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Rhetorical Composition Skills (Literary); Curriculum Instruction

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DOCUMENT RESUME ED 095 548 CS 201 495 AUTHOR Dauterimn, Philip TITLE The Teaching of Composition: Rhetorical Perspectives. PUB DATE Aug 72 NOTE 115p. EDRS PRICE MF-$0.75 HC-$10.20 PLUS POSTAGE DESCRIPTORS College Freshmen; *Composition (Literary); Composition Skills (Literary); Curriculum Development; Educational History; *English Instruction; *Literary History; *Rhetoric; *Teacher Education: Written Language ABSTRACT Prepared at the University of Guam, this me.nual for preservice and inservice English teachers focuses on the background and theory of written composition and on rhetoric in a broad sense. It is divided into the following chapters: "Introduction," which covers definition and departments; "Composition and Rhetoric--A History"; "Arrangement," which concerns the ordering of discrete elements within a discourse; "Invention," which deals with the discovery of information and concepts and the formation of Relationships "Style," which embraces the techniques of framing effective sentences; "Issues in Written Composition," which presents various theories that are reflected in freshman composition courses and in the methodology of teaching the subject; and "Composition and the Curriculum," which examines trends, teacher training, teachers, views on composition, English projects, and the Anglo-American conference. (SW) U S °EPA'? 'WENT OF HEALTH. E DUCA ION I. WELFARE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION 'THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO DUFFO EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN ATING IT POIA S OF VIEW Ok OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NEEL ,SARILY REPRE SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY THE TEACHING OF COMPOSITION RHETORICAL PERSPECTIVES Philip nAlitermpil Agana, Guam August,1972 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION Definition 3 Departments " 5 Chapters 7 II COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC - A HISTORY 9 GreekTheories of Rhetoric 10 Roman Rhetoric 17 Rhetoric and the Middle Ages 22 Rhetoric in the English Renaissance 26 Rhetoric in the Neo-Classical Period 29 Nineteenth Century Rhetoric 33 Twentieth Century Rhetoric 35 Conclusion 36 III ARRANGEMENT 38 Modes of Discourse . 39 Arrangement of the Composition Level 44 Methods of Development 45 Outlining 46 Arrangement of the Paragraph Level . 48 Methods of Paragraph Development . 52 Generative Rhetoric of the Paragraph . 56 A Tagmemic Approach . 59 Conclusion 62 CHAPTER Page IV INVENTION 64 Automatic Invention 65 Conscious Invention 68 Mental Checklists 68 Logic 73 Perspecitves on the Writing Act . 77 A Rhetoric of Identification 86 Rhetorical Balance 88 The Process of Invention 89 Invention and Creativity 90 Conclusion a 93 V STYLE '114 Approaches of Stylistic Analysis . 95 Impressionism 97 Style and Meaning 99 Figures of Speech 102 Conventional Treatments of STyle . 107 Generative Rhetoric of the Sentence . 114 Syntactic Maturity 117 Conclusion 123 VI ISSUES IN WRITTEN COMPOSITION 125 Basic Approaches 125 Some Basic Issues 137 Related Issues and Research 147 Conclusion 155 CHAPTER Page VII COMPOSITION AND THE ENGLISH CURRICULUM 157 Trends 157 Training of English Teachers 167 Teachers' Views on Composition . 173 The English Projects 176 The Anglo-American Conference . 184 The Teaching of English - Post-Dartmouth 187 Final Thoughts 196 REFERENCES 2611 CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION Many, methods textbooks treating the teaching of composition begin with a discussion of the importance of writing within the high-school or college curriculum. Frequently, to emphasize the importance of the study of English, they include such uplifting pronouncements as the following: Skill in the use of English is almost the only skill that a student can take from an ordinary educational course that has a definite bread-and- butter value in after - life... The young man or woman in business who can speak or write accurately, clearly, and effectively has an enormous advantage over one who lacks this equipment (Butler, 1940, p. xi). But most English teachers do not need to be told that skill in composition is vital: they know it, and the fact that they spend many hours grading student papers attests to their knowledge. What many English teachers may not know (at least those who are young and idealistic) is that they are cogs in the wheels of industry, that industry, aside from acquiring trained personnel, has a vested interest in high-school and college composition. As has occasionally been pointed out, literally millions of dollars are invested annually in the publication of composition textbooks, and the profits to be reaped are huge. Considering only college freshman composition textbooks, only a 2 portion of the field, Greenbaum and Schmerl (1970) estimate the folloWing: Almost everyone of the seven and a half million college students in the United States has been required to take freshman English. Multiply the number by 12, 15, or 20 and the reason why forty- odd publishers exhibit books at the annual Conference on College Composition and Communication is 90 to 150 million dollars (p. 47). It is no wonder then that the adoption of a composition textbook by a rather large institution represents an important coup for a publishing firm, The sale of any textbook fails or succeeds with the particular vogue in education, and within the last few years the major interest in English-education, particularly in the teaching of composition, has been rhetoric. Within the last several years, rhetoric has served as the central topic of an issue of English Journal (April, 1966). The rhetoric of the paragraph has also served as the theme for an issue of College Composition and Communication (May, 1966). Writing in PMLA, Wayne Booth (1965) reacts to the current vogue of rhetoric. Commenting upon the widespread use of the term, especially in froshman composition texts, he notes acerbically: "Judging from some recent freshman texts I have seen, I would not besurprised to find in my box tomorrow... a new work entitled A Speller's Rhetolic"am wn.m (p. 8). The team has a certain currency, and English teachers should know something of it. This is one of the purposes of this book. However, the term rhetoric is exceptionally slippery. Does rhetoric mean bombast ani verbal gimmickry? Does it refer to a particular 3 approach to the study of writing and/or speech? Is it a generic term encompassing all the approaches to the study of writing and speech? Or does it refer to the study of all areas of human interc:_rse including, among others, the study of writing and speech? it seems fairly obvious that the term has been used in different senses by different educationists. For Burke (1950, 1951), rhetoric includes all of human interaction. For Guth (1964), rhetoric is restricted to "the art of prose composition" (p. J.65). To other educationists it evidently means a specific approach to the teaching of composition. Lockerbie (1967), for example, ridiculing this latter view of rhetoric, tells of a colleague piqued because so: .many Johnny- Come- Lateiys had climbed aberAldLi e "LheLellu" hdndwayon. Cleaiy bpeuific definition of rhetoric is in order. Definition Derived from the Greek eiro meaning I sue, the term rhetoric has historically eluded a rigorous definition. The reason is simple. As a field of study rhetoric has always lacked clear, dis- tinct limits. Encompassing all areas of communication -- whether in speech or in writing -- rheto "4 -An conceivably include within its domain all aspects of human intercourse. For over two thousand years rhetoricians have successively defined and redefined rhetoric. At times they limited rhetoric solely to art of persuasion; at other times they broadened its definition to include discovering truth through the exchange of rigorous, logical argument. in'some contexts rhetoric has been regarded as the practical study of written composition; in others, as the study of written composition; and yet in other contexts it has been construed in a ore general sense as a study dealing with human relatilons: how "on person attempts to react upon another, to makehlm\laughor think, squirm or thrill, hate Or mg " (Moffett, 1967, p. 130). Modern rhetoricians like their predessors have failed to reach consensus on a definition. I. A. Richards (1965)concerned with its semantic dimension defines rhetOric as "a study of misunderstanding and its remedies" (p. 3) Daniel Fogarty (1959) in a somewhat similar vein defines it as "the science of recognizing the range. of meanings and functions of words, and the art of using dud luLtelpxrLiuy Lhum ift aucurdailue wiLli Oils rec.:L.)9,411.1cm"(p. 130) . Richard Weaver (1953) views rhetoric in an ;almost religious sense: Rhetoric is "the intellectual love of the Good" because it "seeks to perfect men by showing them better versions of themselves" (p. 25). J.N. Hook (1966), on the other hand, views rhetoric pragmatically: "the planned use of language for a preconceived purpose" (p. 421). Because rhetoric represents a .nebulousfield of study, it is virtually, impossible to reach consensus on its definition. Certainly the definition in Webster's New World Dictiomirl (1953) would hardly satisfy all rhetoricians. There rhetoric i,s defined as the art or science of using words effectively in speaking or writing, so as to influence or persuade; especially now, the art or science of literary composition, particularly in prose, including figures of speech . (p 1249). 5 +t In this definition rhetoric as the art of expressive speech or discourse is presented as a practical study concerned with developing the effectiveness of the speaker or writer. In the context of this book the definition is clearly inadequate. First, although attention for the most part will be focussed on written composition, rhetoric will be consider in its broadest sense as the study of all human intercourse. Second, rhetoric will be construed as more than just a "practical" study to develop one's effectiveness in writing or speaking. Aside from its practical application rhetoric is also a liberal art historical, cultural, and analytic in nature. Rhetoric is historical because it has been a major part of the curriculum for more than two thousand years and as the companion art of philosophy it has profoundly influenced Western thought.
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