Conflict and Cooperation in Local Water Governance

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Conﬂict and cooperation in local water governance – inventory of local water- related events in Namwala District, Zambia Carol Emma Mweemba, Imasiku Nyambe, Mikkel Funder and Barbara Van Koppen

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CAROL EMMA MWEEMBA Research Associate at the Integrated Water Resources Management Centre at University of Zambia. IMASIKU NYAMBE Associate Profesor and Coordinator of the Integrated Water Resources Management Centre at University of Zambia. MIKKEL FUNDER Researcher at Danish Institute for International Studies BARBARA VAN KOPPEN Principal Scientist at the International Water Management Institute, South Africa.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Foremost many thanks go to the Danish Research Council, Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs for ﬁnancing the Competing for Water Programme (2007-2010).

This paper draws on the collective thinking of the Competing for Water research partners for developing the conceptual and methodological framework for undertaking the inventory of conﬂictive and cooperative water-related events at the district level. The Competing for Water partners who participated in the developing the inventory framework are Moussa Djiré and Abduolaye Cissé, Groupe de Recherche en Sociologie et Droit Appliqué, Université de Bamako (Mali), Ligia Gómez, Tania Paz and Roberto Rivas, Nitlapan, Universidad Centroamericana (Nicaragua), Phuong Le, Yen Nguyen and Huong Pham, Centre for Agro-ecological Research and Environmental Studies, Hanoi Agricultural University (Vietnam), Carol Mweemba and Imasiku Nyambe, Centre for Integrated Water Resources Management, University of Zambia (Zambia), Barbara Van Koppen, International Water Management Institute (South Africa), Lorenzo Cotula, International Institute for Environment and Development (United Kingdom), Thomas Skielboe, Nordeco (Denmark), Jens Sjørslev, DHI Water and Environment (Denmark) and Mikkel Funder, Julie Koch, Helle Munk Ravnborg and Signe Marie Cold-Ravnkilde, Danish Institute for International Studies (Denmark).

We thank the University of Zambia – School of Mines for hosting the Competing for Water Programme in Zambia under the Integrated Water Resources Management Centre. We also thank the Patron for the Project; Ms. Silvia Masebo, Minister of Local Government and Housing and members of the National Working Group for their invaluable contributions to the project.

Finally, most important thanks go to the people of Namwala District for their support in allocating time to the research as respondents and providing necessary information in the research.

List of available papers Cossio, Vladimir, Rocío Bustamante and Thomas Skielboe: Cooperation and Conflict in Local Water Management. Conflict and cooperation in local water governance – inventory of local water-related events in Tiraque District, Bolivia. DIIS Working Paper 11/2010. Copenhagen: Danish Institute for International Studies. Djiré, Moussa, Abdoulaye O. Cissé, Signe Marie Cold-Ravnkilde, Amadou Keita and Anna Traoré: Conflict and cooperation in local water governance – inventory of local water- related events in Douentza District, Mali. DIIS Working Paper 12/2010. Copenhagen: Danish Institute for International Studies. Rivas Hermann, Roberto, Tania Paz Mena, Ligia Gómez and Helle Munk Ravnborg: Cooperación y Conflicto en torno a la Gestión Local del Agua en el municipio de Condega, Nicaragua. DIIS Working Paper 13/2010. Copenhagen: Danish Institute for International Studies. Nguyen, Yen Thi Bich, Le Thi Thanh Phuong, Thomas Skielboe and Pham Thi Mai Huong: Conflict and cooperation in local water governance – inventory of local water-related events in Con Cuong District, Nghe An Province, Vietnam. DIIS Working Paper 14/2010. Copenhagen: Danish Institute for International Studies.

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CONTENTS

Abstract 6 Abbreviations and Acronyms 8 CHAPTER 1 9 1.1 Introduction and Background 9 1.2 Research Objectives and Expected Results 10 1.3 Conceptual Framework 11 CHAPTER 2 12 2.1 Methodology 12 2.1.1 Research Definitions 12 2.1.2 Sampling Strategy 14 2.1.3 Overview of Event and Situation Formats 17 2.1.4 Sources of Data for Checking on Events 18 2.1.5 Reported and Unreported Events 20 2.1.6 Biases and Limitations in the Data 21 CHAPTER 3 22 3.1 General Overview of Zambia 22 3.1.1 Climate 22 3.1.2 Relief 23 3.1.3 Drainage 25 3.1.4 Vegetation 25 3.1.5 Demographic Profile of Zambia 25 3.2 Main Characteristics of Study Area – Namwala District 26 3.2.1 Geophysical Location of Namwala District 26 3.2.2 Population Distribution 27 3.3 Context Data of Namwala District 27 3.3.1 Water Availability, Use and Access 27 3.3.2 Land and Land Use 28 3.3.3 Governance 28 CHAPTER 4 30 4.1 Distribution of Events in Space and Time 30 4.1.1 Distribution of Events across Communities 31 4.1.2 Inter- and Intra-Community Events 33 4.1.3 Events Duration 34 4.1.4 Event Years 34 CHAPTER 5 37 5.1 Extent to which Events are Conflictive and Cooperative 37 5.1.1 Character of Events 37

4 Extent to which Events are Conﬂictive and Cooperative

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5.1.2 Intensity of Water Events 37 CHAPTER 6 40 6.1 Driving Factors for Water Events 40 6.1.1 Types of Water Uses 40 6.1.2 Intra, Inter and User/Regulator Events 41 6.1.3 Issues of the Events 42 6.1.4 Types of Water Sources 43 6.1.5 Type of Infrastructure in the Events 44 6.1.6 Ownership of Water Sources in the Events 45 CHAPTER 7 46 7.1 Event Stakeholders and Their Actions 46 7.1.1 Direct Parties to the Events 46 7.1.2 Number of People Involved in Events 48 7.1.3 Number of People Affected by/Beneﬁting from Events 48 7.1.4 Share of Women/Men Involved in Events 49 7.1.5 Share of Women/Men Affected by/Beneﬁting from Events 49 7.1.6 Types of Actions Taken During Events 50 7.1.7 Ways in Which Claims of Access are Supported 51 CHAPTER 8 53 8.1 Third Party Involvement 53 8.1.1 Formal Demands Submitted to External Authorities 53 8.1.2 Calls upon Third Parties 53 8.1.3 Stakeholders Calling upon Third Parties 54 8.1.4 Types of Third Parties Called upon 55 CHAPTER 9 42 9.1 Event Outcomes 56 9.1.1 Assessment of Who Gained in the Events 56 9.1.2 Assessment of Who Lost in the Events 57 CHAPTER 10 59 10.1 Situations and Events 59 CONCLUSIONS 59 Notes 61 References 62

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ABSTRACT

Recent years have witnessed an increasing focus on water as a source of conflict. So far, much of the focus has been on the risk for transboundary water conflicts. Our current knowledge on local water conflicts is however more limited, and tends to be based on sporadic accounts of local water conflicts rather than on systematic empirical evidence. At the same time, the extent and nature of local water cooperation is often overlooked, just as we know little about the particular role of the poorest in water conflict and cooperation.

The lack of such knowledge jeopardizes current initiatives taken in many developing countries to ensure a more efficient and equitable water governance. To fill this gap, the Competing for Water research programme developed a conceptual and methodological framework for developing comprehensive inventories of local water-related conflict and cooperation. This report documents the results of applying this framework in Namwala District, Southern Province, Zambia and discusses the implications.

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

DC District Commissioner DDCC District Developmental Coordinating Committee DWA Department of Water Affairs D-Washe District Water and Sanitation Health Education ECZ Environmental Council of Zambia ESCO Engineering Services Co-operation FAN Fishermen’s Association of Namwala FAWEZA Forum for Women Educationist GRZ Government of the Republic of Zambia GWP Global Water Partnership MACO Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives MCDSS Ministry of Community Development and Social Services MEWD Ministry of Energy and Water Development MLGH Ministry of Local Government and Housing MTENR Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural Resources NDWA Namwala District Women’s Association NFA Namwala Farmer’s Association NGOs Non Governmental Organisations NWASCO National Water and Sanitation Council PDCC Provincial Developmental Coordinating Committee PPAZ Planned Parenthood Association of Zambia SWASCO Southern Water and Sewerage Company TFR Total Fertility Rate WAZ Water Aid Zambia WWF World Wide Fund for Nature ZAMPOST Zambia Postal Services Limited ZAMTEL Zambia Telecommunications Limited ZANACO Zambia National Commercial Bank ZAWA Zambia Wildlife Authority ZDHS Zambia Demographic and Health Survey ZESCO Zambia Electricity Supply Co-operation

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CHAPTER 1 Besides the fear that increased competition for water leads to poor people losing their 1.1 Introduction and Background access to water and thus further limits their Water and poverty are increasingly being options for moving out of poverty, there linked in the public debate, not least due to is a fear that increased competition for wa- the Millennium Development Goals and the ter leads to increasing conflict among users explicit target to halve by 2015 the propor- within as well as among different sectors. tion of people without sustainable access to However, there is little empirical basis to sup- safe drinking water and improved sanitation. port firm conclusions on causal relationships However, particularly in rural areas, the rela- between increased competition for water and tionship between poverty and water reaches the emergence of conflict and subsequently far beyond the lack of access to safe drinking about their nature, intensity and impact. water. Secure access to water for productive Inspired by Wolf and his colleagues (2003), purposes, e.g. irrigation and water retention we identify several shortcomings associated for crop production; watering of animals; with the current evidence of the relationship ecosystem protection to ensure fish and graz- between water competition and conflict: ing availability, as well as for environmental services (e.g. flood and drought control), is • Sporadic events. Most people’s understand- key to a significant part of the rural poor if ing of the relationship between water they are to move out of poverty (Bruns and competition and conflict has been based Meinzen-Dick, 2005; GWP, 2003; Hodgson, upon reports from sporadic events, rath- 2004; Hope, 2006; PEP, 2005; Molden et al., er than upon systematic overview of the forthcoming; UNESCO, 2006; World Bank, complete range of water-related events 2005). within a given locality. Thus, the wide- As competition for water increases be- spread sense that the number and intensity tween users and uses, the poor and otherwise of water-related conflict is increasing, may disadvantaged groups tend to do less well just as well be a reflection of improved than others in securing their access to water. means of registering and communicating In particular, entitlements to access water for such as conflicts, rather than a reflection productive purposes are often the first to be of the number and intensity of the con- lost by the rural poor (Barker et al., 2000; Bruns flicts themselves. and Meinzen-Dick, 2005). In this context, the • Excludes cooperative events. Conflicts tend to current tendency to focus upon drinking water be more spectacular and thus easier to iden- at the expense of the recognition of the wider tify than events of cooperation. Moreover, importance of water to the rural poor (Black as norms, rules, and interests tend to be and Hall, 2003; GWP, 2003; PEP, 2005; Sous- more explicit during conflictive situations san and Frans, 2003) is unfortunate, among than during times of cooperation, focusing other reasons because it diminishes the likeli- upon conflict often entails methodological hood that access to water, e.g. for productive advantages. However, excluding coopera- uses for the rural poor, is catered for in the tive events implies that conclusions about legal, administrative and institutional water re- causality between increased competition forms currently taking place in many develop- for water and conflict are, at best, incom- ing countries (Bruns et al., 2005). plete. Accentuating this, and contrary to

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prevailing wisdom, Wolf and his colleagues 1.2 Research Objectives and (2003) found that there was no causal rela- Expected Results tionship between water stress and the like- Water is vital to local livelihoods and a key pre- lihood of conflict in transboundary basins, requisite for development. In recognition of and that often water acts as a unifier. this, recent years have seen an increasing fo- • Lack of a temporal dimension. Conflicts do cus on efforts to ensure effective water man- get resolved. Over time and often through agement in developing countries, reflected efforts of mediation and negotiation, con- most clearly in the widespread water reforms flicts, disputes and tensions get resolved taking place, often supported through asso- and agreements to share or cooperate ciated donor-funded programmes. Alongside with respect to given water resources are these developments, there is an increasing fo- reached. Snapshots of sporadic events – cus on water as a source of conflict. This has most commonly conflicts – fail to capture included growing attention to transboundary such processes of conflict resolution. water conflicts and collaboration, and more • Loose definitions. Terms such as conflict, recently also a spreading perception that the dispute, tension and war tend to be used number and intensity of local water conflicts interchangeably and without clear defini- are growing (Carius et al., 2004; Thomasson, tions with respect to nature and intensity. 2005). The identification of these shortcomings However, while transboundary water con- had informed the design of this research flicts are quite well-documented (Wolf et al., programme. Thus, the research wanted to: 2003), the perception of growing local con- • develop comprehensive inventories of water- flicts is based mostly on sporadic accounts of related events within the selected site for local water conflicts rather than on systematic the research; empirical evidence. Even less is known with • ensure that the selected site covers a wide respect to how the poor, women and other- variety of situations encountered in the rural wise disadvantaged groups fare in such local areas of the sub-humid wetlands of Zam- conflict and cooperation, and, in general, how bia. Although not representative in a statis- they are affected by increasing competition tical sense, this range of cases provides a for water (UNESCO, 2006). The lack of bet- sound basis for drawing reliable and more ter insight into these issues limits the ability general conclusions; of governments and donors to ensure that • identify conflictive as well as cooperative water- water policies are consistent with Poverty Re- related events; duction Strategies and with the overall objec- • include a temporal dimension so that invento- tives of poverty reduction and equal access to ries of conflictive and cooperative water- resources for men and women as well as for related events are developed for a 10-year different ethnic groups. period (1995-2005); and The research programme aimed to contrib- • define a water-event intensity scale, as an ini- ute to sustainable local water governance in support tial programme activity, ranging from vio- of the rural poor and otherwise disadvantaged groups lent conflict, through milder conflicts in in developing countries by improving the knowledge the form of discontent expressed through among researchers and practitioners of the nature, ex- formal, e.g. legal or informal but legitimate, tent and intensity of local water conflict and coopera- channels to signing a formal agreement. tion and their social, economic and political impacts,

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and how this may change with increased competition 1.3 Conceptual Framework for water. Beyond its cognitive importance, As witnessed by the many ongoing water such empirically-based understanding has reform efforts around the world, the need significant implications for the water policy, for better rules for coordinating water use legal and administrative reforms currently and resolving conflicts accentuates with taking place in many developing countries, increasing competition for water. As not- which – if poorly informed on the relation- ed by Bruns and Meinzen-Dick (2005:3), ship between competition for water, conflict “similar pressures to define property rights and poor people’s access to water – may cause have emerged for land as it has become such reforms to be ineffective and exacerbate scarcer, but whereas changes in land ten- rather than reduce rural poverty. ure institutions are more familiar, studied, Based on comparative research conducted and debated, changes in water tenure have in five countries (Mali and Zambia in sub-Sa- received much less attention.” With water haran Africa; Vietnam in south-east Asia; and as a fluid and highly variable resource in Bolivia and Nicaragua in Latin America), the quantity, quality and time, water tenure is research programme sought to provide the more difficult to specify than land tenure. following main results: Yet, considerable advancement has been made, however, during the past decades • Quantitative inventories and qualitative to conceptualize water rights (Bruns and case studies of the origin, nature, extent Meinzen-Dick, 2000 and 2005; Meinzen- and intensity of local water conflicts and Dick, 2003), and efforts are emerging cooperation in five countries in Africa, which seek to accommodate and integrate Asia and Latin America, and of their so- formal and customary water rights (Bruns cial, economic and political impacts et al., 2005; Rogers and Hall, 2003). • Cross-cutting analysis and synthesis of However, as is the case for other re- findings from national studies, including sources, holding ‘rights’ – whether formal typologies of water conflicts and coopera- or customary – is neither a sufficient nor a tion and contributions to the theoretical necessary precondition to enjoy access to understanding of the impact of economic water (Bruns et al., 2005). In their Theory of and political inequality on the nature and Access, Ribot and Peluso (2003) distinguish outcomes of water-related conflict and co- between property and access as “the right to operation benefit from things” versus “the ability to • Recommendations for ongoing water pol- benefit from things,” the latter in turn being icy, legal and administrative reforms devel- gained, maintained or controlled through oped and disseminated to national deci- structural and relational mechanisms. These sion-makers, practitioners, researchers and structural and relational access mechanisms relevant Danida sector support and Danida include capital and technology, labour and support provided through multilateral or- labour opportunities, markets, knowledge, ganizations authority, social identity and social relations • Enhanced capacity and experience in the of friendship, trust, reciprocity, patron- partner institutions within poverty-orient- age, dependence and obligation (Ribot and ed analysis of water conflicts and coopera- Peluso, 2003). Politically or economically tion. powerful stakeholders might obtain access

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to water to which they have no formal or CHAPTER 2 customary rights, just as poor farmers with landownership-based rights to water may 2.1 Methodology not enjoy access to that water due to lack of The mapping of water events involved both capital and technology for making effective qualitative and quantitative methods of re- use of that water. In this way, poor people’s search. Qualitative methods involved estab- access to water does not only depend upon lishing comparative working methods suit- their rights to water but also upon the nature able for all five research countries – Bolivia, and level of political and economic inequal- Mali, Nicaragua, Vietnam and Zambia, where ity which shape the institutions – whether research was collaboratively conducted, and formal or customary – registering, sanction- this was facilitated by the Danish Institute ing and enforcing these rights as well as the for International Studies (DIIS). Methods economic and technological opportunities designed included defining working termi- to benefit from existing water rights. nologies in the research programme, design- Recent empirical studies of natural re- ing entry strategies into communities for the source management and conflicts further- collection of unreported events and identify- more suggest that processes of gaining, ing sources of institutional data and defining maintaining and controlling access are high- which data on both reported and unreported ly dynamic processes in which stakeholders events needed to be collected. actively negotiate maneuver and shift posi- The selection of study site was done quan- tions (e.g. Juul and Lund, 2002). In doing so, titatively by narrowing down the study area they draw on but also actively recreate exist- to a manageable but representative sample; ing institutional frameworks and social, eco- including the selection of communities. nomic and cultural structures (Berry, 1993; Cleaver, 2002). In order to capture this dy- 2.1.1 Research Definitions namic, the research project will apply a com- Working terminologies/concepts in the re- bined structure/actor perspective (Giddens, search were defined to include conflict and 1984; Bourdieu, 1998). Hence, apart from cooperation, situations and events, reported the structural features mentioned above (the and unreported. institutions, rules and socio-economic resources held by stakeholders), the study will Conflict and Cooperative Events also explore the actual processes of water con- An event is conflictive if one or more parties flict and cooperation. challenge other actors’ access to a particu- Thus, in addition to assessing the social lar water resource. This may range from e.g. impacts of water-related conflict and co- petty water theft (which essentially challenges operation, the research programme aims the access rights of the rightful water user) to contribute to the understanding of the to open violence and aggression. The ‘chal- mechanisms through which political and lenge’ may include the amount of water being economic inequality shapes the nature and withdrawn, or the basic right to access water outcomes of water-related conflict and co- in the first place. operation. An event is cooperative if one or more parties engage in jointly coordinated actions with other actors to secure shared water access.

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This may range from verbal acknowledge- conflictive’ or an equal mix of both. ment of the rights of others, through joint An event is an action (or set of actions) that water management mechanisms. The ‘shar- seeks to secure a party’s water access by either ing’ does not necessarily mean a common challenging the access of other parties, or col- pool arrangement – it can also include alloca- laborating with other parties to secure shared tion of individual/private water allocation. To water access. The parties in events may in- qualify as cooperative, events must have an ac- clude individuals, groups and organisations. tive element: While general co-existence does Examples of parties are households, user involve some form of passive recognition of groups, communities, companies, regulating the other, actual cooperation requires some agencies and authorities, etc.. ‘Seeking access’ form of active behaviour vis-à-vis the other. may include seeking direct access to water use (by e.g. farmers or pastoralists), or seeking to Situations and Events regulate and allocate that water resource (by Competition for water takes place within e.g. state or traditional authorities). particular situations. A water situation is a social Water conflict and cooperation take place situation where two or more parties have competing within a particular national and local context interests in the same water resource. The competition or setting. This includes the local and wider takes place through water events. Water situations physical and hydrological regime, the socio- may be cooperative when parties manage to economic, cultural and political setting, the negotiate and/or sustain agreements for wa- various policies and legal and administrative ter use or they may be conflictive when water frameworks, and the local natural resource access and use of one or more parties is con- management practices. tested. Competitive water situations can be The nested relationship of the context, sit- characterized as ‘mainly cooperative’, ‘mainly uation and event is illustrated in figure 1.

Figure 1. The nested relationship of the context, water situation and water event

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Reported and Unreported Events Figure 2. Motivating conditions for the By ‘reported events’ we refer to events about selection of research site which information has been obtained from institutional sources outside the location of �� the event. That could be local or national �� authorities, the media, NGOs, etc. By ‘un- � reported events’ we refer to events about � �� which information has been obtained from �� local sources, meaning citizens or local institutions at the location of the event. Some �� events were both reported and unreported, meaning that information had been obtained �� both from institutional sources outside the �� location of the event, and from sources at � the location of the event. � �� 2.1.2 Sampling Strategy Sampling for inventory was done at 3 differ- �� ent levels. Firstly, the selection of the site, secondly, village selection and lastly selec- �� tion of informants for inventory. All three �� selections were of great signiﬁcance to the � research methodology in paving way for a � �� successful and comprehensive review of �� water events in Namwala District. Different methods of selection for site, village and �� informants were used with each criteria be-

ing guided by methods developed collabora- �� tively with partner research countries (Mali, �� Vietnam, Bolivia, Nicaragua and Denmark �� – the lead). � �� Site Selection

Site selection was diverse in all ﬁve research �� countries. In Zambia the selection of the study area was guided by the presence of a �� multitude of water uses such as small-scale �� farming, domestic water consumption, irriga- �� tion, and livestock keeping, including hydro � power generation. There was also recognition �� of the importance to avoid exclusive focus on ��

sites with extreme records of water-related �� conﬂicts.

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At a global level, selection of sites for re- Office as well as records from 2000 Census search was guided by the geographical spread Reports. Local level organisations, i.e. tradi- of sites across continents and agro-ecological tional structures, were consulted for recog- zones were considered, including the repre- nised village communities in their traditional sentation of diverse conditions with respect jurisdiction where community registers were to water availability and population density, as provided. shown in figure 2. The selection started by making complete Preference was given to Zambia as a coun- lists of all the communities within Namwala try that had previously undertaken Danida District. In order to ensure that all commu- programmes and presently has Danida pro- nities (small and big) were included in the grammes running. In addition, the selection sample, complete lists of communities were of Zambia as a site for research was moti- ‘weighted’, so that a community with 10 in- vated by the existence of previous research habitants was weighted differently from one experiences and established research partner- with 100. Weighting a community increased ships. its likelihood for being selected by its size in terms of the number of inhabitants. From Village Sampling the weighed list of communities, we proceed- For the identification of unrecorded events, a ed to select 10 in a lottery form – assigning random sample of 10 villages was made from each community number(s) and then ran- the total of 427 village communities identi- domly selecting 10 numbers corresponding fied in Namwala District. Identification of to 10 communities. Map 1 shows the number village communities was done by reviewing of communities selected in each of the four community records from Namwala Council chiefdoms.

Map 1. Number of communities selected per chiefdom, Namwala District

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Table 1. Community sample description, Namwala District, Zambia Sampling stratum: Composed of number of villages in chiefdoms, total number of households and ideal number of villages to be selected per sampling chiefdom.

Source: Central Statistical Ofﬁce, Namwala Council Ofﬁce and Namwala traditional leaders

Informant Selection ural Resources (MTENR), Ministry of Justice The selection of informants for review of – local courts, extension workers; ﬁsheries, water events that had been formally report- agriculture, livestock, water and health. ed was guided by identifying institutions and The quasi governments and institutions departments of water relevance both at na- were also contacted as sources of informa- tional and district level. Consideration was tion for inventory. Contacted institutions put on regulatory organisations as well as law included; Environmental Council of Zam- enforcing institutions for the regulatory of bia (ECZ), National Water and Sanitation water uses/management and maintaining law Council (NWASCO), Southern Water and and order in water access, respectively. Both Sewerage Company (SWASCO) and Zambia at national and district levels, informants for Wildlife Authority (ZAWA). The media was inventory for recorded events included per- also a key source of information for reported sons from government tiers; Ministry of events. Local government and Housing (MLGH), Other key informants of great importance Ministry of Energy and Water Development were personnel from Namwala Rural Coun- (MEWD), Ministry of Agriculture and Coop- cil, and District Commissioner for Namwala eratives (MACO), Ministry of Transport and District. Communication, Ministry of Community Selection of community level informants Development and Social Services (MCDSS), required knowledge and access to certain Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Nat- inhabitants and key informants who knew

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about other people’s livelihood. Key inform- community and sector or neighbourhood or ants included community representatives sub village. Basins, watersheds, micro-water- including traditional leaders and members shed and the actual locations (longitudinal of various local organisations. For compre- and latitudinal) were mapped out to show the hensive inventory of all water events in the exact locations where events and situations district, the four traditional rulers (chiefs) in took place. the district were contacted as key informants The formats used to register events ad- of water events in their chiefdoms. Head- dressed types of water uses, including drink- men and ward councillors also composed the ing water for both rural and urban water pool of key informants for water events in supply, irrigation, discharge of contaminat- Namwala District. ing substances, fishing, consumptive uses, However, in order to ensure maximum var- hydropower generation, navigation purposes, iation sampling, ordinary citizens with varying environmental uses, recreation, tourism and backgrounds and in different segments of the drinking water for animals. The design of the community were interviewed. For the com- formats was sufficient to establish the types prehensive inventories of all water events, of water uses that attracted most events of community samples included: conflict and cooperation. Further, events formats disaggregated all • Women and men, young and old types of water uses into more conclusive wa- • People from different geographical parts ter use types where an analysis was made to of the community establish whether events involved different • Water Committee members uses (inter-use event), or same type of uses • Resident water users as well as absentee (intra-use event) or if events were between water users users and regulating authorities (user-regula- • Pastoralists, crop farmers and domestic tor event). water users. Different issues of the water events were reviewed. Issues of water events were 2.1.3 Overview of Event and Situation about competing claims of access for con- Formats sumptive uses, types of consumptive uses, The inventory format developed was the contamination, depletion of ground water, same for all five research partner countries, to deviation of water, water regulation/flood- allow for cross-country comparison. It con- ing, privatisation of water supply, privatisa- tained various data needed to obtain both re- tion/concessions of water resource, timing corded and unrecorded events. The formats for watering animals, timing for watering were sufficient to capture data on all water crops, contested/competing rules for water uses and use types, including issues which the management, water scarcity, environmental events and situations were about, whether protection, dam/hydropower construction, events where on water access or management. damaged drinking water supply infrastruc- Given the varied issues addressed, the events ture (well, small-scale piped water system; and situation formats addressed issues of the etc.), the need for drinking water supply, actual locations where events and situations damaged irrigation infrastructure and the took place. Inventory formats required and need for irrigation infrastructure, including addressed data on the country, district, zone, other infrastructural developments.

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The formats used for the water events corded were for the dry season. It should be sufficiently established interest groups that mentioned here, however, that the rainy also formed part of water events. In any com- recorded significant water events. petition, including competition for water, Finally, the formats provided an assess- various stakeholders are involved as interest ment of parties who gained and those who groups with varying motives for wanting to lost water access from water events. The idea seek access, while others act as mediators was to envisage favoured and less favoured or regulators. Importantly, inventory for- parties/actors when seeking the common mats identified parties directly or indirectly goal. involved in water events both as competi- tors for water access and as responsible par- 2.1.4 Sources of Data for Checking on Events ties for water management. Additionally, it Several organisations and institutions were was of great importance to identify parties identified as important sources of informa- in numbers directly or indirectly involved in tion for checking on reported and unreported water events and the share of women and events and events which, in addition to hav- men in those participations of water events. ing been reported, had also been identified To a larger extent, the former reflects the through community interviews. gravity of the need for water access while the latter establishes the gender most in- Reported events volved and affected in water competition Among sources for reported events were the and access issues. media, with a focus on public and private Provision was made in the formats to es- newspapers, national and local radio and tel- tablish sources of information for the re- evision stations, including the internet. search. The data for the research was obtained Checking for more reported events was through archival research (documents, news- done at government ministries and depart- papers, administrative records, etc.), on one ments in Namwala District. Focus of such hand and through interviews with authori- events was on the Office of the District ties, community members and other relevant Commissioner (DC) as the main overseer of stakeholders on the other. The use of events administrative/political issues in the district, formats became important in the latter as the the Department of Water Affairs (DWA), realisation of comprehensiveness in review under the Ministry of Energy and Water of events was seen vital. Development (MEWD) as a water relevant In order to provide a checklist for the department, the Veterinary, Fisheries and Ag- time frame of events occurrence, the for- riculture departments under the Ministry of mats addressed in detail the months, seasons Agriculture and Cooperatives (MACO) as ad- and years when events started or ended and ministrators of major economic activities in whether or not events were ongoing. The the district that demand the use of the water analysis of time frame provided answers as to resource. The District/rural council author- why events were spaced in time. Water scar- ity, the Police department under the Ministry city is most prominent in the dry season in of Home Affairs and the local and magistrate Namwala when people tended to compete courts under the Ministry of Justice formed over access more than in the rainy season. part of sources of data for checking on water With such a situation, most water events re- events.

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Other sources of information for checking Events mentioned by community leaders on water events were the water utility com- (elected or appointed) had the highest count of pany in the District – Southern Water and 75 reﬂecting the high knowledge of com- Sewerage Company (SWASCO), and Non munity leaders in activities that occur at Governmental Organisations (NGOs). Also community level. Events mentioned by the international organizations such as World village government had the count of 67, Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) were impor- while those mentioned by drinking water tant sources of information for checking on committees had the count of 53 and events reported events. mentioned by headmen/chiefs had the count of 47. Unreported events The lowest number of events was men- Sources of information for checking on un- tioned by shopkeepers accounting for only reported events included traditional water two, as shown in ﬁgure 3. monitors, extension workers, shopkeepers, Individual interviews with male and fe- community leaders (elected or appointed), village male citizens were important sources of in- headman/chief, elders’ councils, women’s formation for the review of water events. In groups, water committees, irrigation commit- some cases, group interviews – either jointly tees, drinking water committees and the vil- with men and women or separately with lage representatives. men and women – were also used as most

Figure 3. Sources of information for unreported events Number of events

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Figure 4. Event mentioned by ‘ordinary’ community members

important sources of information, as shown observed in ﬁgure 5. Long distances that peo- in ﬁgure 4. ple have to cover from their villages to the Events not mentioned by ordinary com- Boma are a hindrance to formal reporting of munity citizens where represented by institu- water events. tional sources of information. However, other events mentioned by institutional sources Figure 5. Reported and unreported events of information were also reported through Number of events community interviews.

2.1.5 Reported and Unreported Events Rather than discussing actual events reported and those that are formally unreported, emphasis is put on the ratio of reported to unreported events. Figure 5 shows the ratio between events reported and unreported events. In Namwala, most events reviewed were unreported events accounting for 55% as opposed to events reviewed to have been reported which accounted for 45%. Despite the existence of institutions where occurrences of events can be reported formally, not much is achieved in terms of actual reporting, as

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Rural areas where events take place are far 2.1.6 Biases and Limitations in the Data spaced and not easily accessible by authori- Focus for community interviews for inven- ties to document all events that occur. The tory of water events was on 10 village com- difficulty in reaching for information on the munities within the district with a sample occurrence of water events causes a decline size of not more than 15 respondents in in reported events documented at formal in- each village community. The selection cri- stitutions and authorities, hence most events terion of communities was representative are unreported formally. In addition, the re- of the whole community but did not cap- luctance by people affected and by people be- ture all events that occurred in other coming the direct parties to the events to report munities. In addition, the review of water events and make known of events that occur, events focused on events at water points formally challenges the documentation of all and water bodies in the study areas because water events for formal authorities to docu- events were about water access. However, ment. some communities had less water resource In a more elaborate form, figure 6 disag- availability in terms of water points and wa- gregates the reported and unreported events ter bodies, rendering a reduction of events into character types. recorded in those areas. In other cases, the Conflictive events are high for reported less availability of water resources meant in- and unreported events; reported events at 59 creased competition for water access at few while unreported events are at 62. water sources and hence more water events would be reviewed. Therefore it can not be deduced that all events were reviewed in the area of study because hydro-geological disparities in communities distorted perceptions of the availability of water events to Figure 6. Ratio of reported to unreported be reviewed. Further, informants in com- events by event character munities of water deficiencies discussed Number of events events that resulted from water inadequacies leaving out other important aspects of access and management that the study sought to establish. In most cases, community respondents tended to recite events of particular characteristic of conflict and cooperation, and often initially focused on high-profile events that they remembered well or which were particularly important to them. Community interviews were challenged when respondents associated the research to past unpleasant experiences they had with some named projects that had previously been executed in the project area. In one part of the district, some individuals suspected that the research

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programme was a ‘mask’ to seize part of the CHAPTER 3 flood plains from pastoral farmers using it as grazing land for their cattle and use it for oth- 3.1 General Overview of Zambia er developmental purposes, e.g. crop fields Zambia is a landlocked country, lying between at commercial level. In these cases, creating latitudes 8° to 18° south and longitudes 22° to conversations and getting information on 34° east. The country shares boundaries with events from suspecting respondents proved eight other countries, Democratic Republic difficult. of Congo and Tanzania in the North; Malawi Poor documentation of events at local and Mozambique in the East; Zimbabwe and authorities, media and government depart- Botswana in the South; Namibia in the South ments meant that our identification of re- West; and Angola in the West. ported events in some cases relied on the Zambia covers a total area of 752,612km2 recollections of government staff, rather and is administratively divided into nine prov- than written records. Institutions and or- inces and 72 districts. Two of the provinces, ganisations identified as resource institu- Copperbelt and Lusaka, are predominantly tions for information in the review of urban while the seven other provinces (Cen- events were not entirely willing to allocate tral, Western, Luapula, Northern, North time to the researchers. Review of reported Western, Eastern and Southern) are largely events from media libraries also had limi- rural. About 64% of the population lives in tations. The major limitation was entry to rural areas and 36% in urban areas. (National and/or access to the libraries and archives Statistics, 1996:10,15) that were restricted to be accessed by research personnel. 3.1.1 Climate On this basis it cannot be ruled out that Zambia, though situated within the tropics, a minor proportion of events have been enjoys a moderate temperate climate largely missed in the development of the inventory. because of its elevation. Rainfall is the most We have, however, sought to minimize this important element in distinguishing the three by interviewing multiple informants with seasons: different characteristics in the same sites, by careful probing during interviews, and • Rainy season: a warm and wet season from by checking our data with key informants November to April at village and district levels. It should fur- • Cold season: a cold and dry season from thermore be kept in mind that our study and April to August findings are focused on public events involv- • Hot season: a hot and dry season from Au- ing multiple actors, which must be expected gust to November. to be more easily traceable than events of a more discrete and private nature (which are The rain starts in the north-west and progress- not included in the inventory). It is therefore es towards the south-west. The annual rain- believed that the inventory provides a sound fall amounts to approximately 1,250 mm in and extensive database on which to base an the north and under 700 mm in south-west. analysis of conflict and cooperation events A lot of rain falls from December to March. in Namwala District. The mean daily temperature ranges from 2°C to 15°C during the cold season and 27°C to

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37°C during the dry season. The humidity in either merge gradually or become separated the valley basins during the hot and wet sea- by intensely dissected escarpment zones. sons can be oppressive. The plateau reaches its maximum height of 2,164 m in the east on the Malawi border and 3.1.2 Relief decreases gradually in a south-westerly direc- Zambia’s characteristic features of relief are tion to a minimum height of 325 m at the a series of undulating and flat plateaus which Zambezi River, on the border with Mozam- are broken by isolated hills into low ranges bique. The greater part of the country lies be- of resistant rocks. The plateaus are also di- tween 900 and 1,500 m above sea level. These vided by well-defined deep-cut linear valleys significant erosion surfaces characterise the (related to the East African rift system) into plateau, the larger between 1,300 m and 1,400 very shallow broad-based depressions known m and the smaller between 1,000 m and 1,300 as dambos and smaller semi-circular depres- m. The third lies beneath the cover of loose sions called pans. The plateau, with an aver- sediments in Western Zambia. The warping age elevation of 1,300 metres above sea level, of the surface has resulted in swamps and a consists of a series of terraced surface which faulting into rift valleys. (Monley, 1986).

Map 2. Location of Zambia in the African Southern Region

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Map 3. Zambia’s drainage areas and catchment systems

Figure 7. Major river basins within Zambia in km2 per basin area

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3.1.3 Drainage grass; the latter being as much as 80 cm tall Zambia has five main rivers: the Zambezi, where not grazed. Kafue, Luangwa, Luapula and Chambeshi. Grasslands denote areas covered by natu- In addition to these rivers, the country also ral grass and are confined to alluvial plains, has the lakes Tanganyika, Mweru, Mweru wa dambos, and swamps and to permanently Ntipa, Bangweulu, and the man-made lakes wet areas. Reeds of various types and aquatic Kariba and Itezhi Tezhi. Zambia and Zimba- plants are dominant in permanently flooded bwe share the renowned and beautiful Victo- areas of the Bangweulu, Mweru Wantipa and ria Falls, one of the natural wonders of the Lukanga-Busangu swamps. world. Deforestation, especially through for- Zambia surface waters flow within two est fires, for firewood and charcoal and the major drainage basins, namely the Zambezi clearing for agriculture, is having an adverse and the Congo River Basins. Zambia can impact on the Kafue basin. Charcoal used in be subdivided into six catchments includ- the Lusaka region is now obtained at a dis- ing the Zambezi, Kafue, Luangwa, Luapula, tance as far as 150 km from the city. Until Chambeshi and Tanganyika. She also has the emergence of forest plantations on the enormous ground water reserves which re- Copperbelt, mining was an important agent main largely as unexploited potential that can of deforestation. Deforestation by overgraz- be developed. Figure 7 shows major river ba- ing has led to noticeable erosion of grazing sins in square kilometres per basin area. lands in the Kafue flats and where cattle has Given her huge rivers, Zambia has substan- caused eutrophication of lagoons (Kasonde, tial hydroelectric potential. The Kariba Dam 1990). on the Zambezi River is the country’s main power source. Zambia shares the Kariba sys- 3.1.5 Demographic Profile of Zambia tem with Zimbabwe. Other stations on the Population census reports of 1980, 1990 and Lunsemfwa and Mulungushi rivers serve Ka- 2000 reported total populations of 5.7 mil- bwe town. Installations have also been built lion, 7.8 million and 9.9 million, respectively. on the Kafue River. In 2001, the total output Population densities were estimated at 7.5 of electricity in the country was 7.8 billion persons per square kilometre in 1980, 10.4 in kilowatt-hours, and nearly all of it was pro- 1990 and 13.7 in 2000. The highest popula- duced from hydroelectric plants. tion density is found in Lusaka Province with 65 persons per square kilometre and the low- 3.1.4 Vegetation est in North-Western Province with nine per- The natural vegetation of Zambia is mainly sons per square kilometre. woodland savannah with a great variety of According to estimates from the census trees and isolated small areas of grassland data, fertility has been declining at a slow pace, and swamps. the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) going from 7.1 Savannah woodland includes a close mix- in 1980 to 6.7 in 1990 to 6.0 in 2000. The ture of trees standing in tall growth of grass, 2000-2001 Zambia Democratic and Health the latter being dominant. The crowns of the Survey (ZDHS) found the TFR to be 4.3 in trees are far enough apart not to touch each urban areas, 6.9 in rural areas and 5.9 overall. other. Savannah denotes an open mixture of According to census data, infant mortal- shrubs and trees standing in a tall growth of ity increased from 99 per 1000 live births in

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1980 to 123 per 1000 live births in 1990, and generally light brown to grey silt or sand declined to 110 per 1000 live births in 2000. loam (covering the Central part of the Dis- The 2000-2001 ZDHS reported under-five trict) and the annual range of rainfall is mortality to be at 140 per 1000 in urban ar- 600-1,000 mm. eas, 182 per 1000 in rural areas and 168 per • The plateau zone covering Mbeza, Nakam- 1000 overall. boma, Muchila and Chitongo areas. The Life expectancy at birth has declined since soils are generally rich red clay/red brown 1980, when it was estimated to be 52.0 years loams. The annual range of rainfall is 800- for males and 52.5 years for females. In 1990, 1,100 mm. the estimates were 46.1 years for males and 47.6 years for females. By 2000 life expectan- Generally most of the district is covered by cy had increased somewhat, to 48.0 for males alluvial derivative soils varying in texture and and 52.0 for females. (CSO, 2002:124) colour from dark-coloured topsoil to sandy loamy soils. The district is characterised by a dry and hot weather from September to Oc- 3.2 Main Characteristics of Study tober, warm to hot and rainy weather from Area – Namwala District November to April, cool to cold and windy weather from May to August. 3.2.1 Geophysical Location of Namwala District Namwala District is located in the South- Hydrology ern Province of Zambia. The district shares The main rivers in Namwala is the Kafue boundaries with four districts, i.e. Monze and a braided channel of the Kafue called (South East), Choma (South), Kalomo Namwala River. The latter comes out of the (South) and Itezhi-tezhi (North West). It is lo- Kafue and joins it again. It is the main source cated 170km North West of Choma District of water for domestic use and animal water- and 158km from Monze. About a quarter of ing. The other usages of the two rivers are its traditional land is covered by the plain that small-scale agriculture and fishing. The abun- stretches from a point beyond Kafue Road dant water resources from the rivers and the Bridge in Kafue District to Itezhi-Itezhi Dam. fertile plains give the district great potential It covers an estimated total area of about for irrigation on a large scale. The other riv- 10,000 square kilometres and lies between lat- ers that drain the district are Chitongo and itudes 15 and 17 degrees south of the equator Mbeza, which flow intermittently. and longitude 25 and 27 degrees east. Topography Climate Most of the land is flat but slants slightly to- Namwala District is divided into three eco- wards the Kafue River basin. The altitude of logical zones namely: the district is between 1,100 m and 1,300 m above sea level. • The Kafue basin covering the Southern bank with heavy alluvial clay soils. The av- Vegetation erage annual rainfall is 800 mm. Namwala District has three types of vegeta- • Semi-arid zone covering Ngabo/Kaluwe- tion, namely: closed forests, open forest or za, Luubwe and Baambwe. The soils are woodland and grassland. A closed forest is

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a two-strayed forest with a closed canopy, la, Maala, Mbeza and Chitongo. The annual whereas an open forest has an open canopy. growth rate of the population is estimated at Grassland is land which is naturally without 4%. trees and is found in places with a permanently high water table. 3.3 Context Data of Namwala Natural Endowment/Resources by Ecological District Zone Namwala District is basically a rural district The district falls in agro ecological zone 1. It located on the low-lying plains with pastoral has a variety and abundant natural resources farming as a major economic activity prac- with rich soils for agricultural development. ticed. Namwala District holds a higher per- The Kafue River and the flood plains are centage of stock compared to all districts in used for cattle grazing, wildlife, fisheries and the Southern Province of Zambia. The Kafue forests. River that drains the district gives it opportunities for fishing and crop irrigation at small 3.2.2 Population Distribution scale. According to the 2002 census of population and housing, the population of Namwala 3.3.1 Water Availability, Use and Access District is about 83,000 and is concentrated Water resources are available to meet all in major settlement areas of the District such needs in Namwala District. However, most as Namwala town, Kabulamwanda, Muchi- rural parts of the district lack developed

Table 2. Population distribution by ward and gender The percentage of males is 49 and that of females is 51.

Source: Namwala District Development Plan 2006 -2010

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water infrastructures to enable easy ac- and Sewage Company (Environmental Pol- cess of water for all uses such as domes- icy Situation Analysis – Namwala District, tic uses. Generally, boreholes, wells, dams, December 2004). dambos, rivers and streams are the major water resources found in the district. The 3.3.2 Land and Land Use average distance between water sources is The district is characterized by two main forms about 2.8 km for most areas. The distance of land tenure: trust land and traditional land. increases in the dry season, as most water The largest part of the trust land is a forest sources nearby dry up, silt or break down, reserve. The gazetted forest area, Ila natu- causing people, especially women and chil- ral forest, covers 44,880 hectares. The land dren, to walk more than 3 km in search of has two main plantations, i.e. Chinyemu and domestic water. The situation challenges Ngabo. However, the plantations are poorly people in accessing water for various uses. managed due to lack of funds and machinery. In addition, consumption of clean water is Traditional land is owned and controlled by compromised in water scarce situations; be- traditional leaders. Most farmers under the cause people tend to get water for drinking traditional system do not have title deeds to from any available sources, whether or not their land, with only a few knowing the im- the water is clean is usually the last concern. portance of titles and beginning to acquire Namwala D-WASHE reports that only them for their land. The district also has two 46% have access to safe drinking water, out settlement schemes, i.e. Ngabo and Muchila. of the total population of 82,708 people. Other parts of the district are characterized (Namwala D-WASHE Strategic Plan Re- by pastoral commercial farmers, while the port, 2006-2008) most prominent in the entire district are the Wells and boreholes are the main sources small-scale and emergent farmers. of water mostly used by the rural people of A relatively big portion of the district is Namwala for domestic purposes, i.e. drink- covered by the plains and is used for cattle ing, washing and bathing. Construction, crop grazing. Other parts of the district are cov- and stock watering are usually done at rivers, ered by traditional land covering four Chief- dambos and streams. However, wells and doms: Mukobela, Mungaila, Nalubamba and boreholes are still used for these purposes Muchila. The chiefdoms are characterized by when streams within the communities dry mixed forms of farming with pastoral farm- out. The peri-urban part of the district uses ing as the most important economic form of tap water for domestic purposes. However, farming. Crop farming is also practiced in the the water reticulation network in the peri- district, however at a smaller scale. urban area of the district is old. Pipes and the two available pumps used to supply wa- 3.3.3 Governance ter to the communities are old and the water Government is represented through the full tanks are dilapidated. The peri-urban com- council in Namwala District. The district munity of Namwala receives water supplies has one parliamentary constituency which is for 16 hours a day. The population within sub-divided into 12 wards, namely Namwala the peri-urban district with access to water Central, Kaluweza/Ngabo, Baambwe, Maala, is above 70%. The organisation responsible Kantengwa, Kabulamwanda, Chitongo, Na- for supplying water is the Southern Water kamboma, Mbeza, Ndema, Namakube and

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Moobola. An elected ward councillor repre- ties in the district. Administratively, all De- sents each ward. The head of the full council partmental Heads report directly to the DC is the Council Chairman. and technically to their Provincial Heads. Traditionally the District is divided into Namwala District Development plan 2006- four chiefdoms. The chiefdoms are governed 2010 reports that the district has 19 existing by chiefs as the highest persons in ranking government departments, seven parastatal and have several headmen/women governing organizations and nine non-governmental sub-divisions of the chiefdoms. organizations.

District Administration Government Departments The district is headed by the District Com- Government departments represented missioner (DC) and is assisted by the District in the district are Ofﬁce of the President Administrative Ofﬁcer (DAO) responsible (District Administration), Health, Educa- for the coordination of developmental activi- tion, Fisheries, Agriculture, Forestry, Water

Table 3. Number of males and females in formal employment

Source: Namwala District Development Plan 2006 -2010

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Affairs, Veterinary, Community Develop- CHAPTER 4 ment, Social Welfare, National Registration, Buildings, Roads, Police, Prisons, Judiciary, 4.1 Distribution of Events in Space Central statistics, Marketing and Co-opera- and Time tives. In most cases, water events distributions are highly linked to the geographical locations Parastatal Organizations of the communities and water resource Parastatal companies represented in Namwa- availability. Obviously, areas rich in wa- la District include; Zambia Electricity Supply ter resources are most likely to have fewer Co-operation Limited (ZESCO), Zambia Na- challenges in water access as compared to tional Commercial Bank (ZANACO), Zam- areas of water scarcity. Similarly, communi- bia Postal Services Limited (ZAMPOST), ties situated in the ‘rain shadows’ are more Zambia Telecommunication Limited (ZAM- prone to drought and lack sufficient water TEL), Engineering Services Co-operation required to fill up water bodies in their areas, (ESCO), Southern Water and Sewerage Com- such as rivers and lakes, including supplying pany (SWASCO), and Zambia Wild Life Au- the water table with sufficient ground water thority (ZAWA). in wells and boreholes. Zambia is well en- dowed with water resources. Estimates of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) water generated are at 100 km3 per year of Non Governmental Organisation present surface water and an estimate of 49.6 km3 in the district include Planned Parenthood of annual ground water potential per year1. Association of Zambia (PPAZ), Namwala The surface water is unevenly distributed, District Women’s Association (NDWA), with high runoffs and high density of riv- Red Cross Society, District Water Sanitation ers in the north. To the south, there are very Health Education (D-washe), Forum for few large rivers, which makes general access Women Educationists (FAWEZA), Namwala to surface water very difficult. Zambia has Farmers Association (NFA), Fishermen’s As- well-distributed ground water resources,, sociation of Namwala (FAN), and Water-Aid but unforfunately there is inadequate data to Zambia (WAZ). make an accurate assessment of the ground All the above organizations are coordi- water availability for exploitation. nated through an integrated institution called Over the years, several provinces have ex- the District Development Co-ordination perienced droughts. A reduction in rain over Committee (DDCC) which is chaired by the the years has caused reduced runoffs in ma- District Administrator. The District council, jor rivers that feed small rivers and streams through the council secretary, is the secre- with water, making them become seasonal tariat. The committee reports its proceeding and drying out soon after the end of the to the Provincial Development Coordinating rainy season. The situation is similar for Committee (PDCC) which in turn reports to many small rivers in Namwala District. Water a higher organ at the national level. Table 3 sources, such as shallow wells, on which the shows the number of employees in a formal majority of Namwala’s communities depend setting of administration in Namwala Dis- lack sufficient water to last the whole year, trict. because they dry out in the months starting late August to early November. In commu-

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nities of water-scarce situations, more events east parts of the District water events tend to resulting from competitions over water are build up following a trail of streams in Na- expected. makube and Moobola Wards and Munyeke/ Chitongo River. Most events in these areas 4.1.1 Distribution of Events across took place in the dry season and mainly about Communities stock watering, which was the major user of Results from this study suggest that there water in the district. However, the dry sea- is uneven distribution of water events in son create a critical water-stressed situation, Namwala District. Generally, the largest num- especially for stock watering, because most bers of events were recorded in communities rivers and streams dry out. The estimated cat- found in the northern part of the district near tle population is about 110,280 in the entire the Kafue River. In the southern and south- district, thus the total water demand for stock

Map 4: General distribution of water events in Namwala District

Note: Some points are on top of each other and represent more that one event because coordinates recorded represented more than one event.

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water is 4.5 million litres per day2. The lack ban recorded the highest number of events of sufficient inland water causes people to accounting for 5% of the total number of move most of their cattle northwards toward events identified in Namwala District. the main channels of the Kafue River and The rain-fed water sources form impor- other smaller streams/rivers, while a few re- tant water sources for dry lands of Namwala main within their communities. However, the District. Rainwater fills dambos and all open events distribution for community interviews water sources, including seasonal rivers in the within drylands were water point based, e.g. at District. The situation changes drastically in wells, boreholes, rivers and streams. The oc- the dry season as the waters from all seasonal currence of these events is multiplied by the streams/rivers and open sources, including number of people using same water sources shallow wells, begin to dry up. This leaves a for various uses. Map 4 shows the location of few deep wells and boreholes with insuffi- the water events identified in Namwala dis- cient water for tthe various water needs. trict. The events (reported as well as unreported) Communities with high populations re- identified in the sample communities showed corded a high number of events as compared high numbers of events in Chisenda/Belina to communities of sparse populations. For the accounting for 19% of all events identified reported events that had taken place outside followed by Shimukopola accounting for the 10 sample communities, the inventory of 11% of events reviewed in the village com- water events shows high numbers of occur- munities selected for inventory. Least events rence of reported events in densely populated in selected village communities were recorded areas. Figure 8 shows that Namwala peri-ur- in Mwanamwale and Mazhiba, both at 3%.

Figure 8. Distribution of reported events by community Number of events

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Figure 9. Distribution of unreported events by sample community Number of events

Other events were mapped out in other com- the acceptable distance that people are sup- munities and districts3 as reported events posed to cover to access clean water. These outside the communities selected for inven- efforts are, however, challenged by the care- tory. Such review was a follow-up of events lessness of users of the boreholes and wells, that occurred in the main selected communi- who in many cases are not willing to repair ties but also included parties and/or actions damage caused to these water sources. If the from other communities (including districts) nearest borehole breaks down users may not within the locality of the event. However, the ﬁx it but shift to the next borehole further number of events that occurred in sub-sec- from their homes already congested by other tors of the communities was minimal. users, thus creating more water access prob- Authorities responsible for rural water lems. Such situations cause conﬂicts over supply are keen to ensure that all people in water access and this could be attributed as rural areas have access to clean water and one of the reasons some communities re- within an acceptable distance for access. corded more events than others. In order to ensure that water is evenly distributed to all people in need, population 4.1.2 Inter- and Intra-Community Events increases and distance to water sources are In terms of frequency, events that take place taken into consideration. For instance, the within a single community clearly dominate. department of water affairs in collaboration Results (Figure 10) show that of the 183 with the council authority responsible for events recorded, 88% were from single com- rural water supply are sinking boreholes and munities, while events from two or more digging wells for rural communities within communities and from two or more districts/ a distance of 500m from each other. This is municipalities each amounted to six percent.

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Figure 10. Inter- or intra-community explain differences in numbers of events events at different times in a year. The dry season Number of events runs from early April to late October and has the highest occurrence of events recorded, mainly, about insufﬁcient water resources and problems with access and management, accounting for 133 of the events recorded, while the rainy season, when water access opportunities for people and stock are improved, accounted for 29 events (ﬁgure 11). Events recorded with data missing on period were 21.

Figure 11. Event seasons Number of events

We deduce from the data that most water events are restricted within single communities because most water sources, such as boreholes and wells, are localized within single communities. In the Namwala District, seasonal streams and rivers drain more than one community. However, water events at these water sources are point-based, meaning that events occur at speciﬁc points within single communities. On the other hand, there are events that occur within two or more communities and within two or more districts, however minimal. Simply put, the fewer the water sources shared 4.1.4 Event Years among several communities and districts, the The mapping of events undertaken in fewer the occurrence of events in those plac- Namwala sought to review events that oc- es, explaining the low occurrence levels of curred during a 10 year period, from 1995 water events within two or more communities to 2005. An inclusion of events after 2005 and within two or more districts. was done for purposes of analysis and to enhance the understanding of how events 4.1.3 Events Duration unfold over time. The highest numbers of The time dimension is important in under- events were recorded in 2005, accounting for standing the occurrence of events. The un- 16%, while the least numbers were recorded derstanding of when water events occur helps in 2001, accounting for 0.1%. In most in-

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Figure 12. Year in which event started Number of events

stances, hydro-related events draw influence supporting their families. Because of such from social-cultural situations that provoke situations, conflicts of interest occurred. their occurrence. In other cases, the occur- In the 2007/2008 rainy season, Zambia ex- rences of events in particular years interact perienced flooding in most parts of the coun- with water-related hazards. Such hazards in try. People were displaced from their homes, Zambia are flooding and drought conditions, property destroyed, including crops grown, negatively affecting the livelihoods of peo- posing a threat on food security. Namwala ple in that excess of water cause destruction was also hit by the scourge. The understand- to crops and property, while scarcities cause ing by many is that people cooperate in cases food insecurities and lack of the resource of disasters and try to find measures to al- for everyday uses. The years 2005 and 1995 leviate the chaotic situations. On the other recorded high numbers of events because hand, disasters such as floods are a source of of drought conditions in Zambia. In order conflict and can fuel more arguments among to preserve the water resource, people in communities. As expected, lots of conflictive communities were forced to give up some or cooperative events occurred and could be of their economic activities that demand recorded. However, results from the review the use of water to secure that water for show no significant records of conflict or co- drinking be available for most of the year, operation events in relation to water access as especially in the dry season. However, some a result of flooding. Events recorded in 2007 parties were not always agreeable to such were about de facto ownership of water sourc- ideas. The claim was that they would have es and water contamination at boreholes and no means of survival if they gave up build- wells. Figure 12 show the number of events ing and crop growing, for instance, because taking their beginning in the years from 1995 these were a means of earning a living and to 2007.

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Table 4 disaggregates the year of start of 66% of all events identified while cooperative events by event character. Results show events constitute 34% showing that conflicts that 2004 recorded the highest numbers of are more pronounced than events of coop- conflictive events with a count of 22 of all eration in Namwala District. The situation is the conflictive events recorded from 1995 attributed to the high competition over water to 2007, while 2005 recorded the highest and poor coordination of management struc- numbers of cooperative events accounting tures for water resources to enhance coop- for 13. eration, including the unwillingness of water There are more conflictive than coopera- users to manage their water resources prop- tive events recorded during the review period. erly in order to harmonise the water access Conflictive events were recorded for all the process. Cooperative events were recorded years except 1996 where no events were re- for the whole review period, except the year corded. Overall, conflictive events constitute 2001.

Table 4. Event years disaggregated into character of events Number of events

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CHAPTER 5 at water points. This explains the high percentage of conflictive events compared to 5.1 Extent to which Events are Con- cooperative events. flictive and Cooperative During the mapping of water event, respondents found it much more convenient to 5.1.1 Character of Events recite events of conflict than of cooperation, Event characters are conflictive and coopera- because such events related to the difficulties tive. Conflictive events recorded the highest people faced in accessing water for various percentage (62%), as compared to coopera- uses. Cases of denied water access among dif- tive events (34%) (figure 13). ferent sexes, ages and statuses in society were prominent at most water points in Namwala. This suggests that conflict does not only take Figure 13. Character of Events place as a result of changing environmen- Number of events tal conditions, but that also features such as wealth, poverty, gender and identity play important roles in water access. At the same time, acts of cooperation and conflict resolution do in fact take place within these ongoing local competitions over water, suggesting that we need to see local water competition not only as a downward spiral but also as an opportunity for developing new forms of cooperation or revitalizing and scaling-up customary conflict resolution practices.

5.1.2 Intensity of Water Events An event intensity scale was developed by the Competing for Water programme to measure Rural communities in Namwala District have the intensity of conflict and cooperation in sufficient water supplies to cater for all their connection with water events. On the scale, water needs. However, inadequacies in de- -7 represented the highest level of conflict veloped water infrastructures, such as bore- while 7 represented the highest level of coop- holes, wells and dams, challenge water supply eration. 0 signified neutral or non-significant and access for domestic uses, stock watering acts (coexistence). and small-scale irrigation. The inadequacies The highest levels of conflict involve en- in water infrastructure cause water to be in gaging in organised or collective violence, short supply, yielding high competition over while the highest level of cooperation in- access. Wrangles at water sources such as volves merging formally to foster individual boreholes are prevalent because of insuffi- access rights. However, no events of these cient infrastructure to accommodate all peo- levels of intensity of conflict and coopera- ple. Conflictive events are more prominent tion were identified in Namwala, as shown in than events of cooperation in water wrangles figure 14.

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Figure 14. Event intensity according to local water-event intensity scale Number of events

The intensity scale shows that riots or un- water events. The situation is common in planned collective violence are not com- rural settings because village structures4 in mon in the research area. This is the case the Zambian rural areas are held in very high because rural people are accustomed to pas- esteem and are regarded as important insti- sive reactions in conﬂict resolution rather tutions for conﬂict resolution at the local than adopting violence measures. However, level. This, however, is not the situation for denouncements to authorities and/or third authorities at district or national levels. Ru- parties (formal/customary) are the most ral people seldom interact and involve third frequently occurring intensity level for the parties from the district or national levels

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Table 5. Water event intensity scale

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because of hindrances in distance to access higher percentage in intensity for all conflic- them. Communication barriers and differ- tive events does not rule out that cooperation ent perceptions cause people in rural areas does occur. Though to a minimum, people to reduce contacts with officials at district employ measures of conflict management and national levels. and strive to engage in jointly coordinated ac- The distribution of events according to the tions with other parties to secure shared wa- intensity scale further show that conflictive ter access. events have the highest percentage as compared to cooperative events. However, the

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CHAPTER 6 Results reveal that drinking water for people was the most dominant water use type in the 6.1 Driving Factors for Water Events research area being associated with a total of 109 events. Stock watering was equally high 6.1.1 Types of Water Uses being associated with 103 events. Of all use Most of the water in Zambia is used for types, water used for fishing was the least use non-consumptive purposes in hydropower type recorded with a count of 14 (figure 15). generation5. The rest of the water is used for There were no records for water used in tour- consumptive uses, such as agriculture, indus- ism, recreation, environmental uses, naviga- try, drinking water and domestic water sup- tion, hydropower generation, consumptive ply. This situation is generalised for the entire uses (non-drinking, e.g. industry) and dis- country. However, situations in rural areas do charges of contaminating substances. not reflect the overall situation for the entire The dominance of water used for hu- country, as shown by the study undertaken in man consumption (domestic) and stock wa- Namwala District. tering does not rule out the importance of In order to ascertain the types of water uses other uses. Water used for crop irrigation is which events were about, the study explored important in everyday use. Crop irrigation is uses on drinking water supply, irrigation, dis- practised at a small scale and not necessarily charge of contaminating substances, fishing, important for survival of the majority of the consumptive uses other than drinking water, population of the district. However, some hydropower generation, navigation, environ- segments of Namwala District that do not mental uses, recreation, tourism and drinking centre their economic activities on pastoral water for animals. However, the assessment farming, engage in small-scale farming/ir- showed that water events in Namwala were rigation. In addition, a good portion of the centred only on drinking water, irrigation, population earns a living through fishing and fishing and drinking water for animals. fish selling. However, the population of fish-

Figure 15. Water use types associated with water events (one event may be associated with more than one water use type) Number of events

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ermen/women is reduced by the non-avail- counting for 82% of the events identified, ability of water bodies, such as rivers and ma- while user-regulator events were the least jor streams inland the district. Most fishing is common, accounting for only 2% of the done at the Kafue and Namwala River chan- events. Intra-use events (events involving nels where there are no or few challenges in only one type of use) accounted for 16% of terms of access of water for fishing. the events. Fishing done at small seasonal rivers and streams, such as Chitongo and Ulwafuli, is Figure 16. Intra, inter and user/regulator faced with challenges of access because the events water bodies are also used for human and Number of events stock drinking. In addition, water levels in these water bodies are low; hence fishing is not allowed, to preserve clarity of water for purposes of drinking. Users such as pastoral farmers and other users at large argue that water should be used for cattle and human drinking only because fishing in those rivers disturbs water clarity. Impurities and sediments from the base rise to the top when people are fishing and get mixed up with the clear water required for domestic purposes and cattle drinking. In such cases of denied water access for fishing, conflictive events are noted. Similarly, cooperation is noted when the parties (pastoral farmers/domestic water users and fishermen) agree to set procedures on how all would access water for their uses, Water sources such as boreholes, wells, rivers without infringing on the access rights of oth- and streams cater for different uses of water ers. For instance, they may set different times in communities. Most of these water sources to use the rivers/streams for all uses and still are used for stock watering, human drinking, access clear water for human and cattle drink- construction and crop watering (gardening). ing, while other parties continue accessing the Community initiatives to secure shared-water water for fishing purposes. The idea is to use access rights at same sources and for all uses water for domestic purposes and cattle water- give water sources the potential to account for ing, before fishermen/women engage in their different uses. The importance lies in satisfy- fishing activities. ing all uses without infringing on other users’ access rights. The fact that the same sources 6.1.2 Intra, Inter and User/Regulator Events of water tend to be used for various uses ex- Inter/intra events and user/regulator events plains the high proportion of inter-use water summarise the types of water uses which events viz-a-viz intra-use events. events were about. Figure 16 shows that the A further assessment suggests that the majority of events were inter-use water (i.e. dominance of inter-use (different use) events events involving different types of uses) ac- relates to water needs that are required by in-

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dividuals and groups at the same time. Wa- events, i.e. conflictive as well as cooperative ter required for domestic purposes include events. water for drinking, bathing, and household Several issues were outlined as grounds for cleaning. Some incidences of water access at the occurrence of events. Issues of the events boreholes, where events were recorded, were were about competing claims of access for about more than one use event. consumptive uses, types of consumptive uses, contamination, depletion of ground 6.1.3 Issues of the Events water, deviation of water, timing of watering The occurrence of water events has raised animals, timing of watering crops, contested/ awareness on the need to better manage the competing rules for water management, wa- water resources in many different places, but ter scarcity, environmental protection, dam/ the urgent need is to first address the issues hydropower construction, damaged drinking that prompt the occurrence of these events. It water supply infrastructure, drinking water is assumed that the lack of water for various supply, irrigation infrastructure, infrastruc- uses is often the result of unreliable supplies ture development and privatisation/conces- for most communities in Zambia. However, sion of water rights. this assumption leaves much to be desired. In Results showed (figure 17) that competing this study, several issues have been identified claims of access for consumptive uses had the to be the perpetrators of the occurrence of highest count being the issue of a total of 83

Figure 17. Issues that events were about (each event may have more than one issue) Number of events

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events. Issue of water scarcity applied to 57 present and future water demands. However, events, while the least count of event issues most of these water resources are not devel- were those of contamination and environmen- oped to meet demands for different uses in tal protection, both with a count of 3 events. most areas. The situation is exacerbated by the Results suggest that most events recorded poor and uneven distribution of surface water relate to competition over water because of in most areas of the country on the one hand inadequacies in availability of water required and the lack of development for ground wa- to satisfy various needs. Wrangles at water ter resources on the other. This has resulted points, such as wells and boreholes, between in major shortages of water, especially in the different water users; domestic users, cat- southern part of the country, of which the tle watering and gardening are attributed to District of Namwala is part, and the district multiple uses at the same water sources that has not been spared from the scourge. do not satisfy all uses at the same time. The In Namwala District, water sources used importance of allocating different times for for various purposes vary significantly. The different uses has been used as a measure to use of water from natural ponds and rivers cooperate in water access for different uses with counts of 14 and 35 (figure 18), respec- and bring sanitation to water users in the tively, are important for stock and crop wa- communities. tering both in the wet and dry seasons. Rela- Other issues, such as drinking water sup- tively, a big portion of the northern part of ply and/or damaged drinking water supply, the district is covered by the flood plains of timing for watering animals as well as rules the Kafue River used for cattle grazing and for water management were among the issues watering. that formed part of the causes for the occurrence of water events. Exploring water issues that events of con- Figure 18. Water source types which flict and cooperation were about gives ideas events were about of causes of events in the study area. How- Number of events ever, the complete understanding of issues that bring about conflicts and cooperation requires a complete understanding of the types of communities being studied. Results from the study undertaken in Namwala cannot depict the actual situation in the rest of the country, because economic and social issues vary from place to place and due to cultural and perceptual differences in Zambian communities.

6.1.4 Types of Water Sources Surface and ground water resources form important sources of water for different developmental purposes in Zambia. All types of water sources in Zambia have great potential to meet

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Surface water from rivers and dams are also structure for water sources included piped- important for the provision of piped water water sources, tanks, wells/shallow wells, by the water utility companies in Zambia. boreholes/drilled wells, hand-pumps, elec- However, the utility company in Namwala tric/diesel pumps, irrigation canals, artificial providing water to the peri-urban centre ponds, small and large dams and buckets or of the district has preference on the use of bottles. ground water as the least expensive mode. A Borehole infrastructure is the most domi- total of 117 events were related to the use nant infrastructure in use in Namwala District of ground water, being associated both with being employed in a total of 82 out of the 183 the piped water supply in the peri-urban cen- events identified (figure 19). The high occur- tre of Namwala and with the boreholes and rences of borehole uses are attributed to the wells for domestic purposes being the most high distributions of boreholes and borehole common form of water supply in the rural reliance in the district. Piped-water supply is communities of Namwala District. restricted to the urban and peri-urban areas in Zambia, regulated by the Zambian Water 6.1.5 Type of Infrastructure in the Events Policy. The Local Authorities, i.e. councils Different infrastructures are used for access- working hand in hand with the Department ing water in different circumstances. The of Water Affairs, has, however, a responsibil- supply of water in an urban setting requires ity to sink boreholes and drill water wells for piped-water types of infrastructures, while the rural areas where piped water cannot be a rural setting engages in the use of bore- supplied. Namwala District, of which more holes and wells. The research established that than 80% is predominantly rural, uses ground different uses of water required the use of water in boreholes and wells, hence the high suitable infrastructures. The review of infra- records for borehole.

Figure 19. Water source infrastructure which events were about (no infrastructure was involved in 33 events) Number of events

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The least common infrastructure in use in the • water passes through private property and district was the electric/diesel pumps which is regarded as communal was only involved in one event. The use of • water passes through/is at communal/ electric/diesel pumps is only popular among public land and is regarded as private a few well-to-do people practicing crop irri- • water passes through/is at communal/ gation at small and sometimes large scale. In public land and is regarded as public/com- addition, the kind of technology is used to munal access water for domestic purposes by a few • de facto ownership is contested. private individuals. Cattle watering at private sources with electric/diesel pumps is also practiced. Figure 20. De facto ownership of water In order to give a comprehensive analysis which events were about of infrastructural uses for most types of wa- Number of events ter sources, it becomes important to acknowledge the importance of the use of buckets or bottles at most water sources. Small-scale irrigation at boreholes, wells, rivers and most open water sources requires the use of buckets to move water from water sources to crop ﬁelds. Similarly, water for domestic purposes is moved from water sources using buckets and bottles, usually done by women.

6.1.6 Ownership of Water Sources in the Events In many instances, water ownership is a con- tentious issue that requires adequate attention. The inventory finds that the most commonly used water sources are publicly owned Results show that 96 events were about water either within same communities or among that passed through/was at communal/pub- several communities. In addition, the study lic land and regarded as public/communal establishes locations of these water sources (figure 20) and thus reflect the fact that wa- to ascertain actual situations of events in the ter sources are shared resources in Namwala district. An analysis was done to establish de District. To avoid unnecessary claims of the facto ownerships of water and water sources water sources by powerful and influential peo- in Namwala District. In order to comprehen- ple in societies, the placements are at neutral sively understand the de facto ownerships of sites where nobody claims ownership of the water and water sources in the district, five water source. However, claims of ownership categories were used: are still made by traditional leaders, in most cases because they have the responsibility to • water passes through/is at private property oversee the well-being of the community, in- and is regarded as private cluding water sources.

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Water that passes through or is at commu- review of water events revealed that various nal/public land and being regarded as private interest groups were involved as stakeholders was the least common type of de facto owner- in addressing issues related to water events. ships of water, being related only to 11 events. In Namwala, water consumers were the ma- The result depicts a reality of the rare possi- jor parties in water events with consumptive bility for private water sources to be found on roles as a major role. However, regulators and public land. However rare, a few individuals authorities also played important roles as me- choose to have their private boreholes and/ diators in addressing the occurrence of water or well at public land to facilitate easy access events in the district. for the rest of the community members6. The review of water events established Nineteen of the identified events were that direct parties to the events were the wa- about water for which ownership was con- ter agency, urban and rural water consumers, tested. Undefined ownerships of water have rural domestic and community committees, posed problems for a good number of peo- village headmen/chiefs, community leaders ple in rural areas. Some sources of water are (elected or appointed), traditional water mon- claimed to be owned by the community or itors, irrigation committees, irrigation farm- traditional leaders, while a segment of the ers, pastoral /livestock committees, groups population disputes such claims with refer- and individual pastoralist/livestock keepers, ence to government or NGOs providing wa- farmers’ committee, groups and individual ter sources for the larger communities and farmers, fishermen/fisherwomen’s commit- not for individuals. tee, groups and individual fishermen/fisherwomen, individual landowners, industry, civil society, national and local government CHAPTER 7 authorities and international organisations (figure 21). 7.1 Event Stakeholders and their The study revealed that the rural domes- Actions tic water consumers were highly involved in water events, being involved as a direct party 7.1.1 Direct Parties to the Events in 99 events (figure 21). Everyday livelihoods Effective water resource management at the of domestic water uses depict the high fre- local levels often requires all stakeholders in quency of rural water uses in rural Namwala water-relevant institutions and organisations which covers over 80% of the district. to be involved. Some tasks are best performed Local and national government authorities by user organisations, while others require the were involved as direct parties in respectively involvement of organisations at a larger scale, 36 and 17 events. The involvement was with e.g. at the sub-district or basin level. (Ittersum regard to rural water supply and ensuring eq- and Steenbergen, 2003). Stakeholders in water uitable water access and distribution in rural events vary in responsibility and roles played. communities. The decentralisation policy de- Some roles are regulatory, while others are veloped in 2002 reaffirms the district councils user roles. However, it is extremely important (local authorities) as the institutions respon- to understand that all roles are important in sible for water supply and sanitation. More improving the well-being of the poor and importantly, it acknowledges the need for the disadvantaged groups in local societies. The government to decentralise with matching re-

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Figure 21. Direct parties to the event (each event may have more than one type of direct party) Number of events

sources some of its functions to the district, to the events recorded. Individual and groups thus empowering the local authorities to un- of pastoral/livestock keepers were actively dertake their responsibility with respect to ru- involved in events at community levels with ral water supply and sanitation services. The the former being involved in 55 events while district councils and ward councillors have the latter being involved in 40 events. Village the responsibility to sink boreholes and dig headmen and chiefs were involved as direct wells to ensure water supply in the rural parts parties in 48 events. Local leaders (head- of the country where they operate. Though men/chiefs) played an active role in address- this is the case, their efforts are challenged ing events of water in their communities. because the leadership at the national level is In the same light, community gatherings to diffuse. In addition there are several other in- discuss water access rules and management stitutions providing water supply services to were called upon by the traditional leaders to rural areas. The situation contributes to the foster cooperation as people competed for low profile of and the low resource flows to the water resources. However, in some cases, the district councils for execution of their wa- the involvement of local leaders was about ter supply programmes. downplaying the water access of other mem- Fishermen/women’s committees had the bers of the community because of their high least counts of involvement as direct parties influence in community activities.

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7.1.2 Number of People Involved in Events munities negotiate to decide on water access Results from the inventory of water events and management issues involved all mem- show that small groups of 10-99 people are bers living in particular localities. Similarly, the most dominant numbers of people in- reactions to unfair distribution of water volved in events, accounting for 34% of the sources, e.g. borehole sinking and well dig- events (figure 22). The least dominant or least ging, raised concerns from the entire com- common groups of people to be actively in- munity. volved in water events are those involving 10,000 to 99,999 accounting for 0.5% Groups 7.1.3 Number of People Affected by/Benefit- of 100 to 999 persons are favourably high, ing from Events accounting for 20%. Results revealed that most events (36% of all events identified) affected or benefited between 100 and 999 persons. Only Figure 22. Estimated number of people 10 events affected or benefited between involved in events 10,000 and 99,000 persons while one event Number of events affected or benefited less than 10 persons (figure 23).

Figure 23. Number affected by/or beneﬁting from water events Number of events

The events that involve less than 10 persons typically are about decision makers such as headmen and local authorities over water access and management from various sectoral groups. More commonly, events involve between 10 and 99 persons and involve small groups of people who which to use the same For approximately a quarter (26%) of the water sources for various uses. identiﬁed events, it was not possible to esti- Events involving groups of 100-999 peo- mate the number of persons being affected ple were typically events where whole com- by or beneﬁting from the event.

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7.1.4 Share of Women/Men Involved in Events ing is an activity dominated by males in the The many involvements in community ac- district. Most water events are about water tivities that involve both men and women needs/access for cattle watering at boreholes, also include involvements in water events. wells, rivers, streams and dambos. The vast However, the share of involvement for both numbers of cattle in the district require vast sexes differs due to variances in water uses water resources, and men and young males and access needs between the two sexes. The have a responsibility to ensure that cattle re- figure below (figure 24) shows estimates in ceive sufficient water to survive. Therefore shares of women and men involved in water men’s active involvement in water events is events. attributed to the importance of water use for Direct involvement in water events is cattle watering which has been given top pri- dominated by men. More men than women ority in the area. were involved as direct parties in 56% of the events, while in 9% of the events more Figure 24: Share of men and women women than men were involved as direct ivolved in events parties. From the results, it can be deduced Number of events that gender plays an important role in water events participation. This is explained by the distribution of power and control. In a rural community like Namwala District, decision making over livelihoods, including water access and management in villages, is mainly a responsibility of men because of the traditional way of influence men have over livelihoods and the respect they command in societies were they live. This fact transcends to their high involvement in water events involving access and management. In other cases men’s involvement signify the dominance they have in accessing the water resource. Water sources such as boreholes and wells are most patronised by females because they constantly draw water for daily domestic uses. However, men tend to demean women when access- 7.1.5 Share of Women/Men Affected by/Ben- ing water at boreholes and wells for cattle efiting from Events watering, which accounts for the major use While the majority of the events tend to of water in Namwala. In situations like have more men than women among their di- these, women take a silent stance and leave rect parties, the largest share of events were men to wrangle over water access amongst events that affect or benefit men and women themselves. equally (figure 25). Close to half (45%) of the Furthermore, Namwala District is tradi- events were assessed be affect/benefit men tionally a pastoralist district. Pastoral farm- and women, equally.

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Figure 25. Share of women and men or not sanctioned by third parties. The inven- affected by or benefiting from events tory revealed that the most dominant mes- Number of events sages conveyed to other parties in securing water access were conflictive. Records show a high occurrence for private statements of disagreement between (some of) the parties to the event with a total count of 54 out of the 183 events reviewed, as compared to private statements of agreement between (some of) the parties to the event made in 16 of the total of 183 events identified during the inventory (figure 26). As noted, it is easier and more tangible for most people to discuss matters affecting people in small gatherings. Private meetings formed part of 51 of the 183 events identified, while public meetings/hearings formed part of 40 events (figure 26). Public meetings/hearings are, however, important in the resolution of conflicts and for the discussion of rules to guide water management. 7.1.6 Types of Actions Taken During Events Other actions noted in the review of inven- With an understanding that people seeking tories for water events were oral agreements access to resources care about their interests being made in 15 of the 183 events identi- the most, it is very important to understand fied, public oral agreements being made in 23 the underlying desires and concerns that mo- events, public oral disagreement, being stated tivate certain actions to be taken. Engel and in 24 event and public written statements of Korf (2005) observe that, in some cases par- disagreement submitted to third parties/ex- ties’ interests are often compatible, and hence ternal authorities (denouncements, etc.) being negotiable, even when their positions seem to undertaken in four events. No records were be completely opposite. In other cases, par- revealed for actions of unconditional sharing ties’ interests are conflicting and not negoti- of water and concession of water (temporal able, and hence people wishing to secure their and/or for specific purposes). interests take different actions. In a number of events infrastructure was Negotiations/discussions in meetings are obstructed, stolen or destroyed or was re- some of the actions people take to secure wa- paired or contructed. The construction and ter access rights. The study revealed that both destruction of water infrastructure was private and public meetings between (some undertaken in respectively seven and five of) the parties involved in events were used to events. Construction of water infrastruc- discuss issues of water access, vis-à-vis man- tures is undertaken to improve water avail- agement. Other means to communicate water ability for the communities in Namwala. access rights and management were through However, even the constructions of infra- written and unwritten agreements sanctioned structures may bring about conflict in de-

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Figure 26. Actions taken as part of the event (more than one type of action may be taken in each event) Number of events

ciding which areas are in dire need of water. specify the actions people take to secure their Communities suffering from water-scarce access rights to water. However, our review of situations compete for a limited number of events of conﬂict and cooperation carried out government boreholes and wells to be sunk in Namwala show actions taken by parties for/ in their communities. Theft and repair of against others in the bid for water access. In water infrastructures took place in respec- 12 of the identiﬁed 183 events, threats against tively one and two events, while the ob- others had been made by one of the parties struction of water infrastructure took place competing for water, in most cases to demean in three events. other parties in water events. Actions affected persons were also encountered in some of the events. In many countries 7.1.7 Ways in Which Claims of Access are people would not stop at anything to ensure Supported that they achieve access to what they require. Claims of access are increasingly becoming Cases of killings and violations have been re- intense in competing situations. With an un- ported in countries competing over power and derstanding that people’s claims are varied resources (mineral, water, oil, etc.). Few reports and usually guided by certain criteria, the

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review of an inventory of events identified • investment in infrastructure to use the the following ways in which claims were sup- water ported in water events: • any other argument referred to by claim- ants. • land ownership • first-use/appropriation The inventory revealed that most claims were • ancestral rights to water supported by arguments of an urgent and • religious rights to water critical need for water, applying to 95 of the • the customary right to water 183 events identified in Namwala. Namwala • community sanctioned right District, just like many other areas has enough • urgent and critical need for water water resources (both ground and surface • other (than mentioned above) social or water) to meet all water demands (figure 27). cultural or human right to water The problem in accessing the water relates • externally sanctioned right to water (mu- to insufficient infrastructure to facilitate easy nicipal government, ministry, etc.) water access. Infrastructural development in • water agency sanctioned right to water terms of wells and boreholes is lacking and • payment of use fee to water agency consequently most rural people face water • payment of use fee to the ‘owner’ of the shortage. Similarly, people living on the banks water source of the main rivers are constrained in access-

Figure 27. Ways in which claims to water are supported (in each event, claims may be supported in more than one way) Number of events

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ing the water for purposes of irrigation and are best resolved locally. Experience shows domestic uses because water abstraction us- that despite having effluent standards and ing pipes is also lacking. These situations have legislations, external authorities that act as caused water access not to be easily attainable, mediators are often ineffective in the way and hence people’s perceptions are based on they address community issues because assumptions that there are inadequate water they lack the understanding of issues that supplies to meet all their needs. matter most for the people affected. Hence, There were no records of claims being sup- the belief that submitting formal demands ported by a water-agencies sanctioned right to external authorities would not yield the to water. desired responses makes people involved Investment in water infrastructure and in water events hold back from making land ownership-based rights to water were such submissions. The belief is that wa- used to support claims in 28 and 25 of the ter events, whether conflictive or coopera- events, respectively. The referral to custom- tive, are best managed where local pressure ary rights to water as a claim applied in 32 is exerted by those directly affected and events. Claims of customary rights to water where local-level organisations and people show a relatively high percentage because of affected assume responsibility in handling the general belief in Namwala District that such issues. natural waters are not guided by any rules The inventory of events revealed that the and access should not be restricted. Events submission of formal demands to external of conflict were dominant because peo- authorities was made in 59 out of the 183 ple seldom acknowledged the importance events, corresponding to approximately one- of guidelines in water access at boreholes, third of the events. People have various rea- wells, streams and rivers. The notion was sons for not making formal submissions to that water was a natural resource and owned external authorities when water-related events by everyone and that accessing it required occur. Some believe that certain events are no restrictions or rules. not of significant importance to be submitted to external authorities, while to others the distance from the community to the locations CHAPTER 8 where external authorities are found seems too far. 8.1 Third Party Involvement 8.1.2 Calls upon Third Parties 8.1.1 Formal Demands Submitted to External Apart from formal submissions made to ex- Authorities ternal authorities, third parties were called Namwala District like any other district in upon to solicit for mediation and post-event Zambia has institutions and structures that actions. Third parties were called upon in 38% help resolve water issues in relation to con- of the events, corresponding to 69 events. flicts and promote or ensure that continu- We note that people’s reactions to post- ity in cooperation is maintained. However, event occurrence are driven by whether they the understanding of many people is that perceived that the event could significantly issues affecting community development, improve their well-being. Other people pre- including water management and access, ferred keeping the events to themselves with-

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Figure 28: Parties who called upon third parties Number of events

out wanting the events heard by third parties. 8.1.3 Stakeholders Calling upon Third Parties Thus, some people interviewed stated that Stakeholders calling upon third parties base they did not call upon third parties because their foundations on the understanding that of not wanting to involve too many stake- third parties help resolve diverse social/cul- holders. In many cases, rural people did not tural issues among people of different char- call upon external people for fear of being acter and interest. misunderstood and the local events becoming Results from inventories of water events too public. In other cases, reports were not showed that in 23 of the 69 events in which a submitted to external authorities because of third party had been called upon, the call had distrust among parties involved; that a party been made by rural domestic water consum- wishing to involve third parties would be per- ers. Similarly, farmers and pastoral/livestock ceived by others as biased. However, where keepers were among those calling upon third intercession was deeply required and people parties. However, it is important to consider felt that the local issues affecting them were that for some users, water deﬁcient situations beyond local-level intervention, third parties become a way of life and hence, they rarely were called upon for intervention. make submission to external authorities for intervention. In other cases, users prefer

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Figure 29. Third parties called upon Number of events

coming up with their own solutions to water The district and municipal authorities problems, and third party involvement seems were involved as third parties to the events to be unnecessary. reviewed. Parties called upon were departmental/provincial authorities in nine events 8.1.4 Types of Third Parties Called upon and municipal authorities (municipal council, At critical levels of conflicts and coopera- individual municipal council representatives tion in water access and management, gov- and the municipal environmental council) ernment ministries were called upon as third in 25 events. Municipal councils have the parties with mediation roles. responsibility to supply water and sanitation Results show (figure 29) that involvement services to rural areas in collaboration with of the water ministry as third party had a count the department of water affairs. People fre- of 4, while the ministry of home affairs, i.e. quently called upon them as third parties in the police and courts, was at 10. The health events involving water access needs in com- ministry and the agricultural ministry both munities. had a count of 1. No counts were observed Local level authorities, e.g. the headman or for the fisheries, industry and environmental chief, community-based organizations etc., ministries in all events reviewed. The water were called upon as third parties 26 events. and home affairs ministries had the highest Involvement of local leaders in water-related counts of involvements as third parties, be- issues was based on the premise that they cause the former had direct contact with the had a better understanding of issues affect- people in rural areas with the rural water sup- ing communities, because they lived among ply programme, while the latter represented the people and were well able to mediate fa- the courts and police responsible for conflict vourably for all parties involved. However, resolutions that could not be managed by the in other cases their involvement was seen by local leadership. others as worsening the situations, especially

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Figure 30. Party assessed to gain in water-related event (in each event, more than one party may be assessed to gain) Number of events

in conflict-related events, if their mediations CHAPTER 9 were biased towards favoured parties. Further, the review sought to establish oth- 9.1 Event Outcomes er stakeholders’ involvement (outside government departments and municipal councils), 9.1.1 Assessment of Who Gained in the such as the church, international organisa- Events tions, non-governmental organisations and Wrangles over water access are a major cause the media. Others were the local lawyers, at- of conflict in Namwala. In such wrangles, torney generals, environmental attorneys and some parties benefit while others do not de- drinking water agencies. Results from the re- spite the efforts made to become part of the view showed that only one NGO (WWF) and beneficiaries. The assessment of the conflic- the media were called upon as third parties to tive and cooperative events in terms of who the events, the former in six events and the gained showed that most people did not latter in two events. gain from the events that occurred. In 74 of

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the 183 events it was assessed that nobody seasons. Such actions tend to harm people gained. downstream because the quantities of water Pastoral/livestock keepers are, as earlier flowing downstream was reduced, hence de- noted, those who use the largest quantities nying them access to water even before rivers of water for watering their stocks. As shown and streams dried out completely. in figure 30, groups of pastoralist were as- Notably, persons having relations to peo- sessed to gain in 31 events, while individual ple in charge of water supplies and people in pastoralists were assessed to gain in 45 of water community committees gained more the identified water events. Group actions than ordinary males or females in communi- towards certain goals are minimal compared ties who had no one to defend their access to individual actions, explaining the high oc- interests. The poor were even more disadvan- currence of events for individual pastoralists taged because in most cases their voices were as compared to groups of pastoralists. In ad- not loud enough to be heard. dition, actions taken by few individuals, such as coming together to deepen dams in order 9.1.2 Assessment of Who Lost in Events to increase water retention for stock water, The Government of the Republic of Zam- end up benefiting multitudes owning cattle, bia has the overall objective of “Ensuring even when they did not participate in deep- that Zambia’s water resources are effectively ening the dams. This explains why individual developed to contribute to poverty reduction pastoralists have gained more than groups of through increased access to safe water and pastoralists put together. sanitation and increased food security for low Furthermore, results show that rural do- income rural and urban people”.7 The gov- mestic consumers were assessed to gain in 46 ernment’s efforts are sufficient to enable the events, while ‘the poor’ and ‘the non-poor’ marginalised to have equal access to water in were assessed to gain in 13 and 3 events, re- the same manner that the well-to-do persons spectively. have. However, disparities in access are inevi- Farmers’ committees and irrigation com- table within rural communities where social mittees were assessed to gain in one event differences exist with some competing par- each. However, the groups they represent, ties having more to gain while others lose. i.e. groups of and individual farmers and ir- No events were identified where govern- rigation farmers, gained considerably with ment ministries and departments with regu- percentages of 31 and 15 events, respectively latory and mediatory roles, including roles (figure 30). of water supply, or for the water agencies, Other parties who gained from water events the national and district government author- include the commercial farmers. Some events ities, departmental or district government involved both upstream and downstream authorities, including the civil societies and people. Upstream people gained more be- international organisation were assessed to cause of the advantage they had in accessing lose. In contrast, a number of events were cleaner waters of bigger volumes. Problems identified in which leaders and institutions at for people downstream came about when local levels, involved in mediatory and water people upstream blocked water flows in small management issues, were assessed to lose. In rivers and streams as conservative measures five events, the rural community committee for stock water and domestic uses during dry was assessed to lose, while in six events, the

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Figure 31. Party assessed to gain in water-related event (in each event, more than one party may be assessed to gain) Number of events

headmen/chiefs was assessed to lose. Com- District. The peri-urban area of the district munity leaders were assessed to lose in five occupies a small fraction of the estimated events and traditional water monitors were 10,000 km2 total surface area of the district. assessed to lose in one event. had. Irrigation Its population is only 5,532 persons out of committees and farmers’ committee were the estimated 83,000 persons for the entire assessed to lose in three and two events, re- district8. spectively. However, these types of actors Further, results show that pastoral/live- who often act – in part – as regulators, are stock keepers also were assessed to lose in not as frequently assessed to lose as the di- the water events. Groups of pastoralists/ rect water users (figure 31). livestock keepers were assessed to lose in 20 Domestic water consumers were divided events, while individual pastoralist/livestock into two categories, i.e. peri-urban and ru- keepers were assessed to lose in 37 events. ral domestic water consumers. Peri-urban We deduce from the results that benefits or domestic water consumers were assessed to losses mainly accrue to individuals because lose in three events, while rural domestic persons affected get the impacts as individ- water consumers were assessed to lose in 36 uals and not as groups, hence the records events. These results represent the popula- showing higher percentages for individuals tion distribution of persons in Namwala than for groups. The situation is similar for

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farmers who lost in water events. Results Figure 32. Number of water events per show that groups of farmers were assessed situation to lose in nine water events, while individual Number of situations farmers were assessed to lose in 20 water events. In water-scarce situations, the poor are always the ones to be disadvantaged. Results show that ‘the poor’ were assessed to lose in 29 water events whereas ‘the non-poor’ were assessed to lose in seven events. No records were given for events that showed everybody losing out completely from events. However, results that showed in 83 events, nobody was assessed to have lost.

CHAPTER 10

10.1 Situations and Events Water events occur in particular situations. Situations in this study have been defined essentially as cases in which different parties compete for access to the same water sources. However, competitions for water access CONCLUSIONS and other actions taken in such situations were termed events. Results from the study The review of water events in Namwala de- showed that situations constituted a number scribed the variability in water access needs of events. One situation had several events and how events transcend to benefit and/or while a few were composed of only a single disadvantage the parties involved. A thor- event. ough understanding of issues pertaining to Results from the study show that the high- water access and management required the est number of events recorded for a single use of a number of approaches. The review situation was seven, as shown in figure 32 be- gave definitions of conflictive, cooperative low. However, only two situations recorded and neutral events to explain and define what such a high number of events. Results also the research sought to establish. Additionally, show that seven situations recorded the least a ranking was made by an intensity scale of number of events that formed part of each the events to show extents of the conflicts situation with the count of one. Twelve situa- and cooperation of the events that had taken tions recorded two events while 13 situations place over the 10 year period, for the unre- recorded four events. ported events focusing on 10 selected village Three events per situation was the most communities of the district, while a review dominant number of events recorded, apply- for the reported events was undertaken in the ing to a total of 17 situations. entire district with all water-relevant institu-

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tions, media, and governments ministries and tasks they engage in to secure water. While offices as importance resource centres/per- tasks taken up by men requiring water could sons for information. be minimized if water is unavailable, women From the study, we conclude that effective always have to scout for the resource to pro- approaches to handle conflicts are available vide for their families. from regulatory and mediatory persons and Persons called upon as third parties to me- institutions. The importance of these ap- diate in events are trusted to play their roles proaches, however, lies in integrating them effectively. The importance lies in maintain- into water policies, laws and by-laws to be ing the trust people have in them. However, used as a measure to solicit for water that maintaining the trust is often breached be- could benefit the rural communities so that cause of the unwelcoming attitudes that third conflict does not downplay the benefits of parties have towards the rural and poor peo- the poor. ple. Attitudes that are not pro-poor have kept Though water resources are generally am- people needing mediation away from authori- ple, development of water infrastructure is ties to avoid unpleasant situations as a result lacking for the rural communities, giving the of involving parties that are not aware of ac- impression that water is in scarcity. The situ- tual prevailing village situations. People also ations are perpetrated by mushrooming set- fail to call upon third parties in events for fear tlements that are unplanned for in infrastruc- of being misunderstood. tural development. In addition, carelessness The intensity of dispute is minimal for by water users at boreholes diminishes water most communities because of the preference access for various users in rural areas. common among rural people for aiming to The inventory confirms that water access contain situations within acceptable limits. affects groups and individuals differently. The This also applies to events of conflict, as poor and non-poor, plus women and men also evidenced by fact that the highest levels of have differences in the ways that water ac- conflicts, such as killings and engaging in or- cess affects their livelihoods. Groups and the ganized collective violence, were not record- poor people’s benefits from water access are ed in the water events reviewed. The highest tied to the overall benefits of the community, intensities of cooperation are also seemingly while individuals and the non-poor benefit at unattainable because of the impossibility of the individual level. Men are more actively in- including each individual access rights to wa- volved in water events and issues to do with ter in all decisions made over water access. access and see to it that benefits directly ac- Where individuals are involved, complete crue to them as individuals. Women on the benefits would only accrue to the few fortu- other hand have a silent voice that is heard if nate and those with the capacity to stand up issues are raised by their male counterparts. for themselves. The poor always lose out if Benefits to women hence are also seen to be made to stand alone. tied to overall community benefits. The understanding of situations that per- On face value, the burdens of water inad- petrate events requires addressing such issues equacies are seen to affect all persons living with certain criteria put in place for the ben- in communities with water-scarce situations. efit of the disadvantaged. It is recommended In reality, women are more affected than their that future works suggest measures to the male counterparts because of the tedious law-enforcing institutions to come up with

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regulations that would narrow down the gaps NOTES along gender lines and also along social status in terms of water access and control over wa- 1 Ministry of Energy; Report on Water ter and water rights. The move is important Sector Programme Support – Component in addressing the dynamics that put the poor 3 of the support to Integrated Water Resources Management. and women at a disadvantage to the well-to- 2 This estimate is based on a unit water do and male gender when water access issues requirement of 40.7 liters per day (National are a bone of contention. Water Resources Master Plan – 1995) Importantly, continuous assessments of 3 Such as in Mapanza District. existing water sources and infrastructures 4 Village authority structures include chiefs, need to be done, encompassing upcoming headmen and area committee members. communities not formerly recognised,to pro- 5 Zambia Integrated Water Resources vide sufficient data for actual prevailing situa- Management and Water Efficiency Im- plementation Plan. tions on the ground and ensure water adequa- 6 Only happens among communities with cies to people involved. This would massively a sense of belonging and recognize the reduce disputes at water sources frequented importance of water sharing. by competing parties. 7 The National Water Policy. Further assessment needs to be done on 8 Namwala District Development Plan the hotspot issues that perpetrate conflict. 2006 -2010. The importance lies in addressing these issues to reduce the problematic aspects and see how conflict can bring people together in cooperation over water access and management. To address problems of water inadequacies, it is recommended that people affected see the need to formally file in reports to responsible authorities. This move would enable quick responses from people responsible for water supply services.

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