Rupayan Attack SOCIAL
that dynamics feminism.2 She: Laiterary following social they She: such This concept and to 2 don: 1 H. Sandra
a Yale
Rider A
patriarchal powerful
strives
artistically
a
essay
landscape
History
A
story & M. University
of
Abstract
Victorian This which implications values the as constructions Britain. specific them the cssay as the structure broad systemic culture. Susan Haggard, POLITICAL
specific that
on
History
Gilbert
works
a
The
immoral a
to
demonstrates
process
progressive
equal
Roy
woman
the misogynist
subservient
a
Ayesha,
of
issue
assault define Guhar Early essay
of engages
gender-based
aspects
and
express
of This Press, story and
Adventure
She:A gender-based
novel
Britain. that two
worth
aspects can
Victorian
of of MOVEMENTS of
or Susan
oppressive
having
is essay analyzes
their 1994). of Histoy
particular analyzing the of
the H.
is of discriminates
promiscuous; of
positions emergence explored often with Feminism
ideological pohtieal to
of
driven femininity Rider
In Gubaa
nineteenth-century
extent
Adventure
Leo
of — the patriarchal
progressive argues
women historical of
theme
doing
political
which the
Britain
nineteenth-century Adventssre
serve oppression, Haggard’s
extent
Vincey the
.jVo
status
the
in
to activists,
by
tool,
itself historical that Mans
identified of
so,
relation
which
and
novel
that a
against ultimately
and
messages gender-based —
as
interests.
power.
earls’ (Mattituck:
Haggard’s
contexts.
implicitly
cultural
quo the
functions to
as development Lana
men; and
socio-political
opposition
literature portray as She:A
and
this
one
to which novel,
first-wave
within
and
by context
well
women
feminism:
J’blurne
Holly
Haggard’s By
opposition
its
essay Near
Sandra
History
that and Arncreon
agenda
concerns
Henry
strives
novel
sei-ving relationship FOOTNOTES
as
which
as
certain 3:
its the
reflects
the feminism: socio-political
the
addresses the
a to of Letters
is react
who
and
feminism
of
Gilbert
misogynist
of
attacks
a
deeply Misogynist
a end United
novel
to
novel.1 Victorian House, Adventure, following functions
Rider
that
belief to fions
as instruments, political
renders early women
human
meet
assault
itself
to
of
social
the
with
and the
opposes
the
the sociological the
attacks
a l982.
committed In in in
Haggard’s
Kingdom. Front
first-wave
carrier
the
belief with
weapon Volume (Lon
bold
the
the
the
of
as
in 1 (2008) 22 FOOTNOTES
the equal worth of women and men; opposition to social constructions of femininity that portray certain women as immoral or promiscuous; and opposition to a political structure that discriminates against women and renders them subservient to patriarchal interests. While launching such a wide-ranging assault on early feminism, the novel also functions as an adversary of two key philosophical figures,John Stuart Mill and Josephine Butler. In short, the novel is a conservative political artifact from a country on the threshold of progressive social change.
The novel symbolically seeks to undermine a major element of John Stuart Mill’s nineteenth-century feminism: relative support for the concept of male and female partners ultimately being of equal worth. John Stuart Mill’spro-feminist work, OntheSubjectionof J4/imen,expresses a progressive belief that “the equality of married persons before the law” is a prerequisite for “moral cultivation” and “the happiness of [both partners] .‘° Haggard’s work, by contrast, is committed to a patriarchal belief that women are ultimately worth lessthan their male partners. The novel’srepresentation of Ayeslia’sdeath — when considered alongside the
novel’s representation of Kallikrates’ dead body — serves as the vehicle through which Mill’s early feminism is opposed. Once Ayesha has been stripped of her supernatural power and her life, she is placed at a lower level socially than Kallikrates, who is belatedly designated as her partner after taking the reincarnated form of Leo Vincey As a dead body that
has been “perfectly preserved,” Kallikrates has — in Holly’s opinion — retained the status of a person of “uncommon beauty” Holly’sdecision to invoke such concepts as perfection and 1beauty when describing Kallikrates is important, as he thereby suggests that one must continue to recognize the dead Kallikrates as a notable person. Even as a corpse, Kallikrates remains a fully-developed human being and adult member of society By contrast, the deceased and ex-supernatural Ayeshais depicted as being nothing more than “a monkey,” “a badly-preserved Egyptian mummy,” and “a two-months’ 5child.” In other words, she is infantilized, dehumanized, and rendered utterly imperfect. This implies that, without the assistance of supernatural power, Ayesha is an inferior being. As an infantilized corpse, she cannot be seen as the equal of an adult, and therefore cannot be valued as the equal of Kallikrates. In the process of turning into “a monkey” she essentially slides down the evolutionary ladder and consequently slidesaway from being the equal of Kallikrates, who is never presented as anything less than a fully-fledged member of the human species. As “a badly-preserved Egyptian mummy” she evidently lacks the quality of perfection that characterizes6 Kallikrates’ corpse earlier in the novel. Holly also asserts that she physically moves
3John Stuart Mill, OntheSubjectzonof Wbmen(Greenwich: Fawcett Publications, 1971), 61-2. 4 Haggard, 177. 5 Haggard, 2 16-17. 6 Haggard, 2 16-17. when like words, Kallikrates, Through lower both cannot their this symbolism She in non-supernatural a patriarchal of The the of revealed. promiscuous, was activism first Contagious thatJosephine stemming of force her the “instrumental with coquetry” that female Holly’s depiction concept 9 8 Press, 7 12 10 11
relationship Mill, Haggard, Haggard, Nancy
Boyd, Haggard, femininity
its a
women
a
concept
novel,
invoked conservative
“awful
he is
time
prostitute
novel’s male
partnerscan
the 1982),
“tortoise,”
that 61.
level first
opposition
as feel
effectively
“corrupter.”2
is
reference 47. Boyd,
of
of kind
“blinded” its a 216. when 217.
of
from partners. can 40-47.
Ayesha
perceiving
118-19. any
surrounding of
in
result
loveliness”
corrupting, Diseases who
ideology
Josephine
of antipathy
activation Ayesha’s to
In
in
the Three
with
development,
of Butler rape” apparently comparison
supposedly desire
SHE:
progressive
justify
the
its Holly,
which
short, —
to novel
novel
behaviour of
placed thrive.9
women Vsctorian
to
represents
bid
Kallikrates
as
alleged
The “coquetry”
by
A
her
Acts
John
of
actively for Later
nature
that
the
them,
the
to positions
who
her towards
also
HISTORY
as
Ayesha’s of
Butler. favours
or
Ayesha’s
suspected
novel
the
lowered I6men
defeat
in
When of
harm,
an commencement
living
are patriarchal
beauty
otherwise being
parts “coquetry constructs implicitly social
to
Stuart
is
and ex-supernatural
associated which — a the
challenged.
the
“evil”
watching
in clearly Who
men,
strive
the
position
is
As
early
the her
a
which of confuse, OF Leo 1 are one
that
significant, beauty
dramatic
status,
misogynist
change
860s
which misogynist Changed
prostitutes
Mill’s
equivalent
an
involved
vision
the as
ADvENTURE
quality to
the
further
lashes overwhelming,
feminism upholds
assesses
Vincey
of of
the
thinking
certain
activist,
further —
with
novel equality
Ayesha
where
Ayesha Their
includes novel’s a
which
This is
in philosophy
and
equivalent
espoused
“determined
death,
of
out
presented
the
as a
away version He
the
construction Wand — —
social
a —
the
impair becomes
male
of
her associate
it
women
which
she
at
is
patriarchal
in
unveil basically
Butler
recoils
can and and
realm
ideological
figure
also
explicitly AND
her (Oxford:
the
not
children,
it
ideologically-charged
from
regards
transformation.8
byJohn is
At
belief
becomes
of narrative no
men. “the
of
the
successful
“air
“hoarsely” a
build
EARLY
By simply not
herself,
various of as Ayesha.
“a of
condemned
apparent
man. a
longer
Ayesha
as
perfection
corrupter”
authorized Oxford argument
small
happiness”
of
reinforcing marital
of
aligns a
in
in the step
esteemed
to
construction
immoral
on
represent Stuart
hostility
sublimated
destructive
the
femininity
Moreover,
FEMINSM
particular,
contained
the clear
in supposed
describes
this
points hope
animal.7 University
In
or
with feminist
Ayesha
for
nature
asserts
which
status
other life
two”
Mill.
than early
that
that
and
He
the the
the
for the
by
of
or
to
in
is
a
a
23 24 FOOTNOTES
the seventeenth chapter of the novel strongly suggests that Ayesha enjoys tempting men. When Ayesha invites Holly to “press [his hands] round [her waist],” Holly indicates that he can “bear it no longer” and “[falls] upon [his] knees.” Ayesha, who “[claps] her hands in glee” upon seeing his behaviour, reveals that she was “[wondering] how many minutes it would need to bring [him] to [his] 13knees.” In other words, her conduct is made to appear very deliberate. Furthermore, when she invites him to “kiss [her]” and “[fixes] her dark and thrilling orbs upon [his] own,” Holly asserts that he is being “made [to feel] faint and 11weak.”
While she eventually puts an end to this scene, she refers to her own behaviour as “wanton play” and argues that “it is hard for a woman to be 15merciful.” This portion of the novel encourages the reader to view Holly as a male victim of female sexuality,while Ayesha is depicted as a self-designated representative of merciless female “coquetry” Ayesha’s words, which imply that she reflects the alleged attributes of women in general, are present in this novel to provide ammunition for misogyny. The novel’sconstruction of Ayesha’ssexuality is aimed at strengthening hostility towards women.
This socio-didactic goal becomes more apparent in the twentieth chapter, when Ayesha draws Leo “into evil,” overpowers him, and makes him kiss her over “the corpse of his dead love.” Holly, who functions as the male audience of this scene, decides that Leo “cannot be blamed too much” and thereby lays the blame at Ayesha’s16feet. This chapter holds Ayesha responsible for a sexually-charged scene that is “horrible and wicked.” These two negative and hostile adjectives, in conjunction with 7the message that they amplify, further intensify the novel’s war against women. Through its determination to construct female sexuality as a negative force, the novel attempts to tear credibility away from feminist opposition to patriarchal thinking. In effect, the novel establishes itself as a public platform for the literary expression of misogyny, as well as a launching pad for the reinforcement of an anti-feminist political agenda.
The novel’sdevotion to patriarchal politics is also apparent in its twenty- second chapter, which presents the patriarchal political status quo of Victorian Britain in a normalized and supportive way. Leo and Holly tell Ayesha that “real power in [their] country [rests] in the hands of the people.” They also assert that their country’s female constitutional monarch,8 who does not represent ‘real’political power, is “beloved by all
13 Haggard, 144-45. 14 Haggard, 145. 15 Haggard, 145. 16 Haggard, 172. 17 Haggard, 172. 18 Haggard, 189. promoting legislative right-thinking femininity. inciting female
They of — suggest Holly Women, to socio-political thinking personhood. that of is Minister that wish at did their involve political out.”°° feminism, government. a something women Holly that
Against are these strong While has British 20 21
19 [the
as
tool
assembled
love
extending Haggard, Haggard, Sheila
the the
actually
ever
not
they Leo
a
initially
country’s
to world]
state It.
arguably
reveal two
manifestation
through
novel these political desire
a
In Empire] that figure
antipathy
near support (London:
Rowbotham, establish
reform,
patterns.
seen.” have
and
symbolic
subtly
who
Gladstone
power
Leo
other
paragraphs
that In that 189. 190.
a
those
not
their
statements the
is
materially appear
Holly the They only
The to ceremonial
fact,
in
people opinion
were
political
political
and
continues
which
He placed
is this emphasize Pluto SHE:
disenfranchisement
and
the ambivalent. go for
words,
end
question
for
franchise voting who
towards
acceptable This
patriarchal
queen
by Hidden feels novel
by
Holly
to view view
power
not the
most
thereby Press,
“threatened of
to men of
A
in
men the do
the
stating
in particular
reveals
system
rights, HISTORY be supposed the
that
existing
Leo her
may
allowed for
which
rights From
men
to
the
not
who
was
attempt
glorious its 1974),
female
socio-clidactic feminism,
United
at
when are
rests
ambivalent.
represent “if
and
twenty-second
vast
embracing
Ayesha,
the History: proper
He
and
share and political the
appear
that
as
admiration
poses written
as
‘right-thinking’,
that for
50. the are
ultimately
with
controlled political
states the they
better” realms.”9 to
sufficiently
expense
aspect
figure
normal. OF
Holly to
normality to
Kingdom,
and
those
women.
their 300
woman’s
excluded
vote
his
of historical
sole no undermine are
who
people,
drop” ADVENTURE antipathy
to
express
disenfranchisement lèars that prosperous
a
a
women, feelings
A threat
perspective
express of
further are
who as
aspirations
in representatives
structure
few through state
is
favours
of for
By of
close
chapter,
their
Ayesha, Both
by
This
“wonderful,” a
the a
content democratic.
which FI4ment
amendment
As
“would
women.
their
from
admire
downplaying
a political years
parliamentary
context,
to
of
towards an
the
non-legislative
nineteenth activated.
towards
a statement conservative analytical the
they
assertions discussion
male
affairs,
male AND
degree
that anti-feminist
empire the
views
in Oppression
implies
their
who two
suffer
efforts
of after
with
speedily
the
spite
can
In
has
power British
political EPLY model,
it
the legislative
men
of
has
on
When
early which
would
the
conception
non-legislative becomes
was
from of
that British
attacked a clearly
presents
of
inspection
of
of and
are
novel, that
personhood.
any
century
is
‘real’
system
expressed
support
process supporters
bill
women —
comments
essentially those
make
the effectively
not FEMINSM
the Empire.21
feminism
Leo mode
distorted aimed
rights
need
this
a head
they involves
“change Fight
power
reality power
aimed
afford
Prime
which
world
taken
early clear their
part
who
that and
and
[the
see
for
for
for
of of
of of
of
at
as
a 26 FOOTNOTES
a woman’s powel; it is important to note that Holly’s positive tone is only reserved for a potential relationship between Ayesha and Britain’s foreign policy.He does not say anything positive about Ayesha’spotential for changing Britain’s domestic political landscape. In fact, he fears that within Britain, she would “blast her way to any end she set before 22her.” He is evidently convinced that her desire for power on British soil would constitute a negative force. Moreover, when he is not specificallythinking of her possible relationship with British imperialism, he indicates that she is “terrible.” He only sees her power as being “wonderful” when he speculates that Britain — which is characterized by an imperialist agenda shaped by male politicians — could use her power to advance its colonialist 23goals. In short, he hopes to see Ayesha’sfemale power become a tool through which male colonial violence can be enhanced. He does not express a desire for political changes within his own country. As a result, Holly’s ideological beliefs clearly do not disrupt the anti-feminist agenda exposed earlier in the chapter. His views are consistent with the novel’s commitment to patriarchy, which involves unwavering support for the anti-feminist status quo of Britain and tolerance for modes of femininity that pose no threat to male domination. In essence,the chapter steadfastly remains a reflector of patriarchal conservative thinking and a crucial carrier of the novel’santi-feminist message.
Furthermore, this misogynist novel builds on its desire to preserve Britain’s patriarchal political culture by dramatically punishing, and exterminating, the figure of the powerful and confident women. In doing so, the patriarchal novel engages in “sexual warfare” against feminist women, which has been identified as a nineteenth-century literary theme by Sandra Gilbert and Susan 24Gubar. The novel violently punishes Ayesha in a way that combines physical suffering with humiliation. As Ayesha dies, she feels “dazed” and cannot “see,for her whitish eyes [are] covered with a horny ifim.” Holly, who witnesses her demise, cannot begin to imagine what she must be feeling, which clearly indicates to the reader that she is in a great deal of pain. Moreover, as she dies, she looks “too hideous for words” and associates herself with “shame” when she speaks for the last 25time. By forcing her to go through a painful and humiliating death, the novel aggressivelytortures and destroys the woman who embodies female power. As a political document, this novel assumes the role of patriarchy as it yearns for a brutal victory in its war against feminism. As a work of literature, this book is clearly designed to symbolically argue that female power can be quashed. Its ultimate goal is to incite enthusiasm on the part of those who favour male power at the expense of women and, by extension, wish to see male domination continue to characterize Victorian Britain.
22 Haggard, 190. 23 Haggard, 190. 24 Gilbert and Gubar, 362. 25 Haggard, 216-17. vision fuel This of simultaneously between that Butler’s conservatism advocates the reflector activism, humanity this Britain’s bid literary represent acknowledges
gender
novel
for work to
embraces
essay
of
maintain
misogyny
works
early
socio-cultural
of
confirms
the
of
Haggard’s fiction.
relative
of
and
within
has
the
literature,
progress.
in
novel
feminism,
and
resists undermining the
male
Victorian SHE:
discriminatory explored
gender-based
As
As
legal human marriage.
its
paints fundamental
domination. an
a
legal
A
allegiance
She:
spectrum.
Overall,
political
employs HISTORY
artifact
equality
the
Britain.
culture.
various
reform
a
A
picture
novel
a
As
History
progressive
oppression.
Haggard’s that
and
instrument
to
such
a
It
between OF
and relationship
In
As
a
details
is weapon
is
represents
system of
male-chauvinist ADVENTURE
the
a an devices
geared
supports
side of
the
opponent
process
that
She:
married
Adventure
movement,
This British
that that
of
that
towards
as
the
A
hostility patriarchal
that
establish
was
symbolic
is
is novel
Histoiy
of AND
spectrum
aimed
of Victorian
aimed
partners,
can
challenged
destroying
wing
and
John
providing EARLY
this
towards
does
of
a
exist
violence at
constructions
at
Adventure of anti-feminist
Stuart
novel
relationship
that,
influencing
not
status
Josephine
the
Victorian FEMINSM
between
feminist by
Ayesha,
literary
simply
within
tacitly
Mill’s
novel
in early
quo
is
its
a
27 28 FOOTNOTES
Works Cited
Boyd, Nancy. ThreeVictorianWomenWhoChangedTheirJ4’rid.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982.
Gilbert, Sandra M. and Susan Gubai: .iVoMans Land, Volume3: Letters from theFront.New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994.
Haggard, H. Rider. She:A HistofyofAdoenture.Mattituck: Amereon House, 1982.
Mill,John Stuart. OntheSubjectionof Women.Greenwich: Fawcett Publications, 1971.
Rowbotham, Sheila. HiddenfromHistory:300 liars of WomensOppression andtheFightAgainstIi. London: Pluto Press, 1974.