POSTNOTE

Number 619 March 2020 UK Insect Decline and Extinctions

Overview ◼ There have been documented declines in insect species and populations. Generalist species are less likely to decline than more specialised species. The impacts of this on ecological processes are poorly quantified. ◼ The UK has unparalleled data from long- term monitoring, but it is limited by gaps in what is measured and how. There are few long-term data sets with abundance data. Insects provide vital goods and services for ◼ Drivers of decline, such as habitat loss, are wildlife, food production and human health, common across insect groups and can and their decline threatens important natural interact to cause combined pressure on processes. Despite some insects being in long- populations. However, environmental term decline, a few species are showing stable changes can benefit some species while or increasing trends. Insects can respond to negatively affecting others. interventions quickly. This POSTnote will ◼ Interventions, such as habitat creation, may summarise the evidence for insect declines in play a role in halting declines, but the scale the UK, the drivers of trends, and interventions and types need careful consideration. to support the recovery of insect populations.

Background Limitations of UK Insect Decline Data Insects play a pivotal role in natural processes that support An ideal dataset for understanding insect decline would include other living organisms, and human health and well-being insects from a wide range of ecosystems, using samples (POSTnote 281). Adult insects have six legs and usually one or collected in a standardised way.3,39,40,20,33 Globally, data on two pairs of wings and are the most diverse group of animals.1– 4 Roles include pollination (POSTnote 348 and 442), pest and Box 1: Economic Importance of Beneficial Insects weed regulation, decomposition, nutrient cycling, and provision Insects have economic, social and cultural value.2,9,41–43 A of food for wildlife and humans (Box 1). They can also be decline in insects may negatively impact ecosystem services,44,45 and could be costly.46 Currently, there is limited agricultural pests or transmit disease (Box 2).5–18 Insects are evidence for the quantitative value of ecosystem services 9,19,20 key indicators for monitoring ecosystems (POSTnote 312). provided by insects, but some examples are emerging. The economic value of pollination to UK crop production is Concerns about insect decline attracted wider attention approximately £500 million a year.47,48 Dung beetles are following studies showing large declines in insect abundance estimated to be saving the UK cattle industry £367 million and biomass.21–23 Recent media attention has claimed each year and £37.42 per cow through reducing flies and 49 unprecedented declines in insects across the globe leading to increasing nutrients in the soil. Natural pest control (by ground beetles and parasitoid wasps) of widespread aphid an ‘insectageddon’24 causing the “collapse of nature”.25 These pests is worth up to £2.3 million per year in South East claims were largely based on a review of scientific articles from England wheat fields alone.46,50 Freshwater insects in their across the globe.26 However, this study has been criticised as larval stage, such as dragonflies or mayflies, can also filter the evidence it reviewed was predominantly from North water, remove pollutants and provide food for bats17, birds51 52 America and Europe, which may have skewed the conclusions. and fish (such as salmon and trout ). This supports It also excluded studies that reported stable or increasing recreational activities, including angling (which contributed £1.46 billion to the English economy in 201553). Insects also populations by only selecting those showing a decline.27–31 As have social and cultural value.54 Some studies have such, the trends for global insect populations remain largely attempted to quantify the value the public place on insects; unknown but could be underestimated.32,33 However, studies in for example, a study found that people were willing to pay Europe found insect abundance or biomass declined between approximately £43 per household per year to support bee 55 38% and 75%.21,34–38 protection policy; equating to £842 million per year when scaled up to 31 million taxpayers.

The Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, Westminster, London SW1A 0AA 02072192840 [email protected] parliament.uk/post @POST_UK

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insects are limited because of the large number of species.1,3,56 mammals, plants and insects (4–8%).19 However, a study found The UK has more data than many countries due to its long-term that butterfly distribution declined more than birds and plants.34 recording schemes, natural history collections, citizen science engagement and insect research community.57,58 Emerging Declines in abundance or distribution have been seen in bees 32,101 34 35 102 labour-efficient methods can help data collection through and hoverflies, butterflies and moths, beetles, and 48,101,103,104 remotely monitoring larger areas, such as bioacoustics59–62 and freshwater insects. However, some species are 105 BioDAR63–65 (see POSTbrief 36).66 New identification methods increasing in biomass. The data available for the most such as DNA analysis may prove more reliable in the future studied insect groups are summarised below. 67–74 (see POSTbrief 36). New methods still require expert Bees and Hoverflies interpretation. Current data are limited by gaps in what is Bees and hoverflies experienced dramatic losses between the measured and how, including:3,40 1950s and 1980s but losses have slowed since the 1990s.77 Of ◼ Methods. Surveys that used a standardised sampling across 353 wild pollinator species, 117 (33%) had decreasing sites, measured at systematic intervals, exist for a limited distributions (1980–2013).32 Yet, 10% of species had increasing group of species and habitats.40,75–78 distributions.3297 The rest (57%) had an unclear trend.32 ◼ Time. Limited data are available before the 1970s,79 creating Pollinators key to European crops increased by 12%, potentially an arbitrary baseline for comparison.40,80 Using data collected supported by agri-environment schemes or the increased area irregularly across time may lead to uncertainty.56,81,82,33 of oilseed rape.32,106,107 Since 1909, 20 bee and wasp species ◼ Location. The gaps in where data are collected can lead to have gone extinct in Britain.108 a bias towards some habitats such as nature reserves and agricultural systems. The trends from these systems may not Butterflies and Moths be transferable to other systems. This bias has begun to be Of 62 butterfly species, 19 (31%) are threatened and four have 40,76,81,82 addressed through several schemes. gone extinct in GB.109 Butterfly abundance has declined for 21 ◼ What is measured. Data focus on specific insect groups; species since 1976.110 However, abundance increased for 11 such as bees,83 rather than other groups, such as species111 (such as silver-washed fritillary with a 127% decomposers;2,3,56,84 and more easily observed adult forms increase).112 Of 337 moth species, 111 (33%) had increasing rather than caterpillars or aquatic larvae.66 trends but 222 (66%) were declining, and 71 species declined ◼ The type of data can affect the conclusions made about by over 30% per decade (1968–2004).100 Total GB moth insect declines. For example, species richness tells us the abundance has decreased by 31% (1969-2016).100,113Moth number of species present. However, abundance (number of declines occurred in coastal, urban and woodland habiats.113 individuals of a species) may have a stronger link with However, some evidence suggests that moth biomass may be ecosystem services than richness.9,21,45,85–87 Without knowing increasing, implying that a few species are doing well.79 the abundance and species identity, changes in communities can be masked.88 The range of data can make comparisons Beetles 98 across insect groups, locations and time difficult but Of 1134 beetle species in GB, 13% are threatened. A statistical modelling can be used.85,89 significant decline in abundance of ground beetles was found in ◼ Who is collecting data. The reliance on volunteers means 75% of 68 species, and 34 of those species decreased by 30% 102 that there is often irregular sampling.39,85,90 To continue each decade (1994–2008). The number of species also collecting data, long-term investment into resources, building declined.102 However, abundance in chalk downlands, skills and capacity, is required to sustain volunteers, support woodlands and hedgerows increased (16–57%).102 amateurs and incentivise professional development.40,91–97 ◼ Accessing data. Some data are fragmented (held privately Box 2: Pests and Invasive Non-Native Species by researchers, or companies like agricultural or While other insects are in decline, there are concerns that 101 environmental consultancies, see POSTbrief 36).40 pest species (native and invasive) such as weevils, aphids,112 and cabbage stem flea beetles110 may be Trends in UK Insects increasing (POSTnotes 303, 394, 439), with negative impacts on crop yields.114,115 Climate change and emerging resistance The UK has experienced extinctions and declines in abundance, of pests to insecticides116 amplifies this increase117 biomass and distribution of insects. Of the 2430 GB insect (POSTnote 597). Although some invasive species can create species assessed by Natural England, 55 have gone extinct and opportunities (such as increased pollen availability), others 286 (11%) are threatened.98 Total aerial insect biomass pose risks (such as increased predation, see POSTbrief 118 declined at one of four sites since 1973.99 Data from 3089 36). The impact of the invasive species depends on the abundance and the role it plays in the system. For example, insect species showed that the distribution size for terrestrial some invasive plants are readily taken up by native insects increased during 1970–1980s but declined sharply pollinators but these interactions are poorly understood and between 2005–2015.83 However, freshwater insects have risks could be overlooked with limited knowledge.118 Invasive recovered since the early 2000s.83 Insects have also become predators tend to exert strong top-down pressure on less widely distributed by 10% on average (1970–2015).19 insects.44,119,120 For example, the Asian hornet feeds on bees.47 Other stressors, such as disease and pesticides, can Insects may be declining faster than other groups.100 The make bees more vulnerable to predation.121,122 Risk registers average abundance of insect indicator species (butterflies and include non-native species with potential economic risks, but are less effective at capturing the ecological risks.123 moths) is decreasing while bird and mammal abundance remains stable.19 Declines in distribution are comparable across

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Freshwater Insects Box 3: Commercially Used Insect Population Trends Of 724 aquatic insect species in GB, 68 (9%) are threatened Bumblebees and solitary bees are managed but little is and 11 have gone extinct.98 A recent UK study found that known about these populations in the UK as registration is dragon-fly, caddis-fly and mayfly distributions decreased in the not required.47 Current evidence is biased towards pollinators 167 1970–1990s, but recovered in the 2000s to above 1970 such as honey bees. Honey bee colonies and bee-keepers decreased by 31% across Europe between 1985–2005.133 levels.101 Species with increasing distributions tend to be However, registered honey bee colonies in the UK grew from 124 generalists or have adapted to warmer climates. A study in 90,000 in 2008 to 247,000 in 2017.185 These figures may be Wales found that populations of specialist caddis-flies, stone- inaccurate as honey bee registration is voluntary.47 The flies and beetles were more likely to decline even if overall drivers of honey bee declines are most likely economic, such as difficulty in making money from bee farming, the reduced species richness remained stable.88 cost of importing bees,133,186 and high costs of treating diseases and concern over pesticide exposure.186–188 Diseases Drivers of Insect Trends can contribute to declining numbers47,189 although the scale There are a variety of drivers behind insect decline and their of impact on recent declines remains unclear (see POSTbrief impacts differ across habitat, species and time (see POSTbrief 36).133 The management of disease relies on good bee- 36). There is a lack of evidence on how some of these drivers keeping practice.47,190 There is limited knowledge on how 47,167,191 affect different insects as the impacts may have already disease impacts services or wild insects. Managed bees (honey191,192 and bumble193) share pathogens with wild occurred prior to sufficient monitoring.40,99,126,127,33 Drivers may pollinators, with potential for negative impacts (bumblebees, also interact with each other and increase their impact on insect solitary bees or hoverflies) but the direction in which the populations.41,47,128,129 For example, bees can be more infection occurs is unclear.191,193-196 Managed bees can also susceptible to parasites and the effects of habitat loss during compete with wild pollinators for resources. exposure to pesticides.128,130 Climate change is likely to interact with multiple stressors such as habitat loss.35,37,131,132 Wild and The impacts of this combined exposure remain unclear.47 commercially-managed insects share drivers of decline such as These chemicals can build up in soils and plants, and can run loss of habitats, reduced variety in plants and exposure to off into water systems, further impacting insects.12,197–199 chemicals (Box 3).128,133–135 Key drivers are known to include: There is limited evidence on the impacts of pesticides on ◼ Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation. Habitat non-target insects that aren’t pollinators; with most research loss and degradation caused by land-use change can reduce since 2014 focussing on the impacts of neonicotinoid the resources for insects across their life stages (breeding pesticides (Box 4).167 sites, foraging sites, shelter from weather and ◼ Climate change can affect individual insect species both predators).47,66,136,137 Hostile environments between positively and negatively.19,35,84,125,162,200–209 For example, due fragmented semi-natural habitats make it more difficult for to a warming climate, aphids had an earlier and longer flight species to move (POSTnote 300).138 Specialist species are season and were able to reproduce more compared to more vulnerable to the impacts of land-use change.47,108 For previous years; becoming more abundant.112,200 Changes in example, some species are reliant on human-modified weather and temperature can alter the timings of insect habitats, such as brownfield sites.139 lifecycles that can negatively impact fitness or prevent ◼ Urbanisation can impact habitat connectivity.128 Pollution, emergence altogether.89,112,158,210–215 Of 130 butterfly and including air, water and light, can impact insects but moth species, 39 had increasing abundance, but early evidence on these is limited (see POSTbrief 36).140–151 Some emergence led to neutral or negative impacts for 91 urban habitats, such as gardens, can support high and species.216 The range of some species has expanded unique insect biodiversity but are often dominated by northwards and upwards while others have contracted.84,131 generalist species.152–160 These changes in communities can lead to temporary ◼ Land-use intensification. Large-scale monoculture is often increases in the number of species through the rise of novel accompanied by high chemical inputs, tillage and mowing.161 ecosystems.217 This can impact insects through habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation.23,47,162 Although monoculture of some Box 4: Neonicotinoid Pesticides crops provides resources for pollinators,47 the simplification In 2018, an EU-wide ban was applied due to poisoning and 163 44 of the landscape can reduce plants and nesting sites. sublethal effects on pollinators44 (which can translate to Crops only flower for a short time, whereas wildflowers offer reduced reproduction or colony level failures)218 but evidence resources throughout insect lifecycles.41,44,136,164 This can for other insects is limited (Commons Briefing Papers 219–224 contribute to decreased insect abundance, and changes in SN06656). However, risk of exposure remains, with 222 223 community composition and ecosystem service persistent detectable levels and increased toxicity across environments.171 Honey bees and bumble-bees can exhibit provision.44,45,134,165,166 preferences for neonicotinoid-treated food over time, making ◼ Pesticides, fertilizers and veterinary medicines. it difficult to control their exposure.224 Neonicotinoids can Chemicals are used in rural and urban environments that can also negatively impact aquatic systems.14,172,225,226 In have unintended direct and indirect negative impacts on non- response to the ban, older and less effective insecticides are target wildlife,14 including insects.47,107,135,162,167–184 In one being used, as are newer insecticides that have limited evidence of impact.47,227–230 study of wild pollinator individuals with detectable levels of chemicals, 71% had been exposed to more than one compound.168 This increases toxicity and stress.12,169,170

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Interventions to Support Insect Recovery Box 5: Urban Habitat Creation The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 prevents collecting or Urban spaces; such as brownfield sites, ponds, road/rail killing of a small number of butterfly, moth and beetle verges, gardens, allotments and green roofs; support species.231,232 The Natural Environment and Rural Communities insects.153,155–160,254,262–267 Reducing mowing can support 268,269 Act 2006 identifies individual insect species for conservation.233 insects but appropriate timings should be explored. Flower mixes should be chosen carefully to support The Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) covers seven UK insect pollinators and provide breeding habitat.136,160,270–272 234 species. The 2014 National Pollinator Strategy is being However, public perception may pose a barrier to delivered with a range of stakeholders. Future policy implementation. There is a concern that road or rail suggestions for insect recovery have been published.235,20 interventions could create an ‘ecological trap’ by drawing Future policy for England includes commitments set out in the pollinators to dangerous areas, exposing them to risks from 273 25-Year Environment Plan for the Natural Environment.236 This cars and pollution. Another option is reducing the use of pesticides in urban areas.47,168,171,274–276 Bee or bug ‘hotel’ includes creating or restoring 500,000 hectares of wildlife-rich effectiveness depends on the quality of the surrounding habitat outside protected sites as part of a Nature Recovery habitat.47,277 Light pollution may also limit effectiveness.135 Network to connect habitats across the country.237 This enables ‘Re-wilding’ gardens can reduce chemicals and increase insects to move through habitats, allowing some species to habitats such as flowers and ponds.278–282 Rewilding could adapt to changes in climate. The Environment Bill 2019-2020 also restore processes on a larger scale (POSTnote 537). makes provisions for setting long-term biodiversity targets.238 acres and common species.283–287 Training land managers can Insect conservation can support other animals and demonstrate improve the quality of implementation.288–290 For example, the quality of the environment.9,19 Insects have the potential to appropriate tree planting that creates diverse habitats can recover faster than other animal groups due to their rapid life support insects,291–296 but planting appropriate native trees cycles and can even respond to small scale interventions (see supports more insect species than introduced tree species.297 Box 5). Evidence synthesis of measures to address the drivers of decline is skewed towards pollinators, but new studies are Other Interventions for Agricultural Land 239 addressing this. Other interventions can include organic farming,17,47,298 diversifying crops,41,44,47 beetle banks,299 and reducing inputs Habitat Creation, Connection and Protection (fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides and fungicides,251 or livestock Protecting and creating habitats for other groups (plants or medical treatments12,41,197). Freshwater insects benefit from birds) can support insects,240–242 but more targeted buffer strips that decrease run-off pollution in freshwater conservation for insects would include conserving a range of systems.300 Training and education around chemical use can habitats (semi-natural and micro).47,243–248,20 For example, prevent and reduce impacts.44 However, bans can also be heathlands can protect important pollinator-plant effective in reducing the use of high-risk chemicals (Box 4).44 interactions.240,249 Wild pollinators250,251 are supported by bare ground (for nests),250 flower strips,106,136,252,253 restored grass Integrated Pest Management gives preference to non-chemical and heathland,249,250,254 and nest boxes and uncropped naturally methods to manage pests such as using crop rotations, field regenerated field margins.32,251 Chalk and limestone grassland, margins and biological control.47,236,301–303 In 2017, the National broadleaved woodland, and natural grassland produce the Farmers Union developed a self-assessment tool for farmers.304 greatest amount of nectar per unit area.136 This has been completed by 16,820 farmers and growers, covering 25% of the UK total agricultural area.47 However, this The success of habitat creation is determined by its structure, data are not public so there is no current review being resources (such as nectar, dung or food plants), the extent of undertaken on the effects, at a farm-scale, on insects.47 fragmentation and diversity of surrounding habitats, and the absence of pressures (POSTbrief 34).10,47,66,106,255,256,20 For Box 6: Reintroductions and Assisted Colonisation example, hedgerows in a landscape can act as corridors to Reintroducing species to habitats they naturally occupied or 156,257,258 facilitate insect movement. Habitat creation can be to habitats with continued climate suitability can reverse implemented in either urban areas (Box 5) or agricultural land. extinctions and increase complexity and resilience of Species that have become locally extinct can be re-introduced systems.45,305,306 For example, two UK butterfly species to protected or created habitat (Box 6). (marbled white and small skipper) were introduced to sites in Northern England that were outside of their existing range Habitat Creation on Agricultural Land but had a suitable climate. Both populations grew and Under the Agriculture Bill 2019-20, results-based payments expanded their range.305 This is called assisted 305 could be made to incentivise high-quality implementation that colonisation. Reintroductions that are evidence-based and supported by stakeholders are more likely to be successful. maximises the complexity and connectivity of habitats An example is the large blue butterfly, which is of global 259 (POSTNote 377). This could be supported by co-operative importance but was extinct in the UK in 1979 and incentives that encourage peer-to-peer knowledge exchange reintroduced in the 1980s.307 It became very abundant at a and working at a larger scale. The evidence on the uptake and number of sites by 2014308 and benefited other species309 quality of implementation is limited.260 For example, flower (some endangered307). Understanding the large blue’s mixes and hedgerows may have increased since 2015 because relationship with a species of red ant and the wider ecosystem was essential for successful reintroduction. of the Countryside Stewardship Scheme package,47,261 but it only represents 1% of national nectar provision.136 The benefits of these interventions are limited to a few surrounding Endnotes:

POST is an office of both Houses of Parliament, charged with providing independent and balanced analysis of policy issues that have a basis in science and technology. POST is grateful to Rebecca Robertson for researching this briefing, to the BES for funding her parliamentary fellowship, and to all contributors and reviewers. For further information on this subject, please contact the co-author, Dr Jonathan Wentworth. Parliamentary Copyright 2020. Image copyright © CC BY-SA2.0 gailhampshire POSTNOTE 619 March 2020 UK Insect Decline and Extinctions Page 5

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