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Chimpanzees in Research: Past, Present, and Future WellBeing International WBI Studies Repository 2005 Chimpanzees in Research: Past, Present, and Future Kathleen Conlee Animal Studies Repository Sarah T. Boysen Follow this and additional works at: https://www.wellbeingintlstudiesrepository.org/sota_2005 Part of the Animal Experimentation and Research Commons, Animal Studies Commons, and the Bioethics and Medical Ethics Commons Recommended Citation Conlee, K.M., & Boysen, S.T. (2005). Chimpanzees in research: Past, present, and future. In D.J. Salem & A.N. Rowan (Eds.), The state of the animals III: 2005 (pp.119-133). Washington, DC: Humane Society Press. This material is brought to you for free and open access by WellBeing International. It has been accepted for inclusion by an authorized administrator of the WBI Studies Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Chimpanzees in Research: Past, Present, 9CHAPTER and Future Kathleen M. Conlee and Sarah T. Boysen Introduction himpanzees have been used conservation issues, and pursuit of across equatorial Africa, from Sene- in research in the United their legal rights (Cavalieri and gal, Mali, Sierra Leone, Côte CStates since the 1920s Singer 1993; Wise 2000, 2002). d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, (Brent 2004), with their breeding Why is there particular interest and Gabon in West Africa; the cen- and use highlighted in the 1980s as in the use of chimpanzees in tral African countries of Congo, a model for acquired immune defi- research? They are the only apes Equatorial Guinea, the Central ciency syndrome (AIDS) research. (of both great and small) used in African Republic, the Democratic However, the use of chimpanzees in biomedical research and testing in Republic of Congo, Uganda, and harmful research has come to be the United States, and much has Burundi; and Tanzania in east questioned throughout the world, been learned about their emotion- Africa. Chimpanzee social structure based on both ethical and scientific al lives and intelligence over the has been observed to include nearly concerns. Public support for chim- last several decades.1 every type of relationship seen panzee research has been declining Although the welfare of chim- among different primate species, over time (National Science Board panzees encompasses many issues, including multimale or multifemale 2002), costs of using chimpanzees this chapter addresses their use in groups, bachelor groups, male/ in research have been rising, the research, including their historical female breeding pairs, a mother number of chimpanzees in laborato- and current use in the United and her infant, or a female and her ries (including in the United States, ethical and scientific con- offspring of various ages. States) has been declining, and leg- cerns, public opinion, international In general, chimpanzee social islation and policies prohibiting the legislation, and future directions. organization is described as a fis- use of great apes in research have sion-fusion society, with individuals been on the rise internationally. or small groups leaving and then These trends may indicate an end to The Species periodically rejoining the group. the use of chimpanzees in research Chimpanzee Like many primate species, chim- in the United States and abroad in panzees give birth to a single the near future. Other than (Pan troglodytes) infant, who may nurse for four to increased attention to the use of Chimpanzees are members of the five years, so the offspring have an chimpanzees in research, animal taxonomic order primates and the extended period of maturation and protection groups, conservationists, great ape family (Pongidae), which learning. Males remain in their lawyers, and others are focusing on also includes gorillas (both lowland natal group for their entire life, issues related to chimpanzees as and mountain subspecies), orang- while females of reproductive age well, including their use in enter- utans, and bonobos (formerly emigrate and take up residence in tainment, hunting of them in the referred to as pygmy chimpanzees). neighboring communities. These wild for food (known as “bush- The natural habitat of the chim- sex-related behavioral strategies meat”) and the pet trade, general panzee is a range of countries thus serve as a natural incest taboo 119 and help maintain genetic diversity • Studies that suggest chim- within and among different chim- Chimpanzee panzees, like humans, under- panzee groups in a given area. Male Intelligence stand that other chimpanzees chimpanzees maintain order and Cognitive and behavioral research may have the same or differ- position in their groups through a with chimpanzees, including both ent set of beliefs, desires, and dominance hierarchy and often field studies and captive work over knowledge from their own, a form coalitions of two to three the past forty years in particular, capacity formerly believed to males who co-rule the group. have taught us much about the be unique to humans (e.g., Females, however, are not as social remarkable capabilities chim- Hare, Call, and Tomasello with other females as males are panzees share with humans. These 2001; Tomasello and Call with males, although a dominance include: 1997). structure does exist among them. • An extensive list of some thir- Clearly, the evidence demon- Exceptions have been observed, ty-nine-plus types of tool use strates that the chimpanzee is a even to the point of a female who in the wild (e.g., Goodall species whose genetic, morphologi- participated in cooperative hunt- 1968; McGrew 1992; Whiten cal, anatomical, neurological, bio- ing with the males of her group, et al. 1999) chemical, behavioral, and cognitive although most of such opportunis- • Complex processing capacities similarity to humans is unique tic predation on small mammals for acquiring concepts such as among all other species living today. (including monkeys such as the “same vs. different” (e.g., red colobus) has typically occurred Premack and Premack 1983) among all-male groups. • Numerical skills, including Chimpanzee Like many nonhuman primates counting abilities, that are Emotions and whose habitats are being en- comparable in chimpanzees’ croached upon, the chimpanzee is development as they are in Motivation listed as “endangered” in the wild young children (e.g., Boysen During the past several decades, under the U.S. Endangered Species and Berntson 1989; Matsuza- much has been learned about the Act. Some estimates are that only wa 1985a) chimpanzee’s motivation and capac- 110,000 animals remain across • Productive use and compre- ity for emotional expression. Empir- Africa. However, unlike any other hension of symbolic language- ical studies under controlled condi- species on the list, the chimpanzee like systems of several types, tions in captivity have documented is the only species that is cross-list- including signed English based that the emotional range of chim- ed as “threatened” in captivity, on American Sign Language, panzees is quite comparable to that thereby given less protection from visual symbol systems such as observed in humans, with consider- certain types of biomedical and plastic shapes that stand for able overlap in facial expressions invasive research. Consequently, words, or graphic symbols that (Parr, Dove, and Hopkins 1998; Parr the “threatened” status of the cap- are computer-interfaced to dis- 2001, 2003). These include expres- tive population permits procedures play the word-like symbols cho- sions exhibited during laughter; and other activities that are not sen and the order in which under conditions of fear, anger, or legally permitted with wild chim- they have been selected (e.g., sadness; and a range of grimaces panzees. If chimpanzees were list- Matsuzawa 1985b; Premack observed in human neonates, such ed solely as endangered, the types 1986; Savage-Rumbaugh 1986; as disgust or pleasure in response to of research that are currently Gardner, Gardner, and van odors and/or taste. allowable could simply not be Cantfort 1989) Observations in both wild and done. Currently, only a few coun- • Extensive skills with problem captive settings suggest that chim- tries other than the United States, solving of all kinds observed in panzees are subject to some of the including Gabon, Liberia, and both the wild and under exper- same types of behavioral and emo- Japan (although a ban is in prepa- imental conditions in captivity tional pathologies as have been ration there), permit biomedical (e.g., Matsuzawa 1985b; observed in humans, including research on chimpanzees. Chim- Limongelli, Boysen, and Visal- depression, various neuroses, anxi- panzee research is not permitted berghi 1995; Kuhlmeier and ety, and even grief to the point of in the United Kingdom, Sweden, Boysen 2002) death (Goodall 1986). It is typical- Australia, New Zealand, or the • Recognition of kin relation- ly easy, especially for young chil- Netherlands (although not formal- ships based on comparing dren, to watch chimpanzees in a ly declared by each country, no photographs alone of chim- zoo or sanctuary and recognize European Union countries conduct panzees and their offspring that the animals are playing tag or research on chimpanzees). (Parr and de Waal 1999a) play-fighting or that a disagree- 120 The State of the Animals III: 2005 ment has occurred between ani- panzee behavior, including a range bers, spinning in giant centrifuges, mals, with resultant real fighting. of observations that included social and use of shock as punishment The overlap among behavioral and interaction, play, sexual activity, while training (Save the Chimps emotional expressions between diet, morphology, anatomy, emo- n.d.). In January 1961 a chim- humans and chimpanzees is quite tional states, facial expressions, panzee named Ham was placed on a dramatic, such that even very vocalizations, and intelligence. ballistic trajectory flight and forced young children are able to interpret Yerkes’s work was critical to the to perform a motor task through- often complex social interactions emergence of primate studies in the out the flight for which he had been among chimpanzees quite accu- United States. His burgeoning labo- trained. In November 1961 a sec- rately.
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