Notes and References

I. Introduction

1. N azih N. Ayubi, Political Islam: Religion and Politics in the Arab World (London and New York: Routledge, 1991), Chaps 1-2.

2. Can Revolutions be Predicted: Can their Causes be Understood?

Earlier versions of this paper were given as a George Antonius lecture at M.I.T. and for the Center for Comparative History and Social Theory, U.C.L.A. Thanks for the comments of participants, especially Ali Banuazizi and Philip Khoury, and for those of Perry Anderson. I. James A. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion: The Tragedy of American• Iranian Relations (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1988). 2. Anthony Parsons, The Pride and the Fall: Iran, 1974-79 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1984), pp. 134--37. 3. This point is made as part of the comparative study by Henry Munson, Jr., Islam and Revolution in the Middle East (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1988), pp. 111-12. 4. James Gleick, Chaos: Making a New Science (New York: Penguin Books, 1987), p. 8. 5. Gleick, Chaos, Ch. 9 'The Butterfly Effect," pp. 9-32. 6. Stephen Jay Gould, Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History (New York and London: W. W. Norton & Company, 1989), p. 15. 7. See Leopold H. Haimson, "The Problem of Social Stability in Urban Russia, 1905-1917," in Michael Cherniavsky, ed., The Structure of Russian History: Interpretive Essays (New York: Random House, 1970), pp. 341-80, and Hans Rogger, "The Question Remains Open," in Robert H. McNeal, ed., Russia in Transition, 1905-I914: Evolution or Revolution? (New York: Rinehart and Winston, 1970), pp. 102-09. 8. Farideh Farhi, States and Urban-Based Revolutions (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); Mohsen M. Milani, The Making of Iran's Islamic Revolution: From Monarchy to Islamic Republic (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1988). Earlier books on the revolution include Shaul Bakhash, The Reign of the Ayatollahs: Iran and the Islamic Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Hossein Bashiriyeh, The State and Revolution in Iran (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1984); Nikki R. Keddie, Roots of Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981); and Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran (New York: Random House, 1985). On the revolution's background see Ervand Abrahamian, Iran: Between

257 258 Notes and References to pp. 24-33

Two Revolutions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982; and Fred Halliday, Iran: Dictatorship and Development (New York: Penguin, 1979). There is a vast participant and scholarly literature on the revolution, some of which is cited below. 9. On the political evolution of the Iranian clergy, see Nikki, R. Keddie, ed., Religion and Politics in Iran (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1983); Juan R. I. Cole and Nikki R. Keddie, eds., Shi'ism and Social Protest (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1986); Said Amir Arjomand, The Shadow of God and the Hidden Imam: Religion, Political Order, and Societal Change in Shi'ite Iran from the Beginning to 1890 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984); Shahrough Akhavi, Religion and Politics in Contemporary Iran: Clergy-State Relations in the Pahlavi Period (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1980); Michael Fischer, Iran: From Religious Dispute to Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980); and Hamid Algar, "The Oppositional Role of the Ulama in Twentieth-Century Iran," in Nikki R. Keddie, ed., Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institutions in the Middle East since 1500 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), pp. 231-256. 10. Sami Zubaida, Islam, the People and the State: Essays on Political Ideas and Movements in the Middle East (London and New York: Routledge, 1989). II. Said Amir Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in fran (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 120. 12. Marvin Zonis, Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). 13. Amir Farman Farma, "A Comparative Study of Counter• Revolutionary Mass Movements during the French, Mexican, and Russian Revolutions with Contemporary Application," (D. Phil diss: Politics, Oxford University, Oxford, 1990), chap. vi. I have not seen this dissertation but have heard its analysis of Iran as a conference paper at Harvard's Middle East Center, 1989. 14. Mark J. Gasiorowski, U.S. Foreign Policy and the Shah (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991), p. 187. 15. I have not tried here to evaluate the numerous theories of revolution• ary causation, though I have been influenced by some of them. For criticism of Davies's "J Curve" and other "volcanic" theories of revolu• tion see Rod Aya, Rethinking Revolutions and Collective Violence: Studies on Concept, Theory, and Method (Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis, 1990). Other recent works relevant to my argument include Mehran Kamrava, Revolution in Iran: The Roots of Turmoil (London: Routledge, 1990); Misagh Parsa, Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1989); Jack A. Goldstone, "Revolutions and Superpowers," in Jonathan R. Adelman, ed., Superpowers and Revolution (New York: Praeger, 1986); idem, "Theories of Revolution: The Third Generation," World Politics 32 (April, 1980), 425-443; Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: Notes and References to pp. 33-6 259 A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979); idem, "Rentier State and Shi'a Islam in the Iranian Revolution," Theory and Society II (May 1982), pp. 265-304; and responses in that same issue by Nikki R. Keddie, Walter Goldfrank, and Eqbal Ahmad; and J. Gugler, The Urban Character of Contemporary Revolutions," Comparative International Development, xvii, 2(Summer 1982), 60-73. The most original recent comparative book is Jack Goldstone, Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), which is relevant to contemporary revolutions. The Iranian works above give less importance to ideology and the clergy than I. I agree with the primary stress of many works on states and socioeconomic conditions and think there is something to Goldstone's largely demo• graphic argument. His view that early modern Ottoman and Chinese movements were less "revolutionary" than Western ones because only the West had a linear and millenarian view of history is, however, wrong. Sunni Islam early on incorporated a messianic mahdi. Numerous Sunni messianic revolts looking to a millennia) outcome oc• curred down to modern times. The cyclical Ibn Khaldun was atypical. 16. The October 1991 hearings on Robert Gates, George Bush's nominee to head the Central Intelligence Agency, remind me to stress that I do not believe that everyone's predictions are equally mistaken. Wrong, ideological analysis results in wrong predictions of even non• revolutionary trends that could have been foreseen. Most scholars of Iran knew the shah faced widespread discontent and that his type of rule could not outlive him, while the CIA focussed on a grossly exag• gerated Soviet menace and at the shah's request renounced contact with the opposition, whom they considered unimportant.

3. The Revolt of Islam 1700-1993: Comparative Considerations and Relations to Imperialism

I. See, for example, Nizam ai-Mulk, The Book of Government or Rules jiJr Kings (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 2nd Ed., 1978), 190-238, stressing heretical movements and revolts. 2. Ira M. Lapidus, "The Separation of State and Religion in the Devel• opment of Early Islamic Society," International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 6(4)(1975): 364, Sami Zubaida, Islam, the People and the State (London: Routlege, 1989), 41-2; Nazih N. Ayubi, Political Islam: Religion and Politics in the Arab World (London: Routledge, I 991 ); Emmanuel Sivan, Radical Islam: Medieval Theology and Modern Politics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), p. I 75, with citations to two articles by M. Arkoun. I quote and discuss this point and its literature at greater length in Chapter 13. 3. Any kind of continuity not caused by immediate factors could be char• acterized as essentialist, even though few people carry their thoughts to this logical extreme. The views that do carry anti-essentialism to its logical conclusion are primarily those called "occasionalism" in the 260 Notes and References to pp. 36-42

early modern West, which were put forth earlier by a school of conser• vative Ash'arite theologians in Islam who said that there are no sec• ondary causes and that God recreates the world every moment. These Ash'arites said that apparent worldly causation and order are due only to God's mercy to humanity, and that God could equally create a com• pletely new world, or none at all, each moment. This is a theory de• signed to combat all natural law and, some say, to mirror arbitrary rule; and it is in some ways ironic that the strongest anti-essentialists of our day are mostly on the left, although they have either not thought of the implications of a totally anti-essentialist position or would re• nounce such totality. The anti-essentialists are right that most writing is too essentialist, but they rarely consider continuities. 4. W. Montgomery Watt, The Formative Period of Islamic Thought (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1973); idem, "The Significance of the Early Stages of lmami Shi'ism," in Religion and Politics in Iran, ed. Nikki R. Keddie, 21-32; and Nikki R. Keddie and Juan R. Cole. "Introduction" to Shi'ism and Social Protest, ed. Cole and Keddie (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986). 5. Interview with Mansour Ehsan, based on his University of Oregon Ph.D dissertation. 6. Some of these movements are discussed comparatively in the follow• ing works, which I have used with profit: John Obert Voll, Islam: Continuity and Change in the Modern World (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1982); Nehemia Levtzion and John Voll, Eighteenth Century Renewal and Reform in Islam (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1987) especially relevant articles by Levtzion, Voll and L. Brenner. See also William Rofrs writings in William Roff, ed., The Political Economy of Meaning (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987). In addition to readings, I have benefitted from travel to, and discus• sions in, Senegal, Nigeria, North Africa, the Middle East, Pakistan, Indonesia, Malaysia, England, and France. 7. See Jack Goldstone, "East and West on the Seventeenth Century: Political Crises in Stuart England, Ottoman Turkey and Ming China," unpublished paper; Joseph Fletcher, "Integrative History: Parallels and Interconnections in the Early Modern Period, 1500-1800," Journal of Turkish Swdies, 9 (1985): 37-57. 8. There is some controversy among scholars about neo-Sufism. See R. S. O'Fahey, Enigmatic Saint: Ahmad Ibn ldris and the ldrisi Tradition (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1990), chap. I. 9. John Obert Voll, "Linking Groups in the Networks of Eighteenth• Century Revivalist Scholars," in Levtzion and Vol!, eds., Eighteenth Century Renewal, and Uwaidah Metaireek Al-Juhany, "The History of Najd Prior to the Wahhabis; A Study of Social, Political and Religious Conditions in Najd during Three Centuries Preceding the Wahhabi Reform Movement" (unpublished dissertation, Seattle, University of Washington, 1983). 10. W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad at Mecca (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953). and Muhammad at Medina (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1956); and Maxime Rodinson, Mohammed, trans. Anne Carter (New Notes and References to pp. 42-4 261

York: Vanguard Books, 1974). This interpretation has been opposed by various recent scholars, including Patricia Crone and Michael Cook. II. In addition to the Juhany dissertation in note 3, above, see especially George W. Rentz, "Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab (1703/4-1792) and the Beginning of Unitarian Empire in Arabia" (Berkeley, History Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, 1948); Muhammad S. M. El-Shaafy, "The First Saudi State in Arabia" (Leeds Ph.D. disserta• tion, University of Leeds, 1967). A vivid and instructive contemporary account is in John Lewis Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys. 2 vols., (London: Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley, 1831 ). On Wahhabi doctrine, see Henri Laoust, Essai sur /es doctrines sociales et politiques de Taki-d-Din Ahmad b. Taimiya (Cairo: Institut Fran~ais d'archaeologie orientale 1939), Book III, chap. 2. For con• temporary information see John Lewis Burkhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys (London: Colburn and Bentley, 1831) and M. Niebuhr, Travels through Arabia and Other Countries of the East, trans. Robert Heron (Edinburgh, 1792). 12. Juhany, "History of Najd," first chapters. Goldstone, "East and West," Joseph Fletcher, "Integrative History." 13. Michael Cook, "The Expansion of the First Saudi State: The Case of Washm," C. E. Bosworth et a/., eds., The Islamic World from Classical to Modern Times: Essays in Honor of Bernard Lewis (Princeton: Darwin Press, 1980), 661-700. 14. Christine Dobbin, Islamic Revivalism in a Changing Peasant Economy: Central Sumatra, 1784-1847 (London, 1983). Dobbin has also pub• lished related articles. The padris are also discussed in a number of Dutch sources and writings, and in a smaller number of English works that have been largely superseded by Dobbin's book. O'Fahey, Enigmatic Saint, p. 188, n. 48 says: "Professor Anthony Johns of the Australian National University points out (personal communication) that no study of the religious writings generated by the movement has yet been made; this he hopes to undertake." 15. See Nikki R. Keddie, "Islam and Society in Minangkabau and in the Middle East: Comparative Reflections," Sojourn (Singapore), 2(1) ( 1987); Taufik Abdullah, "Adat and Islam: An Examination of Conflict in Minangkabau," Indonesia II (Oct. 1966) Cornell University; Harsja W. Bachtiar, "Negari Taram: A Minangkabau Village Community," in Koentjariningrat, ed., Villages in Indonesia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1967); Elizabeth Graves, The Minangkabau Response to Dutch Colonial Rule in the Nineteenth Century (Ithaca: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, 1981); F. Benda• Beekman, Property and Social Continuity and Change in the Maintenance of Property Relations through Time in Minangkabau (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1979); Frederick K. Errington, Manners and Meaning in West Sumatra: The Social Context of Consciousness (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984); Joel S. Kahn, Minangkabau Social Formations: Indonesian Peasants and the World Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980). 262 Notes and References to pp. 46-54

16. In Imam Jombol's home town of Jombol, on the equator in Sumatra, I saw a fighting statue of him, in which he was characterized in a typical Malay lingua-franca mixture of words from Arabic, Persian, and Dutch, as the "Martyred National Hero." 17. Among those who most convincingly tie jihad movements to socioecon• omic conditions and trade, including slave trade is Peter B. Clarke, West Africa and Islam (London: Edward Arnold, 1982). Also sugges• tive of such ties is the dissertation (unfinished when I saw it in 1985) of B. Barry of Senegal, which was, however, when I saw it, in part prob• lematic. Other useful works include Allen Christelow, "Religious Protest and Dissent in Northern Nigeria: from Mahdism to Quranic Integralism," Journal of the Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, 6(2) ( 1985): 375-393; Philip C. Curtin, Economic Change in Precolonial Africa: Senegambia in the Era of the Slave Trade (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1975); idem, 'Jihad in West Africa: Early Phases and Interrelations in Mauritania and Senegal, Journal of African History XII, 1(1971): 11-24; Michael Crowder, West Africa under Colonial Rule (London: Hutchinson, 1968); M. Hiskette, The Sword of Truth: The Life and Times of Shehu Usuman and Fodio (New York, 1973); D. M. Last, The Sokoto Caliphate (London, 1967); N. Levtzion, Muslims and Chiefs in West Africa (Oxford, 1968); Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); David Robinson, The Holy War of Umar Tal: The Western Sudan in the Mid-Nineteenth Century (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985); J. S. Trimingham, A History of Islam in West Africa (London, 1962); J. R. Willis, ed., Studies in West African Islamic History (London, I 979); and a significant body of jihad literature in translation, such as 'Abdullah bin Muhammad, Tazyin al-Waraqat, trans. and ed. M. Hiskett (lbadan University Press, 1963). There are numerous translations and scholarly dissertations that are, unfortu• nately, available only in the universities of northern Nigeria. There is also a considerable local and western article literature, of which the articles by Marilyn Waldman may be singled out. 18. Clarke, West Africa, p. 80. Some similar themes are voiced in Barry's thesis and in P. Curtin, "Jihad in West Africa: Early Phases and Interrelations in Mauritania and Senegal," Journal of Africa History XII, 1(1971), I 1-24. 19. Clarke, West Africa, p. 87. 20. Hiskett, Sword, p. 66. 21. Abdullahi Mahadi, "The State and the Economy: The Saarauta System and its Role in Shaping the Economy of Kano with Particular Reference to the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries" (Ph.D. disser• tation, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria, 1983). I read this in Zaria and do not know if it is available in the West, though a short• ened published version may appear. 22. For a work stressing the revolutionary nature of the 'Urabi move• ment, see Juan R. I. Cole, Colonialism and Revolution in the Middle East: Social and Cultural Origins of Egypt's 'Urabi Movement (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992). Notes and References to pp. 55-9 263 23. Among the useful works on nineteenth century revival movements re• sponding to Western conquest are, (I) on Shamyl: John F. Baddeley, The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1908); Baron August von Haxthausen, The Tribes of the Caucasus (London: Chapman and Hall, 1855); Louis Moser, The Caucasus and Its People: With a Brief History of Their Wars; (2) South Asia: Qeyamuddin Ahmad, The Wahabi Movement in India (Calcutta, 1966); K. K. Datta, History of the Freedom Movement in Bihar, I (Patna: Government of Bihar, 1957); Peter Hardy, The Muslims of British India (London: Cambridge University Press, 1972); W. W. Hunter, The Indian Musalmans: Are They Bound in C('nscience to Rebel against the Queen? (London, Trubner and Co., 1871); Hafeez Malik, Moslem Nationalism in India and Pakistan (Washington, D.C. Public Affairs Press, 1963): 3. Abd al-Qadir: Col. Paul Azan, L 'Emir Abd el Kader 1808-1883 (Paris: Librairie Hachette, 1925; Raphael Danziger, Abd al-Qadir and the Algerians (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1977). There is a need for these movements, and the Senussis, to be studied further by historians with a knowledge of the requisite languages and of Islamist movements elsewhere. 24. Peter Holt, The Mahdist State in the Sudan, 1881-1898: A Study of its Origins, Development and Overthrow (New York: Oxford University Press, 2nd Edition, 1977); Rudolph Peters, Islam and Colonialism: The Doctrine of Jihad in Modern History (The Hague: Mouton, 1979). 25. See Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798-1939 (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), 103. 26. See especially introduction, "From Afghani to Khomeini," to the 1983 edition of Nikki R. Keddie, An Islamic Response to Imperialism: Political and Religious Writings of Sayyid Jamal ad-Din "at-Afghani" (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983). 27. Nikki R. Keddie, "Western Rule versus Western Values: Suggestions for a Comparative Study of Asian Intellectual History," Diogenes, 26(Summer 1959), 71-96. 28. The literature on what those in the field generally call lslamism is ex• tensive and growing. Among the most useful works are: Said Amir Arjomand, ed. From Nationalism to Revolutionary Islam (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984); Nazih N. Ayubi, Political Islam (London: Routledge, 1991 ); Hamid Dabashi, Theology of Discontent: The ideological Foundations of the Islamic Revolution in Iran (New York: New York University Press, 1993); John L. Esposito, ed. Voices of Resurgent Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983); Michael M. J. Fischer, Iran: From Religious Dispute to Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983); Fred Halliday and Hamza Alavi, eds., State and Ideology in the Middle East and Pakistan (London: Macmillan, 1988); Issue on Islam and Politics, Third World Quarterly, 10(2) (April 1988); Gilles Kepel, Le prophete et pharaon: Les mouvements islamistes dans l'Egypte contemporain (Paris: Seuil, 1990); Imam Khomeini, Islam and Revolution, trans. Hamid Algar (Berkeley: Mizan Press, 1981); Martin Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms Observed 264 Notes and References to pp. 60-75 (Chicago: University of Chicago, 4 vols. to date, 1991-1994); Edward Mortimer, Faith and Power: The Politics of Islam (New York: Random House, 1982); Maxime Rodinson, L 'Islam politique et croy• ance (Paris: Fayard, 1993); Emmanuel Sivan, Radical/slam: Medieval Theology and Modern Politics (Yale University Press, 1985); Sami Zubaida, Islam, the People, and the State (London: Routledge, 1989).

4. Why Has Iran Been Revolutionary? I

1. N. R. Keddie, 'Iranian Revolutions in Comparative Perspective, A H R 88 (3) June 1983: 579-98. 2. N. R. Keddie, Roots of Revolution: An Interpretive History of Modern Iran (New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, 1981). 3. See F. Adamiyat, Shuresh bar emteyaznameh-ye rezhi: Tahlil-e siyasi (Tehran: Payam, 1983); H. Nateq, 'Sar-aghaz-e eqtedari-ye va siyasi-ye mollayan', Alefba 2, 1982: 41-57; H. Nateq, 'Jang-e ferqehha' dar enqelab-e mashrutiyat-e Iran', Alefba 3, 1982: 30-52; W. M. Floor, 'The Revolutionary Character of the U1ema: Wishful Thinking or Reality', in N. R. Keddie (ed.) Religion and Politics in Iran (New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, 1983); S. Arjomand, 'The Ulema's Traditional Opposition to Parliamentarism: 1907-1909', Middle Eastern Studies 17 (2) April 1981: 174--90. 4. See Keddie, 'Iranian Revolutions in Comparative Perspective'. 5. See H. Munson, Islam and Revolution in the Middle East (New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, 1988). Thanks to Rudi Matthee for his valuable assistance.

5. Why Has Iran Been Revolutionary? II: Multi-Urbanism in Iran's Revolts and Rebellions

I. The most recent and complete account of the Babi movement is Abbas Amanat, Resurrection and Renewal: The Making of the Babi Movement in Iran. 1844-1850 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989). It contains a bibliography of the main primary and secondary sources on the subject. The Bab's main scripture, the Persian Bayan, available in various editions, contains liberal, seemingly modern features, as on the treatment of women, children, and traders, but whether these show Western influence is a matter of dispute. On cities in mid• century see Abbas Amanat, ed., Cities and Trade: Consul Abbot on the Economy and Society of Iran 1847-1866 (London: Ithaca Press, 1983). 2. On socioeconomic and political developments in both Qajar and Pahlavi times see Peter Avery, Gavin Hambly, and Charles Melville, eds., The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 7 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), especially chaps. by Gavin Hambly, Nikki Keddie and Mehrdad Amanat, A. K. S. Lambton, Charles Issawi, and K. S. McLachlan. The most complete work on the Pahlavi period Notes and References to pp. 76-9 265

is Ervand Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982). On the Qajar period see especially A. K. S. Lambton, Qajar Persia: Eleven Studies (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1988); Charles Issawi, ed. The Economic History of Iran 1800-1914 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1971); and various articles by Willem Floor and Gad Gilbar, both of whom have articles in Studies on the Economic and Social History of Iran in the Nineteenth Century, Iranian Studies, XVI, 3-4 (1983). 3. Pre-contemporary statistics on Iran are found especially in Julien Bharier, Economic Development of Iran, 1900-1970 (London: Oxford University Press, 1971); and Issawi, Economic History. 4. On the tobacco movement see Nikki R. Keddie, Religivn and Rebellion in Iran: The Tobacco Protest of 1891-1982 (London: Frank Cass, 1966), Ann K. S. Lambton, "The Tobacco Regie: A Prelude to Revolution," in Lambton, Qajar Persia, 223-276; F. Adamiyat, Shuresh bar emtiyaznameh-ye rezhi (Tehran: Payam, 1981); and I. Taimuri, Tahrim-e tanbaku (Tehran: 1949). 5. Although none of the books on the constitutional revolution frames the question in terms of multi-urbanism, one may still find it in the existing literature. The leading role of Tabriz and Gilan are found in Ahmad Kasravi, Tarikh-e mashruteh-ye Iran, lOth ed. (Tehran: Amir Kabir, 1974); in Ibrahim Fakhra'i, Gilan dar jonbesh-e mashrutiyat-e Iran (Tehran: Ketabha-ye Jibi, 1973); Hosain Farzad, Enqelab va tahm•vol-e Azerbaijan dar daureh-ye mashrutiyat (Tabriz: Danesh, 1945); and in I. Amirkhizi, Qiyam-e Azerbaijan va Sattar Khan (Tabriz, 1960). In English, see Mango! Bay at, Iran's First Revolution: Shi'ism and the Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1909 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); E. G. Browne, The Persian Revolution of 1905-1909 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 191 0); and Vanessa Martin, Islam and Modernism: The Iranian Revolution of 1906 (Syracuse : Syracuse University Press, 1989). Janet Afary has also written an important manuscript on that revolution. An important example of the vast article literature, stressing the urban bazaar classes, is Mohammad Reza Afshari, "The Pishivaran and Merchants in Precapitalist Iranian Society: An Essay on the Background and Causes of the Constitutional Revolution," !JMES, 15 (1983): 133-55. 6. The literature on the 1978-79 revolution is enormous. See especially Ervand Abrahamian, Khomeinism (Berkeley: University of California Press. 1993); Said Amir Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); Ahmad Ashraf and Ali Banuazizi, "The State, Classes and Modes of Mobilization in the Iranian Revolution," State, Culture and Society I, 3 (1985): 3-40; Shaul Bakhash, The Reign of the Ayatollahs (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Hossein Bashiriyeh, The State and Revolution in Iran 1962-1982 (London: Croom Helm, 1984); Assef Bayat, Workers and Revolution in Iran (London: Zed Books, 1987); H. E. Chehabi, Iranian Politics and Religious Modernism: The Liberation Movement of/ran under the Shah and Khomeini (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Hamid Dabashi, Theology of Discontent: The Ideological Foundations of the 266 Notes and References to pp. 79-84 Islamic Revolution in Iran (New York: NYU Press, 1993); Farideh Farhi, States and Urban-Based Revolutions: Iran and Nicaragua (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); John Foran, Fragile Resistance: Social Transformation from 1500 to the Revolution (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993); Fred Halliday, Iran: Dictatorship and Development (New York: Penguin Books, 1979); Nikki R. Keddie, Roots of Revolution: An Interpretive History of Modern Iran (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981); Ruhollah Khomeini, Islam and Revolution: Writings and Declarations of Imam Khomeini, trans. and ed. Hamid Algar (Berkeley, Mizan Press, 1981); Henry Munson, Islam and Revolution in the Middle East (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988). Mansoor Moaddel, Class, Politics and Ideology in the Iranian Revolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993) discusses some of the points raised in this article from a different perspective. 7. Ervand Abrahamian and Farhad Kazemi, "The Non-revolutionary Peasantry of Modern Iran," Iranian Studies II (1978): 259-304. 8. For a brief but penetrating discussion of Iran's main distinctive geo• graphical features, see Charles Issawi, ed., The Economic History of Iran: 1800-1914, "Geographical and Historical Background." 9. On qanats and the relation of Iranian cities to irrigation and to their rural and tribal hinterland see especially Paul Ward English, City and Village in Iran (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966); Henri Goblot, Les Qanats: Une technique d'acquisition de l'eau (Paris: Mouton, 1979); Keith McLachlan, The Neglected Garden (London: I. B. Tauris, 1988); Nikki R. Keddie, "Material Culture, Technology, and Geography: Toward a Holistic Comparative Study of the Middle East," updated in Juan R. I. Cole, ed., Comparing Muslim Societies (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992). 10. Richard W. Cottam, Nationalism in Iran (Pittsburgh: University of Piggsburgh Press, 1964) shows the non-separatist nature of the Gilan and other movements. For the important distinctions, not previously drawn, among different types of minorities, see Nikki R. Keddie, "The Minorities Question in Iran," in this volume. Some of my remarks differ from views expressed by Ervand Abrahamian, "Oriental Despotism: The Case of Qajar Iran," JJMES, 5(1) (1974), 3-31, which stresses mosaic divisions. II. Serious studies of the bazaar suggest how modern and rational is its economic organization. Westerners often see only the retail parts of the bazaar and not its major wholesaling, financial, and productive operations. See, for example, Howard J. Rotblat. "Social Organization and Development in an Iranian Provincial Bazaar," Economic Development and Cultural Change 23 (1975): 292-305 and Michael Bonine, "Shops and Shopkeepers: Dynamics of an Iranian Provincial Bazaar," in Michael E. Bonine and Nikki Keddie, eds, Modern Iran: The Dialectics of Continuity and Change (Albany: SUNY Press, 1981). Both these articles draw on important Ph.D. dis• sertations. There is also a series of useful monographs on various Iranian cities, by different authors, published by the University of Durham, and important writings in German, especially by Eugen Notes and References to pp. 85-90 267 Wirth. (Ironically, while a few decades ago huge department stores were considered the last word in modernity and efficiency in the U.S., today we have returned, in the shopping-mall, to a bazaar-like retail structure of small shops sharing a single side wall whose wares are specialized and visible from the outside.) 12. See especially Gene Garthwaite, Khans and Shahs: A Documentary Analysis of the Bakhtiyari in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). 13. See the items discussing this in Issawi, The Economic History of Iran, especially the translation of parts of Z. Z. Abdulaev, Promyshlenost i zarozhdenie rabochego klassa Irana v kontse XIX-nachale XX Vl'., 45-56. 14. Mirza Husain, Jughrafiya-e Esfahan (Tehran, 1342/1963); I ha.rc read the book in Persian as well as the parts translated in Issawi, Economic History, 279-282. 15. Lisa Taraki, "The Social Foundations of Urban Political Mobilization in Nineteenth Century Iran" (Ph.D dissertation, SUNY Buffalo, 1982), citing Darrabi, History of Kashan, 48--49. This dissertation, which I have never seen cited, is one of the most perceptive and im• portant works on its subject. 16. John Malcolm, A History of Persia, II (London: John Murray, 1815). 17. The information on carpets and crafts is primarily based on extensive research and interviewing on these subjects in Iran, 1973-74, including numerous in-house reports in Persian by the handicrafts division of the Ministry of the Economy. The most historically informative of the many books on carpets are Cecil Edwards, The Persian Carpet, New Ed. (London, 1953), and Leonard M. Helfgott, A Social History of the Iranian Carpet (Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994). See also Jenny Housego, "The 19th Century Persian Carpet Boom," Oriental Art XIX, 2 (Summer, 1973). 18. Mehdi Malekzadeh, Tarikh-e enqelab-e mashrutiyat-e Iran (Tehran, 1984), 136-38. 19. See Anon [Sayyed Jamal ai-Din Esfahani and Malek oi• Motakallemin], Lebas ol-Taqva (n.p., n.d.) 20. A comprehensive and extensive discussion and critique of patron• client and other sociological models is in Taraki, "Urban Political Mobilization." Studies critial of the validity of the popular patron• client model are found in Ernest Gellner and John Waterbury, eds., Patrons and Clients in Mediterranean Societies (London: Duckworth, 1977), by Sydel Silverman, "Patronage as Myth," and Michael Gilsenan, "Against Patron-Client Relations." The other articles in this collection generally accept the patron-client model, including the reci• procal generosity of patrons that Silverman and Gilsenan doubt. Guilain Denoeux, Urban Unrest in the Middle East: A Comparative Study of Informal Networks in Egypt, Iran, and Lebanon (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993) is an important relevant work. 21. Taraki, "Urban Political Mobilization," has several sections on the nature of rule and power in urban Iran. 22. This controversy has been carried out both in Persian and in English• language works. In Iran Fereidun Adamiyat and Homa Nateq have 268 Notes and References to pp. 92-7

been especially concerned to show that the ulama were at most occa• sional tools of the merchants in various rebellious and revolutionary movements. In English E. G. Browne's early twentieth century works stressed the role of the ulama, and Hamid Algar, Religion and State in Iran: 1785-1906 (Berkeley: University of California Press. 1969) saw the ulama as a positive and important force. Said Arjomand. Shahrough Akhavi and Mango] Bayat in various works have been critical of this approach. In France Yann Richard has written more sympathetically of ulama, including Ayatollah Kashani in the Mosaddeq period. It is probably no accident that most of those in• volved in downplaying the ulama are Iranian secularists also hostile to the contemporary ulama. This is not to suggest that the evidence they have brought forth for their case is not an important basis for revis• ing some earlier formulations. 23. In an unpublished paper based on the data of medieval biographical dictionaries Richard Bulliet has found that the number of ulama with attributive names like "Tajer" that indicate merchant status or family ties was significantly larger than those found in Arab lands. 24. Lisa Taraki, "Urban Political Mobilization," chaps. 8-9. 25. A detailed and perceptive study of the intertwining of the bazaar and ulama is in Gustav Edward Thaiss, "Religious Symbolism and Social Change: The Drama of Husain" (Ph.D. dissertation, Anthropology, Washington University, St. Louis, 1973). Thaiss's articles are also useful. Some further material on the subjects in this article are also found in Davoud Ghadchi-Tehrani, "Bazaaris and Clergy: Socio• Economic Origins of Radicalism and Revolution in Iran" (Ph.D. dis• sertation, CUNY, 1982) and Mohammad Ali Tchaitchian, "Uneven Capital Development, Peripheral Urbanization, and Petty Commodity Production in Iran and Egypt" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, Sociology, 1986). Denoeux, Urban Unrest, chaps. 10-11, includes a perceptive synthesis regarding bazaar-ulama relations and points to the lesser cohesion and autonomy of both bazaar and ulama in other Middle Eastern countries.

6. Iranian Revolutions in Comparative Perspective

I. See Gene R. Garthwaite, Khans and Shahs: The Bakhtiari in Iran (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1983), and "Khans and Kings: The Dialectrics of Power in Bakhtiari History," in M. Bonine and N. Keddie, eds., Modern Iran (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981), 159--72; Willem M. Floor, "The Political Role of the Lutis in Iran," in ibid., 83-95; Ervand Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982); John Malcolm, The History of Persia, 2 vols. (London: J. Murray, 1815); and N. R. Keddie, Roots of Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), chaps. 2-3. For additional information, see the numerous anthropological articles on Iranian nomads. Notes and References to pp. 98-105 269 2. Especially see Juan R. Cole, "lmami Jurisprudence and the Role of the Ulama: Mortaza Ansari on Emulating the Supreme Exemplar," in Nikki R. Keddie, ed., Religious and Politics in Iran (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983), 33-46; and Mortaza Ansari, Sirat an-Najat (n.p., 1300/1883). 3. On peasants and revolution, see the sources and discussion in Keddie, "Iranian Revolutions in Comparative Perspective," American Historical Review 88 (1983): 579-98; 583 n. 5. 4. Especially see Hamid Algar, Mirza Malkum Khan (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1973); Nikki R. Keddie, Sayyid Jamal al-Din "at-Afghani" (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972); and Mango! Bayat, Mysticism and Dissent: Socio-religious Thought in Qajar Iran (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1982). Persian works are listed in Keddie, "Iranian Revolutions," 584 n. 6. 5. Nikki R. Keddie, Religion and Rebellion in Iran: The Tobacco Protest of 1891-1892 (London: Frank Cass, 1966), and the Persian, French, Russian, and English sources cited therein. 6. Richard W. Cottam, Nationalism in Iran (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979); and Keddie, Roots of Revolution, passim. 7. The change in Iranian attitudes at this time is clear in documents per• taining to Iran in the British Foreign Office. Also see Nikki R. Keddie, "Religion and Irreligion in Early Iranian Nationalism," in N. R. Keddie, ed., Iran: Religion, Politics, and Society (London: Frank Cass, 1980), 13-52. 8. The Persian literature on this revolution is enormous. It includes in• valuable classics by Nazem ai-Islam Kermani, Ahmad Kasravi, Mehdi Malekzadeh. and Sayyed Hasan Taqizadeh, as well as major back• ground works by Fereidun Adamiyyat and Homa Nateq. For the main books in English, see Edward G. Browne, The Persian Revolution of /905-1909 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1910); and Robert A. McDaniel, The Shuster Mission and the Persian Constitutional Revolution (Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1974). (For more recent works see chap. 3 n. 5 of this volume.) 9. The work was written in 1909 by Ayatullah Na'ini. Although it is stressed by H. Algar and others I have seen no Persian or Western book that refers to it before its republication with an introduction by Ayatullah Taleqani in 1955; see Algar, "The Oppositional Role of the Ulama in Twentieth-Century Iran," in Nikki R. Keddie, eds., Scholars, Saints, and Sufis (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972), 231-55. Na'ini apparently withdrew the book from circu• lation shortly after its publication; see Abdul Hadi Ha'iri, Shi'ism and Constutitionalism in Iran (Leiden: Brill, 1977), 124, 158. 10. The economic and political events of the 1970s are covered in F. Halliday, Iran: Dictatorship and Development (Harmondsworth: Penguin. 1979); R. Graham, Iran: The Illusion of Power (London: Croom Helm, 1979); and Keddie, Roots of Revolution, chap. 7. II. See Davies, "Toward a Theory of Revolution," in James Chowning Davies, ed., When Men Revolt and Why (New York: Free Press. 270 Notes and References to pp. 105-10 1971), 137-47; Crane Brinton, The Anatomy of Revolution (rev. cd.; London: Vintage Books, 1965; and G.-E. Labrousse, La crise de l'economie franraise afin de /'ancien regime et au debut de Ia revolution (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1944), introduction. 12. James A. Bill has noted the correspondence between Brinton's views and the events of 1978-9; see his "Power and Religion in Revolutionary Iran," Middle East Journal 36 (1982): 22-47, esp. p. 30. The closeness of this fit is apparent in Brinton's own summary of the pattern apparent in the four great revolutions he discussed in The Anatomy ol Revolution. 250-51. 13. Comparisons of Khomeinism and National Socialist movements are found in Richard W. Cottam, "The Iranian Revolution," in Juan R. I. Cole and Nikki R. Keddie, eds., Shi'ism and Social Protest (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986); and Said Amir Arjomand, "Iran's Islamic Revolution in Comparative Perspective," World Politics (April 1986). 14. Marx and Engels's basic view is stated, with some variations, in several works from the Communist Manifesto onward. Recent theoretical works touching on comparative revolution and influenced by Marx include those by Theda Skocpol, Charles Tilly, Eric Hobsbawm, George Rude, and Barrington Moore. Although these shed much light on various topics, they have less to say than has Marx on the kind of forces that led to revolution in Iran. Skocpol has modified some of her views in the aftermath of the Iranian revolution; see T. Skocpol, "Rentier State and Shi'a Islam in the Iranian Revolution," Theory and Society 11 (1982): 265-83, with comments by Eqbal Ahmad, Nikki R. Keddie, and Walter L. Goldfrank in ibid., pp. 285-304. 15. In addition to the cited books by Graham and Halliday, see Nikki R. Keddie and Eric Hooglund, eds., The Iranian Revolution and the Islamic Republic (Washington, D.C.: Middle East Institute in coopera• tion with Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 1982), pp 127-31; Shaul Bakhash, The Reign of the Ayatollahs (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and Gary Sick, All Fall Down (New York: Random House, 1985). 16. The controversy over the role of the ulama in the revolution of 1905-11 is discussed in Kiddie, "Iranian Revolutions," 594, n. 17. 17. On these intellectuals, see Keddie, Roots of Revolution, chapter 8, part of which is by Yann Richard. It includes the most important Persian references. 18. Kalim Siddiqui et at., The Islamic Revolution: Achievements, Obstacles, and Goals (London: Open Press in association with the Muslim Institute, 1980), pp. 16-17. Although some Safavid ulama spoke of ulama rule, they still expected a shah to lead in military and other affairs. 19. Gregory Rose. "Velayat-e Faqih and the Recovery of Islamic Identity in the Thought of Ayatollah Khomeini," in Nikki R. Keddie, cd., Religion and Politics in Iran (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973), 166~88. Also see Nikki R. Keddie, "Islamic Revival as Third Worldism," in J.-P. Digard, ed., Le cuisinier et le philosophe: Notes and References to pp. 112-16 271 Hommage a Maxime Rodinson (Paris: G.-P. Maisonneuve et Larose, 1982), 275-81 [reprinted in this volume]. Many of Khomeini's speeches and works are translated in Hamid Algar, ed., Islam and Revolution: Writings and Declarations of Imam Khomeini (Berkeley: Mizan Press, 1981).

7. Reflections on the Iranian Revolution and its Influence in the Muslim World

Much of the information in this chapter comes from observation and interviews since 1960 in Iran, Turkey, Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, Senegal, Nigeria, Yemen, Pakistan, Indonesia, and Malaysia, which would be too numerous to cite in detail. I. Among the numerous useful recent works dealing with the causes of revolution are Rod Aya, Rethinking Revolutions and Collective Violence (Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis, 1990); John Dunn, Modern Rel'olutions (2nd ed., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Jack A. Goldstone, Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1991); Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979); and Charles Tilly, European Revolutions, 1492-1992 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993). The journal Contention: Debates in Society, Culture, and Science has, especially in issue 5, 1992, carried a series of articles on theoretical questions concerning revolution by Jack Goldstone, Nikki R. Keddie, Charles Tilly, Andre Gunder Frank. John Foran, Muriel Atkin, Said Arjomand, Timur Kuran, Jeffrey Wasserstrom, and Edward Berenson, which are reprinted in a book, Debates on Revolution (NYU Press, New York, 1995). 2. Henry Munson, Jr., Islam and Revolution in the Middle East (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988). 3. Afsaneh Najmabadi, "State, Politics and the Radical Continuity of Revolutions: Reflections on Iran's Islamic Revolution," Research in Political Sociology 6, 1993, 197-215. 4. Bibliographical footnotes concerning the tobacco movement and the constitutional revolution are found in chapter 4 of this volume, "Why Has Iran Been Revolutionary? II: Multi-Urbanism in Iran's Revolts and Rebellions," notes 4 and 5. 5. On the ulama in the Reza Shah period see especially Shahrough Akhavi, Religion and Politics in Contemporary Iran (Albany: SUNY Press, 1980). 6. Some of these issues are discussed in my previous publications and others in the excellent article by Emmanuel Sivan, "Sunni Radicalism in the Middle East and the Iranian Revolution," International Journal o.lMiddle East Studies, 21, I (Feb. 1989): 1-30. 7. See note 2 above. 8. This very rich and original paper is based on the Oxford Ph.D. disser• tation by Amir Farman Farmaian, which I have interviewed him about but have not seen. 272 Notes and References to pp. 118-20

9. This explanation of the revolution is not identical to that of any other author, but it owes something to many works, including those listed in the "Multi-Urbanism" chapter in this volume, note 6, by Abrahamian, Arjomand, Ashraf and Banuazizi, Bakhash, Bashiriyeh, Bayat, Chehabi, Dabashi, Farhi, Foran, Halliday, and Munson. Also useful are Michael M. J. Fischer, Iran from Religious Dispute to Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), and H. Amirahmadi, Revolution and Economic Transition: The Iranian Experience (Albany: SUNY Press, 1991 ). Memoirs in Persian and English in oral history collections in Cambridge and Washington, D.C., and written ones by persons includ• ing Abdol Hasan Banisadr. Asadollah Alam, and Ehsan Naraghi have also been very useful. I 0. Nikki R. Keddie, Sayyid .Jamal ad-Din "al-Afghani": A Political Biography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972); and An Islamic Response to Imperialism (2nd ed., Berkeley, University of California Press, 1983). In that edition I did add a section, "From Afghani to Khomcini." II. E. Abrahamian and others who have written about the leftist Islamic Mojahedin have noted the similarity of their ideas and terminology to Shariati's; and the Mojahedin were the first with certain ideas and terms in some cases. See especially the several references to Shariati in Ervand Abrahamian, The Iranian Mojahedin (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989). Shariati was also carrying further well-known ideas by the writer Jalal Al-e Ahmad. Shariati's Persian writings. brought together in lslamshenasi (various editions) and other collec• tions, reveal an eclectic and sometimes contradictory approach, incor• porating various elements going from Marxism to Islam that were in the air among young Iranians. 12. See especially the article by Afsaneh Najmadbadi in Nikki R. Keddie and Eric Hooglund, eds., The Iranian Revolution and the Islamic Republic (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, I 983). 13. On the Islamic Liberals, including this incident, see the excellent book by Houshang Chehabi, Iranian Politics and Religious Modernism: The Liberation Movement in Iran /962-1982 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990). 14. See especially Maziar Behrooz, "The Iranian Communist Movement 1953-1983: Why Did The Left Fail?" (Ph.D. dissertation, UCLA: Los Angeles, History, 1993). 15. See especially Hanna Batatu, "Shi'i Organizations in Iraq: ai-Da'wah al• lslamiyah and al-Mujahidin," in Juan R. I. Cole and Nikki R. Keddie, eds., Shi'ism and Social Protest (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), and Amazia Baram, "The Impact of Khomeini's Revolution on the Radical Shi'i Movement of Iraq," in David Menashri, ed. The Iranian Revolution and the Muslim World (Boulder: Westview, 1990). 16. Sec especially Augustus Richard Norton, "Lebanon: The Internal Conflict and the Iranian Connection," in John L. Esposito, ed., The Iranian Revolution: Its Global Impact (Miami: Florida International University Press, 1990) and Martin Kramer, "Redeeming Jerusalem: The Pan-Islamic Premise of Hizballah," in Menashri, Iranian Revolution. Notes and References to pp. 120-33 273 17. See "Syria's Alawis and Shi'ism," in Martin Kramer, ed., Shi'ism, Resistance, and Revolution (Boulder: Westwood Press, 1987). 18. See Nikki R. Keddie, "The Shi'a of Pakistan," (Los Angeles: Von Grunebaum Center UCLA Working Paper, 1993), based both on written sources and on personal experience and interviews. 19. Keddie, "Shi'a of Pakistan." 20. Muriel Atkin, The Subtlest Battle: Islam in Soviet Tajikistan, The Philadelphia Papers, (Philadelphia: Foreign Policy Research Institute, 1989. On Iranian influence in ex-Soviet Muslim territories see also several writings by Martha Brill Olcott, including "Soviet Central Asia: Does Moscow Fear Iranian Influence?" in Esposito, Iranian Revolution, and Yaacov Ro'i, "Iran's Islamic Revolution aad the Soviet Muslims," in Menashri, Iranian Revolution. 21. In 1988 Khomeini explicitly decreed that the needs of the Islamic state could outweigh what are universally considered the basic duties of Islam. 22. See Nikki R. Keddie. "Ideology, Society and the State in Post-Colonial Muslim Societies," in this volume. Naturally, not every country with an important Islamist movement will have every feature I have pinpointed, but all seem to have some of them, and an extreme degree of one feature may outweigh the lack of another. Hence Yemen was, at least until 1990, in some ways the rentier state par excellence, with the popu• lace living heavily off remittances from the Arabian oil economies while the government profited from competitive bidding for foreign aid dona• tions from a huge variety of Eastern and Western bloc countries. The recent discovery of oil has made many people optimistic that the gov• ernment may circumvent, rather than having to deal directly with the abysmal level of direct taxation. On the other hand, it seems equally probable that, as in many other countries, the rich will get conspicu• ously richer and more acculturated and the popular and traditional classes will become more alienated so that populist Islamism or other movements of discontent may prosper. This is not a prophecy; I am only trying to warn against a general euphoria about how helpful Yemeni oil will be. As with the major recipients of U.S. aid - Israel, Egypt, Turkey, and Pakistan - the reasons for the competitive shower• ing of aid on Yemen were largely strategic, and showed minimal concern for rational development. 23. This final assessment of influences is based on overwhelming consis• tent evidence in my interviews and also on surveys done by Tunisian scholars.

8. The Minorities Question in Iran

I. A masterful discussion of the development of modern class relations among Iraq's ethnic and religious groups is to be found in Hanna Batatu. The Old Social Classes and Revolutionary Movements of Iraq: A Study of' Iraq's Old Landed and Commercial Classes and of Its Communist, Ba'thists, and Free Officers (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton 274 Notes and References to pp. 134-45 University Press, 1978). Batatu includes an ethnic map of Iraq (p. 38) and an ethnic table, based on 1947 estimates (p. 40). 2. Those interested in the Iraqi minorities problem should consult Batatu, Old Social Classes and Edmung Ghareeb, The Kurdish Question in Iraq (Syracuse. N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1981 ). 3. Ervand Abrahamian, in his Iran between Two Re1'olutions (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982), using data for 1956, provides an elaborate table that includes figures for religious minorities: Assyrians, 20,000; Armenians, 190,000; Jews, 60,000; Zoroastrians. 16,000; and Bahai's, 192,000. Richard V. Weekes, ed., Muslim Peoples (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978), offers figures (pp. 510-11) that, while they overstate native Persian speakers and understate the Azerbaijani and Kurdish minorities, seem more realistic for the smaller tribal groups: Qashqais, 408,000; Turkomans, 31 3,000; Shahsevans, 306,000; Karkalpaks, 21 ,000; Baluchis, 1.5 million; Arabs, 614,000; Bakhtiaris, 571 ,000; Lurs, 459,000; and Basseris, 21,000. Weekes. whose book includes several useful entries on many of the Iranian and Iraqi minorities discussed in this chapter, estimates the "undetermined" Hazaras, Tajiks, Qizilbashes, and Gypsies as totalling I ,813,000 persons. 4. See Ervand Abrahamian, "Communism and Communalism in Iran: The Tudah and the Firqah Dimukrat," International Journal of' Middle East Studies 4 (October 1970): 291-316; S. Zabih, The Com• munist Movement in Iran (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966); William 0. Douglas, Strange Lands and Friendly People (New York: Harper, 1951). 5. William Irons, "Nomadism as a Political Adaptation: The Case of the Yomut Turkmen," American Ethnologist I (1974): 635--58. 6. Personal observation and investigations; several articles by P. Salzman on the Baluchis, including "Continuity and Change in Baluchi Tribal Leadership," International Journal of Middle East Studies 4 (October 1973): 428-39, and several articles by B. Spooner on the Baluchis. 7. My recent information comes mainly from personal informants and wide reading of newspapers and journals. Prerevolutionary minority group opposition, including that of the Arabs, is discussed in Fred Halliday, Iran: Dictatorship and Development (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1979), chap. 8. 8. On the Kurds in Iran, Iraq, and elsewhere, see G. Chaliand, ed., People without a Country (London: Zed Press, 1979); and M. van Bruinessen, Agha. Sheikh and State: On the Social and Political Organization ofKurdistan (Utrecht: n.p., 1978). Also see W. Eagleton, Jr., The Kurdish Republic of 1946 (London: Oxford University Press. 1963). 9. Personal information from Qashqai informants. On the Qashqais, see especially the writings of Lois Beck, including "Tribe and State in Revolutionary Iran: The Return of the Qashqai Khans," in Iranian Revolution in Perspective: Iranian Studies, ed. F. Kazemi, 13 ( 1980); "Economic Transformations among Qashqai Nomads 1962-1978," in Modern Iran: The Dialectics of Continuity and Change, eds. M. Bonine Notes and References to pp. 146-9 275 and N. Keddie (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981); "Women among Qashqai Nomadic Pastora1ists in Iran," in Women in the Muslim Worlds, eds. L. Beck and N. Keddie (Cambridge, Mass.; Harvard University Press, 1978); and Lois Beck (with N. Keddie), The Qashqai People of Iran (Los Angeles: Museum of Cultural History, UCLA, 1981). Also seeP. Oberling, The Qashqai Nomads of Fars (The Hague: Mouton, 1974) and anon., The Qashqai of Iran (Manchester: Whitworth Art Gallery, 1976). On several tribes, see R. Tapper, ed., Tribe and State in Afghanistan and Iran : 1800-1980 (in press). 10. Oral information from J. P. Digard and G. Garthwaite. On the Bakhtiaris, see the relevant articles by Garthwaite and his Khuns and Shahs: The Bakhtiari in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming 1983). Digard has written several articles in French on the Bakhtiaris and has done a book on their technology. II. On the general problems and position of ethnic minorities before and after the revolution, see N. Keddie, Roots of Revolution (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1981 ); L. Helfgott, "The Structural Foundations of the National Minority Problem in Revolutionary Iran," in Iranian Revolution in Perspective, ed. Kazemi; idem, "Tribalism as a Socioeconomic Formation in Iranian History," Iranian Studies I 0 (Winter-Spring 1977): 36-61; and R. Cottam, Nationalism in Iran, rev. ed. (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979). 12. Most Iranian towns have been traditionally divided into hostile fac• tions of religious origin, notably the Nimatis and Haidaris, who have engaged in periodic battles. In addition, followers of different muj• tahids or ayatollahs have sometimes been hostile toward one another, and this has continued until today. The lsma'ilis and the Ahl-i Haqq have both been discussed in numerous books and articles by W. lvanow, V. Minorsky, and others; the medieval Isma'ilis, or "Assassins," are studied in M. Hodgson, The Order of Assassins (The Hague: Mouton, 1955) and B. Lewis, The Assassins (New York: Basic Books, 1968). Rafiq Keshavee has recently completed his Harvard University dissertation on one group of Ismail is in contemporary Iran. 13. Besides periodical and newspaper sources, see Laurence D. Loeb, "The Religious Dimension of Modernization among the Jews of Shiraz," in Modern iran, eds. Bonine and Keddie; idem, Outcaste: Jewish Life in Southern Iran (London: Gordon & Breach, 1977); and the sources he cites. 14. John Joseph, The Nestorians and Their Muslim Neighbors: A Study of Western Influence on Their Relations (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1960); Eden Naby, "The Assyrians of Iran: Reunification of a 'Mi11at,' 1906-1914," International Journal of Middle East Studies 8 (April 1977): 237-49; I. P. Y. Ter-Yovhaneanc, "The Armenians, 1850s," in The Economic History of Iran, 1800-1914, ed. C. Jssawi (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), pp. 59-62. There is a large body of missionary and travel literature dealing with Iran's Christians. 276 Notes and References to pp. 150-7

15. Michael M. 1. Fischer, "Zoroastrian Iran between Myth and Praxis" (Ph.D dissertation, University of Chicago, 1973); Mary Boyce, A Persian Stronghold of Zoroastrianism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977); Paul Ward English, "Nationalism, Secularism and the Zoroastrians of Kirman," in Cultural Geography: Selected Readings, eds. F. Dohrs and L. Sommers (New York: Crowell, 1967). There is also a large body of missionary and travel literature on the Armenians and Assyrians. 16. See Lady Esther S. S. Drower, The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran (Leiden: Brill, 1962). 17. On the Babis and Bahais, see especially E. G. Browne, Materials .fl>r the Study of the Babi Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1918); Shoghi Effendi, trans. and ed., The Dawn Breakers: Nabil-i A'zam :~ Narrative of the Early Days of the Baha'i Revelation (New York: Bahai Publishing, 1932); N. R. Keddie, "Religion and Irreligion in Early Iranian Nationalism," in Iran: Religion, Politics and Society, ed. N. R. Keddie (London: Cass, 1980); and William M. Miller, The Baha'i Faith: Its History and Teachings (South Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 1974).

9. Shi'ism and Revolution

A preliminary version of part of this article appeared as "Is Shi'ism Revolutionary?" in Nikki R. Keddie and Eric Hooglund (eds), The Iranian Revolution and the Islamic Republic (Washington, D.C., Middle East Institute and Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 1982). Thanks to the publishers for permission to reprint. I have eliminated diacritics from the titles in notes. I. On early Shi'ism and its radical and later conservative strains see W. Montgomery Watt, Islam and the Integration of Society (London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1961), and several articles by Watt, in• cluding "The Significance of the Early Stages of lmami Shi'ism", in Nikki R. Keddie (ed.), Religion and Politics in Iran: Shi'ism from Quietism to Revolution (New Haven, Yale University Press, \983); and M. G. S. Hodgson, "How did the Early Shi'a Become Sectarian?", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 75 (1955), pp. 1-13. See also the articles of W. F. Tucker, and his "Chiliasm: A Study of the Bayaniyyah, Mughiriyya, Mansurriyah and Janahiyya Sects of the Extreme Shi'a" (Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Bloomington, Indiana University, 1971). 2. See the cited works by Watt; A. Sachedina, Islamic Messianism (Albany, SUNY Press, 1981); and Claude Cahen, "La changeante portee sociale de quelques doctrines religieuses", L' Elaboration de l'lslam (Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1961 ). See Wilferd Madelung, "A Treatise of the Sharif ai-Murtada on the Legality of Working for the Government", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 43 ( 1980), no. I, pp. 18-31. Madelung notes that Shi'i writers took various positions regarding the permissibility and Notes and References to pp. 158-9 277

desirability of working for a non-Imami government, but that the dominant view from Buyid times on was that if the officeholder could fulfil his religious obligations, working for the government was desir• able. Madelung also denies what he calls the view of some Western scholars (although I have also heard it from traditionally educated Iranians) that Imamis believe that in the absence of the Imam all gov• ernment is illegitimate. He says that according to some major Imami writers, "In the absence of the Imam ... any ruler or government acting in his name and in accordance with the Imami law acquires a deriva• tive, functional legitimacy." 3. See the varying meanings and uses of Husain story discussed in arti• cles by G. Thaiss, E. W. and R. Fernea, and H. Algar in Nikki R. Keddie (ed.), Scholars, Saints, and Sufis (Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1972), and in M. Fischer, Iran: From Religious Dispute to Revolution (Cambridge Mass., Harvard University Press, 1980). 4. Mary Hegland has analyzed her findings in "Two Images of Husain: Accomodation and Revolution in an Iranian Village", in Keddie, Religion and Politics in Iran. See the perceptive remarks about differ• ences between Shi'i and Sunni paradigms and attitudes to power in Ernest Gellner, Muslim Society, chap. I, "Flux and Reflux in the Faith of Men" (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1981). 5. On the lsma'ilis and Fatimids see the introductory chapter of M. G. S. Hodgson, The Order of the Assassins (The Hague, Mouton, 1955); Bernard Lewis, The Origins of Isma'ilism (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1940); and several articles by the late S. M. Stern, including "Isma'ilis and Qarmatians", in L'Elaboration de l'lslam. The twentieth century has seen the discovery, and some publication and translation, of hitherto unknown lsma'ili texts from various parts of the Muslim world which, along with growing scholarly scepticism toward hostile Sunni views of minority religious movements, has brought a scholarly re-evaluation of the Isma'ilis as compared to older, overwhelmingly hostile views. 6. Claude Cahen and M. A. Shaban have written about this concept. Professor M. Perlmann, in a personal communication regarding an Arabic text we read, noted that it quoted supporters of the Abbasid movement before it came to power as favouring the "Abbasid daula", meaning literally the "Abbasid revolution", in the sense of a complete turning. (Bernard Lewis has said to me, however, that the closest English rendering of this sense of daula would be "turn", in the sense of their "turn" to rule.) The early texts suggest, though, that Abbasid daula had an implication of a great change, and that the modern term "Abbasid Revolution" is not far from what was expected at the time. As the Abbasids became conservative, "Abbasid daula" came to mean "Abbasid government", and daula became a standard term for government. This linguistic change suggests the change from revolu• tion to regime of the Abbasids and other rebels discussed herein. See also Bernard Lewis, "Islamic Concepts of Revolution", in his Islam in History (New York, The Library Press, 1973). 278 Notes and References to pp. 161-4 7. See the discussion and references in Nikki R. Keddie, "The Roots of the Ulama's Power in Modem Iran", in Scholars, Saints, and Sufis; C. Huart, Textes persans relatifs a Ia secte des Houroufis (Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1909); Michel Mazzaoui, The Origins of the Safawids (Weisbaden, F. Steiner, 1972); V. Minorsky, translator and editor, Tadhkirat al-Muluk: A Manual of Safavid Administration (London, Luzac, 1943); Roger M. Savory, Iran under the Safavids (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1980); Le shi'isme imamite (Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1970); Said Amir Arjomand, "Religion, Political Action and Legitimate Domination in Shi'ite Iran: F:mrteenth to Eighteenth Centuries AD", Archives Europeenes de Sociologie, vol. 20, no. I (I 979), pp. 59-I 09; Vladimir Minorsky, 'The Poetry of Shah Isma'il 1', Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, vol. 10, no 4 (1942), pp. 1006a-53a; and Hanna Sohrweide, "Der Sieg der Safaviden in Persien und seine Ruckwirkungen auf die Schiiten Anatoliens im 16 Jahrhundert", Der Islam 41 (1965), pp. 95-223. 8. Thanks to 0. Hamed, UCLA, for showing me his detailed study, based on the primary sources, of the Qarmatians. 9. See G. H. Sadiqi, Les mouvements religieux iraniens au lie et life siecle de l'hegire (Paris, Les Presses Modernes, 1938); and A. Bausani, Persia Religiosa (Milan, Saggiatore, 1959). 10. See Hodgson, Order of the Assassins, and Bernard Lewis, The Assassins: A Radical Sect in Islam (New York, Basic Books, 1968). I I. In an important article, "Misconceptions Regarding the Juridical Status of the Iranian 'Ulama' ", International Journal of Middle East Studies, I 0 (1979), pp. 9-25, Joseph Eliash argues against scholars who believe that a significant part of the imams' authority was passed to the ulama, showing this is based on a misreading of a religious Tradition (hadith). There are also other disagreements, implicit or explicit, among schol• ars. A more sympathetic view to part or all of the ulama is expressed in numerous works by Hamid Algar and, to a more restricted but still noticeable degree, by Hamid Enayat, Modern Islamic Political Thought (Austin, University of Texas Press, 1982). Insisting on the political con• servatism of most of the ulama in most periods are Said Arjomand in various writings, Willem M. Floor, "The Revolutionary Character of the Ulama: Wishful Thinking or Reality?", Nikki R. Keddie (ed.), Religion and Politics in Iran. Others, including this author, take various intermediate positions. On one of the points at issue, whether believing Shi'is regarded existing governments as lacking legitimacy, I can attest from conversations with Sayyed Hasan Taqizadeh and other educated Shi'is in 1959-60 that they were convinced that Shi'ism denied the shahs' legitimacy. Whatever scholars may unearth on this question, the fact that such a belief was widely held is an important doctrinal datum. Eliash, 'Misconceptions', p. II, notes and documents the fact that "The opinion that Shi'i mujtahids are the deputies of the Hidden lmam ... is held by many Shi'i mujtahids". My interviews beginning in 1959 showed that many educated Shi'is, before Khomeini, held the view that Shi'ism considers temporal rulers illegitimate, however little this led past Shi'is Notes and References to pp. 165-8 279 to be revolutionaries. The recent vogue of criticizing Western scholars for accepting views not sanctioned by early Shi'i doctrine, even though such views have been widely held among educated Shi'is, ignores the fact that in Shi'ism, as in most religions, doctrine is in large degree what educated clerics say it is, whether or not they are interpreting correctly. Few scholars would try to establish current Catholic doc• trine by taking all its important points from the early Church fathers, but the lack of a papacy in Islam encourages scholars to undertake analogous procedures for Shi'ism. Eliash's useful articles tend to place the only source of legitimate Shi'i doctrine in the distant past, and other scholars, perhaps concerned to delegitimize disliked clerical posi• tions, have sometimes followed him in this procedure. Juan Cole and Andrew Newman have written about variations in view among Twelver Shi'is. See Cole's chapter in Keddie (ed.), Religion and Politics referred to in note 13 below. 12. Voyages de Monsieur le Chevalier Chardin en Perse, II (Amsterdam, 1711 ), pp. 206-208. I have not yet found, or found reference to, a Persian text that makes these claims, but this is not surprising in view of their political dangerousness. 13. G. Scarcia, "Intorno aile controversie tra ahbari e usuli presso gli imamiti di Persia", Rivista degli studi orientali, 33 (December, 1958), pp. 211-250; Hamid Algar, Religion and State in Iran 1785-I906 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1969), and "Sh'ism and Iran in the Eighteenth-Century", in T. Naff and R. Owen (eds), Studies in Eighteenth Century Islamic History (Carbondale, Southern Illinois University Press, 1977); and Juan R. Cole, "lmami Jurisprudence and the Role of the Ulama: Mortaza Ansari on Emulating the Supreme Exemplar", in Nikki R. Keddie (ed.), Religion and Politics in Iran. 14. Cole, op. cit., See also the main text by Mortaza Ansari used by Cole, Sirat an-Najat (n.p., Hajj 'Ali Akbar, 1300/1883). 15. See the texts and primary sources in Nikki R. Keddie, Religion and Rebellion in Iran (London, Frank Cass, 1966); An Islamic Response to Imperialism (Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1968) (includes translations from Persian, Arabic, and French texts); Sayyid Jamal ad-Din "al-Afghani": A Political Biography (Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1972); and "Religion and Irreligion in Early Iranian Nationalism", in Nikki R. Keddie, Iran: Religion, Politics and Society (London, Frank Cass, 1980). There is not space to discuss dissident movements within nineteenth century Shi'ism, well analyzed in Mango! Bayat, Mysticism and Dissent: Socioreligious Thought in Qajar Iran (Syracuse, Syracuse University Press, 1982). 16. Ahmad Kasravi, Tarikh-e mashruteh-ye Iran, 2nd ed. (Tehran, 1319/1941 ); Mehdi Malekzadeh, Tarikh-e enqelab-e mashrutiyyat-e Iran (Tehran, n.d.); Nazem oi-Eslam Kermani, Tarikh-e bidari-ye Iranian 2nd ed. (Tehran, n.d.); I have also used several other Persian works relating to the revolution, including those by Sayyed Hasan Taqizadeh, who also gave me many interviews on the subject in 1960, 280 Notes and References to pp. 168-70 as did many other Iranians, including Muhammad Baqir Olfat, from a major clerical family, who lent me his ms. autobiography. In English see E. G. Browne, The Persian Revolution of 1905-/909 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1910); Said A. Arjomand. "Religion and Ideology in the Constitutional Revolution", Iranian Studies, vol. 12, nos 3-4 (1979), pp. 283-291; A. K. S. Lambton, "The Persian Ulama and Constitutional Reform", Le shi'isme imamite; Azar Tabari [Afsaneh Najmabadi], "The Role of the Clergy in Modern Iranian Politics", in Religion and Politics in Iran; and Nikki R. Keddie, "Religion and Irreligion", and "The Roots of the Ulama's Power", and the sources cited in these. 17. See Robert Graham, Iran: The Illusion of Power 2nd ed. (London, Croom Helm, 1979); Fred Halliday, Iran: Dictatorship and Development (New York, Penguin, 1979); F. Kazemi, Poverty and Revolution in Iran (New York, NYU Press, 1980); H. Katouzian, The Political Economy of Modern Iran (New York, NYU Press, 1981); and Nikki R. Keddie, Roots of Revolution: An Interpretive History of Modern Iran (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1981). 18. Personal communication. Eric Hooglund. Comparing the two revolu• tions see Nikki R. Keddie, "Iran: Comparing Revolutions", American Historical Review, vol. 88, no. 3 (June, 1983), pp. 579-598. See also Nikki R. Keddie, Roots of Revolution and "Iran: Change in Islam: Islam and Change", International Journal of Middle East Studies, II ( 1980), pp. 527-542. For indigenous non-clerical opposition to the over-imitation of the West see especially Jalal Al-e Ahmad, Gharbzadegi, various Persian editions, of which the most complete is translated by John Green and A. Alizadeh (Mazda, Lexington, KY. 1982); and various Persian writings by Ali Shariati, some of which have been translated. 19. The key text by Khomeini is Hokumat-e Eslami (also called Velayat• e Faqih), of which Persian and Arabic texts were published (Najaf. 1970-71 ). Although in his first book, Kashf-e Asrar (Tehran, 1943-44), Khomeini limited himself to criticizing Reza Shah but did not reject monarchy, increasingly in his pronouncements from 1963 on he engaged in a total attack on the ruler and called for clerical rule. The first book is, unfortunately, not included in Hamid Algar, (trans. and ed.), Islam and Revolution: Writings and Declarations of Imam Khomeini (Berkeley, Mizan Press, 1981), which does, however, have many other major writings and talks. See also Gregory Rose, "Velayat-e Faqih and the Recovery of Islamic Identity in the Thought of Ayatollah Khomeini", in Keddie, Religion and Politics in Iran. 20. Shariati's fairly standard philological thesis, discussing and translating a Persian text, was found and shown to me by Yann Richard; I have also discussed Shariati with Professor Lazard. As the usual story that he had a doctorate in sociology is wrong, one may also doubt his supposed but undocumented contact with various important French intellectuals like Sartre, though he does seem to have had contact with the late Orientalist scholar Louis Massignon. Notes and References to pp. 170-200 281 21. I have this from a good first-hand witness. Shariati's writings, mainly based on lectures, have been widely published in Iran in various edi• tions; some have been translated into English, including two by Mizan Press, whose versions have been criticized for making Shariati more anti-Marxist than he was. For analyses of Shariati see the section by Yann Richard in Keddie, Roots of Revolution; Shahrough Akhavi, Religion and Politics in Contemporary Iran (Albany, SUNY Press, 1980); and S. Akhavi, "Shariati's Social Thought", in N. Keddie (ed.) Religion and Politics in Iran. [The most accurate treatment of Shariati and related topics is in H. E. Chehabi Iranian Politics and Religious Modernism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990).] 22. Ervand Abrahamian is doing further work on the Mojahetlin, and has written "The Guerilla Movement in Iran, 1963-1977", MERIP Reports, 86 (March-April, 1980), pp. 3-21. Many Mojahedin writings are available in Persian, French, and English. 23. See Keddie, "Comparing Revolutions", and "Islamic Revival as Third Worldism", J.P. Digard (ed.), Le Cuisinier et le Philosophe: Hommage a Maxime Rodinson (Paris, Masionneuve et Larose, 1982); Shahrough Akhavi, "The Ideology and Praxis of Shi'ism in the Iranian Revolution", Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 25, no. 2 (April, 1983). Other important books on the revolution and its background include E. Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1982); G. Chaliand (ed. ), People Without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan (London, Zed Press, 1980); Richard W. Cottam, Nationalism in Iran: Updated through 1978 (Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979); Farah Azari (ed.), Women of Iran: The Conflict with Fundamentalist Islam (London, Ithaca Press, 1983); Guity Nashat (ed.), Women and Revolution in Iran (Boulder Colo., Westview Press, 1983); A. Tabari and N. Yeganeh, In the Shadow of Islam: The Women's Movement in Iran (London, Zed Press, 1982); Michael E. Bonine and Nikki R. Keddie (eds). Modern Iran: The Dialectics of Continuity and Change (Albany, SUNY Press, 1981); James Bill, The Politics of Iran: Groups, Classes and Modernization (Columbus, Ohio, Merrill, 1972); Barry Rubin, Paved with Good Intentions: The American Experience and Iran (New York, Oxford University Press, 1980); Marvin Zonis, The Political Elite of Iran (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1971 ); R. K. Ramazani, The United States and Iran (New York, Praeger, 1982); and Keddie and Hooglund (eds), The Iranian Revolution.

11. Ideology, Society and the State in Post-Colonial Muslim Societies

I. Claude Cahen, "La changeante portee sociale de quelques doctrines religieuses," L 'Elaboration de !'Islam (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1961 ). 2. Gilles Kepel, Le Prophete et Pharaon: Les mouvements Islamistes dans I' Egypte moderne (Paris: La Decouverte, 1984). English editions (under the title The Prophet and the Pharoah) have been published by 282 Notes and References to pp. 201-22 ai-Saqi Books, London, and University of California Press, Berkeley (1985). 3. Nikki R. Keddie "The Islamist Movement in Tunisia", The Maghreb Review, (special issue honoring Albert Hourani), and the sources and interviews therein. The MIT internal document and useful articles are in Sou 'a/ (Paris). V (April 1985) issue "Islamisme aujourd'hui". 4. See especially Peter B. Clarke and Ian Linden Islam in Modern Nigeria (Mainz: Grunewald, II, I (1986), 26-39 (1984)). 5. See the Introduction and relevant chapters of Juan R. I. Cole and Nikki R. Keddie (eds.) Shi'ism and Social Protest (New Haven: Yale Ur.iversity Press, 1986).

13. Islam, Politics, and Revolt: Some Unorthodox Considerations

I. Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 2-3. 2. In medieval times neither ''lay" nor "secular" implied separation from the sphere we would call religious; as seen by the widespread use of these terms for lay brothers and sisters in monasteries and convents, and for the secular clergy, meaning those outside the monasteries or regular orders. 3. See Nizam al-Mulk, The Book of Government or Rules for Kings (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 2nd ed., 1978), 190-238 on heretical movements and revolts, and R. Stephen Humphreys, Islamic History: A Framework for Inquiry (Princeton: Princeton University Press, Rev. Ed. 1991) chap. 6. 4. Ira M. Lapidus, "The Separation of State and Religion in the Development of Early Islamic Society, IJMES, 6(4) (1975), 363-385, p. 364. 5. Emmanuel Sivan, Radical Islam: Medieval Theology and Modern Politics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), p. 175, citing two articles by M. Arkoun. More comprehensive is Sami Zubaida, Islam, The People and the State (London: Routledge, 1989), 41-42: "Islamic empires, at least since the time of the Umayyads, have maintained a de facto distinction between the state and society, and religion ... except for brief periods, was neither dominant over nor coincident with either state or society ... In the constitution of the state Islam was confined to particular institutions, almost exclusively the legal in• stitutions. The law, however, was in practice only partially based on religious sources, and it only applied to limited spheres of mostly private and civil statuses and transactions. The ruler and his servants were bound by the law only in theory and in the most general ethical terms ... The primary source of legislation was be decrees of the ruler ... Some taxes are specified in shari' a but most of the forms of tax• ation were in addition to those stipulated; some rulers even taxed the sale of alcoholic drinks ... ln the sphere of the state, therefore, religion occupied a distinct but limited and subordinate position." See also Nazih N. Ayubi, Political Islam: Religion and Politics in the Arab Notes and References to pp. 223-5 283 World (London: Routledge, 1991). Despite the consensus of several excellent scholars, the old shibboleths remain dominant. 6. Sami Zubaida, Islam, 42. 7. On sectarian activist movements from early times through the Assassins, see Abu Muhammad Hasan ai-Naubakhti, Firaq al-Shi'a (Istanbul: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1931); Abu al-Fath Muhammad al• Shahrastani, Kitab al-Milal wa al-Nihal (Cairo, 1967); Alessandro Bausani, Persia Religiosa (Milan: Saggiatore, 1959); Le Shi'isme imamite: Colloque de Strasbourg (Paris: Presses Universitaires, 1970); I. Friedlander, "The Heterodoxies of the Shi'ites in the Presentation of Ibn Hazm," Journal of the American Oriental Society, 2S (1907): 1-80; 29 (1908): 1-183 [translation of a primary book]; A. S. Halkin, Moslem Schisms and Sects: Trans of Ibn Tahir, Farq bayn al-Firaq, pt. 2 (Tel Aviv, 1935); Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Order of the Assassins (The Hague: Mouton, 1955); Vladimir Ivanow, "Early Shi'ite Movements," Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 17 (1941): 1-23; Henri Laoust, Les schismes dans /'Islam (Paris: Payot, 1965); Bernard Lewis, The Assassins: A Radical Sect in Islam (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1967); M. J. Mashkur, "An-Nawbakhti: Les sectes shi'ites," Revue de l'Histoire des Religions, 153 (1958): 68-78, 176-214; 154 (1958): 67-95, 146-172; 155 ( 1959): 63-78; Vladimir Minorsky, "Iran: Opposition, Martyrdom and Revolt," Unity and Variety in Muslim Civilization, ed. G. E. von Grunebaum (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955); Yann Richard, Le Shi'isme en Iran (Paris: J. Maisonneuve, 1980), G. H. Sadighi, Les mouvements religieux iraniens au lie et au 1//e siecle de l'hegire (Paris: Les Presses Modernes, 1938). 8. I had personal experience of this in 1986 interviews with Isma'ilis in Pakistan, especially in the northern territories in and around Gilgit, close to the high Central Asian area where V. Ivanow and other Russian scholars found unique Isma'ili documents. One Isma'ili elder, named to me as one who knew doctrine better than anyone, began to tell me of the complex levels of esoterism in Isma'ili belief, but when I asked what he could tell me of the central content of their doctrine, he said that the doctrine was to believe and do whatever the Aga Khan said. 9. Sivan, Radical/slam, 99, "the 'right to revolt' goes without saying for the Shi'ites ... " 10. W. Montgomery Watt, The Formative Period of Islamic Thought (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1973); idem, "The Significance of the Early Stages of Imami Shi'ism," in Religion and Politics in Iran, ed. Nikki R. Keddie, 21-32; and Nikki R. Keddie and Juan R. I. Cole, "Introduction" to Shi'ism and Social Protested. Juan R. I. Cole and Nikki R. Keddie (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986). II. There has been considerable scholarly debate over the degree to which Iranian Shi'ism and its ulama came to justify revolt, and how much such justification was based on original Shi'i doctrine. A view based on early doctrine is found in Joseph Eliash, "Misconceptions 284 Notes and References to pp. 226-7 Regarding the Juridical Status of the Iranian 'Ulama," IJMES, 10 ( 1979): 9-25; also skeptical is Said Amir Arjomand, The Shadow ~~~ God and the Hidden Imam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964). A strong statement of the opposite view is in Hamid Algar. Religion and State in Iran 1785-1906: The Role of the Ulama in the Qajar Period (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969); and in• termediate positions are found in the works of Ann K. S. Lambton. especially, "The Persian Ulama and Constitutional Reform," in Lc Shi'ism imamite, and in works by Nikki R. Keddie, especially "Religion and Irreligion in Early Iranian Nationalism," in Nikki R. Keddie, ed., Iran: Religion. Politics and Society (London: Frank Cass. 1980), and in the coauthored introduction to J. R. I. Cole and N. R. Keddie, Shi'ism and Social Protest (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984). 12. See especially A. T. Hatto, "The Semantics of 'Revolution'," and Bernard Lewis, "Islamic Concepts of Revolution," in Revolution in the Middle East, ed. P. J. Vatikiotis (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1972). See also "Fitna," by L. Gardet, EJ2. A sidelight implied by these works is that the use of "fitna" as a synonym for "women" almost surely did not arise from women's being a cause of disorder (although later Muslims might associate the two) but rather from the earlier meaning of "fitna," as "the idea of a temptation permitted or sent by God to test the believer's faith, which ... would have the ap• pearance of an invitation to abandon the faith. (EJ2)" Hence the origi• nal prejudice expressed was not woman as disorder but woman as a temptation to leave the straight path, though the two may be related. 13. In recent times the jihad approach has looked especially to the me• dieval thinker Ibn Taimiyya in his attack on the (converted) Muslim Mongol rulers of I ran as unbelievers against whom jihad was licit. It has been noted that Ibn Taimiyya, unlike the Jihadists who cite him, never hinted at jihad against his own far-from-pious rulers. 14. Conversation with, and first dissertation chapter by, M. Ehsan, PhD., University of Oregon. See also Mary Hegland, "Two Images of Husain," Religion and Politics in Iran, ed. Nikki R. Keddie (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983). Husain's martyrdom and mourn• ing for it was used as an occasion to call for his intervention with God, not to call for revolt - very much like Christ's martyrdom in Christianity, minus the equation of Christ with God. 15. Christine Dobbin, Islamic Revivalism in a Changing Peasant Economy: Central Sumatra. 1784-1847 (London: 1983). West African jihadists appealed to the fifteenth century Maghrebi writer al-Maghili who said that rulers who used unjust and unislamic taxes were unbelievers and merited Holy War. A similar position was taken by Osman Dan Fodio and other jihad leaders. In the extensive literature on these movements see especially Peter B. Clarke, West Africa and Islam (London: Edward Arnold, 1982), and David Robinson, The Holy War of Umar Tal (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985). 16. A more complete discussion of these movements with further biblio• graphy is in chapter 3. Notes and References to pp. 227-31 285 17. Peter J. Holt, The Mahdist State in the Sudan 1881-1898 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1958). 18. Discussions of the origins, development, and functions of veiling, based on a variety of sources, are found in Nikki R. Keddie, "Introduction: Deciphering Middle Eastern Women's History," Nikki R. Keddie and Beth Baron, eds., Women in Middle Eastern History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991); and Nikki Keddie and Lois Beck, "Introduction," Women in the Muslim World (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978). 19. Some of the primary and secondary literature on the Babis is listed in Keddie "Religion and Irreligion." More recent books include Peter Smith, The Babi and Baha'i Religions: From Messianic Shi'ism to a World Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 198, and Abbas Amanat, Resurrection and Renewal: The Making of the Babi Movement in Iran 1844-1850 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989). 20. Recent works by Nikki R. Keddie with more extensive analysis of Islamic revolts since 1700 include "The Revolt of Islam and Its Roots," in Comparative Political Dynamics: Global Research Perspectives, ed. Dankwart A. Rustow and Kenneth Paul Erickson (New York: Harper Collins, 1991); "Ideology, Society and the State in Post-Colonial Muslim Societies," in this volume; "Can Revolutions Be Predicted; Can their Causes be Understood?," Contention: Debates in Society, Culture, and Science, I (2) (1992) reprinted as chapter 2 in this volume. 21. See chapter 3. 22. The literature on contemporary Jslamism is vast; some useful work not yet mentioned are: the chapters on Islam in Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms Observed, Fundamentalisms and Society, and Fundamentalisms and the State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991-1993); Gilles Kepel, Muslim Extremism in Egypt: The Prophet and the Pharoah, trans. Jon Rothschild (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985); John 0. Voll, Islam: Continuity and Change in the Modern World (Boulder: Westview, 1982); Abdul A'la Mawdudi, The Process of Islamic Revolution; Hasan al-Banna, Five Tracts of Hassan ai-Banna, trans. Charles Wendell (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1978); Sayyed Qutb, Islam and Universal Peace (Indianapolis: American Trust Publications, 1977); John L. Esposito, ed., Voices of Resurgent Islam; Richard T. Antoun and Mary Elaine Hegland, eds, Religious Resurgence: Contemporary Cases in Islam, Christianity, and Judaism; Johannes J. G. Jansen, The Neglected Duty (London: Macmillan, 1986); Hamid Enayat, Modern Islamic Political Thought (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982); Shireen T. Hunter, ed., The Politics of Islamic Revivalism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988); Roy Mottahedeh, The Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in Iran (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985); James P. Piscatori, Islam in a World of Nation-States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Ruhollah Khomeini, Hokumat-e Is/ami ya Velayat-e faqih (Najaf: Chap-e Adab, 139011970); idem, Islam and Revolution: Writings and 286 Notes and References to pp. 234-47 Declarations of Imam Khomeyni, trans and ed. Hamid Algar (Berkeley: Mizan Press, 1981; Ervand Abrahamian, Khomeinism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).

14. The French Revolution and the Middle East

l. See the disagreement with Bernard Lewis of Serif Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962), 169ff.; N iyazi Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey (Montreal: McGill University Press, 1964), 83~85; and Ibrahim Abu Lughod, Arab Rediscol'er)' of Europe (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963), 134, n. 28. 2. As cited in Bernard Lewis, "The Impact of the French Revolution on Turkey," Journal of World History I (July 1953): 105~25. 3. See Niyazi Berkes, Secularism, chapters 3~4; Benard Lewis The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London: Oxford University Press, 1961), chapters 3-4; Stanford J. Shaw, Between Old and New: The Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim Ill, 1789~1807 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,l971). 4. The vast bibliography on Muhammad Ali and this period may be ap• proached by reference to the most recent Western-language work on him, Afaf Luttl al-Sayyid Marsot, Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984). 5. A brief coverage of nineteenth-century developments, along with biblio• graphical references, is found in Nikki R. Keddie, Roots o( Revolution: An Interpretive History of Modern Iran (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981 ). 6. Lewis, "Impact." Sec Serif Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought, 169-70n I; N iyazi Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey, 83; and Ibrahim Abu Lughod, Arab Rediscovery of Europe, chapter 6. All of these books have useful material on the later influence of the French Revolution. 7. Ibid., 121-22. 8. See Nikki R. Keddie, An Islamic Response to Imperialism: Political and Religious Writings of Sayyid Jamal ad-Din "at-Afghani" (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1968), chapter 2. 9. Serif Mardin, Genesis chapter I 0, and the relevant reference in Berkes, Development. I 0. Keddie, Islamic Response, chapter 2 and part II. II. On Iranian internal traditions see Mango! Bayat, Mysticism and Dissent: Socio-religious Thought in Qajar Iran (Syracuse: Syracuce University Press, 1982); a very critical view of Malkom Khan is found in Hamid Algar, Mirza Malkum Khan: A Study in the History of Iranian Modernism (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1973). 12. Juan Ricardo Cole, "Feminism, Class, and Islam in Turn• of-the-Century Egypt," International Journal of Middle East Studies 13 (November 1981): 387-407; Keddie, "Western Rule vs Notes and References to pp. 247-8 287 Western Values: Suggestion of Comparative Study of Asian Intellectual History," Diogenes 26 (1959): 71-96. 13. The newest work on the period is Juan R. I. Cole, Colonialism and Social and Cultural Origins of Egypt's 'Urabi Movement (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993). 14. After this chapter was originally written, I attended a session of the American Historical Association in December 1989, San Francisco, on "The French Revolution in Middle Eastern Revolutionary Conciousness." I thank three participants for sending me their fine and useful papers: Palmira Brummett, "The French Revolution: Language and Press in Ottoman Istanbul 1908-1911"; Rashid Khalidi, "The French Revolution as Model and Exemplar: The Arabic Press after the 1908 Ottoman Revolution"; and Muhammad Tavakoli-Targhi, "Constitutionalist Imagery in Iran and the Ideals of the French Revolution." Bibliography of Works by Nikki R. Keddie

Founding Editor, Contention: Debates in Society, Culture, and Science. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991-present.

BOOKS

Religion and Rebellion in Iran: The Tobacco Protest of 1891-1892. London: Frank Cass, 1966. Persian translation, Tehran: Amir Kabir, 1976. An Islamic Response to Imperialism: Political and Religious Writings of Sayyid Jamal ad-Din "at-Afghani". Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968. Numerous partial reprints. Paperback with new introduction, "From Afghani to Khomeini," 1983. Sayyid Jamal ad-Din "at-Afghani": A Political Biography. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972. Editor, Scholars, Saints and Sufis. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972 (Paperback, 1978.) Editor with Lois Beck, Women in the Muslim World. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1978. (Paperback, 1980.) Iran: Religion, Politics and Society. London: Frank Cass, 1980. Published and un• published articles, with a new introduction. (Hardcover and paperback.) Roots of Revolution: An Interpretive History of Modern Iran. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981. Persian translation, Tehran, 1991. Editor with Michael E. Bonine, Modern Iran: The Dialectics of Continuity and Change. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981. (Hardcover and paperback.) Introduction and new article by Nikki Keddie. Editor with Eric Hoogland, The Iranian Revolution and the Islamic Republic: Conference Proceedings. Middle East Institute, Washington, D.C., 1982. Introduction and new article by N. Keddie. The Iranian Revolution and the Islamic Republic. Completely revised and updated edition of above. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1986. Two new articles, all articles rewritten, updated and re-edited, including introduction. Simultaneous paperback. Editor, Religion and Politics in Iran: Shi'ism from Quietism to Revolution. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983. (Paperback, 1985.) Co-editor with Juan R. I. Cole, Shi'ism and Social Protest. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986. Co-authored introduction and chapter, "Sexuality and Shi'i Social Protest in Iran." (Hardcover and paperback.) Co-editor with Rudi Mathee, Iranian Studies in Europe and Japan. Special triple issue of Iranian Studies, XX, nos 2-4, 1988.

288 Bibliography 289 Co-editor with Mark Gasiorowski, Neither East nor West: Iran, the Soviet Union, and the United States. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990. (Hardcover and paperback.) Co-editor with Beth Baron, Women in Middle Eastern History: Shifting Boundaries in Sex and Gender. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992. (Paperback, 1993.) Editor, Debating Revolutions. New York: New York University Press, 1995. Editor, Debates on Gender and Sexuality. New York: New York University Press, 1995. Iran and the Middle East: Resistance and Revolution. London: Macmillan, 1995.

ARTICLES AND BOOK CHAPTERS

"Labor," in The Economy of India; "Labor," in The Economy of Pakistan; "Labor," in The Economy of Nepal; "Labor Force," in A Survey of Nepal Social Life; "Agrarian Reform," in The Economy of Pakistan; Human Relations Area Files, new Haven, 1956. "Labor Problems of Pakistan." Journal of Asian Studies (May 1957): 575-589. "Western Rule Versus Western Values: Suggestions for a Comparative Study of Asian Intellectual History." Diogenes 26 (1959): 71-96. Also published in French and Arabic versions of Diogenes. Sayyed Hasan Taqizadeh, "The Background of the Constitutional Movement in Azerbaijan." Translated with notes by Nikki Keddie. Middle East Journal XIV, no. 4 ( 1960): 456-465. Reprinted in Iran. Historical Obstacles to Agrarian Change in Iran. Claremont, California, 1960. Parts reprinted in C. lssawi, Economic History of Iran. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971. "Religion and Irreligion in Early Iranian Nationalism." Comparative Studies in Society and History IV, no. 3 (April 1962): 265-295 "Symbol and Sincerity in Islam." Studia lslamica XIX (1963): 27-63. With A. H. Zarrinkoub. "Fida'iyyan-i Islam." In Encyclopedia of Islam, 1964. "Afghani in Afghanistan." Middle Eastern Studies I, no. 4 (1965): 322-349. "The Origins of the Religious-Radical Alliance in Iran." Past and Present 34 (July 1966): 70-80. "The Pan-Islamic Appeal: Afghani and Abdulhamid II." Middle Eastern Studies II (October 1966); 46-67. "Sayyid Jamal ad-Din's First 27 years: The Darkest period." Middle East Journal XX, no. 4 (autumn 1966): 517-533. "British Policy and the Iranian Opposition, 1901-1907." Journal of Modern History XXXIX, no. 3(1967): 266-282. "Islamic Philosophy and Islamic Modernism." Iran: Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies VI (1968): 53-56. "The Iranian Village before and after Land Reform." Journal of Contemporary History Ill, 3 ( 1968): 69-91. Reprinted in Development and Underdevelopment, edited by H. Bernstein. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1974. "La rivoluzione constituzionale iraniana del 1905-191 !." Rivista Storica ltaliana LXX. I (1968): 61-70. English version in "The Iranian Constitutional 290 Bibliography Revolution of 1905-191 I: A Brief Assessment." Iran Society: Silver Jubilee Volume. Calcutta, 1970. "Iranian Politics 1900-1905: Background to Revolution." Middle Eastern Studies, 5, no. 1: 3-31; no. 2: 151-167; no. 3: 234-250 (1969). "Pan-Islam as Proto-Nationalism." Journal of Modern History 41 (March 1969): 17-28. "The Roots of the Ulama's Power in Modern Iran." Studia Islamica, XXIX (1969): 31-53. Reprinted in Scholars, Saints, and Sufis. "Sayyid Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani: A Case of Posthumous Charisma?" In Philosophers and Kings edited by D. Rustow, 148-179. New York: Braziller, 1970. "Iran." in Der Islam Vol. II, edited by G. E. von Grunebaum, 160--217. Frankfurt: Fisher Weltgeschichte, 197 I. Also available in Italian and Spanish translations. "The Assassination of the Amin as-Sultan (Atabak-i A'zam)." In Iran and Islam edited by C. E. Bosworth, 315-329. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1971. "The Iranian Power Structure and Social Change 1800-1969: An Overview." International Journal of Middle East Studies IV (1973): 3-20. "The Persian Land Reform 1962-1966 by A. K. S. Lambton." Middle Eastern Studies VII, no. 3 (1971): 373-378. "Capitalism, Social Control, and Stratification in Iranian Villages before and after Land Reform." In Rural Politics and Social Change in the Middle East edited by R. Antoun and I. Harik, 364--431. Bloomington, Indiana: University of Indiana Press, 1972. 'The Economic History of Iran 1800-1914 and its Political Impact." Iranian Studies VI, nos 2-3 (1972): 58-78. "Intellectuals in the Middle East: A Brief Historical Consideration." Daedalus (summer 1972): 39-57. "An Assessment of American, British, and French Works since 1940 on Modern Iranian History." Iranian Studies VI, nos 2-3 (1972): 255-271. "Is There a Middle East?" International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies IV ( 1973): 255-271. Four articles, with my photographs: "New Life for Old Monuments." "Preserving Persepolis." "The Masjed-e Jom'eh of Isfahan." "Delving under Old Paint." Kayhan International Tehran, 26--27 February; 4-5 March 1974. Four articles, with my photographs: "Carpets as Handicrafts." "Making Carpets at Home." "The Crafts Renaissance." "The Handicrafts Future." Kayhan International, Tehran, 20 May; 22 May; 23 May; 28 May 1974. "History and Economic Development." In The Social Sciences and Economic Development edited by K. Farmanfarmanian, 40-57. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976. With J. Dhamija. "Namads." A Survey of Persian Handicraft, edited by J. and S. Gluck, 277-288. Tehran: Bank Melli, 1977. "Culture Traits, Fantasy, and Reality in the Life of Sayyid Jamal ad-Din al• Afghani." Iranian Studies IX, nos 2-3 (1976): 89-120. "Development in the Middle East- A Comparison between Turkey, Iran and Egypt." Communications and Development Tehran, I, nos 2-3, 1977. "Islam et Politique en Iran." Le Monde Diplomatique. Paris, August 1977. Bibliography 291 "The Midas Touch: Black Gold, Economics, and Politics in Iran Today." Iranian Studies X, no. 4 ( 1977-de facto 1979): 243-266. German translation in Revolution in Iran und Afghanistan. Frankfurt: Syndikat, 1980. "Iran, 1797-1941." In Commoners, Climbers, and Notables, edited by C. A. 0. van Nieuwenhujze, 122-139. Leiden: Brill, 1977. "Class Structure and Political Power in Iran since 1796." In State and Society in Iran, edited by A. Banani, 305-330. Iranian Studies, Boston, 1979. "Problems in the Study of Middle Eastern Women." International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies X, no. 2 (1979): 225-240. "Oil, Economic Policy, and Social Conflict in Iran." Race and Class XXI, (1979): 13-29. "Iran: The Roots of Revolution." Gazelle Review 6 ( 1979): 26-33. "Iran: Is 'Modernization' the Message?" Middle East Review XI, no. 3 (1979): 55-56. "Islam and Politics: New Factors in the Equation." Los Angeles Times, Opinion lead, Dec. 2, 1979 (2 pages, 7 pages typescript). "Khomeini's Fundamentalism is as Revolutionary as His politics," Los Angeles Times, Opinion first page, Jan. 13, 1980 (2 pages, 7 pages typescript). (The newspaper articles' titles are not mine.) "Socioeconomic Change in the Middle East since 1800: A Comparative Analysis." In The Islamic Middle East, 700-1900, edited by A. L. Udovitch. Princeton: Darwin Press, 1981. "The History of the Muslim Middle East." In The Past Before Us: Contemporary Historical Writing in the United States, edited for the American Historical Association by Michael Kammen. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1980. "Pre-Capitalist Structures in the Middle East." Journal of Arab Affairs I, no. 2 (April 1982): 189-208. French version, "Structures precapitalistes dans le Moyen-Orient." In Structures et cultures precapitalistes, edited by Rene Gallissot. Paris, 1981. "Iran: Change in Islam; Islam and Change." International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies II (1980): 527-542. German translation in Religion and Politik im Iran, edited by K. Greussing. Frankfurt, 1981. "Iran: Islam and Revolution." In Iran in der Krise. Bonn: under the auspices of the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung 1980. "L'ayatollah est-il un integriste?" Le Monde 22 August 1980. "Understanding the Iranian Revolution." The Center Magazine (May-June 1980): 38-46. "The Iranian Revolution and U.S. Policy." SAJS Review (winter 1981-82): 13-26. With Lois Beck, The Qashqa'i People of Iran. Los Angeles: UCLA Museum of Cultural History, 1981. Includes color and black and white photographs by Nikki Keddie. "Revolution of Terror." Los Angeles Times 17 January 1982. Reprinted in the International Herald Tribune and the London Guardian. "Money and Ethics in Middle East Studies." Middle East Studies Association Bulletin XVI, I (July 1982): 1-8. "Comments on Skocpol." Theory and Society II (1982): 285-292. [Commenting on Theda Skocpol, "Rentier State and Shi'a Islam in the Iranian Revolution," pages 265-283 of same issue, at request of editors.] 292 Bibliography Co-signed with others, Obituaries of G. E. von Grunebaum in the American Historical Review 1962. And University of California In Memorium. "Khomeini's Opponents See Success for Their Crusade." Los Angeles Times 4 October 1981. "Will Iran's Bloody Factional Fighting Escalate Into Civil War?'' Los Angeles Times 5 July 1981. "Iran: Religious Orthodoxy and Heresy in Political Culture." In Religion and Society: Asia and the Middle East, edited by C. Caldarola. The Hague, 1982. "Islamic Revival as Third Worldism." In Le Cuisinier et le Philosophe: Hommage a Maxime Rodinson, edited by J.-P. Digard, 275-281. Paris: Masonneuve et Larose, 1982. "The Minorities Question in Iran." The /ran-Iraq War: Old Weapons, New Conflicts, edited by Shaheen Ayubi and Shirin Tahir-Kheli, 85-108. New York: Praeger, 1983. "Iran's Revolutionaries Flirt with Moderation." Los Angeles Times 13 February 1983. "Iranian Revolutions in Comparative Perspective." American Historical Review 88, no. 3 (June 1983): 579-598. "Afgani, Jamal-alDin." In Encyclopedia Iranica, edited by E. Yarshater, 481--486. "Must the Cold War Keep Growing Colder?" Los Angeles Times, 27 December 1983. "Material Culture and Geography: Toward a Holistic History of the Middle East." Comparative Studies in Society and History 26 (October 1984): 709-735. Reprinted and revised in Comparing Muslim Societies, edited by Juan R. I. Cole. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992. "Islamic Revival in the Middle East: A Comparison of Iran and Egypt." In Arab Society. edited by Samih K. Farsoun, 65-83. London: Croom Helm, 1985. "Islamic Revival in Comparative Perspective." In Iran Since Revolution, edited by Barry Rosen. New York: Columbia University Press, 1985. "Khomeini's Rule." London Review of Books 7, 4, 7, (March 1985): 7-8. "The Islamic Opposition." The Middle East (August 1985): 42--43. "West Sumatra's Minangkabau." The World and I no. 7 (1986): 148-157. "Senegal: The Islam of Sufi Orders." The World and I no. 8 (1986): 182-187. "The Qashqa'i of Southern Iran." The World and I no. II (1986): 474--497. "Ideologic et institutions dans les societes musulmanes post-coloniales." Politique etrangere 51, no. 2 (summer 1986): 447--464. "Religion, Ethnic Minorities, and the State in Iran." In The State, Religion, and Ethnic Politics: Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan, edited by Ali Banuazizi and Myron Weiner, 157-166. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1986. "Shi'ism and Revolution." In Religion, Rebellion, Revolution, edited by Bruce Lincoln, 157-182. London: Macmillan, 1985. "Islam and Society in Minangkabau and in the Middle East: Comparative Reflections." Sojourn 2, no. l ( 1987): 1-23. "The lslamist Movement in Tunisia." The Maghreb Review II, no. I (January-February 1986): 26-39. "Ideology, Society and the State in Post-Colonial Muslim Societies." In State and Ideology in the Middle East and Pakistan, edited by Fred Halliday and Hamza Alavi, 9-30. London: Macmillan, 1988. Bibliography 293

"Iranian Imbroglios: Who's Irrational?" World Policy Journal! (winter 1987-88): 29-54. "The Rights of Women in Contemporary Islam." In Human Rights and the World's Religions, edited by Leroy S. Rouner, 76-93. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1988. "The Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen): History and Society." In Sojourners and Settlers: The Yemeni Immigrant Experience, edited by Jonathan Friedlander. Salt Lake City, Utah: University of Utah Press, 1988. With several photographs by the author from the related exhibition at the Smithsonian Institution and seven other museums. "The Iranian Revolution in Comparative Perspective." In Islam, Politics and Social Movements, edited by Ira Lapidus and Edmund Burke III. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. "The Past and Present of Women in the Muslim World." Journal ofWorld History I, no. I (I 990): 77-I 08. With M. Amanat, "Iranian Politics 1852-1922." In Cambridge History of Iran, vol. VII, edited by Peter Avery and Gavin Hambly. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991. "The Revolt of Islam and its Roots." In Political Dynamics: Global Research Perceptives, edited by Dankwart Rustow and K. Erickson. New York: Harper, 1991. "Reflections on the Influence of the Iranian Revolution." In Iran, the Middle East, and the Decade of the 1990s, 33-37. New Jersey: Montclair State College, Upper Montclair, 1991. "Obstacles to Early Industrialization in the Middle East." In Between Development and Underdevelopment, edited by Jean Batou, 143-156. Geneva: Librairie Droz, 1991. "Can Revolutions be Predicted: Can Their Causes be Understood?" CONTENTION I, no. 2 (1992): 159-182. Two responses by author on this subject published in issues I, no. 3 (I 992) and II, no. 2 (1993). "Why Has Iran Been Revolutionary?" In Reconstruction and Regional Diplomacy in the Persian Gulf, edited by H. Amirahmadi and N. Entessar, 19-32. London and New York: Routledge, 1992. "The End of the Cold War and the Middle East." Diplomatic History 16, no. I (winter 1992): 95-103. Reprinted in The End of the Cold War: Its Meaning and Implications, edited by Michael J. Hogan. New York: Cambridge University press, I 992. With Farah Monian, "Militancy and Religion in Contemporary Iran." In Fundamentalisms and the State, edited by Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. "The Fall of the Soviet Union and the Start of the New Middle East." Working Papers no. 22. Los Angeles: Von Grunebaum Center for Near Eastern Studies, UCLA, 1992. "The Shi'a of Pakistan: Reflections and Problems for Further Research." Working Papers no. 23. Los Angeles: Yon Grunebaum Center for Near Eastern Studies, UCLA, 1993. "The French Revolution and the Middle East." In The Global Ramifications of the French Revolution, edited Joseph Klatis and Michael Haltzel. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, I 994. 294 Bibliography

''The Revolt of Islam 1700-1993: Comparative Considerations and Relations to Imperialism." Comparative Studies in Society and History 36, no. 3 (I 994). Several encyclopedia articles, in Colliers Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia /ranica and Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. Many book reviews in Times Literary Supplement, New York Times, London Review of Books, Los Angeles Times, the American Historical Review, Middle Eastern Studies, Iranian Studies, The Journal of Economic History, Political Science Quarterly, Current History, Journal of Asian Studies, Far Eastern Quarterly, Journal of the American Oriental Society (review article from a con• ference paper, "The Contributions of Vladimir Gordlevsky to the History of the Seljuk Turks"), The Historian, MERIP Reports, etc. Index

Abbas, Safavid Shah, 149 Arjomand, Said, 26, 27 Abbas Mirza, 97, 237, 238 Arkoun, Muhammad, 35, 221, 222 Abbasid caliphate, 52, 157-60, I 62-4, Armenians, 8, 148-9 221 Asad, Hafiz al-, of Syria, 120 Abbasid Revolution, I 59 Assassins, 21, 36, 156-7, 161-4, 169, 'Abd ai-Wahhab, Muhammad Ibn, 42 172, 175, 225 Abdel Qadir. 4, 38, 41, 53-5, 228, 229 Ataturk, 3, 29, 117, 121, 142, 181\, 191, 'Abduh, Muhammad, 192 192-4, 196, 254 Abdulhamid II, Sultan, 247, 248 Atkin, Muriel, 122 Abrahamian, Ervand, 79, 134-5, 255 A vicenna, 243 Afghanistan/Afghans, 97, 100, 139, 166, ayatollahs, 166 177 Ayubi, Nazih, I, 35, 221 Africa, see West African movements Azadistan, 137 Aga Khan, 36, 147, 157, 208, 225 Azalis, 229 Ahl-i Haqq, 128, 143, 147, 252 Azerbaijan/Azerbaijanis, 6, 8, 78, 80, 82, akhhari, 97. 165, 176 96, 103, 122, 131-9, 146, 148-9, Akhundzadeh, I 88 161, 237 Alam, Asadollah, 30 Alawis, 120, 154, 206, 252 Bab, 75, 151 Alevis. 121-2, 154, I 88 Babi movement, 23, 57, 73, 75, 151, Alexander I, of Russia, 237 167,178,229, 244,248,251 Algar. Hamid, 14 Baghdad, 133, 148, 157, 158 Algeria, 3, 123, 125, 170. 229, 231, 255 Baha'is, 8, 133, 150-2, 167, 171, 178, Algerian Revolution, 253 229, 244, 251 Algiers. Treaty of, 143 Baha'ullah, 151 Ali. 9. 21, 128. 154-5, 158-9, 169, 180-2, Bahrain, 161, 162, 165 184, 209 Bakhtiar, Shahpour, 104, 146 Ali al-Rida. 160 Bakhtiar, Soraya, 146 Ali llahis, 128, 147. 252 Bakhtiar, Taimur, 146 alim. 64 Bakhtiaris, 7-8, 78, 85, 102, 130-1, I 35. Althusser. Louis, 18 145-6 Amal movement, 120, 188 Baku, 122 Amin, Samir. 215 Baluchis, 8, 82, 132, 134-6, 139-40, 152 Amin ai-Soltan. 78 Bangladesh, 251 Amin al-Zarb, 89 Bani Sadr, 23, 69, 104, 110, 170,218 Amnesty International, 103 Baqir ai-Sadr, Muhammad, 126 Amuzegar, Jamshid, 103 Barry, B., 48 Anatolia, 161, 177-8, 188 Barzani tribe, 143 Ansari, Murtaza, 97 hast, 101 anti-imperialism, 55, 56-9, 216 Ba'th party, 133, 154, 188 anti-Islamism, 205 bazaar, 27-8, 66-7, 70, 72, 104, 107, Arab-Israeli War, 58, 151 116-17, 168 Arabian Wahhabis, 38-43, 53-4, 227-9 multi-urbanism and, 73-5, 83-94 Arabs, 82-3, 85, I 23-4, I 52, 222 ulama alliance, 6, 23-4, 73-4, 83-4, Iranian Arab minoirities, 8, 132-6 88,90-4,98-9, 101, 179-80 passim Bazargan, Mehdi, 104, 109, 119 of Khuzistan, 140-2 Begin, 172 Ardebil, 161 Belyaev, Igor, 122

295 296 Index

Ben Bella, Ahmad. 170 Cook, Michael, 43 Bengali movement, 55, 229 Cossack Brigade, 97 Bhutto, Benazir, 121, 187, 207-8, 210, Council of Guardians, 171 253 Crusades, 222, 223 Bhutto, Zulfiqar Ali, 121, 197. 210 Cyrus, 193 Bill, James, 13 border tribal groups, 6, 8, 139-44 D'Arcy oil concession, 101 Borujerdi, Ayatollah, 166 Darius, 193 Bourguiba, Habib, 117, 124. 200, 254 Davies, James C., 105 Boxer Rebellion, 61, 62, 85 dependency theory, I 0, II 0, 215 Brinton, Crane, 105-6 Dobbin, Christine, 43--4 Britain, 84-5, 103, 105, Ill, 194, 237-9, Druzc, 223 247 see also tobacco protest movement East India Company, 237 Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 119 Eastern Orthodox churches, 34, 220 Buddhism, 217 Egypt, 96-7, 99, 122, 123 'Bumiputra', 202 French Revolution and, I I, 234--6, Buyid dynasty, 163, 164 239, 242, 245-7 Byzantium, 115 ideology, 192-3, 195, 198-200, 206-7. 210 Caesaropapism, 22, 220 Muslim Brethren, 58, I 00, 124, 198, Cahen, Claude, 195 200, 206-7 Cairo. 158 see also Nasser, Gamal Abdel Calvinism, 212 Eleventh Imam, 157 capitalism, 213-14. 215 Enlightenment, 223, 233, 242-3, 244, Carter, Jimmy, 26, 28, 68, 103, 113 247 Catholics, 127, 128, 213 essentialism, 35-6, 224 Caucasus, 4, 38, 41, 53-5, 78, 137, 228, ethnic minorities, 129-31, 134--46 229 Ettela'at, 104 chaos theory, 15-16 Europe, 106. 112 Chardin, 165 see also individual countries China. 61-2, 85 Christians/Christianity, 34-5, 37, 56. 98 Family Protection Act, 27 Catholics, 127-8, 213 Fanon, Frantz, 110 French Revolution, 235, 242, 244 F ara'izis, 38, 54 minorities in Iran, 127-8, 132-3, 148 Farhi, Farideh, 21 Nestorians, 8, 148, 149 Farman Farma, Amir, 27, 116 politics and, 220, 223--4 Fatimid caliphate, 156--9, 160, 162-3, Protestants, 127, 128, 212-13 225 CIA, 17 fatwa, 64 Clarke, Peter, 50 feda'is, 163 class (Iranian minorities), 131--4 fedayan, I 02 clerical power in Iran, 16J-6 Feda'iyan-e Islam, 253 see also ulama Feda'iyan-e Khalq, 69, 104, 138, 143, communism, 188, 213 171, 188 community of women, 251-2 Fenelon, Francois, 241-2 Comte, Auguste, 245 Finkenstein, Treaty of (1807), 237 Constitutional Revolution ( 1905-11 ), 8, Fisher, Humphrey, 48 II, 23, 114, 192,248, 252 Five Pillars of Islam, 44, 184, 206 causes, 60-1, 64, 66-8, 71 France, 106 comparative perspective, 6-7, French Revolution, II, I 05, 233--49 95,100-2, 105-8, 110-11 Fulani jihads, 42, 50, 51, 52, 228 multi-urbanism, 73, 75, 77-8, 84-5, 91 fundamentalism, 55, 109, 188, 197, 228, Shi'ism and, 158, 164, 167, 172 230 Index 297

Galiev, Sultan, 213 Ali al-Rida, 160 Gandhi, Mahatma, 59 imperialism, 110-11,213-14,216,218 Gardane, General, 237 anti-imperialism, 55, 56-9, 216 Gasiorowski, Mark, 28 Islamic revivalism and, 4-5, 34-59 gender, resistance movements and, India, 99, 124, 129, 147 11-12, 250-6 Indonesia, 122, I25, 204, 206 Ghannoushi, 256 see also Sumatra Ghotbzadeh, II 0 Inquisition, 222 Gilakis, 135-6 International Confederation of Iranian Gilan, 78-80, 83, 96, 135-6 Students, 69 Gilsenan, Michael, 89 International Confederation of Jurists, God, 176, 181, 182,240 103 Gould, Stephen J., 16 Iran Great Satan ideology, 63 French Revolution and, 234, 237-8, Griboyedov, 167 248-9 Gulistan, Treaty of, 238 -Iraq War, 83, 122, 123, 187 Gunder Frank, A., 215 minorities, 7-8, 127-53 multi-urbanism, 5-6, 73-94 Hama, 207 Shi'a, see Shi'ism Hasan, Imam, 155 Iranian revolutions Hasan-e Sabbah, 163 anti-government demonstrations Hassan ai-Banna, 58 (1963), 96, 100, I64, I68-9 Hegland, Mary, 157-8, 182 comparative differences, 20-9 Hejaz pilgrimage, 228 comparative perspective, 6-7, 95-111 Herald, The (magazine), 210 Constitutional, see Constitutional Hezbollah. 120 Revolution (I905-II) hijras, 53, I 09 influence in Muslim world, 7, 112-26 Hinduism. 128. 217 Islamic, see Islamic Revolution Hodgson, Marshall, 163 (1978-9) Holt, P .. 55. 229 predictability, 29-33 holy wars. II. 37-57, passim, 174-5, prediction/causes, 3-4, 13-20 226-8, 229-31 Iraq, 104 Hoveyda, Amir Abbas, 151,218 -Iran War, 83, 122, 123, 187 Human Rights policies, 26, 33, 113, 200 minorities, 130-4, 141-4, I50 Husain, Imam, 8, 9, 21, 27, 37, 63, 82, Shi'a, I 19, 122-3, I26, 160, 165-7, 93, 155-6, 158, 164, 168-9, 180-2, 187-8 184-5, 190, 209, 226 Isfahan, 77-8, 8I, 87-8, 137, 149 Husaini, Sheik Ezzedin, 143 Islam, secularism and, 191-5 Hussein, Saddam, 119,123,126 Islamic justifications for revolt, 225-32 Islamic Liberation Party, 200 Ibn Taimiyya, 37, 226 Islamic reformism, 56-7 Ibrahim, Anwar, 202 Islamic Revival, 197 ideologies, 9-10, 191-211 imperialism and, 4-5, 34-59 (jtihad, 97, 165-6 as Third Worldism, 10, 212-19 imams, 151 Islamic Revolution (1978-9), 212 first (Ali), see Ali causes, 60, 64, 66-72 second (Hasan), 155 comparative perspective, 6-7, 95-1 I I third (Husain), see Husain, Imam multi-urbanism, 73, 78-9, 85-6 fifth, 225 Shi'ism and, 168, 171-2, 182, 189 sixth (Ja'far ai-Sadiq), 156, 164, 225 Islamic Tendency Movement (MTI}, seventh (lsma'il), 156 200-1 eleventh, 157 Islamism (contemporary movements), twelfth (Hidden), 22, 98, 99, 102 9-10, 57-9, 191-211 Aga. Khan, 36, 147, 157, 208, 225 Isma'il, Shah, 158-9, 161 298 Index lsma'ilis, see Assassins; Fatimid Bani Sadr and, 23, 69, 104, 110, 170, caliphate; Nizaris; Qarmatians; 218 Seveners image/popularity, 204, 209, 210~11 Israel, 109, 124, 129, 148, 199, 218 influence of, I 13~14, I 18~20, 122~6 ~Arab War, 58, !51 Islamic Revolution, see main entry Istanbul, 99, 242 Shi'ism of, J 68~ 73, 179, 182, 184: 187, 189 .1-curve theory, 33, 105, I 06 Khorasan, 96 .la'far al-Sadiq, 156, 164, 225 khums, 98, 194 Jafaris, !56 Khuzistan, 140-2, 144, !50 Jalal Al-e Ahmad, 59, 109, 125 Komeleh Party, 143, 144 .lama! al-Oin al-Afghani, 56~7, 99, 101, Kuomintang movement, 61 109, 118, 181, 192, 241, 243-5 Kurdistan, 96, 103, 142-4 .lama! al-Oin lsfahani, 88 Kurds, 8, 82, 117, 128, 130~6, 142-4, jangalis, 80, 83 149, !52, 252 Japan, 67~8, 101, !08, 167-8, 248 Kuwait, 171 Jews, 8, 58, 127~9, 133, 147~8 jihads, II, 37~57 passim. 174~5, 226-31 Labrousse, C.E., 105 Jombol, Imam, 46 Lapidus, Ira, 35, 221-2 Jones, Sir Harford, 238 law Jordan, 125, 231, 255 Muslim law, 221~3, 224, 228 Juhany, Uwaidah AI-, 41, 42-3 shari'a, 41, I 02, II 0, 163, 243 justice, 89~90 Lazard, G., 170 Lebanon, 9, 119~20, 171, 174~5, 182, Kabir, Amir, 86, 97 188 Kamil, Mustafa (Egyptian), 192, 246~7 leftist Third Worldism, 215, 218 Karbala, 177, 185 Lenin, V.I., 114,118,213 Kashan, 87 Lewis, Bernard, 163, 220, 239 Kasravi, Ahmad, 109, 139, 188, 192 Libya, 38, 55, 60, 123, 125, 229 Kazemi, Farhad, 79 linguistic differences, 129-31 Kemal, Namik, 56, 57, 242-4 Lorenz, Edward, 16 Kennedy, J.F., 28 Luristan/Lurs, 132, 135, 145~6 Kepel, Gilles, 199~200 Lutfi ai-Sayyid, Ahmad, 247 Kerman, 149 Kermani, Mirza Aqa Khan, 109, 188, ai-Maghili, 37, 51, 226 192 Maghreb, 228 Kermani, Mirza Reza, 101 Mahabad, 143 Khaireddin Pasha, 242 Mahdavi family, 89 khalij'as. 53 ai-Mahdi, 37, 155-7, 160, 163, 169, 226, Khamseh, 131 mahdist movements, 8, II, 37~8, 52~3, Khan, Malkom, 11, 245~6 55, 151, 155- 7, 226~7, 229~31 Khan, Mirza Husain, 97, 167 Mahmud 11, Sultan, 97,236-7, 241, 242 Khan, Mirza Malkum, 99 Malaysia, l 22, 123, 124, 202~5, 210 Khan, Mirza Yusuf, 246 Malcolm, John, 87, 237 Khan, Sayyid Ahmad, 192 Mali, 227 khans, 107 Malik oi-Mutakallemin, 88 K harijis, 36, 224 Mamlukes, 221, 235, 236 Khazal, Sheikh, 141 ai-Ma'mun, 160 Khedive, lsma'il, 247 Manchu Dynasty, 61 Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah, 10, 14, Mandeans (Sabeans), 8, 128, 134, 150 17, 21, 24, 53, 63, J 38, 230, 254 Manicheanism, 5, 63, 110,214-15 accession to power, 30, 33, 59 Marx, Karl, 214,215 anti-government demonstrations, 96, Marxism, 69, 106, 170~1, 194,213, 215, J 00, 164, 168~9 216 Index 299

Mashhad bazaar, 116 Muhammad Khiabani, Sheikh, 137 Mashhad, 77 Muharram ceremonies, 182-6, 189 Matin-Daftari, Hedayatollah, 144 mujaddid, 51 Maududi, Maulana, 24, 58, 124, 230 mujahidin, 102 Mazandaran, 80, 135 mujtahid, 91,97-8, 165-6, 176-7, 187, Mazdak/Mazdakites, 193, 251 208 Mecca pilgrimages, 41, 45 Mulla Mustafa, 143 Medina, 41 multi-urbanism, 5--6, 73-94 messianism, 5, II, 37, 52-3, 55, 151, Munson, Henry, Jr., 7, 15, 113 155-7, 169, 212 Muridiya order, 205 Middle East Muslim, The, 120, 187, 210 impact of French Revolution, II, Muslim Brethren, 58, 100, 124. 198, 200, 233-49 206-7 Muslim (religious tolerance), 128-9 Muslim countries Milani, Mohsen, 21 gender and resistance movements, militant Islamic revivalism, 38-53, 231-2 11-12,250--6 military impact of French Revolution. influence of Iranian Revolution, 7, 234-9 112-26 minorities in Iran, 7-8, 127-53 Iran (differences), 20-9 Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani, 109, 188, Islamic revolt (comparison), 4--5, 192 34-59 Mirza Husain Khan, 97, 167 minorities, 7-8, 127-53 Mirza Malkum Khan, 99 post-colonial societies, 9-10, 191-211 Mirza Reza Kermani, 101 Muslim Youth Movement, 202 Mirza Yusuf Khan, 246 Muslims modernism, 192, 194-5, 234, 255-6 laws, 221-3, 224, 228 Moghul Empire, 41 Middle East religious tolerance, 128-9 Mohammad Ali Shah, 78, 145-6, 248 religion and politics, 10-11, 220-32 Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, 4, 63, 66, Mustafa Re~id Pa~a, 242 169, 179, 199 Mu'tazilite school, 89 minorities question, 132, 138-40, myths (Shi'i), 180-3 142-3, 145-6, 148, 153 reforms. 13, 17, 21,23-30,33,67, Naguib, Major-General Sadi, 3, 60 115-17 Naini, Ayatollah, 109 ulama and, 23-4, 70-1, 109, 168 Najaf, 177 urban guerrillas and, 69-71 Najd, 40, 41, 42-3, 52 White Revolution, 7, 23, 27, 28, Najmabadi, Afsaneh, 113 116-18, 125 Napoleon, II, I 06, 223, 234--6, 237-8 Mohammad Shah, 75 Napoleonic wars, II, 234 Moharram riots, 209 Naser Khan, 145 Mojahedin-e Khalq, 69, 104, 109-10, Nasir ai-Din, 50 138, 143, 170-1, 184, 253 Naser al-Oin Shah, 66, 97, 101 Mongol Empire, 161, 221,226 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 58, 60, 117, Morocco, 25, 97 124,196, 197, 254 Mosaddeq, 8, 25, 63, 65--6 National Democratic Front, 144 oil nationalization movement, 15, 17. National Front, 104, 146, 169 23, 28-9, 60, 73, 78, 96, 100, 103 nationalism, 9-10, 109, 192-7, 216-17, overthrow of, 15, 17,28-9, 103, 145 243-4 Movement for the Restoration of among minorities, 131-4 Demoracy, 210 near-Muslim minorities, 146--7 Mubarak, Husni, 199 Near East, French Revolution and, Muhammad, 154--5, 192 234--7 Muhammad Ali, 41, 43, 97. 235-8 Nestorians, 8, 148, 149 Muhammad Husain Kazeruni, 88 New Julfa, 149 300 Index

Nigeria, 122-3, 125,202,203-5,210 Qaddhafi, Muammar, 60. 123, 125 nineteenth-century Islamic movements, Qadiri order, 47 53-6 Qadiriyya order, 51 Nizam ai-Mulk, 163, 221, 225 Qajar dynasty, 22, 65, 69, 74, 90, 96-9, Nizaris. 156-7, 162-3, 169 101, 103, 107, Ill, 137, 151, IRI nontribal peoples, settled, 136-9 Qarmatians, 159, 160, 162. 225, 251 Nosairis. 252 Qashqais, 7-8. 130-1, 136, 145 Numeiry (in Sudan), 207 Qassem, 60 Qassemlu, Abdulrahman, 143 Qazi Mohammad, 143 oil, 71-2 Qazvin, 81 nationalization, 15, 17, 23, 2R-9, 60. Qizilbash. 185 73, 78, 96, I 00, I03 Qom, 78, 115, 144 OPEC nations, I 03, 218 Qotbzadeh, Sadeq, 69 Omar Khayyam, 163 Qum, 101 OPEC nations, I 03, 218 Quran, I, 36-7,97, 129, 150, 197,208, Osman Dan Fodio, 39, 41 -2, 50-2, 228, 246 227-9 Ottoman Empire, II, 22, 41, 43, 55-6, 61, 80, 84, 114, 161, 164, 177 Rajidis, 160 French Revolution and, 234-7. Raja Adat. 44 239,241-6, 248 Raja Alam, 44 minorities in I ran, 128, 130, 132 -3, Raja lbadat, 44 137, 142 Rasht, 78, 81 Reformation, 223 Padri movement, 38-9, 43-7, 54, 227-9 religion Pahlavi dynasty, 67, 74-5, 96, 102-3, Buddhism. 217 108-9, 133, 149, 151-2, 182, 186, Church-state relations, 34, 220-5 189, 196, 254 clerical power (Iran), 163-7 .11.'1.' also Mohammad Reza Pahlavi; Eastern Orthodox, 34, 220 Reza Shah Pahlavi Hinduism, 128,217 Pakistan, 106, 124, 139, 195, 197, holy wars, II, 37-57 passim, 174-5, 207-10, 251, 253, 256 226-8, 229-31 Shi'a. 9, 120-3, 180-1, 183--9 Jews, 8, 58, 127-9, 133, 147-8 Pakistan People's Party, 121, 187, 210 secularism and, 9, 174-90 Palestine, 253 see also Christians/Christianity Pan-lslamism, 243 religious minorities, 8, 146-52 Parsons, Sir Anthony, 14 religious taxes, 22, 98, 121, 128, 184, PAS (in Malaysia), 202-3 187, 194 'Patron of Traders', 45 religious tolerance, 128-9 People of the Book, 127,150 Renan, Ernest, 244-5 Persians, 134-6 resistance, gender and, 11-12, 250-6 Personal Status Code, 201 Reuter concession, 23, 84, 102, 167 Peters, R., 55 Revolutionary Guards, 106 Peykar, 144 revolutionary movements, l-2 Pishevari, Ja'far, 137-8 comparative features, 3--7 politics minorities in Iran and, 7-8, 127-53 Islam and, 10-11, 34-6, 220-32 Shi'ism and, 8-9, 154-73, 174-90 Shi'is and, 167-73, 224-5 revolutions (predictions/causes), 3-4, polygamy, 250, 252 13-33 post-colonial Muslim societies Reza Shah Pahlavi, 3 (ideologies), 9-10, 191-211 minorities question, 132, 137, 139, Protestants, 127. 128, 212-13 141-2, 150, 153 Punjab riots, 209 multi-urbanism, 81-2, 86, 90 Index 301

post-colonial ideology, 191--4, 199 Shi'ism, 2, 7, 63, 100, 119, 251 reforms, 23, 81-2, 115 Alawis, 120, 154, 206, 252 Reza Khan, 141, 192 Alevis, 121-2, 154, 188 ulama and, 23, 67, 70-1, 90, 179-80 Assassins, 21, 36, 156--7, 161-4, 169. Rida, Rashid, 192 172, 175, 225 Ruhi, Shaikh Ahmad, 188 clergy/ulama, 4, 6, 17, 21-30, 98-9, Russia, 84, 102, 105--6, Ill, 194, 237-8 114,117,163-7 -Iran War, 167 imperialism and, 4--5, 34--59 -Japan War, 67-8, 101, 108, 167-8, Iranian, 9, 183-6 248 minorities question, 7, 128, 132-3, revolution in, 18, 68, 101, 114, 137, 136, 141-3, 145-6 248-9 Pakistani, 9, 120-3, 180-1, IS3-9 Shi'ism, 122, 167-8, 179 politics and, 163-73, 224--5 secularism and, 9, 174--90 Sabeans (Mandeans), 8, 128, 134, 150 see also Seveners; Twelvers Sadat, Anwar, 124, 199, 213 Shi'ism (and revolution), 8-9 Sadik Rifat Pa~a. 242 origins, 154--5 Safavid dynasty, 6, 22, 41, 74, 87, 91, radical past movement, 162-3 128, 136--7, 149, 158-9, 161, 164-6, Shi'i ideas (contrasting use), 155-8 176-8, 188, 252 transformations, 158-61 Salafiya movement. 192 Shimr, 180 Sasanians, 193 Shiraz, 76, 77, 81, 147 Saudi Arabia, 120, 123, 124 Shirazi, Hajji Mirza Mohammad Hasan, Wahhabis, 38--43, 53--4, 227-9 77, 151 Savak/Savakis, 69-70, 151 Shuster, Morgan, 102 Savanarola, 212 Silverman, Sydel, 89 Sawad, 162 Sinasi, 242 Sayyid Ahmad Brelwi, 54 Sivan, Emmanuel, 35, 222, 225 Sayyid Jamal al-Oin (al-Afghani), 56-7, slave trade, 227, 229 99, 101, 109, 118, 181, 192, 241-5 socialism, 133, 154, 214, 216 Sayyid Jamal al-Oin lsfahani, 88 society, state and (post-colonial), 9-10, Sayyid Qutb, 24 191-211 secularism, 196, 239, 241 Sokoto caliphate, 51 Islam and (first phase), 191-5 South Asia, 38, 40, 42, 54, 227 religion and, 9, 174--90 Soviet Union, 137-8, 142-3 Sclim Ill, Sultan, 235, 236 Stalin, Joseph, 106 Seljuqs, 163--4, 221 state, ideology and (post-colonial), 9-10, Semites, 244-5 191-211 Senegal, 123, 124, 204--5, 210, 227 Sudan, 38, 53, 55, 123, 202, 207, 210, Senghor, Leopold, 205 229-30 Senussis, 38, 55, 229 Sufism, 12, 39-41,46-7, 51, 55, 124, settled, nontribal people, 136-9 161' 184, 204, 228, 230, 251 Scveners, 36, 128, 147, 156-60, 162, 175, Sumatra, 40-2, 57, 123, 206, 210 225 Padri movement, 38-9, 43-7, 54, Shah of Iran, see Mohammad Reza 227-9 Pahlavi; Reza Shah Pahlavi Sunnism, 6-9, 64--5, 225-6 Shah lsma'il, 161 comparative perspective, 21-2, 24, 98, Shahsevan, 131, 146 100 Shaikhi movement, 229 ideology, state and, 206, 208-9 Shamyl. 4, 38, 41, 53-5, 78, 137, 228-9 influence of Iranian Revolution, shari'a, 41, 102, 110, 163, 243 114--15, 117, 121-2, 124--5 Shari'ati, Ali, 109-10, 118, 125-6,170, minorities question, 128, 132--4. 136, 208 143, 146--7 Shari'atmadari. Ayatollah, 109, 138 myths, 174--5, 177, 183-7, 189 302 Index

Sunnism-continued ulama. 34-5,41, 64-5, 67, 70-2, 76-7, Shi'ism and revolution, 154. 161, 97, 108-!0, !68, 172, 177-80, 221 163-6 bazaar alliance, 6, 23--4, 73-4, 83-4. Syria, 9, 120. 123, 161, 165, 178, 206-7. 88,90-4,98-9,101,179-80 210, 252 political significance of growing power, 163-7 Tabriz, 76-8, 81, 87, 136-7, 138, 161, Umayyads, 27, 63, 155, 158-9. 168, 237 180-1, 221' 226 al-Tahtawi, Rifa'a, II, 236, 242, 246 Umma, 244 Taiping rebellion, 61, 85 United Nations, 217 Tajikistan, 122 United States, 103-4, 106, 109,213, 218 Taleqani, Ayatollah, 110, 144, 166 unpredictability, 29-33 Tmzzimat period. 242. 243 'Urabi movement, 3, 54, 62, 247 Taqizadeh, Sayyed Hassan. 139, 188 urban development (from 1800), 86-94 tariqas. 47 urban migration, 216-17 Ta'ziyeh plays, 180, 185 Urmiyeh, !49 Tehran, 75-8, 81-2, 85, 87, 102, 104. 1/SU/i, 97-8, 165, 176 131-3, 136-8, 140, 147, 149, 152 Te/emaque (Fenelon), 241-2 Vol!, John, 41 terrorism, 172, 188 Thermidor, 106 Wafd party, 200 Third Worldism, 110-11 Wahhabis, 38-43, passim, 53-4, 227 -9 Islamic revivial as, 10, 212-19 Wallerstein, Immanuel, 215 Tijani order, 47 waqf: 98, 165, 194 Tijaniya order, 205 Watan, 243-4 Tilak, Bat Gangadhar, 59, 247 Watt, Montgomery, 175 Tilsit, Treaty of ( 1807), 237 West African movements, 38-42, 47-53, tobacco protest movement, 23, 6 I. 54, 57, 226--7, 228 64-6,68,71. 73,75-7,84, 91, Western governments, Third Worldism 95-6, 99-102, 114, 164, 167, and. 212-15, 218-19 178--9, 248 Westernization, 107-11, 117, 125, 129, traditionalists, 109. Ill 168, 197, 209, 234-5, 246-7 Traditions of the Prophet, 97, 165, 228 'Westoxication', 59, 109, 125 Transcaucasus, 99, 122, 137 White RevolutiO!l, 7, 23, 27, 28, 116--18. tribal confederations, 145-6 125 tribal groups, border, 6, 8, 139-44 Wolf, Eric, 79 Tudeh Party, 28, 103, 119 women, 204-5 Tunisia. 96, 122-5, 193. 195, 200-2,210, dress/veiling, 198, 202--3, 206-8, 242, 256 228-9, 250-1, 254, 256 Turkey/Turks, 9, 61, 161, 163, 221, resistance and gender, 250-6 244-5, 252 Women's Action Forum, 207, 208, 256 ideology and society, 192--4, 196 world systems theory, 10 Iranian Revolution and, 96, 106, 121-3, 125 Yan Iza/a group, 204 minorities question, 128, 131, 133, Yazd, 149 136-7 Yazdi, Ibrahim, 23, 69, 104, 119 Turkmen tribes, 161, 165 Yazid (Umayyad caliph), 27, 63, 180-1 Turkomans, 8, 82, 134. 136, 139, !52 Yek Kalemeh (Mirza Yusuf Khan), 246 Twelfth (Hidden) Imam, 22, 98, 99, 102 Yemen, 123, 197-8 Twelvers, 8, 21--2. 36, 89, 91, 128, Yezidis, 128 154-8, 160-1' 164-5, 169-70, 172, Young Ottomans, II, 56. 192, 242-3, 175-6, 180, 188, 190, 208, 225, 246 226 Young Turks, 3, II, 245, 248 Index 303 zakat, 98, 121, 187, 194, 208-9 Zonis, Marvin, 26 Zia ai-Haqq, 9, 120-1, 123, 125, 184, Zoroastrians, 8, 63, 128-9, 133, 149-50 187, 207-10 Zubaida, Sami, 25, 35, 221, 223 Zionists. 172