An Army with a Country

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An Army with a Country An Army with a Country How the Pakistan military imposes hegemony via the infrastructure and welfare sectors Inaugral-Dissertation Zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Philosophischen Fakultät der Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität zu Bonn vorgelegt von Rabia Chaudhry aus Lahore, Pakistan Bonn, 2019 Gedruckt mit Genehmigung der Philosophischen Fakultät der Rheinischen Friedrich- Wilhelms-Universität zu Bonn First Supervisor: Professor Dr. Solvay Gerke Second Supervisor: PD Dr. Eva Youkhana Advisor: Dr. Irit Eguavoen Date Defence / final exam: 09 July 2019 Abstract In addition to defending their countries, modern day militaries assist the state in labour intensive non-defence related activities. This ranges from disaster relief to providing administrative assistance. In countries where the military already exercises hegemonic control, possession of such auxiliary capabilities can potentially provide an avenue to extend the military’s jurisdiction / further strengthen its hegemony. This research uses Pakistan military as a case study. It operationalises military presence in two development sectors – Fauji Foundation representing welfare foundations, and Frontier Works Organisation (FWO) representing infrastructure building – to explore the underlying practices and methods through which militaries can use their additional or supplementary competencies to their own advantage. An analysis of the primary data collected from the field for this thesis shows that while the [Pakistan] military is present and thriving in the ‘development’ sector, it reflects on, or calls this presence its nation building role. Closer scrutiny reveals that although the terms ‘development’ or nation building are used interchangeably, the military’s understanding thereof, and the extent it holds itself responsible for it, are two separate questions. Moreover there is no clear answer thereto. The question is what is in the military’s habitus that compels its behaviour? What is the guiding rationale? The objective of this thesis is twofold: a) to investigate how the Pakistan military operationalises its presence in non-military domains to establish its hegemony albeit through non coercive means; and to understand b) what are the practices that allow for its continuous presence in the civil sphere (using the two case studies) without divesting its military status. The specific question that this thesis asks is what are the underlying practices and perceptions that allow the Pakistan military to establish its hegemony? The research design of this thesis deviates from other studies pertaining to civil military interactions in that instead of rationalising the relationship of the two domains (inter se) within historical trajectories, it approaches the actions / practices of the military as a product of social conditions and contexts. Using habitus as a prism of analysis, it directs attention to the processes and procedures through which behaviours, codes of conduct and most importantly the perceptions and thoughts inform generated actions. This study shows that Pakistan military’s presence in the non-defence sectors is not circumscribed by the duration of the coup. Even when the military is not directly in control of the political and administrative structures, we see it present and thriving in almost all traditionally civil domains – especially those archetypically linked with public service delivery. Primary data collected for this research reveals that after three takeovers, the military is not actively considering another coup. However, by extending its presence in the civil arenas it has discovered new avenues of concretising its hegemony. Just because a takeover is not a viable option any more does not mean the military is willing to compromise its omnipresence. It navigates the military yet not-military nature of entities like FWO and Fauji Foundation to consolidate its hegemony. These commercial concerns do not feature as symbols of hegemony or off-budget money making schemes within its i habitus, but as attempts to fix the country. The military considers itself not only responsible but ideally suited for delivering on nation building / ‘development’. I argue that this new kind of hegemony does not operate in lieu of hegemony as we understand but as an extension thereof. Using the usual tools of a hegemon – coercion and consent – would mean violating civil-military boundaries. By investing in the ‘developmental’ realms yet simultaneously calling it nation building, the military can be in control of the country and popular amongst the population. Based upon the findings of the case studies this thesis illustrates that the military ensures an absence of a money trail linking it to such organisations. This way the civil military boundaries stay intact. Moreover, the trusteeship of ‘development’ remains with the civil state. The military does not need to acquire political control outright anymore as it is extending its hegemony via socio-cultural means. And such the military’s preponderance endures because neither the hegemon nor the public perceive it as a forceful imposition. ii Kurzfassung Das moderne Militär übernimmt vermehrt Aufgaben im zivilen Sektor, die über die klassischen Aufgaben der Landesverteidigung hinausgehen. Gerade in arbeitsintensiven Bereichen wie Katastrophenschutz und Verwaltung ist dieser Trend zu beobachten. Dies kann in Ländern, in welchen das Militär bereits eine hegemoniale Rolle ein- und solche Hilfsfunktionen übernimmt, zu einer neuerlichen Erweiterung militärischer Zuständigkeiten führen. Die vorliegende Forschungsarbeit untersucht diese Entwicklung mit Blick auf das pakistanische Militär. Dabei stehen zwei Organisationen, in denen die Streitkräfte im Entwicklungssektor tätig geworden sind, im Fokus: die Fauji Foundation, eine Wohlfahrtsorganisation, und die Frontier Works Organisation (FWO), ein mit Infrastrukturausbau betrautes öffentliches Unternehmen. Von besonderem Interesse ist hierbei die Analyse der Vorgehensweise des Militärs, insbesondere die zugrundeliegenden Mechanismen mit welchen es sich seine zusätzlich gewonnenen Kompetenzen zum eigenen Vorteil nutzbar machen kann. Basierend auf den erhobenen Primärdaten kann festgestellt werden, dass das pakistanische Militär sehr präsent und erfolgreich im Entwicklungssektor Pakistans tätig ist. Es definiert seine Rolle dabei als die eines Nation-Builders. Die Begriffe Entwicklung und Nation-Building werden hierbei synonym verwendet. Was das Militär darunter versteht und ob es seiner neugewählten Rolle als Nation-Builder im Entwicklungssektor gerecht wird sind kritische Fragen. Es ist in diesem Zusammenhang entscheidend zu ergründen was das Militär grundsätzlich antreibt diese neue Rolle anzustreben und die Erreichung welcher Ziele es sich davon verspricht. Die vorliegende Forschungsarbeit untersucht den Prozess der Etablierung des Militärs im zivilen Entwicklungssektor in zwei Schritten. Es wird analysiert a) wie das Militär die Etablierung seiner neuen Rolle operationalisiert, und wie es seine Hegemonie durch die Anwesenheit und Aktivität im Entwicklungssektor indirekt mehrt.. Es wir weiter versucht zu ergründen b) welche Methoden eine ständige Präsenz im zivilen Bereich (anhand der beiden Fallstudien) weiterhin erlauben, ohne den militärischen Status zu verlieren. Die spezifische Frage, die sich in dieser Arbeit stellt, ist, welche grundlegenden Praktiken und Sichtweisen es dem pakistanischen Militär ermöglichen, seine Hegemonie langfristig zu verankern. Das Forschungsdesign dieser Arbeit unterscheidet sich von anderen Studien, die sich auf zivil-militärische Interaktionen beziehen, indem die Verbindung der beiden Bereich (inter se) innerhalb historischer Entwicklungen nicht rationalisiert werden, sondern die Handlungen / Praktiken des Militärs als Produkt sozialer Bedingungen und Kontexte betrachtet werden. Die Analyse des Habitus lenkt die Aufmerksamkeit auf die Prozesse und Verfahren, durch die Verhaltensweisen, Verhaltensregeln und vor allem auf die Wahrnehmungen und Gedanken, die erzeugte Handlungen beeinflussen. Die Einnahme einer starken Rolle des Militärs im zivilen Sektor ist nicht wie anzunehmen auf die Zeit eines militärischen Umsturzes begrenzt. Selbst wenn das Militär politische und administrative Strukturen nicht unter direkter Kontrolle hat, ist es in fast allen traditionellen zivilen Bereichen gegenwärtig und gedeiht – besonders in jenen, die mit der Erfüllung öffentlicher Dienstleistungen zusammenhängen. iii Die Auswertung der Primärdaten ergab, dass das Militär derzeit nicht an einer aktiven Machtübernahme interessiert ist. Es ist jedoch auch nicht Willens seine omnipräsente Stellung im Staat aufzugeben. Der Wunsch diesen Hegemonialanspruch aufrechtzuerhalten ist die treibende Kraft hinter den Aktivitäten des Militärs, die derzeit in fast allen zivilen Sektoren zu beobachten ist, einschließlich des hier untersuchten Entwicklungssektors. Die Aktivitäten der Fauji Foundation und der FWO sind Teil des vom Militär betrieben Konsolidierungsprozesses seiner Macht. Das Militär will diese Aktivitäten jedoch nicht als offensichtliches Symbol seiner Hegemonie zur Schau stellen oder als außerbudgetäre Option zur Generierung von Geldern; es sieht sich, und projiziert ein Bild von sich, als kompetenter Partner im Entwicklungssektor und erfolgreicher Nation-Builder. Diese Arbeit argumentiert, dass das Militär Indirekte Hegemonie als Erweiterung klassischer hegemonialer Ansprüche etabliert hat. Es versucht dabei jedoch den Anschein einer Verletzung der Grenze
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