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Research Nuclear Reactors Couvmono 9GB_2 25/06/12 18:01 Page 1 Commissariat à l’énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives Commissariat à l’énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives e-den Une monographie de la Direction de l’énergie nucléaire e-den Even as civil nuclear energy is experiencing a real resurgence in interest, there is a need also to know A Nuclear Energy Division precisely what is involved in the issue, whether it be nuclear energy itself, or the associated science and Monograph technology. And yet, overviews evidencing a good scientifi c level, as regards this type of energy, are scarce… To make good this virtual absence, and highlight its own work in due manner, the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA: Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives) is setting out, in the form of short monographs, a comprehensive overview of its own ongoing research, in the area of civil nuclear energy. Such research being diverse, and multidisciplinary, this series of CEA monographs explores, and surveys topics as varied, if complementary, as the reactors of the future, nuclear fuel, materials under irradiation, or nuclear waste… Research Nuclear Aimed both at scientists hailing from other areas of expertise, wishing to appraise themselves of the issues at hand, and a wider public, interested in learning about the present and future technological envi- Reactors ronment, these CEA monographs set out the recent fi ndings from research, together with their context Reactors Nuclear Research and the related stakes. Research Nuclear Reactors Research reactors are a necessary basis for nuclear energy development and evolution. These reactors are those which paved the way to nuclear energy use, with the divergence of the fi rst atomic pile CP-1 in 1942 at Chicago, and then, as early as the Liberation, the divergence of the French atomic pile ZOÉ in 1948 at Fort de Châtillon. For they so demonstrated the ability to generate and control nuclear chain reaction, which was then a major technolog- ical innovation, indeed. Since that time, they have kept on with their contribution, making it possible to measure neutron characteristics of reactor cores, investigate materials and fuels behavior under irradiation, study the consequences of accident situations, validate new concepts as well as prototypes, and ensure teaching and operator training on actual nuclear facilities. In addition, experimental reactors are also implemented to meet research needs in Basic Physics to investigate mat- ter's structure, as well as in various areas of industrial appli- cations. Furthermore, they stand as an unrivaled tool to produce radionuclides for medical uses such as diagnosis 18 € and radiation therapy. ISBN 978-2-281-11508-6 ISSN pending This diversity of uses is echoed by a very wide variety of facilities, together with activities often performed within an international framework, and relating not only to reactor design and operation, but also to programs developed in 9:HSMCSB=VVZU][: these reactors. Mono9CEA_GB_160p_2 26/06/12 8:57 Page 2 DEN Monographs A Nuclear Energy Division Monograph Commissariat à l’énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex (France) Tel: +33 (0)1 64 50 10 00 Scientific Committee Michel Beauvy, Georges Berthoud, Gérard Ducros, Damien Féron, Yannick Guérin, Christian Latgé, Yves Limoge, Gérard Santarini, Jean-Marie Seiler, Etienne Vernaz, Research Directors. Topic Editor: André Chabre. Contributors to this Monograph: Alain Alberman, Michel Auclair, Nicolas Authier, Daniel Beretz, Gilles Bignan, Jean-Yves Blanc, Bernard Bonin, Jean-Christophe Bosq, Xavier Bravo, André Chabre (Topic Editor), Pascal Chaix, Jean-Marc Costantini, Gérard Ducros, Philippe Durande-Ayme, Jérôme Estrade, Philippe Fougeras, Danielle Gallo, Christian Gonnier, Lionel Gosmain, Daniel Iracane, Philippe Jucker, Jean- Christophe Klein, Thierry Lambert, Patrick Lemoine, Richard Lenain, Stéphane Loubière, Clarisse Mariet, Loïck Martin-Deidier, Frédéric Mellier, Alain Menelle, Sandrine Miro, Emmanuelle Muller, Joseph Safieh, Henri Safa, Stéphanie Sorieul, Patrick Trocellier, Caroline Verdeau, Jean-François Villard, Alain Zaetta. Editorial Director: Christophe Béhar. Editorial Board: Bernard Bonin (Editor in chief), Marie-José Lovérini, Martine Dozol, Michaël Lecomte, Alain Forestier. Administrator: Fanny Bazile. Editor: Jean-François Parisot. Graphic concept: Pierre Finot. Translation: Catherine Andrieux. Correspondence: all correspondence should be addressed to the Editor or to CEA/DEN Direction scientifique, CEA Saclay 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex (France) Tel: +33 (0)1 69 08 16 75 © CEA Saclay and Groupe Moniteur (Éditions du Moniteur), Paris, 2012 ISBN 978-2-281-11508-6 ISSN pending The information contained in this document may be freely reproduced, subject to agreement by the Editorial Board and due acknowledgement of the source. Front cover: top view of the OSIRIS reactor pool located at CEA/Saclay site and dedicated to investigation of materials under irradiation. Mono9CEA_GB_160p_2 26/06/12 8:57 Page 3 Commissariat à l’énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives e-den A Nuclear Energy Division Monograph Research Nuclear Reactors Mono9CEA_GB_160p_2 26/06/12 8:57 Page 4 Mono9CEA_GB_160p_2 26/06/12 8:57 Page 5 Foreword After a dazzling start in the 1950’s when, for many, it stood as the hope of an inex- haustible, economically competitive energy source, nuclear energy experienced in the 1980’s and 1990’s a rejection by majority public opinion in several Western countries, which suddenly brought its development to a halt. Although the 1973 and 1979 oil crises marked the launch of massive equipment programs in a few countries heavily penalized by oil imports, in particular France and Japan, they were paradoxically followed by a gap in nuclear investments, first, in the United States, and then in Western Europe. However, repeated oil market tensions and emerging concerns over the possible depletion of natural resources, as well as expectable effects on climate and the environment due to their large-scale burning should have, by contrast, enhanced such investments. There are surely many reasons for this pause, which can in part be explained by the acci- dents at Three Mile Island in 1979, and Chernobyl in 1986, deeply impacting public opinion. Fukushima recent accident legitimately raises again the same questions, although the con- text is quite different.The pending issue is not so much whether reactors are technically able to withstand the most improbable events: Fukushima focuses renewed attention, indeed, on how to train operators and actors of the decisional process in charge of tackling a severe dys- function of engineered safety systems in the case of equipment failure. In France, whereas the siting of nuclear power plants had never - except for one case - aroused a true debate in the population, a negative attitude emerged in the late 1980’s con- cerning the nuclear waste issue. Given the growing difficulties of the French national agency for nuclear waste management (ANDRA) in its search for an underground laboratory site, the Government of the time decided to suspend work, set a one-year moratorium, and sub- mitted the issue to the French parliamentary office for evaluation of scientific and techno- logical options (OPECST). By adopting most of the OPECST’s recommendations, in particular its definition of a diver- sified research program, and also the basis for a democratic debate with the populations concerned, the French Act of December 30, 1991 on nuclear waste management thus greatly contributed to calm the debate. Following a fifteen-year period, in which various options for long-term radioactive waste management were investigated, the Act of June 28, 2006 made it possible to set out the basic framework for this management, to be recognized as a necessity from now on. In addition, the starting century is marked by collective awareness that our generation’s energy needs cannot be met without concern for the environment, and without preserving future generations’ right to satisfy these same needs. This is the concept of sustainable development which our society will inevitably face, indeed. Today, it goes unquestioned that global warming due to increasing greenhouse gas emis- sions is a human-caused problem. Only the extent and consequences of of this warming are still debated. Industrialized countries, who are for the most part the origin of the current situation, should hold a particular responsibility, which should induce them to voluntarily reduce emissions of these gases. By its very nature, nuclear energy is not concerned by Research Nuclear Reactors 5 Mono9CEA_GB_160p_2 26/06/12 8:57 Page 6 this type of emissions, while being able to produce a relatively abundant, reliable, and eco- nomically competitive energy source. Quite naturally, it is therefore expected to be the pre- dominant energy source. Even if the worldwide situation is still contrasted, more especially in Europe, several coun- tries (China, South Korea, Finland, India, South Africa, Poland, the United Arab Emirates…) have already decided to make huge investments in developing this energy, and do keep this option after Fukushima accident. Others are very close to taking this step, in particu- lar Great Britain and the United States, who seem to be determined to launch programs for the construction of new nuclear power plants by the end of the decade, picking up a process that had been on hold for thirty years. Following France’s
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