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Complex Crater Fields Formed by Steam-Driven Eruptions: Lake Okaro, New Zealand

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Complex Crater Fields Formed by Steam-Driven Eruptions: Lake Okaro, New Zealand Complex crater fields formed by steam-driven eruptions: Lake Okaro, New Zealand Cristian Montanaro1,2,†, Shane Cronin2, Bettina Scheu1, Ben Kennedy3, and Bradley Scott4 1 Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Theresienstrasse 41, 80333 Munich, Germany 2 School of Environment, University of Auckland, Science Centre, Building 302, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland Central 1010, New Zealand 3 Department of Earth Sciences, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand 4 GNS Science, 114 Karetoto Road, Wairakei 3377, New Zealand ABSTRACT tuff, as well as within deposits from phase I. waters to steam due to the sudden arrival of heat Phase II breccias display vertical variation and gas from intruding magma (or magmatic Steam-driven eruptions are caused by in lithology that reflects top-down excavation fluids). The flashed steam overpressurizes the explosive vaporization of water within the from shallow levels (10–20 m) to >70 m. Af- bottom of an aquifer, but the aquifer is likely to pores and cracks of a host rock, mainly within ter another hiatus, lake levels rose. Phase III breach near a horizontal discontinuity, such as a geothermal or volcanic terrains. Ground or hydrothermal explosions were later triggered textural break or capping/sealing layer; thus, a surface water can be heated and pressurized by a sudden lake-level drop, excavating into simultaneous top-down rarefaction wave travels rapidly from below (phreatic explosions), or deposits from previous eruptions. This case within the aquifer, and a “bottom-up” pressure already hot and pressurized fluids in hydro- shows that once a hydrothermal system is es- wave in the overlying rock results in fragmenta- thermal systems may decompress when host tablished, repeated highly hazardous hydro- tion and ejection of lithic clasts. Phreatic erup- rocks or seals fail (hydrothermal eruptions). thermal eruptions may follow that are as large tions do not require the presence of a geothermal Deposit characteristics and crater morphol- as initial phreatic events. system and thus may eject fresh, unaltered rock. ogy can be used in combination with knowl- Deposits from a phreatic eruption should show a edge of host-rock lithology to reconstruct the INTRODUCTION vertical succession of ejecta from deep sources locus, dynamics, and possible triggers of these overlain by ejecta from shallower sources. events. We investigated a complex field of >30 Volcanic eruptions triggered by explosive va- According to Mastin (1995) and Browne and craters formed over three separate episodes of porization of water are common and locally haz- Lawless (2001), hydrothermal eruptions are trig- steam-driven eruptions at Lake Okaro within ardous phenomena. They are typically termed gered within a geothermal area by a variety of the Taupo volcanic zone, New Zealand. Fresh steam-driven eruptions (Mastin, 1995; Thiéry processes that cause the sudden decompression unaltered rock excavated from initially >70 m and Mercury, 2009; Montanaro et al., 2016c). and flashing of water that is already metastable depths in the base of phase I breccia deposits Such eruptions eject large (meter-sized) clasts on and near boiling. Hydrothermal eruptions typi- showed that eruptions were deep, “bottom- ballistic trajectories, generate highly energetic cally progress from a near-surface rupture down- up” explosions formed in the absence of a pre- steam-rich density currents (surges), and expel ward (McKibbin et al., 2009). This mechanism existing hydrothermal system. These phreatic wet jets of poorly sorted rock debris (Jolly et al., is energetically very favorable, and a hydrother- explosions were likely triggered by sudden rise 2010; Breard et al., 2014; Maeno et al., 2016; mal eruption can start within a meter or so of of magmatic fluids/gas to heat groundwater Fitzgerald et al., 2017; Strehlow et al., 2017). the ground surface below a very thin cap. After within an ignimbrite 70 m below the surface. The main hazard from steam-driven eruptions is initial excavation, pressure within the deeper Excavation of a linear set of craters and associ- their unheralded sudden onset, typically having geothermal reservoir is reduced, and a flashing ated fracture development, along with contin- little seismic or other warning (Barberi et al., front and rarefaction front move progressively ued heat input, caused posteruptive establish- 1992; Hurst et al., 2014). More than 200 such downward, followed by the boiling front. Water ment of a large hydrothermal system within eruptions have occurred over the last three cen- present in joints or cracks adjacent to the devel- shallow, weakly compacted, and unconsoli- turies, causing thousands of deaths (Mastin and oping crater may also flash to steam as pressures dated deposits, including the phase I breccia. Witter, 2000). The most common steam-driven reduce suddenly, widening the vent. This pro- After enough time for extensive hydrothermal eruptions can be classified as either phreatic or cess may occur in both brittle or unconsolidated alteration, erosion, and external sediment in- hydrothermal eruptions. Both of these eruption materials (Browne and Lawless, 2001; Galland flux into the area, phase II occurred, possibly types do not directly involve or disrupt magma, et al., 2014; Montanaro et al., 2016b). Deposits triggered by an earthquake or hydrological but the power of water/gas expansion explosive- typically contain abundant hydrothermally al- disruption to a geothermal system. Phase II ly fragments wall rock and ejects fragments up- tered components and may record a progressive produced a second network of craters into ward and outward (Browne and Lawless, 2001). deepening of explosion locus through an inver- weakly compacted, altered, and pumice-rich Here, we follow Stearns and McDonalds’ sion of the pre-explosion stratigraphy. (1949) definition of phreatic explosions as being Steam-driven eruptions last from seconds to †[email protected]. caused by flashing of groundwater and surface hours (Browne and Lawless, 2001; Jolly et al., GSA Bulletin; September/October 2020; v. 132; no. 9/10; p. 1914–1930; https://doi.org/10.1130/B35276.1; 12 figures; 2 tables; Data Repository item 2020069. published online 22 January 2020 1914 © 2019 The Authors. Gold Open Access: This paper is published under the terms of the CC-BY license. Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-pdf/132/9-10/1914/5139036/1914.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 Complex crater fields formed by steam-driven eruptions 2014) and produce craters from a few meters up Steam-driven eruption craters are common (Nairn and Wiradiradja, 1980; Cole et al., 2006; to hundreds of meters in diameter, with depths in many volcanic terrains or areas of high heat Morgan et al., 2009; Breard et al., 2014). Evi- from few to several hundred meters (Muffler flow, such as in New Zealand (e.g., Champagne dence includes: lines or clusters of closely spaced et al., 1971; Browne and Lawless, 2001; Morgan Pool crater at Wai-o-tapu; Hedenquist and Hen- craters; a single large crater with scalloped mar- et al., 2009). Deposits produced by these explo- ley, 1985), Indonesia (e.g., Sinila and Sigludung gins and/or a complex shape; and nested craters sions are generally of low volume (<105 m3) and craters in the Dieng Plateau; Allard et al., 1989), with different depths (e.g., Scott and Cody, 1982; restricted to within hundreds of meters to a few Japan (e.g., craters on the Ontake volcano sum- Morgan et al., 2009; de Ronde et al., 2015; Mon- kilometers from crater margins. They are typi- mit area; Maeno et al., 2016), Greece (e.g., Ste- tanaro et al., 2016b). Detailed mapping of the cally very poorly sorted, matrix-supported brec- fanos crater on Nysiros; Marini et al., 1993), El ejecta blanket, as well as ballistic ejecta analyses cias (Muffler et al., 1971; Mastin, 1995; Browne Salvador (e.g., craters in the Agua Shuca thermal around the crater area, may reveal additional evi- and Lawless, 2001; Breard et al., 2014). Steam- area; Handal and Barrios, 2004), and the United dence of multiple explosion epicenters during a driven eruptions of all types occur in diverse vol- States (e.g., Mary Bay crater complex in Yel- single active episode (Nairn, 1979; Kilgour et al., canic and sedimentary rocks, showing a range lowstone National Park; Morgan et al., 2009). In 2010, 2019; Breard et al., 2014; Lube et al., 2014; in grain size, competence, alteration, fracturing, all these cases, craters were excavated within a Maeno et al., 2016; Montanaro et al., 2016b). and bedding. All these factors influence deposit wide range of host-rock lithologies having dif- In this study, we assessed the effects of varia- distribution and crater form. The geological and ferent alteration states, strengths, and permeabili- tions in the eruption-generation mechanism (bot- stratigraphic setting of an eruption site is also an ties (Maeno et al., 2016; Montanaro et al., 2016a; tom-up vs. top-down), the host-rock lithology, important factor in interpreting eruption dynam- Heap et al., 2017). These factors produced a typi- and the impact of successive eruptions on explo- ics (Browne and Lawless, 2001; Morgan et al., cally complex crater morphology. Craters from sion dynamics and crater formation processes, us- 2009; Breard et al., 2014; Valentine et al., 2015a; steam-driven eruptions may preserve evidence ing the example of Lake Okaro in New Zealand, Montanaro et al., 2016b). of multiple explosions that migrated laterally located within the Taupo volcanic zone (Fig. 1). Figure 1. Satellite image (Google Earth™, 2016) of Lake Okaro showing several geological and geomorphological features, as well as the drainage network that feeds the Lake Okaro. OB—Okaro Breccia; TVZ—Taupo volcanic zone. Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 132, no. 9/10 1915 Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-pdf/132/9-10/1914/5139036/1914.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 Montanaro et al.
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