Support Assistants for Fire Emergencies; Student Manual, Part B

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TITLE Support Assistants for Fire Emergencies; Student Manual, Part B. Firefighting for Civil Defense Emergencies. INSTITUTION International Association of Fire Chiefs, New York, N. Y SPONS AGENCY Office of Civil Defense (DOD), Washinaton, D.C. REPORT NC SM-9-2B PUB DATE Jul 71 NOTE 82p.

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC$3.29 DESCRIPTORS Adult Education; Behavior Standards; *Civil Defense; Cognitive Processes; *Course Content; Educational Programs; Emergency Programs; *Fire Protection; *Manuals; Objectives; Service Occupations; *Skill Development; Students; Task Performance

ABSTRACT A course designed to develop perforffa4ce capabilities in the student of the fire service is presented in a manual. Each chapter is designed to give the student a basic understanding of the material covered in class. Specific objectives are: (1) To train fiSupport Assistantu B personnel to augment and assist firefighters, (2) To train personnel to instruct in emergency procedures, and (3) To train emergency firefighting personnel to supervise untrained people in the suppression of fires and the use of firefighting equipment and other resources. There are 15 chapters: Introduction, Alert and Fire Operations Plan, Fire Behavior, Ventilation, Forcible Entry, Ropes and Knots, Operating Characteristics of Portable Extinguishers, Hose and Hose Practices, Ladders, Protective Breathing Equipment, Hose Streams, Overhauling, Emergency Water Supplies, Pumping, and Rescue Under Fire Conditions. (Author/CK) , ( r e, 4, ) 5,4- V.! 4 IT tr'PT).'4t,-4`

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fighting.. foi Civil Defense; Emergencies.'

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.t E ERGE CIES

A t ENT MAN L PARt B

Deloppd for The Office of CM! Defense byhe Tnternational Association of Fire Ctiefs Firefighting For Civil Defense Emergencies

SUPPORT ASSISTANTS for

FIRE EMERGENCIES

STUDENT MANUALPart B

SM-9.2B, July 1971

Developed for the Office of Civil Defense by International Association of Fire Chiefs .. MIEMIIMIMM=1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Title Page 1.Introduction 1

2.Alert and Fire Operations Plan 3 3.Fire Behavior 7 4.Ventilation 15 5.Forcible Entry 23 6.Ropes and Knots 27

7.Operating Characteristics of Portable Extinguishers 31 8. Hose and Hose Practices 37 9.Ladders 49

10. Protective Breathing Equipment 61 11.Hose Streams 67 12.Overhauling 75 13. Emergency Water Supplies 79 14.Pumping 83 15.Rescue Under Fire Conditions 87

.73

.. CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION-"SUPPORT ASSISTANT" PART B

As graduates of the Support Assistants foris expected of him during and after a disaster. Fire Emergencies Part A Course and as citizens It will develop his ability to carry out these sincerely interested in the welfare of the United responsibil ities. States, the Office of Civil Defense and the Fire Each chapter in this manual is designed to Service welcomes you to "Support Assistant"give the student a basic understanding of the Part H. This course will consist of approxi-material covered by the instructor in the class. mately 24 hours and will cover a variety ofTo obtain additional information, the student advanced subjects designed to contribute to the should refer to the publications cited in the Support Assistant's overall understanding ofbibliography. Each lesson should be read and the fire problem and to his functions in Civil understood before entering class to obtain maxi- Defense emergencies. mum benefit from the instructor's presenta- This course's primary objective is to develop tions. performance capabilities in the student of the lire service. Specific objectives are :(1) To As in "Support Assistant" Part A of this train "Support Assistant" B personnel to aug-course, the term "Support Assistant" Part B ment and assist firefighters, (2) To train per- is used to identify lay persons being trained to sonnel to instruct in emergency procedures, and augment regular fire forces during Civil De- (3) To train emergency firefighting personnel fense emergency or natural disasters. to supervise untrained people in the suppression As a graduate of "Support Assistant" Part A of fires and the use of firefighting equipment you are aware that you were recruited, screened and other resources. and trained by the regular fire service. You are This course will not make a professional fire- further aware that you are responsible to and fighter out of the student.Itwill give the under control of the regular fire forces in your student a much better understanding of what locality.

4 1 CHAPTER TWO

ALERT AND FIRE OPERATION PLAN

Emergency Standard Operating Procedures and the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System All Civil Defense actions prepare for emer- are jointly allied warning radar networks scat- gency operations. This is the meanlng of Civil tered across the northern part of the western Defense: civil government, industry, and the world and tie into a general warning system. public prepared for effective action in time of The backbone of the Civil Defense Warning disaster. System is the NAWAS. This system consists Certainly, the preparation of a nation-wide primarily of the three major Office of Civil De- fallout shelter system is the key element of fense Warning Centers plus backup centers at Civil Defense. The fallout shelter has life-saving the Office of Civil Defense Regional Headquar- capability by itself. It is essential to all other ters that are linked by special voice communi- Civil Defense preparations in the damage limit- cations system to more than 700 warning points ing systems of national defense. All other Civil located in key facilities and population centers Defense emergency operations are secondary throughout the nation. These warning points, to the shelter system and support it. Developing named on a 24-hour basis, are located at state Civil Defense capability automatically increases police, local police, and fire dispatching head- communityeffectiveness quarters and at similar emergency facilities inhandlinglesser including key federal installations. Through a emergencies. relay system, these warning points send warn- Warning ing information to local authorities who are responsible for sounding public warnitg de.. One of the essential supporting systems is the vices, such as sirens and other outdoor warning warning system. For people to receive the maxi- devices. mum benefit from the fallout shelter system, they must receive timely warning of attack so that they can move to the best available fallout Warning Signals protection before fallout arrives. A Department The principal means of warning the public of Defense study indicates that having an effec- is the outdoor attack warning siren system. In tive warning system could mean the saving of some areas horns, whistles, or other devices are an additional 2 to 8 percent of the pre-attack used for the same purpose. Everyone should be populationdepending on the type of severity familiar with the signals uscd on the public of the attack and other factors. This represents warning system and know what to d ) wLen the a saving of something like four to fifteen million signals are sounded. lives. The present Civil Defense warning system is a combination of federal, state and local sys- Attack Warning Signal tems. The federal portion of the system is The attack warning signal is a hre,: to five termedthe National Warning System minute wavering tone on sirens...)rz,eries of (NAWAS). This system is essentially an ex- short blasts on horns or other devices retaated tension of the military w;aning and detection as necessary. This signal meaas tha. , an tual systems that feed into the combat operationsattack against the United StRtes has been de- center of the North America Air Defense Com- tected and that protective octi an should be mand (NORAD), at Colorado Springs, Colo- taken immediately. As a matte' of National rado. Segments of NAW 'LS have been used forCivil Defense policy, the atthck wkrhing sig- severe weather warning!. nal is used for no other purpose and has no The North America Air Defense Command other meaning.

imnagisiml" THE WARNING NETWORK Here's what would happen if an enemy air attack were launched against our continent:

)))))))))))))»»

An approaching enemy missile or plane is detected by one or more of the radar stations on alert 24 hours a day, every day.

4.7-A1/1...ft/44 AIN Instantly information goes to the North American Air Defense 114 Command. (NORAD). At the td'i(OM same time as our military forces are alerted to strike back at the -Iattackers._ V

Warning of attack goes out from OCD Warning Officers over the National Warning System (NAW. AS) to 700 warning points at state and local levels.

From these locations, the warn. ing is passed down to thousands of secondary warning points in local communities.

Local officials\\\ warn the public.

FIGURE 1.The Warning Network

4 6 THE ATTACK WARNING SIGNAL

IN NM =I MN =I ME MN

A WAILING TONE OR SHORT BLASTS FOR 3 TO 5 MINUTES ACTUAL ATTACK AGAINST THIS COUNTRY HAS BEEN DETECTED-- TAKE PROTECTIVE ACTION. THE ATTENTION OR ALERT SIGNAL

A STEADY BLAST OR TONE FOR 3 TO 5 MINUTES-- LISTEN FOR ESSENTIAL EMERGENCY INFORMATION

FIGURE 2.Warning Signals

Attention or Alert Signal Under a No-Warning Condition Warning devices may 1- e used to get public Under a no-warning condition the individual attention in emergencies. The signal is known should take the necessary personal protection as the Attention or Alert Signal and is a three- measures to avoid the blinding flash, the blast to five-minute steady tone. It may be sounded effects and the intense heat that will be present at the option and on the authority of local gov- for a few moments. The individual should then ernment officials. They will determine the cir- seek the best shelter available for fallout and cumstances under which the signalis to be survival protection. activated (including whether it is to be used for warning of natural disasters). In addition to any other meaning or requirement for action as determined by local government officials, the signal means to all persons in the United States "Listen for essential emergency information." The outdoor public alerting system is limited in its effectiveness. For several years studies have been conducted to develop a practical in- door warning system, and research is still going on.

Individual Action on Alert Warning MINIMUM COVER POSITION In the absence of an organized procedure, the individualcitizen should seek cover inthe FIGURE 3.Mininunn Cover Position designated or best available shelter areas. A National Shelter Survey has marked most of the FIRE OPERATIONS PLAN logical fallout shelters in many local communi- All fire departments should have, or be part ties. When the take-cover warning is given, the of, a fire defense plan for nuclear attack con- support assistant firefighters should report to ditions. This plan should be coordinated with the nearest available shelter if there is no pre- plans at county, area, and state level. The plan determined plan. should be based on : an assessment of the fire When the Support Assistant reports to the potential in the area ;an inventory of equip- first available shelter, he should help the fire ment and apparatus ; an inventory of trained guard leader organize and carry out the pre- firefighting personnel and supporting equip- scribed shelter-fire guard duties. ment and manpower that may be needed.

5 The plan should prescribe some operating If there is no fire defense operational plan, procedures such as where do firefighting forces some confusion may result within the regularly report and who is in charge of what. organized firefighting forces, and effectiveness The plan should specify emergency operating will be limited. Fires that can be anticipated as centers, communications control points, com- a result of nuclear attack could overcome indi- munication links with Civil Defense and other vidual fire-defense organizations very quickly. vita; elements. The individual Support Assistant should be Mutual Aid arrangements are a desirable familiar with the type of alarm he might re- part of any local fire defense plan. Although each fire organization may be required to oper- ceive and the procedures he would be expected ate independently for a short time, one of the to follow during extreme emergency. He should main purposes of an area fire-defense plan is know his station assignment and the ways-and- to bring about coordination of effort and re- means of getting to his station if at all possible. sources to achieve maximum effectiveness. The regular fire forces wAl be overtaxed. The Communications capabilityis a necessary Support Assistant may find that he will have part of fire-defense planning. Resources, such to take untrained people, organize, and lead as equipment and manpower, can only be man- them on small missions related to fire control, aged as far as the organization can communi- using the limited resources that may be avail- cate. Therefore, a complete operational com- able. munications capability needs to be maintained by the fire-defense organization. It is extremely Fire-defense operations plans and the famili- important that this communications net be tied arity with these plans by all firefighting person- in with the local or area Civil Defense Operating nel, "Support Assistant" or otherwise, are vital Center. for effective functioning of the Fire Service.

6 CHAPTER THREE

FIRE BEHAVIOR

In the "Support Assistant" Part A course fire explosion. The process of combustion is more was discussed in connection with the fire tri- correctly illustrated by the second triangle. angle. The three legs of the fire triangle were Here the process of combustion is illustrated shown solidly connected at the corners. Actually, with variable connections between the three thisissomewhat of anoversimplification. legs. In actual fire situations, one or more of Rather than fire, this solidly constructed tri- the three connections can be considered some- angle would illustrate the components of an what less than a solid connection. For example, most fires burn with a limited oxygen supply as evidenced, in part, by the amounts of smoke THE FIRE TRIANGLEproduced by ordinary fires. On the heat side of the triangle the fire loses much of its heat. From the fire's standpoint the ideal would be if all the heat released was used for vaporizing more fuel. On the fuel side of the fire triangle many of the fuel vapors released are wasted, either because the ignition temperature is not present or sufficient oxygen is not available. This again is illustrated by the amounts of smoke produced in ordinary fires. Clean complete combustion as illustrated by the natural gas burner on the cook stove does not produce smoke. Fire can be a very tenuous thing as anyone can testify who has attempted to light a camp- fire on a cold damp day. The firefighter controls fires by taking advantage of the inherent weaknesses of the combustion process. Although fire raging through a structure un- checked may not seem a tenuous process, it may, nevertheless, be controlled by attacking it at its weakest point. To take full advantage of these inherent weaknesses it is helpful if the firefighter has a more complete understanding of the three components of fire than was in- cluded in the "Support Assistant" A course.

Oxygen Oxygen (0) is the most important and plentiful of the elements, making up 21 percent of the atmosphere, about 89 percent (by weight) of water, and about 32 percent of the earth's outer surface. For simplification, the terms "oxygen" and "air" may be used interchangeably in this man- FIGURE4.The Fire Triangle ual when referring to fire behavior. It must be 9 7 remembered, however, thatitis the oxygen Some materials contain free oxygen or ox- in the air that makes combustion possible. ygen only partially combined with other ele- Many materials, such as wood, have oxygen ments and therefore available for the combus- in their chemical makeup. In most cases, how- tion, or oxidation process. Gun powder and ever, the oxygen contained in such materials is some of the early plastics, such as celluloid, are in the form of oxides. Oxidation is oxygen examples of this material. These materials have already partially or trl. Illy combined with other violent fire behavior because both the oxygen elements and not available for the combustion and fuel is present, and only heat is necessary process. to start the process. A simple experiment can be performed with a candle, a clear glass tumbler and a shallow pan of water. The burning candle is set upright in the shallow pan of water, and the tumbler is placed over the candle. In a short time, the flame gets smaller and smaller until it goes out. It has used up the available oxygen inside the tumbler. At this point, note that the water has risen inside the glass tumbler. It has moved in to replace the mass that has been converted by the fire into gas. A close examination of the tumbler 1 will indicate that the water vapor formed in the process of combustion had condensed on the inside of the glass allowing room for the water to rise in the tumbler. If the air remaining inside the tumbler were analyzed, it would be found to have a relatively high concentration of CO2. This same process might occur in shelters where the ventilation was limited. Shelter occupants would breathe in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide and water vapor. As inthe experiment, the water vapor would condense on the walls and the CO2 would accumulate in the area. CO., is a breathing stimulant, and the shelter occupants would be adversely affected by rising amounts of CO2 before they actually smothered from lack of oxygen. Fuels and Heat. For simplification fuel and 170 heat were discussed separately in the "Support r Assistant" Part A Manual. But fuels and their behavior under ordinary combustion are so de- pendent on the effects of heat, they will be A": discussed jointly in this manual. The student I should keep in mind or review the basic information given in "Support Assistant" Part A. All matter including fuels may exist in three forms, depending on the pressures and tempera- OXYGEN tures at which they are considered : 1. As a solid, such as iron, wood or ice. USED BY COMBUSTION 2. As a liquid, such as alcohol, gasoline or FIGURE 5.Oxygen Used By Combustion water.

8 3. As a gas, such as oxygen, hydrogen or steam. Materials can exist in more than one form depending on the temperature or pressure at which they are found. Water, for example, at normal atmospheric pressure(14.7 P.S.I. at sea level) and below 32° F. is a solid, ice. At 32° F. the ice turns to liquid, and at 212° F. the liquid changes to a vapor or gas. Each time a material undergoes a physical change, such as, freezing or melting and vaporizing or condens- ing, it absorbs or gives off heat. For example, it requires 144 BTU's to melt a pound of ice. If the pound of water freezes, it gives up the 144 BTU's. It requires 970 BTU's to vaporize a pound of water, and when the steam again condenses, it gives up this 970 BTU's. All fuels, like water, require a given number of BTU's to melt and (or) vaporize them. As pointed out in the "Support Assistant" Part A Manual, the vaporization of a fuel is necessary in order for it to mix with oxygen and undergo combustion. It was also pointed out in the "Support As- sistant" Part A Manual that wood contains a considerable amount of free carbon, which resists vaporization at ordinary combustion temperatures, and, therefore, seems to burn as a solid. A substantial portion of wood, however, is subject to vaporization and does vaporize and burn as a gas leaving only carbon as a glowing coal. These glowing coals must wait for actual contact with the oxygen to complete the combustion process. This type of combustion is characteristic of all Class A fuels. Charcoal contains a very high percentage of free carbon and such flaming as is seen over charcoal will VAPORIZATION OF be largely the combustion of carbon monoxide IF gas. A FUEL IS NECESSARY An ordinary candle is an excellent example of COMBUSTION IS TO OCCUR the melting, vaporizing, and combustion of the fuel. The wax is melted by the flame's heat, the liquid moves up the wick closer to the flame FIGURE 6.Vaporization of Fuel where there is sufficient heat to vaporize it, and it mixes with oxygen and undergoes combus- protect the end of the wick, oxygen is free to tion. The wick of the candle is a (Class A) contact the carbonaceous material so the wick carbonaceous material and cannot burn as long burns off. Another interesting experiment with as it is covered with liquid because the oxygen the caildle is to snuff it out rather quickly and cannot penetrate to burn off the carbon. When then hold a match a short distance above the the candle is blown out, one can often observe candle in the smoke or vapors still rising from a small glowing coal at the tip of the wick. the wick. The flame will jump down the stream When the liquid wax cannot rise high enough to of vapors to the wick reigniting the candle.

9 It was pointed out in the "Support Assistant" vaporization and ignition of additional ma- Part A Manual that wood shavings can be ig- terials must spread ahead of the fire in order for nited much easier than a block of wood because the fire to spread. the fuel is sufficiently fine that the heat of a The "Support Assistant" Part A Manual de- match can vaporize and ignite the material. fined the three methods of heat transmission or This example can be carried farther by con- travel :radiation, convection, and conduction. sidering the wood as being ground to dust. If Since the spread of fire depends on the spread this wood dust is suspended in the air where of heat (consequently that fire will spread by every particle is surrounded with oxygen, it can all three means). be ignited with explosive violence. There are very few dusts that will not explode in this The spread of fire by conduction is of minor manner. For example, many women have been importance, primarily because most fuels are seriously burned emptying a vacuum sweeper good insulators ;that is, poor conductors of bag over a bonfire or into an incinerator. When heat. However, the spread of fire by conduction fires are fought in dusty locations such as grain must be guarded against. Certain noncombusti- elevators or flour mills, care must be exercised ble materials used in partitions are good con- to prevent throwing quantities of dust into the ductors of heat and may, by conduction, ignite fire area with the hose stream. kindling fuels on the other side of the partition. Examples of such materials are asbestos board, sheet metal, and steel bulkheads in ships. Steel Fire Sources rods and pipes through brick walls have been Nuclear weapons may ignite fires either di- known to conduct enough heat to ignite fires rectly or indirectlydirectly by the heat of the on the opposite side. nuclear fire ball and indirectly from the blast Radiation can be considered the most depend- damage. able means for the fire to spread its heat, pri- Thermal Radiation.The heat of the nuclear marily because heat travels by radiation like fire ball is so intense that it may start fireslight, equally in all directions from a point outdoors or indoors through windows as much source. Large fires are intense sources of radi- at 25 to 30 miles away. The heat of the nuclear ant heat. Fires nave been known to jump streets flash is very intense, but of short duration. The as much as 90 feet wide against the wind. duration is short enough that most solid com- In contrast to radiated heat, heat trans- bustibles will not be ignited much beyond the mitted by convection travels primarily upward, area of complete destruction. However, kindling except where the convection currents may be fuels, such as paper, dry grass, etc., can beturned laterally by ceilings or strong winds. easily ignited by the thermal energy of the Vertical channels, such as stair wells or elevator bomb. shafts, make excellent chimneys in which convection currents can build up and allow a fire Blast Damage.Gas lines in buildings would to spread upward sometimes with almost ex- be ruptured by the blast, and leaking gas in plosive speed. many instances would find a source of ignition, especially where gas appliances had been left In some cases convection currents actually burning. Electric shorts would occur in dam- work to inhibit the spread of a fire. Consider aged buildings as well as where electric lines a fire burning across a dry meadow on a still were knocked down. Many fires would probably day. The convection currents above the fire are be ignited from this source. pulling in cool air at the base of the fire and actually tending to keep the fuels ahead of the fire cool. Because the fire must depend on its Spread of Fire radiant heat to spread and has convection cur- Once ignited a fire will continue to spread rents working against it, it spreads very slowly. as long as it has fuel and oxygen and nothing If, however, there is sufficient wind to force the is done to rob it of its heat. We commonly talk convection currents close to the ground where about the spread of fire without stopping to con- both convection and radiation can work to- sider that this is actually secondary. Heat for gether, the fire spreads very rapidly.

10 00. CONVECTION CURRENT COOL AIR COOL AIR 11 'Via] VA ht RADIATED HEAT STRONG WIND 400000---,...),-_y.CONVECTION4-111-1".1114.4"11'+' CURRENT FIRE SPREAD 11 In the next chapter, ventilation will be considered. With proper ventilation the firefighter takes advantage of convection currents to rob the fire of some of its heat. In large fires, convection currents can be strong enough to be instrumental in spreading the fire over a considerable distance. The heavy updraft or thermal column carries brands high into the air where they may be borne by the air currents for a considerable distance to rain down on combustible materials. In large fires these brands are much mere than just sparks. It is not uncommon, for example, for glowing 1 x 12 lumber to be carried aloft as a fire brand. The spread of fire by fire brands might be considered an exception to the ordinary means of fire travel by radiation convection and conduction because the actual fire is being trans- ported by the air currents rather than the heat.

Fire Buildup Fire behavior in confined areas has certain characteristics with which all firefighters should be familiar. When a fire is ignited within a structure, it behaves initially like any bonfire we might ignite in the open air. Its speed will depend almost wholly on the nature of the fuel. In large piles of kindling fuel, for example, the fire will build with almost explosive violence. To understand fire behavior inside a structure we will consider a fuel arrangement that will cause FIGURE R.Fire Buildup the fire to build up somewhat slower. For a model fire we might consider an over- ceiling without being ignited. These combustible stuffed chair with a few newspapers and a vapors and the products of combustion from the magazine rack alongside. This fire might build fire itself will build up at ceiling level, but heat up to where flames were reaching about half is also being lost along the ceiling because the way to i-he ceiling. At this point convection ceiling is absorbing heat. Whether the tempera- currents are carrying away much of the heat, ture at ceiling level rise to the danger point will and portions of the overstuffed chairs are being depend on the heat loss and the size of the fire. heated by radiant heat. In the flame zone, tem- If the fire is of sufficient size and intensity, peratures will be high enough to ignite the temperatures at ceiling level will rise to around vapors being given off, and there is good com- 1000° F. About 1000° is the ignition tempera- bustion. However, where the materials are being ture of the flammable vapors pocketed at ceiling heated by radiant heat, they will give off flam- level, and at this stage, things happen rather mable vapors that may not be hot enough to suddenly. The area directly over the fire will be ignite and may travel towards the ceiling as the hottest, and the flames over the fire itself smoke. For practical purposes we can consider will seem to reach toward the ceiling and ignite the vapors given off from ordinary combustibles the entire mass of flammable vapors at ceiling similar to natural gas. level. This phenomenon is termed flash-over and In addition to these distilled vapors, there often traps people attempting to fight fire or will be some carbon monoxide gas formed closer persons who have gone back into a building to the actual flame zone which will rise to the to attempt to save valuables.

12 When the fire flashes over, the heat within the room becomes so intense that all the combustibles within the room are ignited. If enough doors and windows are open to provide oxygen to the fire, it will spread very rapidly through available openings to other parts of the structure. But if sufficient doors and windows are I. not open to provide oxygen to the fire, it will consume the available oxygen and go into a smoldering or backdraft stage. The backdraft stage will be considered again under ventilation. In some cases fuel arrangements are such that the fire burns clean. Only water vapor and CO.. with very little smoke will accumulate at ceiling level. In these cases the danger of flash- over is low. Experienced firefighters have learned to sense the imminence of flash-over and guard against being caught. Support Assistants who enter buildings for the purpose of rescue or extin- guishment should watch carefully for signs of flash-over. Be wary if considerable amounts of dark smoke cling to the ceiling and if the flames from the fire seem to be licking towards the ceiling. Once a structure is fully involved, fire can spread quite easily to other buildings. It is not uncommon for fire to spread by radiant heat 50 to 60 feet against the wind. With the wind, when radiation and convection are working to- FIGURE 9.Conflagration and Fire Storm gether to spread the head,fires can jump greater distances to involve other buildings. tense that a recirculating pattern is set up on Where relatively strong winds are blowing, the perimeter of the fire storm. The rising mass 20 to 30 miles per hour, fires may develop on a of heated gas is so intense that it builds up broad front !uld move with the wind burning pressure aloft, and these pressures force convec- everything in their path. This type of mass fire tion currents on the fire perimeter to spread is referred to as a conflagration. laterally and be sucked back down to the ground In a few cases during World War II in Ger- by the lower pressures and the intense inward many, mass fires developed that were termed flowing winds. Because of this re-circulation of fire storms. In areas where there is a heavy combustion products, the air near a fire storm concentration of combustible buildings, this may have a low oxygen content. type of mass fire may be possible. The fire The conflagration type of mass fire is a dis- storm develops when a large number of struc- tinct possibility in U. S. cities if they were tures are involved in fire over a wide area and to undergo nuclear attack. Fire storms are con- ground winds are light. The mass fire develops sidered unlikely for two reasons: (1) a quite its own air cui rents. Convection currents over large area of combustible buildings is necessary the fire become very intense, and ground winds for a fire storm to develop and (2) the destruc- develop, moving inward to the fire base from tive power of a nuclear weapon is such that it all directions. Upward convection currents and would quite probably flatten portions of such incoming winds at ground level become so in- areas, lessening the probability of a fire storm.

15 13 CHAPTER FOUR

VENTILATION AT FIRES

If we take a davenport and two overstuffed Why is this done? chairs, place them in an open field, and ignite them, the resulting fire will not be difficult to Ventilation is performed for any of several extinguish with a small amount of water. In- reasons : deed, we could walk up close and extinguish the 1. To save life by removing smoke and gases fire with a pump tank or pail of water endangering building occupants who are But if the same furniture were burning in its trapped or unconscious. ordinary location, the living room, extinguishing the fire would not be so easy. In many 2. To allow firefighters to enter and remain cases, firefighters would be hampered by the in the building to extinguish the fire and smoke. In some cases, large amounts of water search for helpless occupants and for hid- would be used. In other instances, the failure den fire. At most fires, ventilation permits of the firefighters to get in close and quickly the firefighters to advance close to the extinguish the fire would result in extreme dam- fire and extinguish it with a minimum age to the building. of time, water, and damage. What causes the difference? The amount of 3. To prevent backdraft or smoke explosions. ventilation. The furniture burning outside is no The so-called backdraft or smoke ex- problem because the heat and smoke rapidly plosion is actually an explosion of carbon dissipate into the atmosphere. The same furni- monoxide and other fuel gases mixed with ture burning in a building will cause large air. Carbon monoxide is given off at fires amounts of heat and smoke to build up within where there is insufficient ventilation for the structure because heat and smoke can't complete combustion. If a door is opened escape to the outside atmosphere fast enough. and sufficient air enters to mix with car- Consequently, firefighters have to advance to bon monoxide to form an explosive mix- the fire under very unpleasant conditions caused ture and if there is sufficient heat present by the confined heat and smoke. Even if they to ignite this mixture, an explosion may are protected by masks, the high heat will be result. This is a rare occurrence, but a punishing and lack of visibilitywill cause dangerousoneresponsiblefor many problems. deaths and injuries; therefore, the possi- Difficulties posed by the interior fire can be bilities must be considered. Proper venti- greatly reduced by making the conditions as lation may prevent it or lesson its harmful similar as possible to those of the outdoor fire; effects. that is, by thoroughly ventilating the building. However, ventilation should not be performed 4. To control spread of fire. Heat rises until in a haphazard manner. It is a subject in fire- it meets an obstruction, such as a roof or fighting second inimportance onlyto the ceiling. It then travels horizontally, seek- application of water. In many cases ventilation ing an opening where it may rise again. is essential to permit the proper application of An opening made in a roof will "pull the water. Every firefighter should be thoroughly fire" to that opening and allow it to vent acquainted with it. upward into the atmosphere. Air currents are set up that cause the fire to move in What is ventilation? that direction and tend to keep it from Ventilation, applied to fire fighting, means spreading elsewhere. Such an opening the planned and systematic removal of smoke, made at another spot will draw the fire gases, and heat from a structure. to that location.

. 16 ate

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- I

4.4

FIGURE 10.Fire before ventilation

When should ventilation be performed? of the stairway or other vertical arteries ina Ventilate buildings, ships or other enclosures multi-storied building may be opened to prevent where smoke is present. Also ventilate where "mushrooming" (heat and smoke banking up on gases or fumes have accumulated from causes the top floor), when mushrooming woulden- other than fire. danger human life. This can be done without waiting for water.

When should ventilation start? Where should we ventilate? Start ventilation as soon as water isup to the 1.At the roof : Heat and smoke rise, accumu- nozzle; not before. Ventilation will allowmore late at the topmost point, and then start air to get to the fire ; this will accelerate burn- banking down. A roof opening will allow ing, and a charged hose line must, therefore, be the smoke and heat to escape rapidly. ready to be moved into action assoon as venti- When there are no natural openings in lation begins. There is an exception to this rule: the roof such as skylights, scuttle holes, The skylight, scuttle cover or door at the top etc. and conditions are not severe enough 16 17 *

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WEIL -

t4.

FIGURE 11.Fire after ventilation

to warrant cutting a hole, ventilation of age to opening windows on floors below the attic or top floor may suffice. Roof the fire. ventilation is often valuable though the 3. At doorways: Doors should be opened to fire is in the lower part of the building, permit air circulation to remove smoke. even the basement. A hole may be cut in the roof when fire is in the cockloft or top 4. Other points: Any other covered or partly floor and sometimes when fire is else- covered opening on a level with or higher where in the building but a heavy smoke than the fire should be opened. condition prevails on the top floor that cannot be removed sufficiently by other How should ventilation be performed? means. By opening roof: Firemen go to the roof and 2. At windows: Windows should be opened remove scuttle covers, skylights, etc., and on the floor where the fire is located and cut holes in the roof. One large hole is better on .all floors above that where smoke has than several small ones. It should be cut accumulated. Usually there is no advant- directly over the fire, if possible, but not at a

17 18 17.0 ego 4 t _, /Wok A V 's N r ft----;40- WOWKir- lig7W;;47, a1t, 14t4 1477,FrailiOpl,a p r lib, - 'a P,.. r 4111111/"4, 110,1 s . re' ,e4\ vaAjhu iii 0 :4 ' 0/4'14 (b. '`. 0/4.,,,!1 r1.44) .,-.A. f,',.14)... 01,1.,;/!,-1 0, rAirakTiFirt4):46onaittir,4,0,41c**'1 kitf1,64,I. rte,',:t a 0/)!,, CO WAIL 44 ;,..,, 40:ii 4*4-

u,4 ':, I ti'`.°it PAO' i Vo';::, rri707-77,0=7,--7537-p75-1, 0111...w, e l 417 ,,,..:4 rfr- a,,,,4,,cw004.4, /ql,:s01.1. Fejt' tri,, ,-,.4yr 0 ...#_. ikt kkj 0 i0*. _ 4;'''41,,' \..dik'aLe-411, FAV, '1,404:, 144 4 , ,./,-, IN ?1)41474t *1:714:1 r..--...4*#01PA r,4.0 AiOf r.05,10111'10,7Aier-Pc'l 'a 4.00 v(vo: A.i.v, Alitp 'rip% :14._) I ki%11 'Iri) r;*op A44

I I

I point that would endanger an adjacent build- Above the plate glass show window in most ing. Skylights may be removed by prying stores there is usually a lighter glass tran- them loose at the coaming and lifting the som. This is easily broken and often affords skylight or by loosening the coaming on three adequate ventilation ;the show window is sides, leaving the fourth for a hinge, and allowed to remain intact. In extreme cases folding the skylight back onto the roof. When the whole show window may be removed. removing the whole skylight is not feasible, In either situation, if there is a partition be- e, individual glass panes may be removed with- tween the store and show window, it must be out damage by prying up the metal divider removed. strips and sliding the glass out. If no other means will work, the glass may be knocked Basement Fires out with an ax or any other tool. Basement or cellar fires present special venti- By opening windows: On the fire floor and lation problems. Of course windows, when pres- floors above it, the windows should be opened. ent, and doors should be opened. Sometimes If conditions permit, this should be done by windows are recessed in enclosures and covered firefighters working from the inside. Blinds with an iron grating at street level. This grat- and shades should be raised or removed and ing may be removed by breaking the concrete drapes and curtains pushed back or removed at the corners ; or the bars may be spread and a to permit the smoke to escape. Screens should pike pole inserted to break the window glass. be removed and storm windows removed or When deadlights (small sections of heavy glass) broken out. Some say that double hung win-are present in the sidewalk over a basement, dows should be opened 2A of the way from they may be knocked out with the back of an ax the top and IA from the bottom, but this is of or a maul. Removing coal chute covers may also little consequence. The main point is to get assistventilation.In some stores, removing the window open at the top and let the smoke panels under the front of the show window escape. Fresh air will find its way in to re-gives direct access to the basement, affording place it. Good cross-ventilation can be accom- good ventilation. Where no other means is plished by opening the windows on the lee-effective a hole may be cut in the floor above ward (away from wind) side of the buildingthe basement. This must be guarded by a at the top, and those or. the windward sidecharged hose line. Hot air heating grilles in from the bottom, allowing the wind to blowfloors can be used by removing the grille and in the open bottoms and pushing the smokepushing down the hot air duct. This will have out through the open tops. the same effect as cutting a hole in the floor and Casement and factory-type pivoting windows is quicker and less damaging. have to be opened according to their design. Many windows are difficult or impossible toVenting Entire Building open in the allotted time. If some conditions When an entire buiMing is to be ventilated, warrant it, they should be broken. Glass is thesuch work should generally begin at the top of cheapest part of the building. Much valuablethe structure and proceed downward, floor by property has been destroyed by fire because floor. If the lower part of the building is opened firefighters hesitated to break windows thatfirst, fire may break through the window open- couldn't be opened. in there and make ventilation of upper floors A quick way to break windows above theimpossibleor even endanger men who may be ground floor is to raise a ladder and let theventilating or performing other duties above top of it fall against the window. It can be the fire. moved from window to window, doing the job much quicker than could be done by a man working from a ladderand is safer. How-Mechanical Ventilation ever, there is danger from falling glass when- In addition to the methods of ventilation by ever glass is broken ; therefore, men at thenatural means, movement of smoke, gases, and base of the ladder should avoid looking up air can be forced by mechanical devices. Fans of when the ladder is dropped in or pulled out.varying sizes are used by many fire depart-

19 it at its weakest point. To take full advantage of these inherent weaknesses it is helpful if the firefighter has a more complete understanding of the three components of fire than was in- cluded in the "Support Assistant" A course.

ments. These usually range from 5,000 to 15,000 opening than when it was close to it. The same cubic feet per minute capacity. Common fog precautions mentioned for using fans apply also nozzles induce a great amount of air to follow to using fog nozzles for ventilation ; in addition, the fog stream and can move from 10,000 to care must be exercised to avoid water damage. 30,000 cubic feet per minute, depending upon size, type, fog pattern, and location of nozzle. Ship Fires Since the use of fans has become popular, Some fire departments may be called upon to there is a noticeable tendency of some fire de- fight fires aboard sea-going cargo ships. Venti- partments to neglect natural ventilation. In-lation aboard these ships calls for "trimming" deed, many poorly trained fire departments de- ventilators (that is, turning the ventilating fun- pend almost entirely on mechanical ventilation nels away from the wind), removing hatch and overlook the advantage of opening win- covers(it should be remembered that there dows,etc,aspreviouslydescribed. Smokemay be additional hatch covers at the "tween- ejectors can be valuable when properly used, deck" level), and opening lazaret hatch doors. but they are best when used as an adjunct to Engine rooms are often equipped with sky- natural ventilation or in cases where natural lights similar to those on the roofs of buildings, ventilation is ineffective. In many instances, which may be treated in the same manner to the time and energy used to put smoke ejectorA effect ventilation. to work would be better used in effecting natural ventilation. Precautions After normal means of natural ventilation have been accomplished and results are not Remember that a hose stream aimed into a satisfactory, the smoke ejector can be put to window, doorway, skylight, hole, or other open- work. It must be remembered that if not prop- ing has the same effect of nullifying ventilation erly used, these fans can do more harm than as if the opening had a cover placed over it. good. An exhaust fan will draw the smoke and Openings should not be made where they may fire toward the place where the fan is located; jeopardize nearby structures by extending the therefore, the location of the fan must be care- fire unless adequate protection in the form of fully selected. This problem was exemplified at a hose streams is at hand. fire in the attic of a one-story dwelling. The When holes for ventilation are cut in a floor, firefighters were able to enter the ground floor they should be near a window if possible. The with ease; only a slight amount of smoke was smoke will go through the open window, and if present there. They placed a blower fan in the the men with the protecting hose line are driven front doorway and an exhaust fan in therear out of the building, upward extension of fire doorway. In a moment a large volume of smoke through the hole can be prevented by a hose was drawn from the attic into the first floor, stream from the outside through the window. and the firefighters were driven out of the build- It is not desirable to cut holes in the fire- ing. fighters' path of travel because they may step Fog nozzles have been used for ventilation into them. for more than 80 years ; yet, today many fire Whenever a hole is cut in roof or floor, or departments use them only for extinguishing whenever a skylight or scuttle cover is removed, the fire. To remove smoke with a fog nozzle, the the op'ening should be probed with a tool to find nozzle is held inside the window or doorway and if there is any obstruction, such as a ceiling, aimed toward the outer air. Experiments show below the hole. When such an obstruction is that the wider the fog pattern, the greater the found, it should be opened or pushed down. air movement, but the pattern should notcover When breaking glass, make sure no one below the entire opening. Also, better results were ob- will be struck by falling glass. Warning should tained when the nozzle was a few feet from the be given in ample time.

20 4111110 IMF olow. 110, 401.40-11111r 11111 41111M-411110W,_- jggi 1*Iu 40.111111alfrowjair 411111111/..4a. 11111Ar 111.11011110,4,741001111P :Mb Oimmalas 41.1.11111011.115Z4110-00. 41".. asparolition 4111111P 040/ 40iNens dor WRONG- DRAWS FIRE TO OTHER END OF BUILDING.

CORRECT-HELPS TO HOLD FIRE NEAR POINT1OF ORIGIN.

FIGURE 13.Correet ventilation will hold fire near point of origin

21 22 LADDER PIPE STREAM SHUTS OFF VENTILATION FROM HOLE IN ROOF, THUS CREATING HEAVY SMOKE CONDITION IN BUILDING.

FIGURE 14.Ladder stream may nullify ventilation

.. 23.: CHAPTER FIVE

FORCIBLE ENTRY TOOLS

It is easy for the average citizen to under-should be careful not to step into a position stand why firefighters use water to extinguish where they could be injured. fire, but most people do not appreciate the great need for the other phases of firefighting per- The Pike-Pole or Hook formed with tools rather than water. Locked doors must be forced to gain entry and locked This tool, called a hook in some sections of windows opened or broken for ventilation. the country, is more commonly called apike- Floors, walls, Rnd ceilings must be opened topole. It comes in various lengths of which the discover and extinguish hidden fire. 6-foot lengthis the most useful ;although Most of this work is performed with the samelengths up to 20 feet are also carried forspecial of the pike-pole is few versatiletools, known as forcible-entry use. The most frequent use tools to distinguish them from tools used pri- for pulling down ceilings to discoverhidden fire. marily for other purposes. Those most frequent- The ideal pole length for this purpose is two ly used are the ax, pike-pole (hook) , and claw- feet less than the distance from floor toceiling; tool. There are several others ; some are general i.e., 6 feet when ceiling is eight feethigh. purpose, such as the Halligan Tool and the pry- The pike-pole is also used to make openingsin ax. Others are for specialized use, such as theplaster walls, to break windows that can'tbe Hale and Detroit door openers, both of which opened, and in many other cases, whan itis are made to force doors inward. necessary to move anobject beyonc ordinary reach. Remember that this tool isdesigned for pulling, not prying. The handle will breakunder COMMONLY USED FORCIBLE ENTRY TOOLS strenuous prying. The Ax The pole should be carried in acareful man- The Ax is a tool that certainly predates or- ner to protect othersfrom the sharp point. ganized firefighting but that was adopted forCareless use has caused many injuriesboth to fire service use with some modification. In fire- the user and others working near him. fighting, although the primary function of the Particular care should be taken to protect ax is cutting, it is used for such purposes as eyes and face fromplaster and other materials removing baseboards and trim,liftingoff suddenly pulled loose and to not strikeothers shingles and other roofcoverings,forcing with the long handle, especially whenworking locked doors and windows, and other uses that in close quarters. are not chopping operations. Consequently,fire departments use both flat-head and pick-head axes. The pick-head ax can be used for"pick- The Claw-Tool ing" and minor prying, as well as cutting, but a The claw-tool (called a "New York bar" in wood ax handle will not stand the strain of parts of New England) is made of heavy steel heavy prying. The advantage of the flat-head ax and is designed for strenuous prying. It has a is that the flat back can be well used as a ham- multitude of uses such as breaking padlocks ; mer, especially in driving other tools, such asforcing locked doors ; prying up floor boards; the claw, Kelly, or Halligan. removing molding, trim, etc.; making wall Ax blades should be kept reasonably sharp, openings ; shutting off gas service valves ; and and a sharp blade is a hazard if not carefully countless other tasks that require leverage. handled. When carrying or using an ax, a man In certain cases the hooked end or "claw" should be careful not to injure himself or is quite useful, and in many others the forked others. Those nearby when an ax is being used end is used to advantage.

23 USING FORCIBLE ENTRY TOOLS Forcible entry tools are used largely for three purposes : ventilation, overhauling, and forcible entry. Ventilation has been describedin a previous chapter. Overhauling will be discussed later.

Forcible Entry Forcing entry into a locked building does not involve much theory ;it is mostly a matter of applying leverage and is best learned from demonstration and by observation. This does not mean that forcing entry is not an important subject. It is an art that can have strong bear- ing on the outcome of a fire. Considerable skill is required to force entry in a manner that will save time and lessen damage. There are several types of doors, and the methods of forcing them vary with type of door involved.

Forcing Locked Doors Forcing locked doors is a job that calls for more skill than force if done properly. Con- FIGURE 15.The Pike-Pcile sideration must be given to the type of door and the way it opens in deciding upon the method Other Hand Tools and tools to be used to force it. Doors are usually forced in the direction they normally Although, the ax, pike-pole, and claw-tool are open (in, out, or up). the "big three" of forcible entry tools, there are Forcing doors that open out, or toward the others that can supplement or even replace operator, is usually best accomplished by driv- them. One is the Kelly tool, a steel bar that is ing the adz end of a Kelly or Halligan tool into excellent for forcing doors that open outw.i:d. the crack between the door and jamb, just above But it lacks the versatility of the claw-tool. The lock, and using the back of an ax as a hammer, Halligan Tool is a combination of the best until this end of the tool has a sufficient "bite." features of the claw and Kelly tools and can Then the bar is pulled toward the operator, be used to do everything that both those tools prying the door open. can do. The pry-ax is another multipurpose Another method for doors that open out is to toolprobably the most versatilebecause it remove the hinge pins, and pry the door in the combines features of the ax, claw-tool, and manner described above, except that the tool Kelly tool. is driven in on the hinge side of the door. Some- times a door with a glass panel can be best forced by breaking the glass and opening the Power Tools lock from the inside if it is obvious that the lock Many fire departments are now using power can be opened from the inside without a key. tools to speed up ventilation and overhauling Doors that open inward are usually forced by work. Portable power saws, both rotary blade driving the forked end of a claw-tool, Halligan and chain saw, are used to cut floors and roof- tool, pry-ax or the similar end of a Kelly tool ing. Some power-saw blades can cut metal and into the crack between the door and jamb just concreate. Air hammers and drills are also used. above the lock, using an ax for a hammer. When

24 DOOR OPENING OUT DOOR OPENING IN

DRIVE IN BY STRIKING HERE DRIVE IN BY STRIKING HERE

PUSH

PRY nits''No

KELLY TOOL CLAW TOOL FIGURE 17.Use of Claw Tool FIGURE 16.Use of Kelly Tool these locks are common. Tae fire officers in those the tool end has been driven in sufficiently far, districts who have had experience in forcing the door is pryed inward. such locks can demonstrate methods found ef- Another method, which works well when the fective. It must be realized, however, that there door is on a street entrance, is to place the endare some doors that cannot be forced or re- of the ladder against the lock side of the door with the end of one beam above the lock andmoved in a reasonable length of time and that the end of the other beam below. If four or in some cases other means of entry must be five men grasp the ladder, hold it parallel to found. ground, and push it steadily against the door, the door will usually spring open. The ladder should be pushed steadily and not banged Forcing Windows against the door or used as a ram because such There are many varieties of windows and use might damage the ladder. types of locks. Entry can be gained in many There are many other door types such ascases by breaking out the glass. If glass is overhead, revolving, sliding, etc., and there arebroken to provide entry, then care should be many varieties of locks including types that are taken to remove all jagged shards of glass that quite difficult to force, such as the Fox and thecould cause injury to anyone climbing in or Siegal. There are not many districts where out through that window.

25 J

PRY DOWN

FORCING PADLOCK

; WITH HOOK END 1

CLAW TOOL FIGURE 18.Use of Claw Tool on Lock

FORCING PADLOCK WITH FORK END

FIGURE 19.Use of Fork End on Padlock

-. CHAPTER SIX

THE USE OF ROPE AND BASICKNOTS

There are several situations where the rope from different kinds of natural and synthetic can be used in firefighting. Itis used to hoist fibers, the most common in the fire service are : hose lines, ladders, and tools to the roofs of manila, sisal and hemp. buildings ; to lower unconscious persons from In using rope, a large margin of safety should the upper portions of buildings, and tolower be allowed. A rough rule is not to exceed one firefighters to make rescues. Rope is also used seventh of the breaking strength of the rope. to secure hose lines to substantialobjects, and The breaking strength may be roughly calcu- there are various other ways that rope canbe lated by multiplying the square of thediameter quite useful to firefighters. of the rope (in inches) by 7200. Rope comes in several sizes. The most common sizes used by firedepartments have di- One reason for a large safety factoris that a ameters of % or3/4inches and lengths of 100 bend or knot sharply decreases rope strength at or 150 feet. Although ropeis available made that point as long as the bend or knotexists.

erf0P4/41,041../AlrIP/PO4.,..r...... 0,00 e/Ar. p,fg 0,41P/A,1/

1 The following table is for 3-strand manila rope:

1 DIAMETER CIRCUMFERENCE STRENTHS INCHES INCHES BREAKING WORKING

1/4 3/4 600 120

1 1/8 1350 270 3/8 1

1/2 1 1/2 2650 530

11 5/8 2 4400 880

3/4 2 1/4 5400 1080 1800 1 3 9000 ,0 .. 0 0,0 0 000. dr 40 0 #i'i'I'Fi1iI Flat= 20.Rope table

Caro of Rope which may indicate serious weakening of Vie rope, are discovered, they shouldbe reported to Vegetable-fiber ropes are subject to damage the appropriate officer : from mildew and mold and, therefore, should be kept in a dry place and dried thoroughly 1.burns 2.cuts after being wet. 3. broken fibers Rope should be inspected periodically and 4.extreme softness (sign of much wear) after use. When any of the following conditions, 5.other unexplained condition or color

27 g8 These items can be detected by visual ex- Knots, Hitches and Bends ternal examination. There are other weaknesses Most of the common "knots" are more prop- which show only when the inside of the rope erly called bends. A "bend" is a way of fasten- is examined. This can be done by separating the ing a rope to itself or to another rope. A "hitch" strands at three-foot intervals along the length is a method of attaching a rope to a post, hose of the rope and looking for : line or other object. 1. broken fibers Another common term in the use of rope is 2.fine powder the word "bight." A bight is made when the 3. mildew or mold rope is turned back on itself forming a partial 4. change in color circle.

THE BIGHT

HALF HITCH CLOVE HITCH SLIPPED OVER POST

CLOVE HITCH

SHEET OR BECKET BEND BOWLINE FIGURE 21.Common knots used by fliretighters

28 29 Half Hitch.The simplest hitchisthat ping knot is required. It often is used in the end known as the "half hitch." It is easy to make of a rope. and although it is not often used alone, it is To tie a bowline, start by making a bight in frequently combined with other knots and one hand (the left hand for a right-handed per- hitches. In the half hitch, the free end of theson), with the long part of the rope forming rope is brought under itself in a bight. the top of the bight. The short end of the rope Clove Hitch.One of the most commonly is taken in the other hand, passed through the used hitches, the clove hitch, is used to fasten bight around the long part of the rope, and a rope to a post, pipe or similar stationary ob- back through the bight. jects and is also used to attach a rope to hose Sheets Bend or Becket Bend.The sheet or tools and equipment that are to be hoisted or bend, also called the becket bend, is sometimes lowered. It is similar to the half hitch, but is a referred to as the fisherman's bend. It is used more complete hitch because it involves two to tie two ropes together, especially two of turns of the rope (going in opposite directions) different diameter. A bight is made in one rope and will not become undone if properly tied. and held in one hand with the index finger The clove hitch is sometimes called, "two half pointing along the top of the bight. The other hitches," because it consists of two half hitches rope is held in the other hand. The end of it is leading in opposite directions. put through the bight, passed over the index Two Ways of Tying the Clove Hitch.-1. finger, and taken around both sides of the bight Ordinarily, the clove hitch is tied by taking two before being passed through the bight again, turns around the object (post, hose, pipe, etc.). thus making a bight in the second rope. The On the second turn, the short end is taken over bights are held, one in each hand, and pulled the first turn and then under itself to complete until tight. the turn. Measuring Rope.In the long run, time will 2. If the post or object over which it is to be be saved if the man about to tie a knot will tied is short enough for the hitch to be dropped measure the rope to insure that he has sufficient over the tip of it, there is a quick way to tie the rope. The rope can be measured by holding one clove hitch. One bight is made to the right and hand in front of the face and the other at arms one to the left ;one is then moved over the length. The length from face to hand will other, and both are dropped over the object and approximate three feet. The amount of rope pulled tight. needed for each knot can be determined by Bowline.The bowline is called "the knot practice and should be remembered for fire- that never slips" and is used when a nonslip- ground application.

2 9 30 -

CHAPTER SEVEN

OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF PORTABLE EXTINGUISHERS

Extinguishing agents and the methods of expulsion used with portable extinguishers were covered in "Support Assistant" Part A. In this manual the operating characteristics of the etxinguishers will be considered, as well as some maintenance procedures. Extinguishers found in buildings usually have tags attached B that indicate when they were last recharged or serviced. Checking these tags against the maintenance information in this chapter can give some indication of the condition of the extinguisher.

Soda Acid The soda-acid extinguisher is a water agent to be used only on burning Class A materials. This extinguisher is found in 21/2, 17, and 33 gallon sizes. The 17 and 33 gallon are wheeled units. The most common size is the 21/2 gallon. This extinguisher must be inverted so that the 4 ozs. of sulphuric acid will be mixed with the 21/2 gallons of soda water to cause a chemical reaction and pressurize the extinguisher. The stream produced will reach between 30 to 40 feet, and the extinguisher will be discharged in about one minute. This type of extinguisher may be turned off by setting the extinguisher right side up. The soda-acid extinguisher must be recharged immediately after use and must be recharged at least once every 12 months. The Soda Acid Foam extinguisher, in fact, must be stored in heated FIGURE22.Soda acid and foam fire extinguishers areas. extinguisher is identical in outside appearance Foam to the 21/2 gallon soda acid. As with the soda The foam extinguisher agent contains 21/2 acid extinguisher, its action is chemical, and gallons of water, and therefore, may be used on it must also be inverted to operate. When the surface fires involving Class A materials. The extinguisher is inverted, the two chemical solu- extinguishing agent discharged from the extin- tions react to form CO2 gas to pressurize the guisher is a tough foam made up of bubbles extinguisher and to make about 17 to 20 gallons filled with carbon dioxide gas. This is an effec- of foam. When using the foam extinguisher on tive smothering agent, found in the 21/2 gallon burning Class B fuels, completely cover the sur- size. However, wheeled units of the 17 and 33 face of the fuel involved to prevent flashback. gallon size are available. The 21/2 gallon foam The stream of the foam extinguisher has a

31 31 - range of from 30 to 40 feet, and the unit will be discharged in approximately 11/2 minutes. The extinguisher will require recharging immediately after use and must be recharged every 12 months. The extinguisher will freeze and must be stored in heated areas.

Air-Pressurized Water The air-pressurized water extinguisher contains 21/2 gallons of water, and should only be used on burning Class A fuels. The unit is pressurized by 90 to 150 pounds of air pressure and may be put into operation by pulling a safety pin and operating a squeeze-type handle valve located on the extinguisher's top. This extinguisher may be operated intermittently by opening and closing the valve. The extinguisher stream has an effective range of from 30 to 40 feet and will be discharged in about one minute under continuous operation. The extinguisher must be recharged immediately after use. Nor- mal maintenance of this extinguisher involves checking the air gauge to determine if there is sufficient air pressure in the extinguisher toAirPressurized Air Pressurized expel the agent. Under normal conditions it is Water Loaded Stream not necessary to recharge this extinguisher until it has been used. A wetting agent added FIGURE 23.Air pressurized water and air pressurized to the water in these units will increase the loaded stream extinguishers effectiveness. The unit will freeze and must be invert the extinguisher and bump it on the stored in heated areas. floor. This action punctures a CO2cartridge that pressurizes the container, forcing the extin- Air-Pressurized Loaded Stream guishing agent through the hose. The extin- The air-pressurized loaded stream extinguisher may be turned off by setting upright guisher looks and operates exactly as the air- and allowing the gas to drain off throuh the pressurized water. This extinguisher is avail- hose. The effective range of the stream is from able in a 1-gallon size through 17 and 33 gallon30 to 40 feet, and the discharge time is approxi- wheeled units. It is most commonly found in the mately one minute. The extinguisher must be 21/2-gallon size. The extinguishing agent is a refilled and a new CO2 bottle installed immedi- water base with chemical additives that haveately after using. Although the extinguisher some fireproofing effect on Class A materials. requires no annual recharging, the water level The chemical also has an emulsifying effect on should *De inspected and the cartridge weighed the surface of Class B fuels. The extinguisher at least twice a year. The extinguisher will will not freeze down to 40° below zero, and, freeze and must be stored in heated areas. Anti- therefore, it may be placed in unheated areas. freeze solutions may be added to this type of an The maintenance of this extinguisher is the extinguisher to protect them to 40° below zero, same as that of the air-pressurized water. providing, however, that the extinguisher shell is copper or at least a 70% pure copper, and Cartridge-Operated Water 30% hard nickel construction. This is a water extinguisher that may be used only on burning Class A fuels. It is found in the Water Pump Tanks 21/2 gallon size. The method of operation is to This is a water extinguisher, and can be used

32 32 A AMA

FIGURE 25.Water pump tank

because the gas leaves no contaminating resi- due, it is favored for use on Class C electrical FIGURE 24,Cartridge operated water extinguisher fires. Carbon dioxide units are found from 2 to 26 pounds in the hand units. Wheel units are only on burning Class A fuels. These extin- available in the 50 to 100 pound size. Generally, guishers are found in the 21A and 5 gallon sizes the hand units may be put into operation by and provide effective, inexpensive protection for pulling a locking pin and squeezing the lever Class A fuels. A folding anchor plate is located valve. at the bottom of the extinguisher on which the Carbon dioxide units are characterized by the operator may place his foot to steady the unit. large plastic discharge horn, with hose attached The extinguishing agent is expelled by hand to the extinguisher. Carbon dioxide gas is di- pumping through a small hose line. It can be rected toward the base of the flame area with refilled while the extinguisher is in operation a sweeping motion as if trying tolift the flame 3 and has an effective range from 30 to 40 feet. from the fuel surface area. The gas should be The 21/2 gallon extinguisher will be discharged discharged over all the fuel involved for ex- in about 1 minute and the 5 gallon from ap- tinguishment. Care should be taken to prevent proximately 2 to 3 minutes. Antifreeze solu- a flashback, and the operatorshould avoid tions for protection to 400 below zero may be touching the extinguisher's horn since it may added, providing the extinguisher is of copper be cold enough to freeze the skin. The hori- and the pump of brass construction. Maintain- zontal range of the discharge stream is from ing this unit is simple : inspect the extinguish- 3 to 8 feet, and the approximate time of dis- ing agent level and work the pump a few strokes charge is from 8 to 30 seconds, depending on at least twice a year. extinguisher's size. The extinguisher must be weighed and refilled with liquid carbon dioxide to bring it up to its full weight. The full and Carbon Dioxide empty weights of the extinguisher will be The carbon dioxide extinguishing agent is a stamped on the valve assembly. Special equip- gas that is heavier thanair. This extinguisher ment is required to refill these units ; however, is effective on small Class B fires,especially this equipment is usually available at centrally where ,there is some confinement. Where there located points about the country. Maintenance are strong air currents,its effectivenessis of the carbon dioxide extinguisher requires that limited. It is a nonconductor of electricity, and the unit be weighed at regular intervalsfrom 33 33 3 to 4 times a year. Extinguishers found to with these, the extinguisher must be inverted weigh less than the full weight stamped on the and bumped on the floor to puncture the CO2 valve should be refilled. The extinguisher is not cartridge. In either case, the hand-operated subject to freezing and may be stored and squeeze-type valve will be found at the end of placed in unheated areas. the discharge hose. This valve may be operated intermittently so that the operator has control of the discharge of dry chemical. The extinguishing agent is directed into the flame area just above the surface of burning Class B fuels. That area of the flame must be covered by the extinguishing agent. Care must be taken when extinguishing burning Class B fuels because of the possibility of a flashback. When using a dry chemical extinguisher on fires involving energized electrical equipment, burning materials should be coated with the dry chemical. Since many fires involving energized electrical equipment will involve burning Class A materials, the equipment should be watched carefully for some time to make sure that a rekindling does not ticcur. Fires involving oil- cooled electrical equipment will be handled much the same as fires in any Class B burning 1 iqu ids. Carbon Dioxide FIGURE26.Carbon dioxide extinguisher

Dry Chemical Both sodium bicarbonate and potasium bicarbonate-based dry chemicalextinguishing agents may be used on fires involving Class B fuels. Both extinguishing agents are noncon- ductors and may be used on Class C fires. These units are usually found in the hand portable sizes from 21/2 to 30 pounds. Larger wheel units are available in the 75 to 350 pound sizes. Two methods of expelling the extinguishing agent are used: the stored pressure and cartridge operated. With stored pressure, a locking pin is pulled, and the hand squeeze valve is opened and closed at the discretion of the operator. When using cartridge operated dry chemical extinguishing units, two methods of pressur- izing the extinguisher will be found. Some manufacturers install a small CO2 cartridge on the outside of the container. With these, a locking pin must be pulled and a hand lever pushed down to puncture the CO2 cartridge. Other manufacturers locate the CO2 cartridge Dry Chemical Dry Chemical under the filling cap of the extinguisher, and FIGURE 27.-Drychemical extinguishers

34 . 34 The horizontal range of the chemical stream ing agent is specifically designed to be effective will be from 5 to 20 feet, and the discharge timeon the three major classes of fire. As with the will be from 8 to 20 seconds, depending upon regular d ry chemical units, multi-purpose dry unit size. The units must be recharged immedi- chemical extinguishers can be discharged by ately after use. Maintaining a stored pressureeither the stored pressure or cartridge operated unit calls for frequent checks of the air-pres- method. The multi-purpose extinguishing agent sure gauge found on the discharge assembly to make sure that the unit contains enoughhas the ability to stick to burning Class A fuels pressure to fully discharge the chemical when and will give a fire-retardent effect. Therefore, put in use. Maintaining the cartridge-operated when using the extinguishers on Class A fuels, extinguisher requires that the CO2 cartridge the chemical should be applied to cover as much be removed and weighed at regular intervals, of the fuel involved as possible. When using 3 or 4 times annually. The extinguishers are multi-purpose agents on fires involving Class B not subject to freezing, and may be stored in burning liquids and Class C energized electrical unheated areas. equipment, the application of the power is the Multi-purpose Dry Chemical same as with the regular dry chemical units. The multi-purpose dry chemical extinguish-

35 CHAPTER EIGHT

HOSE AND HOSE PRACTICES

Fire department hose comes in several sizesend of each length has a coupling withthreads ranging from 34," to 41/2" in diameter. The most on the outside, and theother end has a coupling commonly used sizes are 11/2" and 21/2" al-with threads on the inside. The couplingwith though so-called booster lines of 34 ' or 1" arethreads on the outside is called a "male," and frequently used on small fires. Hose size is de-the one with threads on the inside is called a termined by its nominal inside diraneter. Hose "female" coupling. with an internal diameter of 11/2" is called 11/2" Although most hose threads in the U. S. now hose, etc. The standard length for sections ofconform to the so-called National Standardfor fire hose of all diameters in the U.S. is 50 feet. diameter and number of threads per inch, many This amount is called one "length" or one "sec- fire departments have couplings that arediffer- tion" of hose. (Some fire departments are using ent from National Standard. Thisincompati- hose that measures 100 feet per section.) bility of threads could cause difficultiesduring a national or othermajor emergency when Booster lines are made of semirigid hose, work which is rubber covered as well as rubber lined, several fire departments may have to so that it doesn't have to be changed after use. together. Booster lines are usually carried on reels and These difficulties can be overcome to some extent by using adapters that have theability to vary in length up to 300 feet. connect hose lengths of the samesize with 4 Hose of diameter greater than 1" is rubber different threads. lined with outer jackets woven of cotton or Couplings can usually be tightened suffici- synthetic yarns or a combination of both. Al- ently by hand, but sometimes a spannerwrench 1 though much industrial fire hose is single-is needed to make a water tight connection orto jacket hose, fire department hosebecause itdisconnect hose lengths. Therefore, each cou- gets more useis almost always made with twopling has "lugs" protruding to provide a point jackets. This double-jacket hose has an inkier for the spanner to grip. There are twopopular jacket for strength and an outer jacket to pro- type of lugs : rocker lugs and pinlugs. tect the inner jacket from wear. Synthetic ma- Inside each female coupling is a rubber terials have supplanted the cotton to a great washer to insure a tight seal. These washers are extent because they are lighter in weight (for easily removed and sometimes becomedislodged equivalent strength). Such hose needs less stor- accidentally. Also, they are prone to deteriora- age space and is easier to fold. tion from age. Leaky couplings resultfrom Most fire hose is tested initially at a working missing, aged, or poorly fitting washers. pressure of 400 psi although somedepart- ments require a higher test pressure. After Care of Hose it has been in service, however, hose is usually tested annually to a pressure of 250 psi. This Fire hose is rugged but does need acertain should be considered the maximum safe work- amount of care. This care would be ofgreat ingpressure, but many departments have importance during war when criticalmaterials different test pressures and procedures. may be in short supply.There are several ways Most, but not all, U. S. fire departments usehose can be damaged. Some of the common hose couplings with screw threads. These coup- ways are: lings, also called "butts," are made of brass and 1.Oil, gasoline or grease gets on hose, pene- are attached to each end of everylength of hose trates jackets, and dissolves rubberlining. so that one length can be connected toanother. Natural rubber is easily injured by petro- In order that this connection can oe made, one leum products.

37 36 2. Hose that is allowed to remain wet for 3. reducersreducing couplings are used to extended periods and is made of cotton, connect a hose length of one diameter or part cotton, will mildew. This weakens with that of the next size. Thus 3" hose the cotton fibers. can be connected to 21/2", and 21/2" can be 3.Heat. Hose should not be stored near radi- connected to 11/2". The female end of the ators or in other places where tempera- reducer is of the larger size. (If the fe- tures are high because heat damages the male is of the smaller size, then the fitting rubber. is an "increaser".) 4. Driving over hose. It is not recommended 4. adaptorsAlready described. that vehicles be allowed to ride over hose 5. "Siamese" connectionsthis is used to except in emergency because the weight connect two or more lines into one hose- may cause separation of lining from line. It usually has two female inlets (al- jacket. though some have more) and one male outlet. 5. Dragging hose over rough surfaces. This, The inlets are equipped with check valves although sometimes necessary, can cause (called "clappers") that permit water to abrasion or cuts of the outer jacket. flow only in one direction so that it can't 6. Sudden closing of nozzle. This can cause back out an unused inlet. atremendousincreaseinpressure 6. The "Y" or "Wye" connectionAlthough throughout the hose line (water hammer). early models were uncontrollable, the "Y" Sometimesthisincreasedpressureis or "Wye" connections most in use today much greater than pump pressure and far have gate values so that each side may be above the burst strength of the hose. This operated independently. The purpose of is probably the greatest cause of burst this appliance is to allow one hose line hose. to be divided into two. This is also called 7. Dropping couplings may knock them out a "two way gate." Usually, but not al- of round or injure the threads on male ways, the inlet side is of the next larger couplings. diameter than the outlets. Hose should be brushed or washed clean after 7.single gate valvesSingle gates are used use to remove grit that may injure fibers and with distributors, cellarpipes,etc., to oil that could harm lining. It should be dried provide a means of shutting off the water after washing by use of a hose tower, drying when there is no such control at the pipe rack, or drying cabinet. (nozzle) and can be used on a hydrant so When hose is being placed on apparatus, each an outlet can be controlled independently female coupling should be checked to see that of the other outlets. its washer is in place and in satisfactory con- 8. "water thief"This is a term used for an dition. appliance that has one 21/2" inlet and three outlets, two of which are 11/2" and Hose Fittings one which is 21/2". It is not practical to One type of fitting has already been men- use all three outlets at the same time be- tioned. That is the adapter to connect hose cause the total flow through the line sup- lengths of same diameter but differing threads. plying the device would be so great that The other common types of fittings used with friction loss would eat up the pressure. hoses are: 1. double maleto connect two female cou- Hose Appliances plings. 1.hose clampThis is used to shut off water 2. double femaleto connect two male cou- by crimping the hose at any given point. plings. Usually one side of the double fe- There are three basic types : screw, lever, male will swivel to make connection with- and hydraulic. out twisting hose. Swivel side should be 2.burst hose jacketThis is placed over a connected last. burst in the hose. Although it doesn't al-

38 37 TWO-WAY GATED (WYE) "Y" CONNECTION,

INDEPENDENT GATE VALVES ON DISCHARGE CONNECTIONS

FEMALE THREADS

SIAMESE WITH CLAPPER VALVE

SELF ACTING INSIDE VALVE PREVENTS WATER BACKING OUT

FEMALE THREADS

FIGURE 28.Hose fittings

39 38 ways provide a perfect seal, it will often flow) and all female toward the source of the rAuce the leak to negligible proportions water. and prevent shutdown at a critical time. It can also be used to connect lengths with "Stretching" Hose differing threads if no better means is When hose is pulled off the apparatus and available. Hose jackets come in different put in position to be used at a fire, the procedure diameters, and the diameter selected for is called "stretching" or "laying" hose. There use must be that of the hose involved. are several ways in which this can be done. 3. pipe-holderThis device is used to hold When hose is stretched from fire to hydrant, nozzle in position when a heavy stream is the procedure iscalled a "back-stretch" or being used ;i.e., nozzle tip greater than "reverse lay." The opposite procedure, laying 11/4" diameter. There are several types. hose from hydrant to fire, is termed a "running 4.hose rollerThe hose roller (sometimes stretch" or "straight lay." Usually, the pumper called a "hose hoist") is a roller arrange- is used to lay the hose because of the saving of ment with metal guides used to roll hose time and effort. However, after a pumper has over the edge of a roof or window sill been positioned at a hydrant or other water without chafing. source and additional hose lines are taken from it, they may have to be pulled into position by hand. This is known as a "hand-stretch." Suction Hose and Hydrant Connections Many firedepartmentshavepumpers In order for a pumper to draft water from a equipped with divided hose compartments in static source (river, pond, etc.), the hose con- which hose on one side is loaded for a straight necting the pumper to the source must be able lay and on the other side for a reverse lay. The to withstand a vacuum without collapsing. Hose side loaded for a straight lay has a female used for this purpose, therefore, is reinforced coupling leading off ; the reverse lay side has a to prevent collapse and is known as "hard nozzle (attached to a male coupling) leading suction" because of its rigidity. It comes in sev- off. There are several variations of hose loads eralsizes, the nominal inside diameters of and leads. Some are standard in some depart- which are: ments, while other departments standardize on other types. Some departments have two-piece 41/2" (most common) 21/2" 5 engine companies (two pumpers) with each piece loaded differently. 4" Many fire departments use preconnected Suction hose sections vary in length from 8 hose lines; and some even use 21/2" preconnects. feet to 20 feet, but the most common length is These lines are carried already connected to a 10 feet. discharge gate of the pumper to permit a fast A few fire departments also use the hard attack. The pumper stops near the fire, and as suction to connect pumpers to hydrants, but the preconnected line is pulled into position, the most use what is commonly called "soft suc- pump is engaged and water from thesupply tion," but is more properly called a "hydrant tank (booster tank) on the truck is pumped connection," because it i8 soft and can't take through the preconnected line, making itin suction. The soft hydrant connection is flexible effecta large booster line. Most departments and actually is just a short piece of large di- that use preconnected lines use them in con- ameter hose. Hydrant connections are available junction with a straight lay. A supply hose is in diameters from 21/4" up to 6" in 1/2" in- laid from hydrant to fire and connected to inlet crements. of pump. After this line is charged, the booster Most hydrant connections have female cou- tank is shut off and the water from the hydrant plings at both ends because both the hydrant is pumped through the preconnected line. How- outlets and the pump inlet have male threads.ever, some departments use otherprocedures. Male threads on the pump inlet are the only The chief limitations.of preconnected lines are exception to a general rule that all male fittings initial fixed length and low discharge (gallons point toward the nozzle (or in direction of per minute) .

40 39 fti)

START OF RUNNING STRETCH (STRAIGHT LAY)

RUNNING STRETCH COMPLETED

t START OF BACK STRETCH (REVERSE LAY)

BACK STRETCH COMPLETED FIGURE 29.Laying hose

41 40 When the reverse lay is used, the pumperpiing is called "breaking" a line. It is also done stops at a point near the fire (in front of the at the end of a straight lay after sufficient hose entrance, if the fire is in a building) and suffi-has been removed by hand to reach the fire. cient hose is removed to reach the fire. As thisThen after the line has been broken (uncou- hose ispulled intoposition,the pumper ispled), a nozzle is attached and the line is taken drivenlaying a hose line enrouteto the hy- into position. drant (or other water source) and made ready to supply water. Uncoupling, or disconnecting, two lengths of The straight lay is made by stopping the hose (with screw couplings) can be done by one pumper momentarily at the hydrant while aman or two men. Remember that when the man drops off with the female end of the hose. female coupling is held facing toward the male As he attaches the hose to the hydrant, theto whichitisconnected, the connection is pumper and remainder of crew proceed to fire.tightened as the female is turned right (clock- The usual procedure then calls for the supplywise) and loosened as turned in the opposite line from the hydrant to be connected to a pump direction. Therefore, if the female is grasped inlet while anotherlineisstretched fromin this manner and turned left, it will become pumper to fire. uncoupled. This can be done by one man if he In cases where hydrant pressure is high and steps on the hose just in back of the male cou- the distance to fire is short, some departments pling. This will not only hold the hose in place do not use the pump. However, it is consideredbut will tilt the couplings up at an angle that good practice to use the pump at all times be- enables him to disconnect them. Two men can cause of the control it affords over pressure and disconnect hose by facing each other; one man volume. holds the male butt securely, and the other No matter which method of stretching isturns the female toward his left. Couplings that used,itis desirable to closely estimate theare too tightly fastened to be opened by hand amount of hose needed to effectively reach thecan be disconnected with spanners. The spanner is a wrench designed to fit the lugs of hose fire.Itis better to have more than enough rather than to have insufficient hose to reachcouplings so that couplings may be tightened the fire. On the other hand, too much surplus or loosened with greater leverage than could be hose may impede operations. Hose should beapplied by hand. In selecting the proper pan- stretched close to curb and preferably on same ner, hose size and types of lugs must be con- side of street as hydrant to keep the roadwaysidered. clear for other apparatus. Hose couplings can be connectedor a noz- Whenever hose is "paying out" from the hose zle attached to a male couplingby using the bed of a moving pumper during a stretch, menprocedure just described for disconnecting two should stand well clear to avoid being strucklengths of hose, except that the female would by hose and especially a coupling, which could be turned clockwise to fasten. cause serious injury. There is usually no need to help the hose pay out from a moving pumper ; There are occasions when it would be neces- the weight of the hose already in the street willsary to connect two male couplings by using a quite effectively pull additional hose out of the double female connection. In this case, the non- hose bed if it has been properly loaded. swivelling side of the double female is connected first ; then it is not necessary to twist the hose Handling Hose to make the second connection. Two females can be easily coupled by connecting first one and When hose is pulled off apparatus by har.1, then the other to a double male. several folds should be pulled off together and dropped on the ground. This is quicker and If a reducer is going to be used to conned safer than pulling off one fold at a time, hand- lines of different diameters, it should be at- over-ha nd. tached to the larger line first. An increaser At the end of a reverse lay, the hose leadingshould be attached to the smaller line first. In to the fire must be uncoupled from that in theeach case, the first connection is made to the lwd and attached to a pump outlet. This uncou- male coupling.

42 41 COUPLING HOSE-1 MAN

COUPLING HOSE-2 MEN FIGURE 30.Coupling hose

Advancing Hose lines by Hand If the hose has not yet been charged with When it is necessary to stretch an uncharged water, one man can drag a 50-foot hose section or "dry" line by hand, it is usually desirable to up to 3" diameter on the street or fairly level carry the hose on the shoulder and let the whole ground. When there are few men for the body share the work of moving the heavy hose. amount of hose being stretched, it will be less When hose is being moved, couplings should be exhausting if they each drag hose for 50 feet, kept clear of snagging obstructions. Therefore, the logical place to pick up the hose is just be- drop it, go back and pick up the next length, hind a coupling so that the coupling is off the and drag that up alongside the first, repeating ground (and protected) as the hose is dragged. this process until all the hose needed has been

43 42 When the hose is in place on the ladder, it should be anchored to the ladder by a hosestrap at the nozzle. Another strap at the base of the ladder is desirable. Water flow should not be started until hose is securely strapped to the ladder. DOUBLE MALE HOSE CONNECTION A hose line can be readily advanced up a fire escape by the "fire escape stretch," which involves using a fire escape hook, a rod about 10 feet long with a sliding noose attached to one end and with a hook on the other. Sufficient hose should be taken up the fire escape to reach all points on the floor above the lire, if that should become necessary. The procedure calls for the hose (with nozzle attached) to be flaked on the ground below the fire escape. The men mount the fire escape with the first man stopping on the first balcony, the DOUBLE FEMALE SWIVEL CONNECTION second man on the second balcony, and so on Fiume 81.Hose couplings until the fire floor is reached. As the first man arrives at the first balcony, he reaches over and laid side by side in long folds. The same steps grabs the hook from the man on the ground. He are repeated for another advance. then passes it up to the man on the second Taking hose up a stairway is hard work at balcony who should be just reaching his position best, but some ways are easier and faster than in time to grab it. As the hook is passed up, each others. In one method, hose is passed up the man below pulls up on the hose, passing it to the stairwell hand-over-hand from a man on one man above until sufficient hose has been ac- landing to one above. This method requires less cumulated on the balcony below the fire. The hose than if the hose were laid on the stairs surplus hose on the balcony below the fire is and also leaves the stairway unobstructed; how- draped over balcony rail, and hose, and hose ever, it is probably more energy consumingstraps are attached at alternate balconies to than the method jia wii5ch each man carries two take the strain off the couplings. or three folds of hose ov his shoulder, and each As soon as the line is in position on the floor starting with the last man in linelets the below the fire, the call is made for water to be hose pay off his shoulder as he mounts the started. When the line is charged with water, stairs. it is then ready to be taken up to the fire floor A rule commonly followed in estimating the (or above) and put to work. amount of hose that should be taken into the The hook is left hanging from the balcony average building is to allow one 50-foot length on the fire floor where it is placed by the top- for each floor below the fire and two for themost man before he takes the hose from the floor where the fire is believed to be (usually noose. Of course, when sufficient hose has been termed the "fire floor"). pulled up on the balcony below the fire, each Hose can be taken up a ladder and onto a roof man goes up the lire escape to that point to or in through a window ; or it may be left on assist in advancing the line up and into the the ladder, and the nozzle operated from the building. ladder. It is far easier to advance an empty hose line Whatever method is used to advance hose up than one full of water. For that reason it is a ladder, sufficient hose to reach the objective often desirable to break and drain a charged should be flaked back and forth on the ground at line that is going to be taken upward to a con- the foot of the ladder before the men start siderable height. For short distances this pro- pullir,g it up. cedure would not be so effort saving, but when

44 43 FIGURE 32.Advancing hoselines by hand

45 44 repacked at the fire scene; and the simplest and most effective way is to drive the apparatus, straddling the hose line, over the line as it is repacked in the hose bed. This method is quick, safe, and efficient. One man drives,another stands on the apparatus to tuck the hose in the bed as the other men walk behind and feed the hose up to him. Hose that has water in it should be drained before being replaced on the apparatus. Some departments drain each length by "walking" it and then pile the used lengths back into the hose-bed (temporarily). If the jacket contains cotton and has been wet, most departments roll the used lengths into "doughnut" rolls or single rolls and place the rolls on the apparatus to be removed and dried upon return to quarters. In freezing weather, hose may be covered with ice and even frozen to the street. In such cases, the ice should be chopped with an ax, using great care not to cut the hose, leaving HOSE-STRAP some ice attached to the hose. Frozen hose should be handled and placed on the apparatus BRACING AGAINST with the least possible bending because bending NOZZLE REACTION might break the frozen fibers of the hose.

Rolling Hose The single roll referred to is very simply made by bending the hose a few inches back of the male coupling so that it rests on the hose and then rolling the length so that the male coupling is the center or core of the roll. The double roll, also called a "doughnut," is FIGURE 33.--Hosestrap bracing made by folding the hose once, slightly past center, so that the male coupling rests on the height is more than a couple of stories, itmay hose about 4 feet from the female end. One save time in the long run. The water is shut off, man grasps the fold and rolls the hose toward the hose disconnected at a distance back of the the female end, while another man moves ahead nozzle greater than the height to be reached, of him to keep the hose aligned. and then as the line is taken aloft, the water This roll can be made by one man unassisted. drains out. The hose is stretched flat and straight, and the When a charged line must be moved along man, facing the female end, straddles the hose the ground, it can be rolled as a hoop by form- and grasps it at a point about 6 feet nearer the ing a loop about 5 feet in diameter, raising the loop toa verticalposition, and rolling it female end than the center. He makes a small forward. fold and continues rolling the hose until the female end is reached. Picking Up Note that in all these hose rolls, the male The procedure for picking up hose depends coupling is protected. that male couplings have upon whether or not the hose had water through outside threads that are easily damaged should it. If the hose was not wet or soiled, it can be be constantly remembered.

46 45 -10SELINE VIA FIRE ESCAPE FIVCRE 34.Hose line via fire escape

47 46 LINE IS FOLDED START LOAD OVER TO START WITH MALE SECOND LAYER END HERE TFRONT OF HOSE BODY

Psalm 35.Hose rolls

Hose Loads and Finkhos There are many ways of loading hose on the apparatus and many ways of finishing these loads to allow for quick and easy stretching. In- asmuch as then! is so much variety in this subject area, support assistants should learn the methods approved by and used in the departments with which they serve.

Handling Buret or "WNW lion LAYERS START AT ALTERNATE Every effort should be made to keep complete CORNERS control of hose under pressure. If a nossie is let go of or if hose bursts completely through, there is a strong possibility that someone will be seriously injured by the rapidly whipping hose.THE HORSESHOE OR U-LOAD Nossles should never be dropped without first being shut-off, and nozales should never be left P/OVIN Iloressboe or 11-Lood in the open position when hose is dry or when pressure fails. Small bursts in hose can be back of the burst or wild nouie and crawl on covered with a burst hose jacket without even top of the line up to the end of control, pinning shutting pump off, but control ofa complete it with his body until water is shut off. A r-,me. burst or wild nosble is not easily established what safer method, if a short ladder is avail- and is, at best, a dangerous p--lure. A man able, is to leap on the hose with the ladder and can pounce on the hose-line a short distance slide it crossways up to the burst.

411 47 CHAPTER NINE

LADDERS

Ladders are vitally important in firefighting. TIP They are used principally to gain access to higher or lower elevations for rescue, entry, ventilation, and the operation of hose lines. They can also serve other purposes, such u forcing doors as described under forcible entry, and as support frames for an improvised water storage basin. They can also be made into emergency bridges, especially for hose. Fire department ladders are stronger than ordinary ladders. They vary somewhat in de- HOOKS ON ROOF LADDER sign and construction. Some are made of wood; some are made of metal. Three types of alloys are most commonly used in metal ladders: GUIDE aluminum, magnesium, and steel. Ladders that consist of only one section are FLY carted "straight" ladders and are sometimes called "wall" ladders. aim The "beam" is the principal structural member, and the rungs are supported in it. It is also called a "rail." There are solid beam ladders ala (also called "solid side") that use wild material ala for maximum strength, and there are those with trussed beams using assembled parts for light 111 weire.t and maximum strength. The "rungs," also called "rounds," are the ill cross members betwnn the beams, which are stepped upon when the ladder 'is climbed. PAWL OR DOG The "butt," also called "heel," is the end of the ladder, which is the bottom when the ladder 1011 HALYARD is vertical. The "butt plates" are metal pro- jections at the butt of the ladder. The "tip" is the end of the ladder that rests BEAM against the building when theladder is in use \BO RUNG .OR ROUNDS or that is the topmost point when the ladder is vertical (also called "top"). Tie-rods are metal cross-members that help 111\\ hold the ladder together and strengthen certain rungs. An extension ladder is composed of two or BUTTOR OR HEEL more sections. The ground section is known as the "bed ladder," and the part or parts that can ?MU V.Ladder nournebelature be raised from the bed is known as "fly ladders." 49 48 The "halyard" is the rope used to extend the for defects. If there is any doubt as to a lad- fly. der's condition, a test should be made by per- "Pawls," also called "dogs," are locks used sonnel familiar with proper test procedure. to support a fly after it has been raised. "Guides" are wood or metal strips that guide Care of Ladder, the fly as it is being raised or lowered. "Stops" are wood or metal blocks that pre- When wood ladders get dirty, they should be vent the fly from being raised completely out washed with plain cold water. They should be of its bed. scraped and revarnished when varnish has A "Bangor" is an extension ladder with poles worn off to an easily noticeable degree. The attached for aid in handling. In some parts of varnish protects the wood from water pene- the country "Bangor" may have another mean- tration, which could start rotting or warping. ing, and in some places this ladder is called a Metal ladders, when dirty, should be washed "pole" ladder. with plain water, a mild soap solution, or a pre- The poles attached to Bangor ladders are scribed cleaning fluid. They should be lubricated called "tormentors"; the term "tormentor" is as needed. also applied to the stabilizing ground jacks on Neither metal nor wood ladders should be an aerial ladder. exposed to flame unnecessarily. Metal ladders An "aerial" ladder is one that is permanently are quickly damaged by heat, and wood ladders mounted on a truck and raised or lowered may ignite. All ladders should be handled care- mechanically. fully and not dropped ! A "roof ladder" is a straight ladder with hooks for securing it to the roof peak. Handling and Carrying Ladders An "attic ladder" is a folding ladder for ease of handling in confined spaces. The first step in using a ladder is to take it A "pompier," or "scaling" ladder, is a single- off the truck. This makes it essential to know beam ladder with a large "goose-Leek" hook at how the ladder is fastened to the truck and how the top. These ladders, which vary in length it can be properly removed. from 10 to 14 feet, are used to scale the outside The next step is carrying the ladder from the of a building from floor to floor by putting the truck to where it is to be used. There are pre- hook in the.window above, climbing the ladder, scribed ladder carriers that make the task and then repeating procedur... This is usually easier, safer, and more quickly done. Commonly used only as a 'last-ditch" attempt to reach a approved methods of carrying ladders are point that can't be gained by other means. shown in the accompanying illustrations. Vertical carries may be necessary in tight quarters and to move a ladder from one window Inspection of Ladders to another. (It is not desirable to scrape a lad- Ladders shouldbeinspectedat regular der tip along a wall.) periods and after each use to discover any de- Whenever a ladder is being moved into a fect or weakness that may have developed. On vertical position, a sharp lookout should be wood ladders, rungs should be examined for maintained to make sure that tip will clear looseness, cracks, splinters, rot, wear, and need all obstructions, especially wires. Firefighters for varnish. Beams should be inspected for any have been electrocuted by moving a ladder into of these defects and also for warping. contact with high voltage wires. Metal ladders should be examined for signs Teamwork isespecially important in the of looseness, weakness, at welds, or deformity. vertical carry because the ladder's position A rainbow-hued discoloration on a metal ladder makes balancing difficult and tricky. Of course, indicates that the ladder may have been weak- the ladder doesn't weigh any more than it does ened by heat, although the ladder can be weak- in the horizontal position, but it seems heavier ened by heat without visible evidence. because of the additional leverage due to ex- On both metal and wood ladders, halyards tension. The important thing is to maintain the should be inspected for weakness, wear, and ladder in a perfectly vertical position by proper rot : pawls, guides, and stops should be checked balancing. When the tip of the ladder starts 30 "%rift 1( 1 II\ I \ e - ve.....7....-NMI ',it'll( mi , 1 \ i ottamassaV\ , \ ./' \ \ g4 'f-JoibAill, \ 1imag,Art-m-. 111! -lir., 51P-1 IIN MILMa \ billir,'"ftI -N.N...... 1 II 1- II) moving off balance, it must be straightenedpushing both beams up simultaneously with quickly but smoothly. Once it moves more than both hands or pushing upward on the center of a short distance, it is almost sure to fall.The every other rung, using his hands alternately. men must lift the ladder in unisonand startThe hands cannot be used alternately on the walking simultaneously, using short steps. Theybeams because this would throw the ladder off should look up constantly to observe the tip of balance. the ladder. The officer or another man should Other methods of raising ladders vary some- walk ahead to keep a lookout for wires or other what among fire departments; therefore, sup- obstructions both &oft and on the ground. He port assistants should learn and follow the should warn and direct the men carrying themethods of the department to which they are ladder. attached. Although the methods or raising may vary in minor details, they are basically the Raising Ladders same in that the ladder is "butted" by one or two men and raised by one or two men, with the The usual practice if for the man (or mom) number of men butting or raising depending on carrying the butt of the ladder to carry it to the ladder size. point where it will be located when the ladder When the ladder is raised, the butt man is in the raised position. He lowers the buttshould lean forward and grasp the farthest to the ground, and then assumes the position of rung he can reach (usually this is the third or "butt" man for the raise. The man (men) at fourth from the butt). He should place his feet the other end lowers the tip to the ground and on the bottom rung (with some laddersthis is then assumes the position of "rain" man. On not practical, and he must place his feet against command, the ladder is raised by all men work-the butt places). As the raise men lift the op- ing in unison. posite end of the ladder, the butt man should It is a good practice when raising to place the assist by pulling on the rung he is holding. As ladder parallel to the building, turn it a half the ladder comes up, he should squat, throwing turn when vertical, and then lower it against his weight backward to help swing the ladder the building. This allows the ladder to be raised upright. between obstructing wires and the building or in a narrow alley or walk_ on asidewalk The raise men start by facing each other at a without having to surmount such obstacles aspoint near the tip of the ladder. (The nearer parked cars cr apparatus. '1 fle natural tendency they are to the tip, the easier it will be for them of the amateur is to raise the ladder at a right to lift the end of the ladder off the ground.) The angle to the building, which, even if there areusual procedure is for them to turn toward the no other handicaps. usually requires the raiseladder tip, then reach down and grasp the men to step up on a curb they can't see. nearer beam with the hand on that side,lift In some departments, the "beam raise" is the beam until the ladder is about waist height, used most often with ladders small enough to be and then place the other hand under the beam raised by two men. The ladder is placed on theto push the beam upward as the body is turned ground resting on one beam with rungs verti- to face the butt of the ladder. All this is done in cal : The butt-man holds one foot on bottom one uninterrupted motion. beam at the butt end, leans toward the other The beam is pushed upward until the arm is end of the ladder, and grasps the upper beam. fully extended above the head. Then the raise The raise man then lifts the tip end of laddermen walk toward the butt,raising the, ladder and walks toward the butt raising the ladderby pushing upward on the beams, one hand at by moving his hands aloag the lower beam as a time, as they walk. he walks. The butt man assists by pulling on the The raise men should keep their arms stiff upper beam. and slightly forward of the head, with the body One man, unassisted, can raise a short ladder rigid and in straight line with the arms. If an (up to 20 feet) by placing the butt against a arm is bent or not placed sufficientlyforward, building or other substantial objecteven athe ladder may get out of control. It is also bush if he has toand lifting the tip end of the essential that the ladder beams be kept at the ladder. He then walks toward the butt, eithersame level as the ladder is raised because any

32 51 2 MAN RAISE

2 MAN VERTICAL CARRY PLACING LADDER FIGURE :V.Raising ladders

53 52 tilting may allow the ladder to get out of con- After it has served its usefulness, the ladder trol. The raise men keep the ladder level by is lowered by reversing the process by which staying side by side if they are the same height. it is raised. With the men assuming the same When one is much taller than the other, the positions that they did during the raise, the ladder is kept level by the taller man staying ladder is pushed away from the building to the a slight distance in back of the shorter man. vertical position, the fly is lowered, and the lad. As the ladder reaches a vertical position, each der is pivoted and reclined to the horizontal butt man places one foot on the bottom rung position on the ground, with each man assum- and one on the ground ; the raise men do like- ing the position he did during the raise and wise. Usually, the butt men hold the ladder by acting just as though the raise were being done grasping a rung at convenient height, while the in reverse. raise men hold the beams. If the ladder is to be This rising and lowering procedure will vary pivoted, it is turned, leaving one beam on the from department to department and with the ground while the other is raised slightly. The size of the ladder, but the way described is men on the side nearer the beam that is the generally similar to whatever method is official pivot each keep one foot on the bottom rung by within a particular department. The training using the foot next to that beam. The other men given within that department will illustrate the keep their feet off the ladder until it has been variations specified for the department to which t u ruxl. the "Support Assistant" is assigned. The Py section of an extension ladder is The raising and handling of Bangor ladders raised to the desired height when the ladder is is more involved than that of ordinary ex- in the vertical position. Two men hold the beams tension ladders without poles. The use of lad- of the bed ladder, while a third man unties the ders with poles attached calls for more men and knot (if there is one) in the halyard and raises more maneuvering although the extra man- the fly by pulling the halyard until the fly is up power makes the task easier and permits the to the height wanted. He then makes sure the raising of ladders longer than 40 feet. dogs are locked and ties the halyard with a The disadvantage of pole ladders is that they clove hitch after taking a turn in the rope need a minimum of five men (usually six) ; around the center of the third rung. It is im- which are distributed as follows: butt, one or portant that the dogs be locked. This can be two men : raise, two men : and tormentor poles, ascertained in the dark by listening. There are two men (one on each pole). two sounds as the dogs pass a rung and re-open. With this amount of manpower, ladders as The halyard should be released slowly after the long as 55 feet can be raised when the men have first sound and the fly lowered a fractional dis- had proper instruction and practice. tance until the dogs lock on the rung. These The commonly accepted steps in raising this sounds (two to the rung) can also be used to kind of ladder call for the butt and raise men to gauge the height to which the fly has been act in the same fashion as they did in the noises raised. heretofore described. The difference is in the When the ladder has been extended to the use of the poles. desired height, it is then lowered into position Ordinarily, the butt men release the poles and against the building (or other objective). This pass them to the beam mPri who in turn give should be done smoothly and gently. Ladders them to the pole men. ; s the butt men and should never be dropped into place. Commonly, raise men go through the same process de- the raise men face the building, each holding scribed previously, the pole men assist by push- one foot on the bottom rung and grasping the ing upward on the poles. They can help greatly rung nearest chest level. The butt men face in raising a heavy ladder. However, if they the raise men, each holding a beam and each push prematurely, it may be difficult for the with both feet on the ground. The ladder is butt men to keep the butt from sliding. given a slight push to start the tip moving Although the point to which the ladder is to toward the building and all men hold the ladder be raised is the primary factor in determining to control ite progrwts so that the tip moves the angle at which the ladder should be placed, smoothly into position. there is also the consideration of safety. The

S4 53 FIGI'REOP.Raising ladders with poles

.54 nearer the ladder is to vertical, the greater will trucks, but not raised, should not be left where be its strength. This has led to the general they may create a hazard; rather, they should acceptance of a rough rule that a ladder should be placed next to and parallel to the truck or be positioned with the base set at a distance building to reduce chances of someone tripping from the building equa! to one quarter of the over them. height that the ladder tip is above the ground. 3. Ladders raised to a roof should be ex- In other words, the height to which the ladder tended a few rungs above the roof so as to be is to be raised is divided by four, and the ladder easily seen and mounted by men finding it butt is placed that far from the building. necessary to leave the roof in a hurry. This rule is good for painters' ladders and other 4. Whenever anyone is on a ladder, the lad- ladders of unproven strength, but fire ladders der should be securely dogged or butted. The are strong enough to be placed at somewhat usual method of butting is for one man to place lower angles. Slightly lower angles make work- a foot on the bottom rung, hold the beams with ing on the ladder easier and safer, especially both hands, and place the weight against the when a nozzle is being operated from the lad-ladder. Another way isto place both feet der. There is less danger of the ladder sliding against the beams at the butt and hold the lad- or falling away from the building when it is atder. Still another method has the butt man on a low angle. Most departments do not use a set the underside of the ladder holding a rung at formula to arrive at this distance, but place the chest height. Some departments dog a ladder to ladder so that its base is two or three feet a window by using a chain and hook designed farther from the building than one quarter of for this purpose or a rope hose tool. This type the height. When placed at such an angle a of dogging is a good safety feature, but requires ladder will reach to about two feet less than the that the dog be released before the ladder can lenifth to which it has been extended. Thus, a be moved. ladder extended to 32 feet will reach a point 5. When it is planned to enter a window or slightly more than thirty feet above the ground assist someone from a window via a ladder, it when the nase is ten feet from the wall of thecen usually be done easier if the ladder tip is building. placed slightly below the window sill, although Some departmentsplaceatrussladder in some departments it is felt that the ladder (wood), with the curved side always toward the building. Some departmentsinsist that tip should be inside the window. theflysection be on the building side of theladder ;othersrequiretheopposite. Ladder Climbing Each department may havevalidreasons Before a man ascends a ladder, he should for itsrequirements. The important thing make sure that the ladder is in a safe position to learnisthe procedure followed in your and not already overloaded. (Most fire depart- department so that all members work in har- ment ladders will safely hold one man of aver- mony and avoid confusion. age weight for every 10 feet of length when in a The raising and handling of ladders is best normal position, with a maximum of four on learned by practice under direction of a compe- any ground ladder). tent instructor. This is also the way in which The man should not hug the ladder, but keep the necessary teamwork in ladder handling is his body well back when climbing. If he plants acquired. each foot on the center of the rung instead of There are, however, some generally applic- the end, it will minimize wobbling of the ladder. able hints for greater safety in ladder opera- Whether he should place his hands on the tions: beams or the rungs is sometimes a matter of 1. When a ladder is removed from a truck, a departmentpolicyand sometimes optional. ladder positioned behind it may be secured by There are arguments for and against both the same locking attachment. If so, the attach- methods. Whichever method is used, the main ment should be secured again to prevent the aim should be to climb smcothly. Speed is not second ladder from being accidentally dislodged. as important as form. Good form will minimize 2. Ladders that have been removed from bounce and ladder stress.

36 55 t

NOTE: FOOT MAY ALSO BE LOCKED ON RUNG

\% PROPER CLIMBING POSITION LEG LOCK FIGURE 41.Climbing ladders

$7 56 When carrying a tool or other object that re- both hands and leans back. Thus, he is standing stricts the grasp of the ladder to one hand, a with one foot on a rung and the other locked safe method of climbing is to slide the free hand onto a rung or beam. The leg to be locked should along the underside of the beam from the out- be the leg on the side other than the side he is side. Thus, it is in position to grasp the beam going to work on. If he is going to work to the quickly when necessary. right of the ladder (his right), he should lock When a man is going to leave the ladder to on with his left leg. He will have greater free- step onto a roof or in through a window, he dom of movement this way. should make sure that he is not stepping into a When a nozzle is operated from a ladder, the void. Men have been killed by stepping off lad- hose should be attached to the ladder with a ders into shaftways, stairways, or other open- hose strap or rope hose tool. Operating without ings. This happens most often when visibility is such protection would be quite dangerous. obscured by darkness or smoke, but can happen also when visibility is good and the man makes an erroneous assumption. Ladder Bridges Many times people have been rescued by Working from a Ladder crawling across a ladder that was placed as a When operating a nozzle or performing other bridge between two buildings. Although a lad- work from a ladder, the man should be "locked der can be used in a horizontal position, care on" to the ladder for his safety. This can be should be taken to avoid overloading it because done by using a life-belt or ladder belt or by it was not designed for this kind of stress. taking a leg lock when no belt is readily avail- A bridge of ladders can also be used to carry able. hose lines over a busy highway so that traffic If a belt is worn, the safety snap should be will not have to stop. kept to the side when climb:fig, but when it is to be clamped to a rung, the safety snap is moved to the front by sliding the whole belt. Replacing Ladders When the snap is fastened to a rung, the man Support assistants may frequently be called may lean back and work with both hands secure upon to return ladders to their proper positions in the knowledge that the belt will keep him on the trucks. Therefore, they shouldbecome from falling off the ladder. fully acquainted with the places and ways the The leg lock is taken by placing one leg over ladders are carried and how they shouid be a rung and the foot of that leg under a lower fastened. The latter is quite important because rung or against a beam in a manner that will if a ladder came off while the truck was under- keep the man from falling if he lets go with way, it could cause serious injury anddamage.

$8 57

CHAPTER TEN

PROTECTIVE BREATHING EQUIPMENT

In order that firefighters may survive in at- The chief limitations are : mospheres contaminated by smoke and gases 1. The canister is merely a\ filter-. It does not caused by fire and also where toxic fumes have provide oxygen ; therefore, there must be suffi- been released from other causes, they are pro- cient oxygen in the atmosphere or the wearer vided with protective breathing equipment. This will die of asphyxiation. equipment protects the firefighter's life and also allows him to stay longer and work better in 2. The filter can only remove gases in limited contaminated atmospheres. quantities. This limit should not be exceeded It is important to understand at the outset (see label). that no breathing apparatus yet designed pro- 3. Perhaps the most dangerous limitation is vides foolproof, guaranteed protection under all that "hopcalite," the material in the canister fire conditions that may be encountered. Each tat converts deadly carbon monoxide, can lose type has its limitations and men have been its effectiveness. Carbon monoxide is colorless, killed while wearing all types. Many of those odorless, and tasteless. When it gets through the killed, died because they did not thoroughly canister, the wearer does not realize that he is understand the limitations of the equipment breathing it. they were wearing. Others who have died, 4. Concentrations of carbon monoxide cause knew, but gambled that they could exceed the limitations and get by. There are four basic types of breathing apparatus available today. They are the filter mask ; the self-contained demand-type providing either oxygen or air ; the oxygen self-generating; and the type known as oxygen-rebreathing, or "rebreather." Each will be dis- russed separately. A. Filter-Canister Mask: This is popularly known as the "All-Service" canister mask to distinguish the canister from those used in industry, which are used only for certain specified gases. The "All-Service" is officially known as the type "N" or "Universal" canister. The canister is red, and those for limited industrial use are painted other colors, according to theii intended functions. The term "All-Service" is misleading because of many limitations of the canister, but has been in common usage in the fire service. Recentlyfire service authorities have recommended that the use of this type of mask be discontinued for safety reasons. Some, but not all, of the canister limitations are printed on the label. This labelshould be read and thoroughly understood long before any attempt is made tvi use the canister. FIGURE 13.Filter-canniater mask

61 59 heating of a canister that is in good condition 4.Facepiece is put on (description of don- and is converting the carbon monoxide. Con-ning of facepiece is given later in this chapter centrations of 2 percent or more can cause the because it is the same for all units). air coming to the facepiece from the canister 5.Test is made for proper fit and leakage by to become too hot to breathe. If the man pulls holding palm side of one hand tightly over the off his facepiece in such a concentration of car. opening in bottom of canister and inhaling bon monoxide, a couple of breaths of it maydeeply. A proper fit without leaking should cause unconsciousness and death. cause collapse of facepiece and stoppage of inhalation that is quite noticeable. Care of Canister When these steps have been completed and In recent years, canister care has been simpli- it is obvious that canister and mask assembly fied by adding a visual indicator at the hopcalite are in good condition and functioning properly, layer of the canister. There are two pieces ofthe wearer can enter a contaminated atmos- blue paper side by side in a window. When the phere provided the atmosphere: canister is new, one paper is of lighter color 1.Contains at least 16% oxygen. than the other. Hopcalite is deteriorated by 2.Contains less than 2% carbon monoxide moisture, so the darker paper is treated to be- or several other toxic gases, alone or com- come lighter in color as it picks up moisture. bined. When it becomes as light as the other paper, the 3.Is not excessively hot. hopcalite has lost effectiveness and the canister should be discarded. If the man wearing the mask tastes or smells Hopcalite can deteriorate from ordinary at- a foreign odor, retreat to fresh air is advisable mospheric humidity in a fire station ; therefore, because either there is a leak or the canister the bottom opening of the canister should be is failing to filter fully. kept sealed until the unit is about to be used at If the air being breathed becomes very hot, a fire and should be resealed after each use. the man should retreat to fresh air. There may It is dangerous to use canisters other than be a large concentration of carbon monoxide those equipped with visual indicators because causing the canister to get dangerously hot. He itis difficult to estimate whether or not the should not pull off the facepiece! hopealite's usefulness has expired. Older canis- Itis a dangerous practice to wear filter ters were equipped with so-called timers, a dial masks in cellars, attics, sewers, tunnels, or that merely indicated how many breaths had other places that may be deficient in oxygen. been inhaled through it and that did not give a It is well for men wearing masks at fires to true indication of the condition of the canister. stay close to the floor. There will be less smoke Canister with holes or dents in them should and carbon monoxide at lower levels. Usually, be discarded, as should canisters with cracked the concentration is proportionate to the height. or broken glass in the window indicator. Another good reason to stay low is because heat Canisters that cause any strain or difficultyis less at lower levels, and the danger of burns in breathing should be discarded. is lessened in case of a sudden flash of fire. Using the Fiiter Gas Mask B. Oxygen-Generating: This unit also uses a canister, but one that is much different from I. Whenever a canister is about to be used,the "All-Service." This canister is not just a the window indicator should beinspected to filter, but actually provides oxygen, as well as aiscertain that protection against carbon mon- removing the carbon dioxide from the exhaled oxide has not expired. breath. It contains an oxidizing agent that gen- 2. The seal should be removed from bottomerates oxygen when activated by the moisture or canister to albw air to enter. of 'he exhaled breath. Thus. there is a continu- 3. The harness is placed over wearer's head ous closed circuit cycle in which the oxygen is so that the window indicator faces away from inhaled and the breath that is exhaled is used to his body and can be seen when mask is in use. generate fresh oxygen. This cycle is continued Then the waist strap is tightened. until the canister is used up, which takes up to

62 60 2.Fasten chest strap. 3. Remove outer seal and discs from neck of canister. Be sure to expose shiny copper seal. 4. Holding canister with neck pointing upward lift bale with one hand and push canister upward evenly into recess. 5. Return bale to bottom of canister and tighten compression screw, forcing canister up- mard until the top of it makes a positive seal. 6. Put on facepiece and test for leakage and fit by squeezing both tubes and inhaling deeply. Proper fit without leaks should cause a stoppage of inhalation and facepiece collapse. 7. When proper fit without leakage is as- sured, the canister should be activated and a reserve of oxygen built up in the breathingbag by doing the following : a. With one hand holdingboth tubes closed, pull facepiece away from cheek with other hand and inhale deeply. Then release both hands together and exhale vigorously. Repeat this several times until breathing bag is full. b. When bag is full, place elbows against it, and while either pressing relief valve or holding lacepiece away from cheek, squeeze bag to force oxygen out. c.Repeat the steps of (a) above. 8. Set timer. When the unit is being worn, an excess of oxygen generated may create a pressure inthe FIGURE 44.Oxygen generating mask facepiece that could make exhalation difficult. When this happens, the pressure can be re- one hour or one-half hour, depending upon the lieved by momentarily pressing the button or model used. the relief valve in front of the facepiece. This The canister must be expended once the seal valve should not be held open too long or the is broken. It cannot be used again because it breathing bag may be deflated. If the relief continues to generate until expired even though valve fails to work, the pressure can be relieved not being used. easily by pulling the facepiece away from the This unit has a spring wound timer that cheek for a fraction of a second. sounds a bell when a certain time has been reached (one-half hour or 45 minutes, depend- Canister Disposal ing upon which model is used). This timer must be started when mask is put into use. The oxidizing agent in the canister will react explosively with oil and vigorously with water; therefore, an open canister should be kept away Using the Oxygen-Generating Mask from both until it is disposed of. The following steps can be followed to put Safe disposal calls for the canister to be the unit to work : punctured on three sides and placed carefully 1.Holding mask in front of body, put har- into clean water in a bucket or container that ness over head. has never held oil. The water will probably boil 63 61

I. quite violently for a short while. When all boiling and bubbling ceases, the canister is safe for disposal, but it should be remembered that the bucket now contains a strong caustic solution. C. Air or Oxygen-Demand-Type: These are open circuit units and although some use compressed oxygen and some use compressed air, both operate on the same principle. The a:r or oxygenis stored under high pressure in a cylinder and fed to the facepiece through a gulator valve which reduces the high pressure alid supplies the wearer with the amount of air (or oxygen) his inhalation demands. In the 40-cubic-foot unit, this supply is sup- posed to be good for one-half hour, and the apparatus is called a "half-hour" unit. How- ever, the full supply can be used up in half that time by a man working hard at a fire. The same is true of the so-calledfifteen minute units, which can be exhausted in about seven minutes. Therefore, great care should be taken by men wearing this apparatus to make sure they do not use up their whole supply while still in a contaminated atmosphere. The pressure gauge has a dial with a hand that indicates how much pressure remains. This should be observed FIGURE 45.Oxygen-demand breathing apparatus frequently, and if the wearer can't see it in heavy smoke, he should withdraw to a point without leaks a strong inhalation should cause where'he can read the gauge even if the appa- the facepiece to collapse and inhalation to cease. ratus is equipped with a low pressure alarm. Then the cylinder valve should be opened. The alarm might fail to work. The point at The regulator valve (yellow knob) should be which the wearer should retreat to fresh air in the open position and the bypass valve (red should be determined by a combination of the knob) should be closed. The gauge shohld be pressure remaining, the rate at which it is being read to assure that the supply of oxygen or air depleted, and the distance to safety, with ample is adequate. In connection with this, it is a good time to allow for delays in the retreat due to ob- practice to open and close the red knob quickly structions or difficulty in finding the way. so that any air or oxygen trapped in the high Fire Service authorities have recommended pressure hose from previous use will be re- that only units rated for at leart 30 minutes be leased. This prevents a false reading on the used for firefighting purposes. gauge. The next step is to connect the breathing tube from the facepiece to the socket for it on the Using the Air or Oxygen-Demand regulator and tighten the lock nut. Breathing Apparatus If. during use, breathing becomes difficult, There are several ways of donning this appa- open the bypass (red knob) and close the regu- ratus. The method taught in the member's de- lator valve (yellow knob). This feeds a steady partment should be followed. When the appa-supply from cylinder to facepieceand mayre- ratus is in place with all buckles fastened, the lieve the difficulty. However, it will use up the facepiece. which is carried separately. is donned supply of air or oxygen more quickly. and tested, for leakage and fit by helding the palm or heel of hand tight against the end of Oxygen Rebreathing Apparatus the flexible breathing tube. With a tightfit The so-called rebreathers are A combination

64 62 of some of the features of the oxygen self-gen- General Precautions for All Units erating and oxygen-demand apparatus. They Apparatus should not be put on after heavy operate on the principle of "scrubbing" carbon exertion, or when man is breathing hard. dioxide out of exhaled breath, using the oxygen The wearer will experience less difficultyin of the exhaled breath over again, and supple- breathing and get longer use of supply if he suc- menting it with fresh oxygen from a storage ceeds in keeping calm. cylinder. This permits longer service than is If difficulty in breathing is encountered, th available from other type units of comparable wearer should resist the temptation to pull o weight and consequently, many fire depart- the facepiece ! He should calm down and rest. ments keep some of these units for jobs that Some fire departments use a life line attached acquire long duration of supply. to the wearer, but most departments have the As with the other self-contained units, the men work in pairs so that in case of mishap to gauge should be read frequently during use to one man, the other can assist him. assure time for safe retreat. Some of the harmful gases, notably hydro- cyanic acid gas, can be absorbed through skin. With older style units, occasional nitrogen No breathing apparatus can protect against purging is necessary during use. skin absorption, of course.

63 65 CHAPTER ELEVEN

EFFECTIVE USE OF HOSE STREAMS

Operation of Hose Streams of applying fog is to rotate the nozzle sothat water strikes all surfaces of the room:ceiling, In order for a fire to be extinguished, either floor, and walls. Either way, the stream should the heat, fuel, or oxygen must be removed. not be held stationary, but movedrapidly Water can extinguish fire by removing all three. around. As soon as the fire is darkened, the Water extinguishes mostly by cooling the burn- nozzle should be shut off. It can be reopened (on ing material to where it no longer gives off straight stream) and aimed directly at the base vapors that burn. This is both cooling and re- of any flame that may reappear. moving fuel. Water can also be converted to Opening the nozzle on smoke when no fire is steam, which sometimes aids in extinguishing visible is the mark of the amateur. However, fire by diluting oxygen. Water is still one of the sometimes when heat is so great as to make most effective extinguishing agents yet dis- further progress impossible, it is permissible to covered and is also the most plentiful and open the nozzle and coolthe area enough to economical. permit closer approach to the fire. It is amazing to the beginning firefighter how quickly water extinguishes fire when it hits it and how little water is needed when used prop- Nozzles erly. A typical bedroom fire, with the room There are two major types of nozzles. One fully involved, can be extinguished with a few discharges water in a straight or solid stream gallons of water. The big job is to get where the only ; the other can also discharge a spray. All water can be applied most effectively. At a modern handheld, fire department nozzles can building fire, this usually calls for getting into be opened or closed. Usually, the control valve the building and working up close to the fire, is operated by a handle that is in theclosed a procedure not always easily done, butwhich position when all the way forward and fully usually must be done. opened when all the way back. Nozzles without Untrained firefighters are inclined to stand at control valves are frequently found onprivately a comfortable distance from thefire and at- owned standpipe or yard-hydrant hoselines. tempt to extinguishit by aiming a stream They are called "open" nozzles becausethey through a window. This is seldom effective can't be closed. because the amount of fire covered by the water Nozzles that deliver water in a fine spray is small. Trained firefighters do this only at very are called "fog" nozzles.Most modern fog large fires or where building collapse is immi- nozzles can deliver water in fog patternsof nent. At ordinary fires, the nozzle is brought varying width, as well as a straight stream,and into the building and close to the fire before are referred to as"combination" nozzles. The being opened. If a room is well involved with types that have control handlesprovide an ad- fire, the nozzle is moved around rapidly to get vantage in that the pattern can be setbefore maximum coverage with a minimum of water. . the nozzle is opened. Some older types are A few gallons of water properly applied is more opened and closed by turning the upper portion effective than tons of water wrongly used. of the nozzle. (This also changes the spray Inside a building, to cool a very hot fire in a pattern.) short time, the nozzle is aimed at the ceiling and Some fog nozzles are called constant-gallon- whipped rapidly around. With a straight stream age nozzles, meaningthat they discharge the this bounces the water off the ceiling and cause; same amount of water at agiven pressure in it to fall like rain over a large area. With afog any pattern. This is not trueof all fog nozzles. stream. this is also beneficial. but a better way Those not of the constant-gallonage-type dis- 67 64 cealed wall spaces, and attics or cock-lofts. (A cockloft is the space between the top floor ceiling and the roof in a building with a flat roof.) The most commonly used cellar nozzles are: Bresnan DistributorThis nozzle has a ro- tating head, which is moved around rapidly by the water being discharged from it.It has several small openings through which the water emits to cover an area about 40 feet in diameter when used at 50 psi pressure. The flow approxi- mates that of an VA." tip. It should be lowered about five feet below floor. Because it has no shutoff, control must be established with a gate valve one length back or a hose clamp. It is gook; practice to raise and lower it slightly when in use to get better coverage. If it does not extinguish fire quickly it should be moved to other appl ication points. Hart Cellar Pipe and Baker Cellar Pipe These two pipes are similar in design. Each has a nozzle at right angles to the vertical pipe, which can be directed from above. The nozzle can be moved up and down and from side to side to provide maximum coverage. Some models can FIGURE 46.Hose nozzles be turned in a complete circle and some have two nozzles pointing in opposite directions. charge much more water in the wider fog patterns than in the narrow patterns and straight Bent Cellar PipeAs the name implies, this stream position. is a long pipe with a bend of about 45°. It is Although the discharge from a solid-streamdesigned to be used through a cellar window; nozzle can be determined by the size of the tip whereas the Bresnan distributor and the Hart opening, which can be seen at a glance, theand Baker cellar pipes are made to be used discharge of a fog nozzle cannot be determined through holes cut in floors. from the size or appearance of the nozzle. Many Sub-Cellar PipeThis pipe is longer than models have the discharge (in gallons per min- the bent cellar pipe and can be lowered down a ute) stamped or marked on the nozzle. Where freight elevator shaft or window well to attack this appears, it indicates what the discharge is fire in a cellar or sub-cellar. The sub-cellar pipe at 100 lbs. per square inch (psi) pressure. and the bent cellar pipe can sometimes be used Some fog nozzles have variable flow controls, effectively under piers. allowing the quantity of water being discharged to be changed. The positions to select various Partition Nozz/esPartition nozzles have the volumes n re marked on the nozzle, but should tip at a right angle to the rest of the nozzle; not be regarded as accurate indicators because thus, the nozzle can be easily inserted in small as the volume position is changed, the pressure openings and the water aimed in any direction will change, and any pressure other than 100 by turning the nozzle. This can be useful when psi will give a different flow from that marked fire is in between the studs of a wall or partition on the nozzle. or in a ceiling or floor space. Piercing NozzleThis device has a sharp Special Nozzle point so that the nozzle can be driven into a wall There are several types of nozzles designed or ceiling. When water is turned on it comes out for siwcial uses, mostly for fires in cellars. con- of many small holes in the nozzle to give a

69 65 %

co w I Lai big ZG2

CO i=0 CA =C= CC be used to reach into when about to be used. They have noshut offs coarse spray. It can also line from base piled materials. and are usually supplied by 3" of the ladder or two 21/2" linessiamesed into Fog ApplicatorThis is a long pipe with a the pipe. bayonet type mount at one end, to fit a com- types of panion nozzle, and a fog head of theimpinging Nozzle HoldersThere are several soft devices designed to hold large nozzlesoperating stream type at the other end. This gives a of these clamp fog, called "low velocity" fog. One leading useat fairly high pressures. Most of a on the hose in backof the nozzle and provide a of the applicator is to reach over the edge reaction that makes tank in which liquids are burning. If used on an means of taking up the electrical fire, there is a danger that itmight holding a nozzle difficult. make contact with electrical current. Heavy-StreamSupply Heavycaliber streams discharge large volumes ofwater. Un- less the stretch is very short,they must be Heavy-Stream Nozzles supplied by hose larger thara 21/2" indiameter The nozzlespreviously described are all or by more than one21/2" line. This is because "hand held," meaning that nodevice is neces- friction loss at the volumes requiredis quite sary to hold or manipulatethe nozzle or pipe. high in 21/2" hose. Usually heavystreams or However, when streams of more than350 gal- "master streams" use 500 gpm or more. lons per mintue or nozzle tips largerthan 11/4" diameter are used, holding devicesshould be Water Towers and ElevatingPlatforms used. These heavy caliber streams areoften One of the best means of applyingheavy cali- called "master streams" and the meansof han-ber streams at elevationsis the apparatus dling them called master-streamdevices. Some known as the Aerial Platform. It canbe oper- of the most common of these aredescribed in ated from the ground as well as thebasket and the following paragraphs: can bring its nozzle right upto a window. Most Deck PipeAlso called a turret pipe orplatforms have built-in piping to carrythe wagon pipe, as well as a"gun," this device iswater to the nozzle, and large capacitynozzles permanently mounted on a pumper or hose can be used. wagon and, in some departments, onspecial Some departments still have watertowers apparatus and ladder trucks. Itconsists of aalthough none have been made in many years. large diameter pipe (3" or 31/2") with aswivel The water tower is also capable ofdischarging and tilt arrangement to allow its streamto belarge volumes of water but lacksmuch of the moved by one man. Nozzle tips are usually11/4", aerial platform's flexibility. 11/2", and 134", although some departments use Somewhat different from both is thetele- other sizes and a fog nozzle. Some arefed scopic-boom, elevating platform, whereasthe through siamese connections although some on socalledaerialplatformhasarticulating pumpers are fed directlyfrom the pump bybooms; on this type, the boomstelescope. It, opening a valve to the deck pipe. like the articulating type, can be usedfor other functions, such as rescue and gaining access, as Deluge Gun (Sometimes called "portable Monitor" or "Street Pipe") This is similar towell as for the application of heavy streams. the deck pipe in appearance, principle, and purpose. However, it can bedismounted and car- Fog and Straight StreamsAdvantages ried to other locations. Deluge guns usually have and Disadvantages two or three inlets and have tips the same sizes A fog stream has great cooling powerbecause as deck-pipe tips. Mostdeluge guns have nothe many tiny water particles present alarge shut off. total surface area 6nd, therefore, absorbmuch Ladder PipesWhat the deluge gun does on heat. However, fog nozzles lack reach, pene- the ground, the ladder pipe does at elevations. tration, and quenching power and arenot as Ladder pipes are attached to the rungs of an effective on large bodies of fire as arestraight of aerialladder.Some Frecarriedalready streams of adequate gallonage. Fog streams mounted, others are put on the ladder only large caliber should be used on large areafires.

70 . 67 Fog has the advantage of being effective on Location of Fire.Fog has much less reach most high-flash-point, flammable, liquid fires than straight stream. on which type of fire straight stream isseldom Size of Fire.Large fires require large noz- as satisfactory. zles to give the required volume of water. If Fog is more easily converted to steam, which the rate of water discharge is not sufficient to is the form of water that absorbs the maximum absorb enough heat to stop the generation of amount of heat. Water absorbs six times as burning vapors, the fire will continue to burn. much heat when being raised one degree at Length of Stretch.Long stretches require 212c F. as it does when going up 60' to its smaller nozzles or larger diameter hose to re- ordinary boiling point of 212z. Water expands duce friction loss. rapidly when turning to steam (about 1700 A widely accepted rule is never to use a noz- times), and the expane.ing steam covers a large zle diameter more than half the hose diameter, area. This steam can have someextinguishing to use half the hose diameter for stretches up effect in a confined space. It is of no advantage to six lengths, and deduct 1 II" for every addi- in the open and of little value where there are tional 6 lengths. openings through which steam may escape. It If long stretches are needed at a large fire can present a handicap by upsettingthe thermal and the volume of water needed requires large balance and driving firefighters out of the build- nozzles, it would create excessive friction loss inr because sometimes the expanding steam in one 21.hose line. Therefore, it becomes causes the temperature near thefloor to rise to necessary to siamese two lines into one nozzle an intolerable level. or deluge gun to cut down the friction loss by Fog can provide excellent protection against dividing it between the two lines. Sometimes the heat of the flames and hot air emanating even three lines into one may be necessary. from a fire. Also, it is virtually a nonconductor For example. with a Pi." nozzle on a deluge of electricity, having been tested on currents up gun at a 68 pound nozzle pressure, the flow is to 135.000 volts and found safe at a distance of 750 gpm. If this flow were forced through a 3 feet. single line of 21:." hose, the friction loss would When a nozzle is in fog position, there is less be 120 pounds per 100 feet. This is excessive; reaction("kick back") than with straightso we would use two lines siamesed into the stream, but the high pressure required by fogdeluge set and cut the friction loss down to nozzles makes the hose very stiff. There is not 32 pounds. The friction loss in two lines sia- much difficulty with 11!." hose, but presents a mesed is roughly one fourth that of a single problem when 21A" hose must be advanced and I ine. maneuvered inside a building. Remember that large nozzles and pressures Fog, when used in a closed area with no venti-are needed at large fires, but thatwhen the lation, may cause r flash back of the fire to burn nozzle diameter is more than half the diameter the men at the nozzle. That is why ventilation of the hose, an additional line or lines should be is necessary when using fog inside a room. siamesed to reduce the friction loss. The same is especially a small room. It is preferable to have done if required engine pressure for one line the opening for ventilation on the opposite side exceeds 250 psi. of the fire from the nozzle to allow the heat to Nozzle Pressures.Safe rules to follow for be "pushed out" by the fog stream. selecting nozzle pressures are: (figures are nozzle-tip diameters) Selecting the Most Suitable Nor/ le and Inside streams-1". 14", P4"-30 psi Hose Outside streams-1, 114"-50 psi Outside streams larger than 114"W to 80 psi Choice of the nozzle and the hose size to be (Streams larger than IV are not usually taken in- used at a fire depends upon several factors: side buildings and are not usually hand held.) Type of F'ire.Flammable-liquid fires re- Fog streams-80 to 100 psi quire fog nozzles (if water is used). Deep seated PlacementofStreams.Outside streams fires in solid materials require straight stream.should be moved constantly to give maximum

71 68 coverage. A heavy stream going in a window whether the stream is hitting a nearby wall or will put out all the fire it can reach in about a not hitting anything at all. half-minute; so there is no point keeping it in Nozzles should be opened and closed slowly. one window for a longer period. Opening a nozzle quickly causes a sudden re- Hose streams should not oppose each other. lease of pressure that may wrest the nozzle This means that if men with a hose line are from control. The sudden closing of a nozzle trying to advance through one doorway, there causes a pressure surge that exceedsthe pump should be no lines operating from the opposite pressure. This "water-hammer", or ram, may direction driving heat toward them. This is ex- burst the hose or damage the pump or water tremely harmful if the opposing stream is a piPes. heavy outside stream. It is not usually good Why is the reaction 90 much less when the practice to use outside and inside streams simul- water is flowing than at the moment the nozzle taneously on the same floor. is opened? Before the nozzle is opened, the There is a simple, easily remembered rule pressure at the noule is the same asthe pres- covering placement of hose streams. First, cut sure at the other end of the hoseline (hydrant off spread of fire, then extinguish fire. or pump) if they are on the samelevel ; but as Nozzle Operation.For every action there is soon as the nozzle is openedand water starts a reaction. The water passing outthrough the to flow through the hose line, friction loss inthe end of the nozzle creates a reaction tending to line uses up a great deal ef the pressure and the push the nozzle back in the opposite direction. rozzle pressure drops. This will be explained in The greater the pressure. the greater is this more detail in the chapter onpumping. reaction, or "kick back." The reaction of a given An unsafe practice in the handling of hose nozzle pressure increases with the nozzle di- streams is the straddling of hose. This is an- ameter. Nozzle reaction can be calculated as one other mark of the amateur and a procedure that and one-half firms the pressure times the could lead to painful injury. square of the diameter of the nozzle(1.6 PIP). Novde diameter is the diameter of the tip through which the stream emerges.) Foam For a 1" nozzle diameter at 50 psi, the re- It is common for laymen to think that chemi- action is 75 lbs. For the same noule at 100 psi, cals are superior to water in firefighting. Actu- the reaction is 150 lbs. For a 11/2" nozzle at 50 ally, there is very limited use of chemicals be- psi, the reaction is 95 lbs., and at 100 psi, it is cause not only do they cost much morethan 190 lbs. In each case the reaction is the pressure water, but they seldom are more effective, forcing the nozzle back that must be overcome especially when the fire is beyond the incipient by the men holding it. This is done by the stage. nozzlemen leaning forward against the reaction. However,therearecertainapplications It is also a reason why he should be well braced. where water by itself is not sufficiently effec- It is good practice to have another man back up tive. For this reason "foam" is used onliquid the nozzleman and take the greater part of the fires that cannot be extinguished with water strain, leaving the nozzleman free to operate alone. Foam is a compound that, when mixed the nozzle. It is practically a must to have two with water, makes tough, viscous bubbles, that men at the nozzle when nozzle diameters ex- can form a blanket over thesurface of the burn- ceeding one inch are used. ing liquid, excluding oxygen, and smothering When nozzle diameters exceed 13/4", it is nec- the fire. The water contained in the bubble essary to use a holding device such as apipe formation also has a cooling effect. holder or deluge set to take up the reaction. There are two basic types of foam: chemical There is an old myth concerning nozzle re- and mechanical. Chemical foam comes in pow- action, which still has many believsrs, thatder form and is mixed with water in a foam when a solid stream strikes a wall, the reaction generator. The powder is poured into a hopper is transmitted through the stream back to the atop the generator and stirred with a paddle nozzle. This does not occur and tests have to obtain uniform mixing. The watershould proved there is no difference in nozzle reaction enter the generator at a pressure of 100pen

72 69 and there should be 100 feet of hose between Those hi-expansion foams are detergents the generator and the nozzle to assure a good (synthetic soaps) and are used with special quality foam. Most chemical foams have oneequipment that forces air under premaure and powder. but some have two powders called "A" water under pressure through a mixing device and "B." which are mixed together in the to make a large quantity of light. fluffy bubbles. hopper. The extinguishing effect of hi-expar*m foam Mechanical foam cornes in liquid form and is is largely one of cooling rather than smothering. mixed with water in either of two ways. One method uses a pick-up tube attached to a foam Wetting Agents nozzle. The tube is inserted into the can of foam Some detergent foams can be used as addi- and the venturi action of the water passing tives or "water wetters" to reduce the surface through the nozzle picks the foam liquid out of tension of water t4c that it will penetrate better the can to mix with water and air ait passes into porous materials. through the nozzle. There are several other types of wetting The second method uses a foam proportioner. agents. They may vary in composition, but a device that can be inserted anywhere in the most work on theprinciple of penetration hose line to mix foam liquid, ail% and water. A through reduced surface tension. conventional fog nozzle can be used on the line from a proportioner. provided itis "mated" with the proportioner. meaning that both are Other Activities designed to provide the same discharge in gal- There are other materials. which when added lor, s of water per minute. to water. wilgive it certain properti. Some It is essential that the foam being used is the makeit cling. SO1TIP make it smoother. Some same in percentage rating as the nozzle or make it opF.que. None of these are in general proportioner. There are "three percent" foams use as yet. and "six percent" foams to match foam nozzlfts and proportioners of the same percentare rat- Applying Foam ing. A six percent fnarn should not be used with Foarr should be applied at flammable liquid a three percent nozzle or proportioner. and vice fi:-es in a manner that will make it flow gently yenta. over the surface of the burning liquid. It should There is a special variety of foam liquid not be aimed to plunge under the surface. but known as "all-purpose" or "alcohol" foam. This directed to strike the side of the tank if the is for use on fires in alcohols. esters, and ke- liq-jid is in a tank. If the fire is in a spill on the tones. which break down ordinary foam. This ground. the foam can be bounced off the ground foam does not contain alcohol. but is made to be front of the fire to flow onto the fire. used on alcohol. .Vost foams are r?nt compatible with ordinary dry chemicals, but there are special foam-compatible dry chemicals and dry-chemical-com- High Expansion Foams patible foams, neither of which are common in The foams just described are protein foams. fire departments. If noncompatible foams and There are other foams also quite effective oil dry chemicals are used on the same fire, they most flammable liquid fires but which are find- may work against each other; therefore, care ing a further application in filling basementsshould be taken to avoid this conflict and similar spaces to extinguish inaccessible Foam may also be used to put a protective fire. These foams are called high expansion coating on parts of structures exposed to the foams because some of them have an expansion heat of a fire such as window glass. airplane ratio of 1000 to 1. compared with ordinary fuselage. or combustible surfaces. This is an foams that expand about 10 to 1. This ratio is expensive method compared with wetting them calculated as the number of gnllons of foam with plain water, but could be useful where the bubbles made by mixing one gallon of foam water supply is limited. The heati11 dissipate liquid with the proper proportions of air andthe foam in time and then the coating must be water. reiewed if the protection is still needed. 70 73 CHAFTat TWILVIE

OVERHAUUNG

What is overhauling? Simply defined, over- boards is another sign of remaining fire. Some- hauling is a thorough examination to make cer- times the smell of smoke will indicate what ma- tain that a fire is completely extinguished. In terial is burning and give a clue to its location. the usual application. it is the entire; process of Touch may be used by feeling for hot spots making sure that no sparks or embers remain along walls and floors. to "rekindle" a fire that might again spread Whenever these signs of hidden fire appear. through the premises or materials involved. it is logical to make openings to uncover and Overhauling should not be considered part of extinguish the fire. It should be remembered. salvage work or determination of fire cause. however, that a wall that has had its surface Overhauling is an important subject, one that exposed to the heat of the fire may feel hot and should be dealt with separately. It should also yet not have a fire behind it. An old adage be clearly understood that overhauling is not says that if you can hold yourbare hand on a merely "wetting down" burned materials; it is latch and plaster wall long enough to say. "It's performed more with tools than with water. hot. Chief." then there is no fire at that point. Overhauling is nece&sary because fire tends to Of course, one cannot depend entirely on remain unnoticed in concealed spaces of a build- these noticeable signs. There are frequent oc- ing. behind wal!s, above ceil:ngs. under floors. casions when judgment is the only guide. If in cracks between boards. etc. Also, combustible there has been intense fire in a room, it may be contents, such as upholstered furniture, mat- reasonably assumed that it might have been tresses, rugs, clothing, rubbish, and stock* such conducted through the ceiling; therefore, a as papers anti cloth may contain hidden fire. small portion of the ceiling may be opened for As soon as visible fire is extinguished, over- examination. The point chosen for this exami- hauling operations should begin. Usually there nation should be the place where the fire ap- is no need to start with haste; a little time spent peared most intense or where there is an open- planning for a systematic overhauling job will ing such as a light fEcture or pipe channel. If. save time and effort, preventinjuries, avoid after the ceiling is opened, evidence of charring needless duplication, and get better results. is disclosed, more of the ceiling shouid be re- Operations should be planned so that an ex- moved until all of the che-red area has been amination is made of every place where fire exposed. If cobwebs are seen, it means that could pomtibly remain or have extended. This there has been little or no heat there. can range from tho openingof a mattress to the Window and door fra nes are places that re- shifting of all the contents of a warehouse, quire particular attention. Hidden fire is prob- from punching a nrall hole next to a light ably found here more often than in any other fixture to pulling down the entire ceiling of a part of a building. It is a simple matter to re- large building. move the cuing or trim,preferably the trim. The plan for overhauling operations should because it can be taken off neatly without dam- be based on location ; intensity and extentof age and left for the owner toreplace. the fire; type of construction involved;and Wher an examination is made to discover fire type, amount, and distribution of contents.The travel in a wall of a room above the fire, the first step is to use hearing, sight, touch, and least damaging way to open that wall is to re- smell to discover hidden fire. Fire in aceiling move the baseboard and puncturethe plaster in or wall may beindicated by a crackling sound the area previously covered by the baseboard. or by blisters or bydiscoloration. Fresh smoke When the baseboard is later replaced. it vnil issuing from cracks in floors or aroundbase- cover the hole. 75 71 Sometimes itisnecessary to remove floor bathroom and submerge them in a bathtub half boards to get at or discover fire. The most full of water. efficient way of doing this from the standpoint Just as with clothing, the overhauling of com- of case of operation and cost of replacement is bustible stock in a mercantile or storage occu- to cut the boards alongside the beams they rest pancy calls for separation of the burned from upon. The location of these beams may be the unburned and close scrutiny of the burned. determined by sounding: that is. tapping the If fire damage has rendered an article useless. floor with the top of the ax head. The hollow many fire departments feelthat no further area between beams will emit a deeper sound. damage can be done by soaking it. This may be It has been assumed that all the structural done by forming a basin with salvage covers. overhauling mentioned so far will be done from putting water from a hose line into the basin the interior of the buildling. It is not only easier and dipping burned materials into this water. and more effective to rpen sidewalls from the Two common overhauling procedures that inside hut less damaging in terms of repair are actually seldom necessary are scrapingchar cost. and the practice known as "washing down." Exterior overhauling operations may include The scraping of char from wood surfaces for opening of roof, opening roof and window cor- fear that the charred area will re-ignite spon- nices, and removing burned shingles or siding. taneously is hardly worthwhile because the like- The same procedure described for floor boards lihood is SO remote. is used to remove roof boards after roofing ma- The procedure krown as washing down is terial has been taken off to expose the boards. frequently overdone it A.vms incorgruous that Tin or built-up roof coverings are cut and firefighters will endure extreme punishment in peeled back. Shingles can be pried loose with a getting clmse to a fire to extinguish it with a claw or similar tool or the pike of an ax. A minimum of water: then an hour or more later quick and easy way to remove shingles is with a use three times as much water to wash down an shovel. area that has been overhauled. If theoverhaul- A good way to cut up roof coveringsaround a ing has bee-1 competently done and the exami- skylight or other opening is to cutdiagonally nationhasbeen thorough,thereislittle outward from each corner and thenpeel back justificationfor the traditionalwashdown. the roofing material between the cuts. About the only time it may be justified is when The overhauling of furniture mostly concerns itis believed that fire may remain in some mattresses and upholstered furniture.Fire can crevices that are difficult to uncover or examine. burrow deep into padding material andsmolder A small amount of water may be directed into for days. This requires that thematerial be such spaces, but the wetting of exposed surfaces pulled apart and thoroughly examined.A safe is a uselesrs and sometimes damaging procedure. procecure is to remove a mattressto a place usually caused by over-caution. where its re-ignition would do no harm. That a There are some specific overhauling problems mattress or davenport is well soakedwith that arise frequently. One is the overhauling of water is no guarantee that all fire in it hasbeen an automobile. The first step is to disconnectthe extiro- uished. An experiment Was once con- battery, unless it has been determined that it ducted in New York of lowering a burningbale had nothing to do with the fire. Burned seat of cotton into the East River and leaving it cushions should be removed from the vehicle submerged for a week. When it was removed.and thoroughly overhauled. If there is a possi- the bale was broken open. and fire wasstill bility that fire extended into the contents of the smoldering within it. The use of water contain-trunk,it should be opened for examination. ing a penetrant ("wet water") is helpful,but Burned wires should be scraped or closely does not entirely remove the necessity for pull- examined. Floor mats should be inspected on ing apart burned materials. the bottom: an examination should be made Burned clothing should be separated from un-of the underside of the vehicle to see if any burned and examined thoroughly. A common grease or insulat'on isburning. way to overhaul clothing or bedclothes that Fires in lumber yards or other places where are oil] burning is to removethem to the stocks of wood are involved will necessitate the 76 72 moving of the burned lumbera tedious. but ofdungerouA materiak.such as acids or other often necessary. procedure. chemicak that may he ha7ardous alone or in The same is true of coal piles. hay Atoraire. combination. Special care is needed in handling. and piles of rubbish or similar materials. them and it shoild he remembered that con- Rurned hay presents a safety problem also. Men tainers may have been weakened by heat or should stand on planks or ladders to keep from water and might fall apart dliritg handling. falling into pfwkets where the hayhas burned Caution is required in the presence of com- to ash. bustible dusts. There have been ocoasions when Firesinvolving large amounts of haled goods firefighters have disturtwd dust sufficiently to oftennecessitatemoving hales cutside the cause dust explosions during overhauling. building to be overhauled. Fork-lift trucks or A large overhauling joh shouldhewell hand trucks are often on the premises and can planned. After the stability of the structure has he used ift ! 1 ,merviceable. If the goods to be been ascertained and danger spots noted. the moved are or upper floors. sometimes a window procedure should be laid ut so that all points opening ran he continued down to floor level to win receive the nevessary attention.Intllis facilitate removal of burned material. Tf this is way. no part of Ulf structure win be overlooked done on more t.han one floor. the openings and needless duplications are avoided. St:-,rting should not he made on windows directly above and finishing points should be selected. work or below each other. The removal of window apportioned. zInd assigned Suitable took .01,,,itri aprons in direct line may weaken the wall. he ataconvenient point.Adequate lighting k If there is much water on the floor, it s!..ould important for safety and efficiency. he relieved promptly because water is quite Tools required may vary slightly with the heavy. Water an inch deepcovering an arta ;nh to be done, but the usual basic group con- 40' x RO' will add about 16.000 pounds to the sisting of an ax. a 6-foe' pike pole. and a Halli- gross floorload. If water has accumulated on gan or daw-tnol are satisfactory for most of the more than one floor. it shouldbe removed from work. Scoop shovels are needed where debris the lowest floor first and then each floor abox e must be moved. Pitchforks are handy overhaul- in turn. working fromthebottom upward. This ing tools on certain occasions. The use of power will prevent water from upper flors adding to tools. especially saws. has becorw popular in the loadonlower floors. recent years. A common fault of small depart- Common overhauling accMents are: ments is not having short pike poles or hooks. 1.Falls. caused by men stepping into ho1es Those handles longer than six feet are in floors. slipping on wet or icy floors. different to use inside most buildings. especially and tripping over debris. 2.ruts caused by broken glass and metal, Other equipment should include lights. and a Also, remember that a especiallytin ceilings. generator. ifneces:ary. charged hckse line or lines with sufficient hose 3. Foreign bodies (Aarcoal, plaster. et^.1 to reach all points should be on hand ready for in eyes. any fire discovered. The usual prac-ice is to 4.Strains caused by lifting heavy objects. reduce to .ines of11 einmeter Inorzles of 5.injuries caused by falling objects. small capacityfor easier mobility and less 6. Men being struckbytools wielded by water damage. Pump and engine wear may be others. saved when hydrant pressure is adequate to Item 3, 5, arta 6 above are mcxqt frequently supply these lines. but a pirnper should be caused by men working too close together. This ready for instant use if needed. can be easily prevented by proper supervision. Mention should also be made here of "watch- It should be strongly emphasized that the duty lines." In extreme cases. a elief may decide-hat of officers isto supervisenot to join in the the most efficient procedure ito leave a small work. An officer cannot properly look out forcrew of men with a charged hoseline on the the safety of his men if he is occupied with scene to guard against rekindle. allowing com- manua. work. panies to return to quarterF. This is not done Another safety consideration is the presence until routine overhauling has been completed. 73 77 hepublk relation:4 aspect of overhauling is make a far more favorable impre&gionthan a important. Unfortunately, the public seems to careless job. This is especially true in a resi- have an image of firefighters a-: house-wreckers. dence. ft is worthwhile to explain the need for over- A goo e. mental attitude for firefighters is to haulingto the owner or occupant of the base their activities on this principle: "Suppw premises and consideration should be given to that were the property owner and not a fire- his feelings. A neat overhauling job with debris fighter. What impression of the fire department rernove.l and a little time spent cleaning up will nmild I getr

78 74 CHAPTER THIRTEEN

EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLIES

An aspect of war-time firefighting that differs tura! water sources. such as lakes. rivers. and greatly from peacetime iS the possible disrup- hays. and man-made storage. such as swimming inn of water supply. Experience has shown that pos and inthistrial water supplies. In :zome of bombing can paralyze a water system by break- our larger cities there are many gravity or ing dams: bursting conduits and mains; knock- pressure tanks for sprinkler and standpipe sys- ing out the power of pumping stations: break- tems in buildings. and many large factories ing many pipes in hnildings: and causing much have private water systerrs. loss of water and pressure. Any of these alone or combined. can seriously impair a water sup- Riven, Lakes, and Says ply at a time when it would be critically needed These natural sources can be of tremendous T.0 fight fires. valueif they can be reached. The City of World War II provided some examples of Itachioji. Japan. had over 71) fire department what can happen to regular water supplies pumpers waiting when strnck by an air attack. during air attacks. When the atom bomb was The public water system soon failed and only dropped on Nagasaki. Japan. five breaks in 15 pumps were able to get into position to draft buried pipes occurred in one section of the city. from the river. and that section was without water immedi- A pumper in good condition can draft water ately. Six additional breaks occurred, four of a vertical distance of about 20 feet. (Theoretic- them at bridges. When the bomb exploded at ally the limit is almost 3-1 feet. but the 20 foot 11 a.m.. the pressnre in the system dropped limit is accepted as being practical.) For this from about 30 to 10 mi. and by 4:30 r.m. it reason. London. in World War II. built plat- was negligible. A major factor contributing to forms below the bridges on the Thames and the failure was the breakage of about 5.000 placed pumps on these platforms to pump water house service pipes because of collapse of dwell- to tire department pumpers above. ings from blast or fire.' Water educators. working on the venturi Some of this damage may be offset by dosing principle, can bring water up to pumps from off sections of the water distribution system. considerable distancq below, but they require hnt this would mean that areas of the city some water flow to initiate the action. Portabte would then be without water under pre!kcaire. pumps can be placed near the water's edge and Therefore, the fire department may face the can pump water to a pumper up to 60 feet problems of no water under prmure: water above. but the amount of water pumped is rela- available only in certain areas: or generally tively small and decreases as the heigf tin- weak premre and supply throughout the city. creases. The begit way to asmure a suppl; -xmai Even without great damage to the water sys- to the capacity of a pumper is to get the pumper tem, a large conflagration or many individual close enough to draft directly from the river. fires could overtax the system. Therefore, it bay, or lake. would become necesztary to use emergency water supplies. Swimming Pools Emergency supplies can consist of purposely Many communities have pui.lic swimming installed, static. storage tanks that would prob- pools. Pools are also found at motels and in the ably be builtif time permittedin the event yards of many private homes. It is surprising of war. But in any case they also consist of na- how many gallons of water are in these pools: for instance, a motel pool that is 20 feet wide S Stratttle 1341rnhine Surrey. N.z..;saP T 0. 93 rot and 40 feet long, with a depth from 3 to 9 feet. 75 79

/IL an held well over :tuoo4) Lrallonof water. Even TransportationofWater a nnrtahle pool 10 feet in diameter and four Many of our rural fire departments must feeteep can ontain 2.31-14) Wilms. a In-minute tarry their water supply with them. They use ppv f-r a 21 hose line with a 114- tip. tank trucks varying in capacity from 500 to 3.000 ,tallons. On occasion. tney press reivately Privee Industrial Water owned tank trucksmilk tankers. etc.into rlanufacturing- plants 7; nrnetimes have service to carry water to fires. Even truck- -heir n water storaze in holding basins. mounted cement mixers can be used. (They can r.nds, and vravity tanks. Many have their irtvr hold about 1.100 7allons of water.) A similar pumps. which, if casoline. steam or emergency measure is to put cattle tanks on (liesel powered. cou!d be used even if electricity pick-np trucks. (They hold about 250 gallons was knocked out. Sometimes hose lines ran be each.) These tactics may he well suited to war- aken from the private industriai hydrants and time use in cities. onnected to a nearby public hydrint to conYey Portable canvas storage tanks that come in .Aater frv,r, one system to the other. two sizes (15W)0 gall,,n and 1.500 gpllon) are Whenever water is to taken from an in- used in conjunction with the transportation of 41,strial plant rare should he taken to make wat(,r. A tank can he set up quickl(in a =Aire it iswe!`eand not some rther minute or two) next to a pumper. The water Water -an he taken from mercantile, hotel. from the tank trucks is dumped into the canvas office. and other buildings equippee with stand- tank from which the pumper then drafts. If pipe systems. not just for use in the building enough tankers keep up a shuttle service, the itself but for general firefighting ir the neigh- pumper can maintain a steady flowbut usuady borh,d. Hose lines from ,:everal standpipe sys- a very limited one. tems can he run into one or more pumpers. which can then deliver it under pressure_ Improvised tanks can be maee from salvage covers spread over a frame of ladders_ Such Other Emergency Water Sources basins canal:41 be used where mutual aid pumpers cannot connect to hydrants beranse When water mains are ruptured. the escaping of incompatible threads. water may he drafted. This was done by the Honolulu Fire Department during. the Japanese In other cazies of incompatible threads, the atta:k on Pearl Harbor. They drafted out of local hose can be connected to the hydrant and bomb craters. then run into suction sleeve of the mutual-aid Cisterns are a peacetime source in several cities pumper.If the couplings are cut off,two and one regular peacetime source that may be lengths of 214- hckse can be placed itto a .111:.- usable to a certain extent if the rest of the hard suction but must be placed into it almost system is disrupted. as far as it's inner end or else they will slide F.ven if a water main is without pmscsure. it out when the water starts flowing. An easy way may contain thousands of gallons of water that to get the hose ends far into the suction sleeve could be drafted by a pumper connected to a is to thread a rope through the sleeve, tie it to hydrant with 30Irri suction. When trying this, the hose ends, pull them through the sleeve, it might help to open other hydrants on the untie the hose, and then connect the sleeve to same main to let air into the system. the suction inlet of the pump. The outboard end Brokenpipes may cause much water to col- of the sleeve can then be bent up to a point at a Tett in basements where it might be reached for level above the pump and tied into that position drafting, even if only with a portable pump or with the rope. educator. Sewers could in some cases provide a valu- If hose with incorapatible threads must be able,ifindecately scented supply. A fire connected and no adapter or hose jacket is at emergency is no time to yield to esthetics, and hand, an emergency connection can be made by the effectiver.ess of this effluvium in firefighting cutting off the male coupling and pushing the should not be underestimated. hose end well into the other htse.

90 76 Prrar 414.Pnrtahle canras !aware tank

SI CHAPTER FOURTEEN

PUMPING

Water pumps have been used in fireFghting The reason Is that certain losses occur between for hundreds of years. Hand pumpswere re- the pump and the nonle. One of these is friction placed by steam pumps. which in turngave way loss caused by the water rubbing against the to pumps run by gasoline engines and in recent hese lining as it passes through the hose. The years. diesel engines. In each CRAP, the purpose other is elevation. or "head"loSs(sometimes of the rirnp was to impart sufficient velocity to called "hack pressure"), whichoccurs when water for it to reach the fire. water must be pushed up to elevations above Although the basic purpose of thepump is to the level of the pump. provide velocity,itsabilityismeasured in volume and pressure. Fire departmentpumps Frktion Loss in the United States are classified by their When the nonie of a charged hose lineis pumping capacity in gallons of waterper min- dosed. the pressure is the same at the nozzle ute. commonly called "GPM". Generallyac- as at the pump (if they are at the same level) cepted standards refer to capacityas the dis- because when no water is flowing, there isno charge of the pump at 150 psipressure. friction loss However, as soon as the water Fire department pumping engines consist of starts to flow. some of the pressure will be lmt a pump: an ,engine. which not only propels the by the contact of the water with the hose lin- apparatus on the road butilso powers the ing. The rougher the lining, the greater is the pump: and a hekse body in which hose is carried. tsq of pressure. Sharp bends and appliances Such a unit is called a double ornbination. Ifit in hose lines also increase the lc1sqk also carries a tank of waterand most doit is There are important factors relating to fric- called a triple combination. Most pumpingen- tion loss that should be memorized. Theyare: gines carry short ladders. butsome have elon- I. The longer the hose line, the greater the gated bodies and carry a full complement of loftR. ground ladders. These are called quadruple Erample: With 200 gpm flowing through 2'2- combination or "Quads." If the vehicle also has hose. the friction loss il0 psi per hundred feet an aerial ladder, it is a quintuple combination of hose. Thiks, if the amount nf hose i9 200 feet, or "Quint." the lcmt is 20 psi. hut if the length of the stretch is 300 feet. the toes is 30 Twi. Pumps vary in capacity up to 1250gpm. 2. The greater the flow, the greater the fric- (There are some of greater capacity, but they tion loss (with same size of hose). are not in general usf..) The common gins are Esien.ph: With a 212" !wee at200rpm. the fric- 500 rpm. 750 gpm. and 1.00gpm. tien loss isinpsi per hundreql feet of hose. Tn Pumps can develop pressuresup to hundreds the same hme lire with a flow of 3nn rpm. the of pounds per square inch. The chief limitation. locks is 21 psi. however. is hese Strer.pth. Although special 3.For a given flow, the smaller the hose, the high-pressure hose is available. ordinary fire greater the friction loss. Example: WAIN hose is generally considered to havea safe 100 feet of 21." hose at 100 gpm. Ole? coss working pressure (allowing a margin of safety) is 21. psi. With the same goan:I y between 200 and 300 psi. Therefore.pump water flowing through the !tame atiocovt pressures should be kept below levels that would of 11." hose, the loot is 33 psi. The fric- burst hekse, or under 250 psi. tion lass in 11." hose is about 13 times as One might quite logically ask why such high much as in 21." hose. pump preksures may be necessary when nozzle Note: It should be understood that the losses pressure above 100 psi are rarely, if ever. used. quoted here are based upon old, but still com-

93 monly accepted empirical formulas. Actually. vation loss, also called "head" loss and "back- there are presently three varieties of hose with pressure." This loss is due to the weight of three different friction losses due to changes in water and is always 0.434 for every foot of manufacturingpracticesthatinfluencethe height that the nozzle is above the pump. Thus, diameter of hose under pressure. Gen- if the nozzle is on the second floor of a building, erally speaking. however, the losses will be 12 feet above the pump. the elevation loss is !ii,4e to those given here. or less. Usually they above 5 psi (12 x 0.434 = 5.208). So, fer easy will be lessin hose made between 1960 and figuring. 5 psi are considered the loss for each 966. story above the ground floor that the nozzle is Correct nozzle pressures cannot be obtained taken, and the total elevation loss must be added un4,:: proper allowances are made for hose to the friction loss and desired nozzle pressure losses. However, rather than struggling with to determine the proper pressure at the pump. involved formulas or tables for friction loss, it Efattple: Nozzle is on fourth floor of a building. The might he better for support assistants to con- stretch is 10 lengths of '21i" hose and the nozzle has centrate on learning the principles and some a I's" tip. What pump pressure is needed to supply "rules of thumb" for quick calculations, which a nozzle pressure of 32 psi? are accurate enough for use in emergency situ- (1) x 32 8 ( friction loss per length) :O.-ions where time is critical. 12) 8 x 10 = 80 (total friction loss in ten lengths) Friction loss can be calculated for 21." hose 13) *3 x 5 = 15 (elevation loss) by tivuring a percentage of the nozzle pressure (11 80 4- 15 -I- 32 = 127 (friction loss + elevation beinkt lost in each 50 foot length of hose. If this loss ilozzle pressure = pump pressure) percentage is calculated by fractions, the result A osPrer: 127 psi, pump pressure can be quickly obtained: for instance: -1th floor is 3 stories above ground floor. Frirtiew bvegper lesgt14 If the nozzle is at a point below the level of 1/10 nozzle presure the pump, there will be a gain in pressure due 1/Rnozzle prewcure to elevation. This gain is also 0.434 per foot of 1 /-1 nozzle p retkcu re height that the pump is above the nozzle. For 1/2nozzle pressure fairly close approximation, this can be calcu- (If itis deeme4 preferable. these fractions may he lated as 14 psi per foot. doubled and the calculation can be made pn the basis of friction loss pertoo fivtof ho.e rather than per 50 When hose larger than 21." in diameter is f-ot leneths.) used, friction loss can be estimated by making a conversion from the loss in 214" hose. For Friction loss for the total stretch is Ogured instance, the friction loss in 3" hose is about by adding the amounts lost in each length. This 0.4 (4/10) the friction loss in 2114" hose (for is done quickly by multiplying the loss in one the same amount of water flowing). So the easy length by the total number of lengths. This total way to find the friction loss 3" hose would be when added to the norzle pressure will give the to calculate just as though it were 21/4" hose, pump pressure. When subtracted from pump and then convert the friction loss by multiply- pressure. it will give the nozzle pressure. ing by 4/10. The loss in hose larger than 21,4" When the pump pressure is known, but not the nozzle pressure. the friction loss in one in diameter will always be less than in the 21,4" length can be found by adding a number of hose. mythical lengths equal to the dencminator of Erample:If friction loss in 10 lengths of 214" hose is 90 psi. what would the loss bein the same amount the fraction factor and dividing the pump pms- of 3" hose? sure hy the total of actual and mythical lengths. 1. -1/10 x 90 = 36 The total friction loss is found by multiplying Answer: 36 psi the loss in one length by the total number of Sometimes two 21." lines will be laid parallel lengths.If this product is subtracted from and siamesed together near the nozzle. This is pump pressure. the answer is the nozzle pres- done toreducefriction loss when a large sure. quantity of water is to be moved or where the Whet, hose is taken above the level of the stretch is quite long. The friction loss in iwo pump, another loss is encountered. This is ele- parallel lines of 21C," hose is about 1,11. that in a

114 single line. In three parallel lines the loss would fog nozzle at 100 psi is used or not more than be 1/9 that of a single line. The conversion ten lengths if a 3,/i." tip is used to get the same factor is easily obtained by squaring (multi- flow at 38 psi. plying by itself) the number of lines that are It is a common practice to use a leader line siamesed and dividing the product into one. of 11/2" hose that is attached by a reducer to Example: The friction loss in a single 21/2" hose 21,:)" hose. This permits the use of 100 to 200 line of 12 lengths is 160 psi. what would the loss be in feet of 11/2" to give light weight to the part of two parallel lines of 21/2" hose for the same distance? the hose that will be carried upstairs and moved 1. 22 = 4 (two lines x 2) the most but still keeps total friction loss low 2. 160 enough for moderate pump pressure. 4 = 40 Answer: 40 psi Remember that nozzle pressure is always pro- Friction loss is much greater in hose of less portionate to the pump pressure regardless of than 21/2" diameter when compared withl '14" elevation of length of stretch. This means that hose (about 13 times as great in 11/2" hwc.,1 and when pump pressure is increased, the nozzle 98 times as great in 1" hose). Thus, it can be pressure increases by the same percentage. understood that the use of small diameter hose Thus, if pump pressure is 100 psi and nozzle requires low flow3 or short stretches to keep the pressure is 40 psi, a 10 percent increase in pump pressure below the burst strength of the pump pressure from 100 to 110 would increase hose. the nozzle pressure 10 percent from 40 to 44 For example, a flow of 1000 gpm will cause a psi. friction loss of 16 psi per length in 11/2" hose, This information can be used to advantage In order not to exceed a pump pressure when pump pressure is not sufficient to give psi with this flow, the amount of hose 1-76;1,4 ,,Ariequate nozzle pressure and word is being not more than six lengths (on level strechy to the pump operator to increase pressure.

85 CHAPTER FIFTEEN

RESCUE UNDER FIRE CONDITIONS

Those who have never been in a building 4.Childrenand sometimes adultsoften under severe fire conditions cannot appreciate hide under beds or in closets. These places what it is like, and no amount of description should not be overlooked. could portray it well enough to convey a true 5.At night, persons may have been over- picture to them. come in their sleep and may stillbe in bed under Suffice it to say that would-be rescuers will the covers. not be darting about playing tag with the 6.Sometimes a victim can be discovered flames, as is often doneand only donein the through the sound of his heavy breathing. motion pictures. Nor will they be using fancy 7. When a door can be pushed open only lifts and carries, which are not practical in a part way, the chances are good thatthe ob- heavy smoke condition. Visibility is nil in heavy struction may be a body. It may be necessary smoke. The rescuer will have to depend upon his to take the door off its hinges to effect rescue. sense of touch. For his own safety he will have If the door is chain-locked or bolted onthe to crawl along the floor. When he finds a victim inside, this is a sign that someone is still in the he will have to get that victim out of danger room. without spending much time in the process. In most cases, he will drag him out as best he can. Removal Search Conscious and ambulatory victimare best There are two essentials in rescues from fire. removed by escorting themnot carrying them One is to find the victim ; the other is to remove to safety. They can be taken to the nearest him. The first of these may call for a diligent window for a breath of air, and may be research if the victim is unconscious or lost in the moved via ladder or escorted to the nearest smoke. There are certain factors that can be exit. It is not good to give them directions and learned in advance that will help in making a leave them on their own. They should be escorted all the way to safety. With any victim, thorough and systematic search. the easiest method of removal is usually the 1.Don't pay much heed to the statements of best. Why bring them down ladders if the stairs excited bystanders as to whether or not all can be used? The average person doesnot enjoy persons have escaped. The firefighters should a trip down a ladder, and somewill "freeze" to make their own search to discover entrapped the top of the ladder and refuse to budge. or unconscious occupants or to be sure that all When it is necessary to take an ambulatory persons are safely out. victim down a ladder, a rescuer should precede 2. The search should be conducted syste- him, staying just below him to assist if needed matically to assure maximum coverage in mini- during the descent. mum time and to avoid duplication of effort. Of course, an unconscious victim must be car- Certain men can be assigned to search certain ried or dragged to safety. The commonest and portions of the building (and they can ventilate safety method is to drag him with his back on and search for extension of fire as they are the floor. The rescuer puts his hands under the searching to make sure no one is left in the victims armpits and drags him along the floor. building). When the victim has been removed from the 3. Man searching should crawl along the zone of smoke and heat, it is no longer neces- floor and sweep arms out to both sides to cover sary to drag him and he can be carried in on as large an area as possible with each sweep. the carriers illustrated. 81 87 When an unconscious victim must be carriedslippery hitch, if possible. Otherwise, he should down a ladder, the fireman's carry can be used, be removed by a rescuer who is tied in the same but it allows only one hand to grasp the ladder. manner and thus has both hands free. Also, the weight of the victim tends to pull the rescuer off the ladder. The cross-arm slide Net Rescue allows the rescuer to hold the ladder with both A last resort, rarely used, is the life net. Oc- hands, and if he wants to rest, he can stop and casionally a life net is used with success, and hold the victim in place with his body. cases have been reported where vitcims jumped If the victim is ambulatory at the start of the from as high as 80 feet and lived after landing descent and passes out on the way down, he can in a life net. However, there have been cases be brought down by the front slide. This should of experienced jumpers, suffering severe in- only be used when necessary because of the juries from jumps of less than 40 feet. Jumping potential damage to the victim's face. It may into a lifclet is dangerous for the rescued and bounce off every rung on the way down. risky for those holding the net. Those handling the net should make sure it is Rope Rescue fully open ; that the snaps have caught at the Sometimes the only way to rescue a victim is joints, and that each joint is covered by its by use of a rope. Other times it may be the best ferrule. way. There are two basic methods. One is where When the net is in position beneath the po- the rescuer is lowered, or lowers himself, bytential jamper, all men should look up at the jumper and keep the net high (almost shoulder rope ; the other is where the rescuer lowers the height), grasping the ring with both hands, victim with the rope. palms up. One foot should be forward of the In the first case, the rescuer may be lowered other, and elbows should be in a position to by other firefighters after tying him in the bow- clear the body. line-on-bight knot ; or he may lower himself by The jumper should land in the .nter of the the single slide, having taken three turns of thenet, otherwise he or the men holding the net rope around his lifebelt hook. might get injured. Therefore, if it appears that When the rescuer is tied in the bowline-on- he will land off center, the net should be moved bight and lowered to the victim, he, upon reach- during his descent, to catch him as near the ing the victim, grasps the victim in such a way center as possible. that the victim faces him with legs above those If more than one person is going to jump, of the rescuer who puts his arms around thethere should be no delay in clearing the net for victim and hugs him close while they are low-the next jumper. This is done as soon as the ered (or raised) to safety. previous jumper lands, by dropping the side of The "single" slide becomes the "double" slide the net farthest from the building and raising when the victim is picked up by the rescuer.the opposite side so that the jumper is quickly That is why three instead of two turns are rolled out, and the net can be positioned for the taken around the hook of the lifebelt with the next jump. me. The double slide requires that the victim Sometimes firefighters may be trapped and be ambulatory because the rescuer needs bothforced to jump into a net. That is why they are hands to lower himself. In a case where thetaught how to jump. The proper way to land is rescuer slidesto an unconscious victim the in the center of the net in a sitting position with safest method would be to lower the victim by legs forward. Landing feet first may injure rope, tied securely in a bowline-on-bight and feet or legs.

Distribution: OCD Region, staff College ERIC Clearinghouse Stale CD Directors t'? U.11. GOVERNMENT RINTING OFFICEt 1971 0-429.472 MAY 2 4 1972 88 82 onAdultEducation