in the format 46, collapsed in the hall on the second floor of Other book via Copyright Clearance Center. his two-story house while fighting a fire that had broken out in a laundry room off the hall. Smith, Finally, Long and his colleagues presented these 53-year-old welder, was alerted to the fire and examples to another group of research participants and responded. He entered the house through its front asked them to rate (on a scale from 1 to 7) the degree to door and ran up the nearby upstairs. Dense smoke which each had influenced their lives and the likelihood in the hall extended down to the floor, precluding they would make an effort to experience a particular visibility, and rapidly spreading flames on the sec- type of solitude. The two scale scores were averaged to ond floor had entered the hall and were advancing. provide a single measure of “importance.” The means Smith called to Knight and, hearing him cough, (from greatest to least importance) are given below: crawled about five feet through the hall to find him. As Knight was inert, Smith grabbed him by Problem solving 5.44 the belt and collar, dragged him to the top of the Inner peace 5.19 stairs, and then, lifting him, hauled him down to Self-discovery 5.11 the first floor and outside to safety. Knight was Diversion 5.01 hospitalized for treatment of smoke inhalation and Creativity 4.38 burns. Smith also sought medical attention for Anonymity 4.21 smoke inhalation. Intimacy 4.02 3. Thomas Eugene Foust, a 17-year-old student, saved Spirituality 3.55 a woman from being struck by a train in Glenview, Loneliness 2.79 Illinois, on September 8, 2007. An 83-year-old Long, C. R., Seburn, M., Averill, J. R., & More, woman mistakenly drove her automobile onto one T. A. (2003). Solitude experiences: Varieties, settings, of two railroad tracks at a crossing, and the car and individual differences. Personality and Social became stuck as a passenger train approached at Psychology Bulletin, 29, 578–583. high speed. Thomas, who had been driving with a few friends behind the woman, saw what was Altruism happening. The young men immediately ran to the Lecture/Discussion Topic: Case Studies in Helping car as the crossing’s gates and bell were activated, indicating that the train was about 32 seconds Each year the Carnegie Hero Fund Commission away. They urged the woman to exit her car, and as reviews the stories of some 800 to 1000 rescues in the the train bore down, Thomas pulled open the driv- United States and Canada and selects medal winners. er’s door, reached inside, and unfastened her safety Presenting some of these case stories in class provides belt. He then pulled the woman from the car, took a good introduction to the topic of altruism. Among the her 10 feet to a fence that bordered the track bed, recent medal winners were the following: and shielded her with his body. Within seconds, the 1. James A. Short, Jr., rescued David J. Johnston train struck the car and knocked it into the path of from burning, Cape Coral, Florida, March 17, another train, which was approaching on the sec- 2010. Johnston, 63, who was an invalid, was in ond track. The car was struck again, sending debris the living room of his duplex apartment when fire flying. The woman was shaken but uninjured. erupted from the oxygen equipment he used. He 4. Frederick L. Visconti, a 65-year-old retired fire- yelled for help. Short, 52, a plumber, who lived fighter, rescued Robert J. Mitchell from burning in in the adjacent apartment, was alerted by the yell. Danbury, Connecticut, on May 24, 2008. Mitchell, He responded to the front door of Johnston’s 18, was in his bedroom on the second floor of apartment, entered, and, despite intense heat and his family’s two-story house when an accidental dense smoke that limited visibility, searched the fire broke out in that room. Visconti, a neighbor, apartment for his neighbor. Seeing Johnston lying smelled smoke and responded to the scene. He on the floor near a burning recliner in the living entered the house through its front door and learned room, Short approached him and pulled him to his that Mitchell was on the second floor. Visconti feet and to the unit’s back door. He then opened went up the stairs and, in dense smoke that severely the door and dragged Johnston outside, moments limited visibility, crawled into Mitchell’s bedroom, Social Psychology 887

in which flames were growing. Finding Mitchell Police and rescue personnel responded shortly and in his bed, he pulled him to the floor and into the removed the boys from the pond. They were taken hall. Visconti then aided Mitchell downstairs and to the hospital but could not be revived. outside to safety. Mitchell required hospital treat- After reading these cases, ask your class, “What is ment for minor burns and smoke inhalation, and he altruism?” and “What do you think motivates people recovered. to help?” You might note that Andrew Carnegie was 5. Susan M. Ricard, a 37-year-old teacher, saved John inspired to establish the Hero Fund Commission in Benoit from drowning in Webster, Massachusetts, 1904 after two attempted rescues from a coal-mining on July 18, 2008. Benoit, 58, and his young grand- disaster in which both rescuers died. Carnegie set aside daughter struggled against rough waters of Webster $5 million to compensate rescuers or their families. Lake after their sailboat capsized in one of the The commission has recognized 9284 acts of heroism. lake’s coves during a sudden evening storm. The In addition to the medal, awardees or their survivors storm brought thunder, lightning, and winds that receive $3500 and, occasionally, a pension or were recorded as high as 33 mph. From her home scholarship. on the bank of the cove, Ricard was watching the storm over the lake and witnessed the accident. Carnegie Hero Fund Commission. Retrieved September She immediately ran to the water and, grabbing 24, 2011, and October 16, 2008, from carnegiehero.org/ two children’s short surfboards, entered it from awardees–recent.php. the end of her dock. Clad in pajamas, she swam with difficulty against the wind and waves, which Classroom Exercise: Why Do People Volunteer? were white-capped, to Benoit, who was about 150 Handout 17, the Volunteer Functions Inventory (VFI), feet from the bank. En route, she encountered his designed by E. Gil Clary and his colleagues, assesses granddaughter, who was wearing a life jacket, and, motivations for volunteerism, a topic that provides an reassuring her, directed her toward the bank. Ricard excellent extension of any discussion of altruism. Clary continued to Benoit and placed one of the boards and his colleagues identify the following six motives under him. Using the second board for herself, she for people’s volunteer efforts. linked arms with Benoit and returned to the dock 1. Values: to express or act on important values like with him, aided by the waves. Benoit was taken to humanitarianism (Items 3, 8, 16, 19, 22) the hospital for observation. 2. Understanding: to learn more about people or to 6. Randall Scott Brewer, age 27, died while attempt- acquire skills (Items 12, 14, 18, 25, 30) ing to save a boy from drowning in Lancaster, 3. Enhancement: to boost self-worth and confidence New Hampshire, on April 19, 2008. An 11-year- (Items 5, 13, 26, 27, 29) old boy jumped into the swift, cold water of the 4. Career: to gain career-related experience (1, 10, 15, Israel River and had difficulty staying afloat. After 21, 28) a teenage girl in his party entered the river to 5. Social: to be part of a group and strengthen social help him and also experienced difficulty, Brewer, relationships (2, 4, 6, 17, 23) another member of the party, removed his shoes 6. Protective: to reduce negative feelings such as guilt and outer attire and entered the 38-degree water. (Items 7, 9, 11, 20, 24) Brewer made his way to the boy and pushed him toward safety. Then caught by the current, Brewer To score, students should simply find their mean was carried downstream and submerged. The boy for each subscale. Higher scores, of course, reflect was not injured. Brewer’s body was found the next stronger motivation on that dimension. For several day; he had died of accidental drowning. hundred students at the University of Minnesota, mean 7. Aaron D. Robinson, a 12-year-old student, died scores of 5.37, 5.13, 4.64. 4.54. 2.95, and 3.25 were while attempting to save Jairus A. Robinson from obtained for values, understanding, enhancement, drowning in Cambridge, Maryland, on February career, social, and protective functions, respectively. 11, 2007. At a point about 20 feet from the bank, Clary and Mark Snyder have reviewed research Jairus, 8, broke through ice partially covering a with the VFI. Not only do different volunteers pursue pond at the housing development where his fam- different goals, but the same volunteer may be pursuing ily lived. His brother Aaron was nearby on the more than one goal. A guiding functionalist principle is bank with friends when they saw him in the water. that decisions to help depend on the match of an indi- Aaron immediately ran to the pond and made his vidual’s motivations to the opportunities afforded by way out on the ice toward Jairus. As he reached the volunteering environment. Thus, persuasive for him, Aaron also broke through the ice. Jairus messages can motivate people to initiate volunteer submerged, as did Aaron, after a brief struggle. activity to the extent that they are tailored to the spe- 888 Social Psychology cific motivations important to the target. Functionalist­ Would we consider both “altruistic”? Some rescuers theorizing further suggests that volunteers whose moti- were actually anti-Semitic, while others deeply identi- vational concerns are served by their participation will fied with the Jewish cause. derive greater satisfaction than those whose concerns Second, situational factors are sometimes impor- are not met. Intentions to continue serving as a volun- tant in shaping people’s willingness to intervene. One teer will also depend on the matching of experience to wealthy German, who devoted himself for four years motivation. Initial research findings support these pre- to the work, was drawn into the rescue effort by his dictions. secretary’s request to save her Jewish husband. After permitting the man to stay in his office for a weekend— Clary, E. G., & Snyder, M. (1999). The motivations to volunteer: Theoretical and practical considerations. a foot-in-the-door—he found himself caught up in the Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8, 156– rescue operation. 159. Third, London found that rescuers who remained committed to the cause shared three personality Clary, E. G., Snyder, M., Ridge, R. D., Copeland, J. characteris­tics: (1) a spirit of adventurousness, (2) Stukas, A. A., Haugen, J., et al. (1998). Understanding intense identification with a parental model of moral and assessing the motivations of volunteers: A functional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, conduct, and (3) a sense of being socially marginal. 74, 1516–1530. The first characteristic is exemplified by a rescuer in the Dutch underground who “had a sort of extracurricu- lar hobby of putting sugar in the gas tanks of German Student Project: A Random Act of Kindness army trucks.” The second characteristic­ is apparent in Sally Radmacher reports that her students both enjoy an interview with another German rescuer, who stated, and learn much from performing a random act of kind- “I came from a poor family . . . my mother said to me ness. After performing an act of kindness, the students when we were small . . . ‘Regardless of what you do write a brief paper describing the act, the recipient’s with your life be honest. When it comes the day you reaction, and their own reaction. Students’ experiences have to make a decision, make the right one. It could be provide the basis for introducing and discussing the a hard one. But even the hard ones should be the right literature on prosocial action. Radmacher indicates ones.’” that the experience makes the literature personally Finally, social marginality was typified by yet meaningful and the specific concepts easier to grasp. another rescuer who reported that he had stuttered as a Recip­ients’ reactions, particularly when the recipi- child, and so had always been friendless. Although his ent is not grateful, provide the basis for a particularly family was nominally Lutheran, his mother never went lively classroom discussion. Ask students to reflect on to church. His father, however, attended regularly. This why some recipients might have a negative reaction to was the reverse of the typical German family’s religious receiving help. practices. London suggests that this prior marginality Radmacher, S. (1997, January 19). Social psychology served the rescuer well as he worked in isolation. projects. Teaching in the psychological sciences (TIPS Samuel and Pearl Oliner also studied altruistic Online Discussion Group). behavior in Nazi Europe. The Oliners reported that those who rescued Jews were motivated by three pri- Lecture/Discussion Topic: Europeans Who Helped Jews mary factors. About 11 percent were motivated primar- Escape ily by a commitment to the principle of justice. These In discussing altruism, you may want to examine Perry people had strong beliefs about how others ought to London’s intriguing work on Europeans who risked be treated. In the process of helping, they often also their lives in attempting to help Jews escape Nazi- became strongly attached to those they rescued. Fifty- occupied Europe. London’s objective was to determine two percent were motivated by social norms. Helping whether certain personality traits were associated with was seen as obligatory by friends, family, or church. In such altruistic acts. offering help, they did what they felt others expected. Using a standardized interview, London tape- The remaining 37 percent were moved by empathy, by recorded conversations with 27 rescuers and 42 rescued the suffering of those whose lives were in danger. This people, all of whom had emigrated from Europe to the group was thus moved by their feelings of connection United States since 1945. The results highlight a num- to the victim. ber of important issues in the study of altruism. In some respects, the Oliners’ findings replicated First, the study demonstrated the enormous com- London’s. For example, the rescuers talked of being plexity of defining altruism. In certain cases, rescuers close to their parents, who disciplined more with rea- were paid huge sums of money for their efforts, where- soning than with physical punishment and who did as in other cases they spent their own life’s savings. not insist on mindless obedience. In other respects, the Oliners reported somewhat different findings. For Social Psychology 889 example, the rescuers they interviewed had a sense of mate grievances against an outgroup. Such assessments belonging to their community and were not “socially of injustice are particularly common across cultural marginal,” unlike London’s participants. divides in which groups of people may have different definitions of what constitutes justice and how it should London, P. (1970). The rescuers: Motivational hypoth- eses about Christians who saved Jews from the Nazis. In be achieved. The overriding impetus to war over the J. Macaulay & L. Berkowitz (Eds.), Altruism and helping past two centuries, note the Eidelsons, have been over behavior. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. issues of justice rather than security or power. Oliner, S., & Oliner, P. (1988). The altruistic person- Vulnerability ality: Rescuers of Jews in Nazi Europe. New York: The third central belief predisposing a person to social Macmillan. conflict revolves around an individual’s conviction that he or she is perpetually living in harm’s way. Such Conflict and Peacemaking vulnerability is associated with high levels of anxiety. PsychSim 5: Social Decision Making Individuals may become overly vigilant, bracing them- selves for failure, rejection, injury, or loss. At the group This computer program is based on the well-known level, fears about the future may be the most common trucking game in social psychology. The student first cause of ethnic conflicts and often may produce spi- participates in a series of trials in the non–zero-sum raling violence. Perception of threat leads to hostility environment, demonstrating vividly how strategy toward the source of the threat, heightened ethnocen- changes to match the opponent’s perceived strategy. trism, and a tightening of group boundaries. This sense Then the student actually plays the trucking game under of vulnerability characterizes the worldviews of both different conditions. Israelis and Palestinians, thereby fueling the ongoing Middle East conflict. Lecture/Discussion Topic: Five Dangerous Ideas Roy and Judy Eidelson identify five beliefs that propel Distrust groups toward conflict. Of special interest are the paral- The fourth important belief involves distrust. At the individual level, the core belief focuses on the pre- lels they found between individuals’ core beliefs and groups’ worldviews. The former emerge primarily from sumed hostility and evil intent of others. Harm is personal narratives within a person’s circle of family perceived to be intentional or the result of extreme neg- and interpersonal relationships; the latter involve collec- ligence. The predisposition to suspicion is sometimes tive narratives based on broader cultural understandings transformed into outright paranoia accompanied by of ingroup-outgroup relationships. Both are detrimental delusions of persecution. The collective mindset views to relationships. the outgroup as dishonest and untrustworthy. People display a bias toward interpreting others’ behavior as Superiority hostile and malevolent even when other explanations The first core belief revolves around a person’s endur- are available. Such beliefs can prepare groups for the ing conviction that he or she is better than other people worst. Intergroup relationships can remain fragile even in important ways. The belief leads to a sense of spe- after a conflict is resolved if deep-seated suspicions cialness, deservingness, and entitlement. People who remain. hold the belief lack the empathy and thus any apprecia- tion of others’ viewpoints and experiences. The same Helplessness understanding occurs at the group level. The collective The fifth and final core belief is one of personal help- worldview involves a shared conviction of moral supe- lessness. Individuals may be convinced that even care- riority, special destiny, and especially chosenness. A fully planned and executed actions will fail to produce prime example is Hitler’s notion of Aryans as a master good outcomes. The belief tends to be self-perpetuating race deserving and destined to achieve their rightful because it diminishes motivation. The helplessness rule over other peoples of the world. worldview produces a collective mindset of powerless- ness and dependency. The authors note that within Injustice authoritarian political systems, the efforts of selected The second core belief revolves around perceived injus- groups to improve their circumstances may be met by tice at the hands of specific others or by the world at aggressive retaliation, reinforcing the group’s sense of large. The individual may identify as unfair that which powerlessness. When more advantaged groups see that is only unfortunate. It can lead him or her to engage outgroup members feel powerless, they may attempt to in retaliatory acts. The injustice worldview reflects an persuade them that they lack the capabilities necessary ingroup’s conviction that it has significant and legiti- to contend for society’s rewards. 890 Social Psychology

Eidelson, R. J., & Eidelson, J. I. (2003). Dangerous months, and I will then give you each (as a cash tuition ideas: Five beliefs that propel groups toward conflict. rebate) one cent for each unit you profited. American Psychologist, 58, 182–192. Let’s try another example. Ask yourself, what would be the payoff in profit units if your country in month 5 Classroom Exercise: The Missiles Game built 6 missiles while the other country built none? Can Social traps—situations in which conflicting parties, you see (in the upper right corner) that you would have by each pursuing their self-interest, become caught in gained 12 profit units while they would have lost 6? This mutually destructive behavior—are a major source of is because your missile superiority gives great economic conflict. Students will come to a clear understanding security to your country and it gives you a certain superi- of how an arms race can be viewed as a social trap by ority in the international arena. playing the Missiles Game. Divide the class into pairs To summarize: Each month, you must decide how many of groups (do not reveal the pairings), allowing each missiles to build, with the understanding that more mis- group to be a player. (A maximum of six students in siles means fewer factories. After your group has record- each group makes the experience more fun and mini- ed its decision, bring your slip to the U.N. table, and I mizes your record keeping.) To heighten students’ will return it with feedback on the other country’s involvement, let each profit unit on the matrix (see decision. You can then record the outcome on your Handout 18a) correspond to one cent, to be collected by record sheet [distribute a copy of Handout 18d to each group] and proceed to discuss your decision for the next each individual in the group at the end of the simula- month. Questions? tion. The total cost for a class of 40 will generally be less than a single film or DVD rental. After the groups You can terminate the simulation at any point (such have been formed and you have distributed a copy as when it begins costing you too much money). An of Handout 18a to each student, read the following arms race almost always occurs. If you announce the instructions. termination a few trials ahead, exploitative behavior is especially likely to occur, despite everyone’s awareness This is an exercise that simulates international relations. of how mutually detrimental it is. Cooperative solutions Each group will act as a country and will be interact- are often achieved when one party initiates small coop- ing with one of the other countries. Each month, your erative gestures and waits for them to be reciprocated. country gains through taxation enough money to build up Communication (allowing an exchange of written mes- to 6 missiles, thus strengthening your military defenses sages after about eight trials) often boosts cooperation. against the threatening neighbor country and perhaps extending your country’s sphere of influence. Bolt, M. (1999). Instructor’s manual to accompany Social Psychology (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. The simulation will consist of up to 15 months. At the Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies. start of each month, both your country and the other Reprinted by permission. country must decide how many missiles you wish to build that month. Record your group’s decision on one of the slips provided. [Distribute about 15 copies of Lecture/Discussion Topic: The Dual Concern Model of Handout 18b to each group.] A courier will carry your Social Conflict decision to the U.N. table, where I will record your Dean Pruitt, Jeffrey Rubin, and Sung Hee Kim identify action and give you feedback on the other country’s five specific strategies for dealing with social con- action. [Use Handout 18c, which is set up for 3 pairs of flict. They illustrate these different possibilities in the groups, with group 1 playing group 4, 2 playing 5, and 3 hypothetical case of Peter Colger, who has been look- playing 6.] ing forward to a two-week vacation at a quiet mountain Your outcome for each month will depend on what lodge. His wife, Mary, however, wants to spend their action you take and what action the other country takes. vacation at a busy seaside resort. Peter can respond by If you will look at the payoff matrix, I will explain this contending, that is, arguing for the merits of a mountain with a few examples. If you both decide to build 3 mis- vacation, even threatening to go alone if Mary refuses. siles some month, then you will both gain 3 profit units He can take a problem-solving approach and attempt for that month, as you can see at the center. Note that to find a vacation spot that satisfies them both. He can whenever you both build the same number of missiles, yield to Mary’s preference and go to the seashore. He you both gain equal profit. If you both build zero can be inactive (do nothing) in the hope that the dis- missiles, then you will both gain a profit of 6, because agreement will evaporate. Finally, Peter can withdraw for each group, all your military funds will have been from the controversy by deciding not to take any diverted into peacetime profit industries. On the other hand, if both countries build 6 missiles in the same vacation. month, no money would be available to either group for Pruitt, Rubin, and Kim suggest a dual-concern peacetime profit industries, and therefore both groups model that specifies the conditions under which each would receive zero profit units. At the end of the simula- strategy is followed. Concern only about one’s own tion, you can each add up your country’s units for the outcomes and needs is likely to lead to contending. Social Psychology 891

Concern only for the other’s outcomes likely leads to student becoming the expert on his or her part. In a unit yielding. Although the two concerns in the model are on Spain, one student might be the expert on Spain’s sometimes reduced to a single dimension, with selfish- history, another on its geography, another on its gov- ness (concern about one’s own interest) on one end and ernment. First, the various “historians,” “geographers,” altruism (concern about the other’s outcomes) on the and “political scientists” join together to master their other end, this is an oversimplification. Both concerns materials. Then they return to their home groups to can be strong at the same time; when they are, problem teach it to their classmates. Each member of the jig- solving is the preferred strategy. When both concerns saw group has a piece of the puzzle. Thus, even the are weak, inaction is the likely approach. The model outspoken students have to listen to and learn from the makes no prediction about the antecedents of with­ reticent students, who in turn learn they have some- drawing. thing to offer their peers. Because each person has an essential part to play, the process encourages listening, Pruitt, D., Rubin, J., & Kim S. (1994). Social conflict: Escalation, stalemate, and settlement (2nd ed.). New engagement, and empathy. Group members must work York: McGraw-Hill. together as a team to reach their objective. Each person depends on all the others. Findings indicate that the Lecture/Discussion Topic: The Jigsaw Technique technique reduces racial conflict among schoolchildren, improves student motivation, fosters better learning, Cooperative learning strategies have not only promoted and, in general, increases the enjoyment of the learning interracial friendships but also have enhanced student experience. achievement. One excellent example of a cooperative Students can explore the jigsaw classroom at www. learning strategy is the jigsaw technique. Developed jigsaw.org. In addition to providing an overview and in the early 1970s by Elliot Aronson and his students history of the strategy, the site provides specific guide- at the University of Texas and the University of lines and tips on implementing it. Students will also California, the strategy has now been used in hundreds find books and articles related to the jigsaw technique of schools. Teachers begin by assigning children to and links on cooperative learning and school racially and academically diverse six-member groups. violence. The week’s lesson is divided into six parts, with each 892 Social Psychology

HANDOUT 1

Attribution Scale

For each of the following 20 pairs of traits, circle the one trait in each pair that is most characteristic of . If neither of the traits in a trait pair is the most characteristic, indicate that by circling “depends on the situation.”

serious gay (merry) depends on the situation

subjective analytic depends on the situation

future oriented present oriented depends on the situation

energetic relaxed depends on the situation

unassuming self-asserting depends on the situation

lenient firm depends on the situation

reserved emotionally expressive depends on the situation

dignified casual depends on the situation

realistic idealistic depends on the situation

intense calm depends on the situation

skeptical trusting depends on the situation

quiet talkative depends on the situation

cultivated natural depends on the situation

sensitive tough-minded depends on the situation

self-sufficient sociable depends on the situation

steady flexible depends on the situation

dominant deferential depends on the situation

cautious bold depends on the situation

uninhibited self-controlled depends on the situation

conscientious happy-go-lucky depends on the situation

Source: Reprinted by permission of Richard E. Nisbett, Theodore M. Newcomb, Distinguished University Professor, Research Professor, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. Social Psychology 893

HANDOUT 2

Shock level at Shock level at which I Number of subjects Verbal which I believe believe the average out of 100 who Shock designation I would disobey college student would would continue to level and voltage level the experimenter disobey the experimenter the 450-volt level

Slight Shock 1 15 2 30 3 45 4 60 Moderate Shock 5 75 6 90 7 105 8 120 Strong Shock 9 135 10 150 11 165 12 180 Very Strong Shock 13 195 14 210 15 225 16 240 Intense Shock 17 255 18 270 19 285 20 300 Extreme Intensity Shock 21 315 22 330 23 345 24 360 Danger: Severe Shock 25 375 26 390 27 405 28 420 XXX 29 435 30 450

Source: Table from Obedience to authority by Stanley Milgram. Copyright © 1974 by Stanley Milgram. Reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers, Inc. 894 Social Psychology

HANDOUT 3

Conformity, Obedience, and Roles

In today’s world, we cannot replicate some of the classic experiments. But, let’s just say we could and that we want to see if the effects replicate in a different context (e.g., instead of a teacher-learner situation in Milgram’s study, let’s say we want to study obedience using a different situation).

1. In your group, decide on a real-life situation in which you think your concept—obedience, conformity, or social roles—may have a huge influence on people’s behavior. Some examples are drunk driving, criminal behavior, cheating on exams, hazing, gang behavior, working at a company like Dell, and participating on athletic teams (men vs. women, captains vs. members). 2. Design a study to test whether your concept (conformity, obedience, or social roles) has an influence on people’s behavior. WORK TOGETHER. Make your study as simple as possible. 3. Act out your study for the class. For example, if you plan to do something like Zimbardo’s prison study, you might want to hold up a piece of paper that says “Day 1” and then act out what happened on Day 1; then hold up another piece of paper for “Day 2” and act out big events that you think may have occurred on Day 2, etc. 4. Then, on the board, list for the class at least three variables that will determine the importance of your concept— e.g., Under what conditions are people more likely to fall into a social role? Under what conditions are people less likely to obey an authority figure? Do not write much on the board—keep it brief and to the point. If you can bring these variables into your act, great, but it is not necessary. 5. Remember your task: Make sure the other students in the class know what they need to know about your topic.

Go! You have 25 minutes.

Source: TEACHING OF PSYCHOLOGY by Bleske-Rechek. Copyright 2001 by Taylor & Francis Informa UK ltd. - Journals. Reproduced by permission of Taylor & Francis Informa UK Ltd. Journals in the format Other Book via Copyright Clearance Center. Social Psychology 895

HANDOUT 4a

Henry is a writer who is said to have considerable creative talent but who so far has been earning a comfortable liv- ing by writing cheap Westerns. Recently he has come up with an idea for a potentially significant novel. If it could be written and accepted, it might have considerable literary impact and be a big boost to his career. On the other hand, if he is not able to work out his idea or if the novel is a flop, he will have expended considerable time and energy with- out remuneration. Imagine that you are advising Henry. Please check the lowest probability that you would consider acceptable for Henry to attempt to write the novel. Henry should attempt to write the novel if the chances that the novel will be a success are at least:

1 in 10 6 in 10 2 in 10 7 in 10 3 in 10 8 in 10 4 in 10 9 in 10 5 in 10 Place a check here if you think Henry should attempt the novel only if it is certain (i.e., 10 in 10) that the novel will be a success.

HANDOUT 4b

Roger, a married man with two children of school age, has a secure job that pays him about $40,000 per year. He can easily afford the necessities of life, but few of the luxuries. Except for a life insurance policy he has no savings. Roger has heard from reliable sources that the stock of a relatively unknown Company X might triple its present value if a new product currently in production is favorably received by the buying public. On the other hand, if the product is rejected, the stock might decline considerably in value. Roger is thinking of investing his life insurance money in this company. Imagine that you are advising Roger. Check the lowest probability that you would consider acceptable for Roger to invest in Company X stock. Roger should invest in Company X stock if the chances that the stock will triple in value are at least:

1 in 10 6 in 10 2 in 10 7 in 10 3 in 10 8 in 10 4 in 10 9 in 10 5 in 10 Place a check here if you think Roger should invest in Company X stock only if it is certain (i.e., 10 in 10) that the stock will triple in value.

Source: Myers, D. G., & Lamm, H. (1975). The polarizing effect of group discussion. American Scientist, 63, 297–303. Reprinted by permission. 896 Social Psychology

HANDOUT 5

For each of the following characteristics, provide your best estimate or guess of the percentage of who possess the trait.

1. kind %

2. not easily influenced %

3. competitive %

4. aware of others’ feelings %

5. dominant %

6. makes decisions easily %

7. independent %

8. understanding %

9. never gives up easily %

10. helpful %

11. aggressive %

12. warm %

13. self-confident %

14. stands up well under pressure %

15. able to devote self to others %

16. active % Social Psychology 897

HANDOUT 6

Relationships Between Men and Women

Below is a series of statements concerning men and women and their relationships in contemporary society. Please indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree with each statement using the following scale: 0 = disagree strong- ly; 1 = disagree somewhat; 2 = disagree slightly; 3 = agree slightly; 4 = agree somewhat; 5 = agree strongly

1. No matter how accomplished he is, a man is not truly complete as a person unless he has the love of a woman. 2. Many women are actually seeking special favors, such as hiring policies that favor them over men, under the guise of asking for “equality.” 3. In a disaster, women ought not necessarily to be rescued before men. 4. Most women interpret innocent remarks or acts as being sexist. 5. Women are too easily offended. 6. People are often truly happy in life without being romantically involved with a member of the other sex. 7. Feminists are not seeking for women to have more power than men. 8. Many women have a quality of purity that few men possess. 9. Women should be cherished and protected by men. 10. Most women fail to appreciate fully all that men do for them. 11. Women seek to gain power by getting control over men. 12. Every man ought to have a woman whom he adores. 13. Men are complete without women. 14. Women exaggerate problems they have at work. 15. Once a woman gets a man to commit to her, she usually tries to put him on a tight leash. 16. When women lose to men in a fair competition, they typically complain about being discriminated against. 17. A good woman should be set on a pedestal by her man. 18. There are actually very few women who get a kick out of teasing men by seeming sexually available and then refusing male advances. 19. Women, compared to men, tend to have a superior moral sensibility. 20. Men should be willing to sacrifice their own well being in order to provide financially for the women in their lives. 21. Feminists are making entirely reasonable demands of men. 22. Women, as compared to men, tend to have a more refined sense of culture and good taste.

Source: Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, p. 512. Copyright 1995 by Peter Glick and Susan T. Fiske. Reprinted by permission. 898 Social Psychology

HANDOUT 7

Institutional Discrimination

Answer the following four questions in regard to each of the examples below.

A. Is institutional discrimination present? B. Against what group or groups does the practice discriminate? C. What is the intended purpose of each practice? D. If the intended purpose is a valid one, how else might this purpose be achieved?

1. A fire department requires that applicants for the position of firefighter be 5’8” or taller.

2. A Caucasian actor is chosen to play the part of an Asian man.

3. A corporation decides to fill a position opening “in-house” rather than to advertise.

4. Children of alumni receive preference for admission into a private college.

5. Persons accused of a crime who cannot post bail are imprisoned and thus appear in court dressed in prison clothes. Social Psychology 899

HANDOUT 7 (continued)

6. A health-club official offers a reduced membership rate to families.

7. A teacher requires an oral presentation as part of the final grade.

8. A public meeting is held on the third floor of a building that has no elevator.

Source: Goldstein, S. B. (1994, August). Teaching the psychology of prejudice and privilege: Opportunities for active learning. Paper presented at the 102nd Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles, CA. Reprinted by permission of Dr. Susan B. Goldstein. 900 Social Psychology

HANDOUT 8

Just World Scale

Indicate your degree of agreement or disagreement with each of the following statements in the blank space next to each item. Respond to every statement by using the following code.

5 = strongly agree 4 = moderately agree 3 = slightly agree 2 = slightly disagree 1 = moderately disagree 0 = strongly disagree

1. I’ve found that a person rarely deserves the reputation he has. 2. Basically, the world is a just place. 3. People who get “lucky breaks” have usually earned their good fortune. 4. Careful drivers are just as likely to get hurt in traffic accidents as careless ones. 5. It is a common occurrence for a guilty person to get off free in American courts. 6. Students almost always deserve the grades they receive in school. 7. Men who keep in shape have little chance of suffering a heart attack. 8. The political candidate who sticks up for his principles rarely gets elected. 9. It is rare for an innocent man to be wrongly sent to jail. 10. In professional sports, many fouls and infractions never get called by the referee. 11. By and large, people deserve what they get. 12. When parents punish their children, it is almost always for good reasons. 13. Good deeds often go unnoticed and unrewarded. 14. Although evil men may hold political power for a while, in the general course of history, good wins out. 15. In almost any business or profession, people who do their job well rise to the top. 16. American parents tend to overlook the things most to be admired in their children. 17. It is often impossible for a person to receive a fair trial in the USA. 18. People who meet with misfortune have often brought it on themselves. 19. Crime doesn’t pay. 20. Many people suffer through absolutely no fault of their own.

Source: Z. Rubin & L. A. Peplau. Just world scale. Journal of Social Issues, 31, 65–89. Reprinted by permission of Blackwell Publishers. Social Psychology 901

HANDOUT 9

Provide your estimate of the number of dots in the figure:

Circle one of the following: “I am an underestimator.” “I am an overestimator.”

Using a scale from 0 (not at all) to 10 (extremely), judge the extent to which you think each of the following terms describe underestimators:

kind thoughtful intelligent friendly dependable honest hardworking dishonest unfriendly unintelligent lazy careless

Using a scale from 0 (not at all) to 10 (extremely), judge the extent to which you think each of the following terms describe overestimators:

kind thoughtful intelligent friendly dependable honest hardworking dishonest unfriendly unintelligent lazy careless

Source: Isbell, L. M., & Tyler, J. M. (2003). Teaching students about in-group favoritism and the minimal groups paradigm. Teaching of Psychology, 30, 127–130. (Items appear in Table 1, p. 129). 902 Social Psychology

HANDOUT 10

Aggressiveness Questionnaire

Circle the number of each statement that describes aggression.

1. A spider eats a fly. 2. Two wolves fight for the leadership of the pack. 3. A soldier shoots an enemy at the front line. 4. The warden of a prison executes a convicted criminal. 5. A juvenile gang attacks members of another gang. 6. Two men fight for a piece of bread. 7. A man viciously kicks a cat. 8. A man, while cleaning a window, knocks over a flowerpot, which, in falling, injures a pedestrian. 9. A girl kicks a wastebasket. 10. Mr. X, a notorious gossip, speaks disparagingly of many people of his acquaintance. 11. A man mentally rehearses a murder he is about to commit. 12. An angry son purposely fails to write to his mother, who is expecting a letter and will be hurt if none arrives. 13. An enraged boy tries with all his might to inflict injury on his antagonist, a bigger boy, but is not successful in doing so. 14. A man daydreams of harming his antagonist, but has no hope of doing so. 15. A senator does not protest the escalation of bombing to which he is morally opposed. 16. A farmer beheads a chicken and prepares it for supper. 17. A hunter kills an animal and mounts it as a trophy. 18. A dog snarls at a mail carrier, but does not bite. 19. A physician gives a flu shot to a screaming child. 20. A boxer gives his opponent a bloody nose. 21. A girl scout tries to assist an elderly woman, but trips her by accident. 22. A bank robber is shot in the back while trying to escape. 23. A tennis player smashes his racket after missing a volley. 24. A person commits suicide. 25. A cat kills a mouse, parades around with it, and then discards it.

Source: TEACHING OF PSYCHOLOGY by Benjamin. Copyright 1985 by Taylor & Francis Informa UK ltd. - Journals. Reproduced by permission of Taylor & Francis Informa UK Ltd. Journals in the format Other Book via Copyright Clearance Center. Social Psychology 903

HANDOUT 11

Conditional Reasoning Test (Sample Items)

1. American cars have improved in the last 15 years. American car-makers started to build better cars when they began to lose business to the Japanese. Many American buyers thought that foreign cars were better made. Which of the following is the most logical conclusion based on the above? a. America was the world’s largest producer of airplanes 15 years ago. b. Swedish car-makers lost business in America 15 years ago. c. The Japanese knew more than Americans about building good cars 15 years ago. d. American car-makers built cars to wear out 15 years ago, so they could make a lot of money selling parts.

2. The old saying “an eye for an eye” means that if someone hurts you, then you should hurt that person back. If you are hit, then you should hit back. If someone burns your house, then you should burn that person’s house. Which of the following is the biggest problem with the “eye for an eye” plan? a. It tells people to “turn the other cheek.” b. It offers no way to settle a conflict in a friendly manner. c. It can only be used at certain times of the year. d. People have to wait until they are attacked before they can strike.

Source: Reprinted by permission of Dr. Lawrence James, Department of Psychology, Georgia Tech University. 904 Social Psychology

HANDOUT 12

Intimate Friendship Scale

Thinking of your best friend, how many of these apply?

T F 1. I feel free to talk with him/her about almost anything. T F 2. I know what kinds of books, games, and activities he/she likes. T F 3. When he/she is not around, I miss him/her. T F 4. The most exciting things happen when I am with him/her and nobody else is around. T F 5. Whenever he/she wants to tell me about a problem I stop what I am doing and lis- ten for as long as he/she wants. T F 6. I can be sure he/she will help me whenever I ask for it. T F 7. I like to do things with him/her. T F 8. I know that whatever I tell him/her is kept secret between us.

Source: Selected items from Sharabany, R. (1994). Intimate friendship scale: Conceptual underpinnings, psychometric properties, and construct validity. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 11, 449–469. Items appear on p. 454. Social Psychology 905

HANDOUT 13

Passionate Love Scale

In this questionnaire, you will be asked to describe how you feel when you are passionately in love. Some common terms for this feeling are passionate love, infatuation, love sickness, or obsessive love. Please think of the person whom you love most passionately right now. If you are not in love right now, please think of the last person you loved passionately. If you have never been in love, think of the person whom you came closest to caring for in that way. Keep this person in mind as you complete this questionnaire. (The person you choose should be of the opposite sex if you are heterosexual or of the same sex if you are homosexual.) Try to tell us how you felt at the time when your feelings were the most intense. All answers will be strictly confidential. Use the following scale, placing a number in the blank to the left of each statement.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Not at Moderately Definitely all true true true

1. Since I’ve been involved with , my emotions have been on a roller coaster. 2. I would feel deep despair if left me. 3. Sometimes my body trembles with excitement at the sight of . 4. I take delight in studying the movements and angles of ’s body. 5. Sometimes I feel I can’t control my thoughts; they are obsessively on . 6. I feel happy when I am doing something to make happy. 7. I would rather be with than anyone else. 8. I’d get jealous if I thought were falling in love with someone else. 9. No one else could love like I do. 10. I yearn to know all about . 11. I want —physically, emotionally, mentally. 12. I will love forever. 13. I melt when looking deeply into ’s eyes. 14. I have an endless appetite for affection from . 15. For me, is the perfect romantic partner. 16. is the person who can make me feel the happiest. 17. I sense my body responding when touches me. 18. I feel tender toward . 19. always seems to be on my mind. 20. If I were separated from for a long time, I would feel intensely lonely. 21. I sometimes find it difficult to concentrate on work because thoughts of occupy my mind. 22. I want to know me—my thoughts, my fears, and my hopes. 23. Knowing that cares about me makes me feel complete. 24. I eagerly look for signs indicating ’s desire for me. 25. If were going through a difficult time, I would put away my own concerns to help him/her out. 26. can make me feel effervescent and bubbly. 27. In the presence of , I yearn to touch and be touched. 28. An existence without would be dark and dismal. 29. I possess a powerful attraction for . 30. I get extremely depressed when things don’t go right in my relationship with .

Source: Hatfield et al. Measuring passionate love in intimate relationships. Journal of Adolescence, 9, 391. Copyright 1986. Reprinted by permission of Elsevier. 906 Social Psychology

HANDOUT 14

Love Attitudes Scale

Listed below are several statements that reflect different attitudes about love. For each statement, fill in the response that indicates how much you agree or disagree with that statement. The items refer to a specific love relationship. Whenever possible, answer the questions with your current partner in mind. If you are not currently dating anyone, answer the questions with your most recent partner in mind. If you have never been in love, answer in terms of what you think your responses would most likely be. Indicate how strongly you agree or disagree by choosing the appropri- ate number from the scale below and placing it in the space provided.

5 = strongly agree with the statement 4 = moderately agree with the statement 3 = neutral, neither agree nor disagree 2 = moderately disagree with the statement 1 = strongly disagree with the statement

1. My partner and I have the right physical “chemistry” between us. 2. I feel that my partner and I were meant for each other. 3. My partner and I really understand each other. 4. My partner fits my ideal standards of physical beauty/handsomeness. 5. I believe that what my partner doesn’t know about me won’t hurt him/her. 6. I have sometimes had to keep my partner from finding out about other partners. 7. My partner would get upset if he/she knew of some of the things I’ve done with other people. 8. I enjoy playing the “game of love” with my partner and a number of other partners. 9. Our love is the best kind because it grew out of a long friendship. 10. Our friendship merged gradually into love over time. 11. Our love is really a deep friendship, not a mysterious, mystical emotion. 12. Our love relationship is the most satisfying because it developed from a good friendship. 13. A main consideration in choosing my partner was how he/she would reflect on my family. 14. An important factor in choosing my partner was whether or not he/she would be a good parent. 15. One consideration in choosing my partner was how he/she would reflect on my career. 16. Before getting very involved with my partner, I tried to figure out how compatible his/her hereditary back- ground would be with mine in case we ever had children. 17. When my partner doesn’t pay attention to me, I feel sick all over. 18. Since I’ve been in love with my partner, I’ve had trouble concentrating on anything else. 19. I cannot relax if I suspect that my partner is with someone else. 20. If my partner ignores me for a while, I sometimes do stupid things to try to get his/her attention back. 21. I would rather suffer myself than let my partner suffer. 22. I cannot be happy unless I place my partner’s happiness before my own. 23. I am usually willing to sacrifice my own wishes to let my partner achieve his/hers. 24. I would endure all things for the sake of my partner.

Source: Hendrick et al. JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS, 15, 147–159. Copyright 1998. Reprinted by permission of SAGE Publications, Ltd. Social Psychology 907

HANDOUT 15

Trust Scale

Read each of the following statements and decide whether it is true of your relationship with your partner. Indicate how strongly you agree or disagree by choosing the appropriate number from the scale below and placing it in the space provided.

1 = strongly disagree 2 = moderately disagree 3 = mildly disagree 4 = neutral 5 = mildly agree 6 = moderately agree 7 = strongly agree

1. I know how my partner is going to act. My partner can always be counted on to act as I expect. 2. I have found that my partner is a thoroughly dependable person, especially when it comes to things that are important. 3. My partner’s behavior tends to be quite variable. I can’t always be sure what my partner will surprise me with next. 4. Though times may change and the future is uncertain, I have faith that my partner will always be ready and willing to offer me strength, come what may. 5. Based on past experience I cannot, with complete confidence, rely on my partner to keep promises made to me. 6. It is sometimes difficult for me to be absolutely certain that my partner will always continue to care for me; the future holds too many uncertainties and too many things can change in our relationship as time goes on. 7. My partner is a very honest person and, even if my partner were to make unbelievable statements, people should feel confident that what they are hearing is the truth. 8. My partner is not very predictable. People can’t always be certain how my partner is going to act from one day to another. 9. My partner has proven to be a faithful person. No matter who my partner was married to, she or he would never be unfaithful, even if there was absolutely no chance of being caught. 10. I am never concerned that unpredictable conflicts and serious tensions may damage our relationship because I know we can weather any storm. 11. I am very familiar with the patterns of behavior my partner has established, and that he or she will behave in certain ways. 12. If I have never faced a particular issue with my partner before, I occasionally worry that he or she won’t take my feelings into account. 13. Even in familiar circumstances, I am not totally certain my partner will act in the same way twice. 14. I feel completely secure in facing unknown, new situations because I know my partner will never let me down. 15. My partner is not necessarily someone others always consider reliable. I can think of some times when my partner could not be counted on. 16. I occasionally find myself feeling uncomfortable with the emotional investment I have made in our relation- ship because I find it hard to completely set aside my doubts about what lies ahead. 17. My partner has not always proven to be trustworthy in the past, and there are times when I am hesitant to let my partner engage in activities that make me feel vulnerable. 18. My partner behaves in a consistent manner.

Source: John Rempel and John Holmes. How do I trust thee? Reprinted with permission from Psychology Today Magazine. Copyright © 1986 Sussex Publishers, LLC. 908 Social Psychology

HANDOUT 16

The Minding Scale

Respond to each of the following statements using the following scale:

1 = strongly agree 2 = moderately agree 3 = slightly agree 4 = slightly disagree 5 = moderately disagree 6 = strongly disagree

1. Successful romantic partners have the same opinions about things. 2. You should avoid telling a loved one too much personal detail about your past. 3. It is irritating when people ask you to do favors. 4. Partners should be as much alike as possible. 5. People will take advantage of you if they can. 6. There is no reason to discuss your past relationships with a new love. 7. Partners who have different opinions will have a poor relationship. 8. It is difficult to be close to someone whose past is different from your own. 9. Partners should spend lots of time talking together. 10. People mainly look out for their own welfare even in close relationships. 11. You should find out as much as you can about a new love. 12. Even when people love you they think mainly about themselves. 13. It is important to keep some mystery about yourself in a relationship. 14. Romantic partners should agree about all things. 15. The people that we love are really strangers to us. 16. Partners should give each other the benefit of the doubt no matter what. 17. People who do nice things for you usually want something from you in return. 18. Close partners often have different friends and interests.

Source: CLOSE ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS: MAINTENANCE AND ENHANCEMENT by Omarzu et al. Copyright 2001 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Reproduced by permission of Lawerence Erlbaum Associates in the format Other book via Copyright Clearance Center. Social Psychology 909

HANDOUT 17

Volunteer Functions Inventory

If you have done volunteer work before or are currently doing volunteer work, then using the 7-point scale below, please indicate how important or accurate each of the following possible reasons for volunteering is for you. If you have not been a volunteer before, then using the 7-point scale below, please indicate how important or accurate each of the following reasons for volunteering would be for you. Place a number from 1 to 7 before each statement using the following scale: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 not at all important/ extremely accurate important/accurate

1. Volunteering can help me get my foot in the door at a place where I would like to work. 2. My friends volunteer. 3. I am concerned about those less fortunate than myself. 4. People I’m close to want me to volunteer. 5. Volunteering makes me feel important. 6. People I know share an interest in community service. 7. No matter how bad I’ve been feeling, volunteering helps me to forget about it. 8. I am genuinely concerned about the particular group I am serving. 9. By volunteering, I feel less lonely. 10. I can make new contacts that might help my business or career. 11. Doing volunteer work relieves me of some of the guilt over being more fortunate than others. 12. I can learn more about the cause for which I am working. 13. Volunteering increases my self-esteem. 14. Volunteering allows me to gain a new perspective on things. 15. Volunteering allows me to explore different career options. 16. I feel compassion toward people in need. 17. Others with whom I am close place a high value on community service. 18. Volunteering lets me learn through direct “hands on” experience. 19. I feel it is important to help others. 20. Volunteering helps me work through my own personal problems. 21. Volunteering will help me succeed in my chosen profession. 22. I can do something for a cause that is important to me. 23. Volunteering is an important activity to the people I know best. 24. Volunteering is a good escape from my own troubles 25. I can learn how to deal with a variety of people. 26. Volunteering makes me feel needed. 27. Volunteering makes me feel better about myself. 28. Volunteering experience will look good on my resume. 29. Volunteering is a way to make new friends. 30. I can explore my own strengths.

Source: Clary, E. G., et al. (1998). Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: A functional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, p. 1520. Copyright © 1998 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted by permission. 910 Social Psychology

HANDOUT 18a

YOUR DECISION

0123456

0 678910 11 12 6 420-2-4-6

1 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 7 5 3 1 -1 -3 -5

2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4

3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 9 7 5 3 1 -1 -3 THEIR DECISION 4 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 10 8 6 4 2 0 -2

5 - 4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 11 9 7 5 3 1 -1

6 -6 -5 - 4 -3 -2 -1 0 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

3 YOUR PROFIT THEIR PROFIT 3

Source for 18 a, b, c, d: Martin Bolt Instructor’s Manual to accompany Social Psychology, 6/e. Copyright 1999. Reprinted by permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies. Social Psychology 911

HANDOUT 18b

Your Country

Your Decision

Feedback: Their Decision (leave blank)

Social Psychology 911

HANDOUT 18b

Your Country

Your Decision

Feedback: Their Decision (leave blank) 912 Social Psychology

HANDOUT 18c

Instructor’s Record Sheet

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6

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HANDOUT 18d

Record Sheet

Your Country Number

Month Your Country’s Profit Other Country’s Profit

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Your country’s total profit: