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Cambridge University Press 0521584647 - Comparative Constitutionalism and Good Governance in the Commonwealth: An Eastern and Southern African Perspective - John Hatchard, Muna Ndulo and Peter Slinn Index More information

INDEX

abortion, 41 Attorney-General, 169 abuse of power, 59, 96, 122, 176, 192, Australia, 210, 226 224 access to justice, 176–77, 286 Babangida, General Ibrahim (Head of Acheampong, General I. K. (Head of State, Nigeria 1985–93), 10 State, Ghana, 1972–78), 126 Banana, Reverend Canaan (President of administrative justice, 286 Zimbabwe 1980–87), 83, 86, 89 Adrisi, Mustafa (Vice-President, Banda, Dr Hastings (President of Uganda), 261 Malawi, 1966–94), 10, 17, 18, Africa, background, 5–11 63, 64, 252, 261, 314 African Charter on Human and Bangalore Principles, 173–74, 183 Peoples’ Rights 1981, 99, 107, Bangladesh, 54 139, 150 Barotseland, 95 African Conference on Rule of Law, 277 basic structure doctrine, 43, 54–55, 64 African Parliamentarians Network Bentham, Jeremy, 265, 266 against Corruption, 238 Berlin Conference 1884, 13 AIDS, 71 bias, judiciary, 160–61 aliens, preventive detention of, 307 Bloemfontein Statement, 163 American Convention on Human Botswana Rights 1969, 283 Botswana Democratic Party, 100 Amin, Idi (President of Uganda Cabinet, 69 1971–79), 242–43, 260, 271, constitutional approval, 51 314, 320 constitutional interpretation, 318 amnesty policies, 262–68 corruption index, 236 Angola, 62 Directorate on Corruption and anti-corruption commissions, 236–38 Economic Crime, 237, 238 Anyaoku, Chief Emeka expatriate judges, 159 (Commonwealth heads of state, 16 Secretary-General 1990–2000), House of Chiefs, 126 242, 323 independence, 15 arbitrary arrest, freedom from, 286 intervention in Lesotho, 26 arbitrary detention, 286 Khama, Sir Seretse (President of Argentina, 269, 273 Botswana 1966–80), 63 Association, Freedom of, 143, Masire, Ketunile (President of 286 Botswana 1980–98), 63 Attlee, Clement (Prime Minister, UK, ombudsman, 209 1945–51), 15 parliamentary committees, 133

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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521584647 - Comparative Constitutionalism and Good Governance in the Commonwealth: An Eastern and Southern African Perspective - John Hatchard, Muna Ndulo and Peter Slinn Index More information

344 index

Botswana (cont.) and devolution, 190 presidential elections, 61 governance, 14–15 presidential powers, 58 indirect rule, 15, 95, 190, 319 presidential tenure, 63 judiciary, 151–52, 162 quasi-emergency powers, 288 legacy, 7, 13–15, 190, 311–13, removal of presidents, 74 323 states of emergency, 278 use of colonial penal codes, 80 unchanged constitution, 22 use of traditional leaders, 199, 319 Boutros-Ghali, Boutros (UN colonial states, 13 Secretary-General), 114 commissions of inquiry, 160, 270–72 Brazil, 273 Commonwealth bribery, 146, 148, 219, 238 and 2002 Zimbabwe elections, 119–20 Cabinets, 67–72, 314 election observer groups, 114, Cameroon, 11 115–16, 117, 315–16 Canada, 201, 204, 210, 235 freedom of information, 80 capable states, meaning, 9 and gender equality, 127 capital punishment, 46–47, 54, 180–81, Harare Declaration 1991, 3–4, 230, 318 9–11, 22, 24, 42, 208, 317 Catholic Church, 41 and human rights, 173 Catholic Commission for Justice and judicial service commissions, 154 Peace, 262, 264 legal education, 176 centralisation of power, 193, 319–20 media freedom, 80 Chad, 273 membership, 11 Chaskalson, A. (Chief Justice of South path to good governance, 323–24 Africa, 2001–), 183 Principles, 3, 9–11, 24, 164, 167, Chesoni, Z. (Chief Justice of Kenya, 169 1996–99), 111 relevance of, 3–4 Chidyausiku, G., (Chief Justice of Commonwealth Human Rights Zimbabwe 2001–), 32, 161 Initiative, 215, 301 Chief Justice, 152, 156–57 Commonwealth Legal Education chiefs, 14, 96–97, 126–27, 190, 198, Association, 176, 270 319 Commonwealth Ministerial Action Children, Rights of, 223, 286 Group (CMAG), 3, 244, 323 Chile, 273 Commonwealth Parliamentary Chiluba, Frederick, (President of Association, 138 Zambia, 1991–2002), 64, 65, 71, Conscience, Freedom of, 286, 287 79, 85, 280, 314 conﬁscation of assets, 270 citizenship, 65 Congo (Brazzaville), 62, 154 civil disobedience, 260 Congo, Democratic Republic of, 26, 66, civil service see public service 107, 254 civil society, 258–61, 315, 322 constitution making civil supremacy principle, 240–41, 251, 1990s, 28–42 275 adoption process, 35–40 civil war, 289 approval by referendum, 40–42 Cold War, end, 22 comparative approach, 34–35 collective bargaining, 286 constituent assemblies, 36–37 Colonial Ofﬁce, 15–19 consultation, 29–34

index345

independence constitutions, amendments. See constitutional 15–19 amendments judicial role, 161 anti-coup provisions, 247–48, legitimacy, 35 249, 270, 275, 321 overview colonial legacy, 13–15, 311–13 procedure, 28–29 contents, 23–26 constitutional amendments guardians, 55–56, 178 approval by constituent imperfections, 43, 53 assemblies, 51 judicial interpretation, 169, approval by referenda, 51–52 176–81, 318–19 basic structure doctrine, 43, judicial responses to coups, 54–55, 64 248–50 imperfections, 43, 53 lack of popular understanding, 208 inalienable rights, 53–54 and military coups, 247–50 parliamentary safeguards, 48–51 necessity, 9 procedure, 44–53 overview, 26–27 publicising, 52–53 popularity, 313–14 retrogressive amendments, 53–54 post-independence constitutions, safeguards, 43 19–21, 312 specially enhanced parliamentary process See constitution making majority, 45, 48–50 protection by civil society, 259 unamendable constitutions, reviews, 44 43–44 role, 12 weakening of fundamental search for durable constitutions, provisions, 53–55, 321 313–14 constitutional rights see also ‘Snow White’ clauses, 247–48, Fundamental Rights and 249, 270, 275, 321 Freedoms subversion, 320–22 interpretation, 176–81, 318–19 contempt of court, 168 judicial protection, 172–81 Convention against Torture and Other oversight bodies, 208 Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading suspension by emergency powers, Treatment or Punishment 1984, 286–87 139 constitutionalism corporal punishment, 318 concept, 1–2 corruption ethos of, 29, 259 anti-corruption commissions, and excessive executive power, 236–38 314–15 deﬁnition, 236 historical legacy, 13–15, 311–13 image, 6 parliamentary failures, 315–17 investigation, 219 political culture, 310–11, 322, 324 judges, 318 problems of, 308–10 magistrates’ courts staff, 162 rebirth of, 309 and one-party states, 21 search for durable constitutions, parliamentarians, 143 313–14 party funding, 103, 106 subversion of, 320–22 political monopolies, 192, 194 constitutions public procurement, 136 1990s winds of change, 22–23 coups, 241–44, 247–50, 259

346 index

courts martial, 257 disappearances, 267, 294 criminal libel, 288 disease, 8 cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, freedom from, Earth Summit, 311, 323 46–47, 180, 302. See also East Asia, 308 corporal punishment economic development, 308 Culliton Report, 147 economic growth, potential, 7–8 cultural activities, 286 education customary law, 200 human rights, 229, 261, 275 judges, 158, 172–73, 174 de facto governments, 248–49 legal education, 270 death penalty, 46–47, 54, 180–81, 230, members of parliament, 124 318 right to, 286, 287 decentralisation see devolution of El Salvador, 273 power elections defence procurement, 253 challenging results, 120–22 degrading treatment, 46–47, 180, 302 constituency boundaries, 111 democracy, 10, 93, 324 electoral commissions, 110–12, Denmark, 218 117 detention see preventive detention electoral systems, 108–10 detention orders, 290, 294, 298–99 fraud, 112 development programmes, 251 free and fair, 99, 107–12, 117, 315 devolution of power international observers, 114–18 case for, 185–88 media role, 113–14 colonial legacy, 190 monitoring, 114–20, 315–16 costs, 189 parties see political parties dispute resolution, 205–07 presidents, 60–63 divided model of governance, 201 proportional representation, 63, division of powers, 200–03 94, 109 drawbacks, 188–89 voter education, 113–14 economic beneﬁts, 187–88 voting rights, 99 failures, 319–20 Westminster model, 108–09 issues, 192–200 emergency powers levels of government, 184 abuse, 74, 276, 282–85, 321 political beneﬁts, 186–87 military tribunals, 256 and post-independence preventive detention, 289–301 governments, 190–92 quasi-emergency laws, 278, role of traditional institutions, 287–88 198–200 suspension of constitutional rural/urban divide, 192–93 rights, 286–87 share model of governance, environmental rights, 286, 287 200–01 Equality, Right to, 127–29, 138, 163–64, taxation, 197, 203–05 199–200, 215, 286, 316, 319 trends, 184, 185 ethnicity, 20, 25, 62–63, 101, 102, 188, viability of units, 197–98 315 dictatorships, post-independence, European Convention on Human 96–97 Rights and Fundamental disabled persons, 125 Freedoms 1950, 283

index347

European Social Charter, 283 Legal Representation, Right to, 85, European Union, 116, 218 292–93, 299, 304, 305 executive Liberty, Right to, 286, 289 Cabinets, 67–72, 314 Life, Right to, 46–47, 54, 180–81, exercise of power, 57–60, 314–15 230, 318 presidents see presidents Movement, Freedom of, 286 vice-presidents, 66–67 Political Rights, 99, 107–12, 117, Expression, Freedom of, 79–80, 315 99, 168, 286 Privacy, Right to, 146, 286 Property, Right to, 286 fair hearings, 86–87, 150, 257, 286, 287 Suspension of Constitutional favouritism, 219 Rights, 286–87 Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, 100, 320 gacaca courts, 274 Finance Bills, 136 Gambia, The, 52, 85, 90, 224 Financial Action Task Force, 270 gender equality, 127–29, 138, 163–64, Flower, Ken, 241, 262, 263 199–200, 215, 316, 319 food production, 5 genocide, 274 force majeure, 278–79 Germany, 105 foreign investment, failure of, 6–7 Ghai, Yash (Chairman, Kenya foreign law, and statutory Constitutional Review interpretation, 179 Commission), 100, 310 francophone Africa, 23, 320 Ghana Fraser, M. (Prime Minister of Australia Acheampong, General I. K. (Head 1975–83), 232 of State, Ghana, 1972–78), 126 Fundamental Rights and Freedoms Commission on Human Rights Association, Freedom of, 100, 143, and Administrative Justice, 210, 286, 287 217, 218, 223, 228, 230 Children, Rights of, 223, 286 independence, 16 Conscience, Freedom of, 286, 287 members of parliament, 126 Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Nkrumah, Kwame (President of Punishment, Freedom from, Ghana 1960–66), 16, 19 46–47, 180, 302, 318 see also one-party state, 19 torture political parties, 106 Discrimination, Freedom from, presidential impeachment, 87 127 see also Equality, Right to presidential incapacity, 90 Education, Right to, 286, 287 protection of constitution, 259 Equality, Right to, 127–29, 138, security forces, 258 163–64, 199–200, 215, 286, 316, states of emergency, 278 319 unamendable constitutional Environmental Rights, 286, provisions, 44 287 governance Expression, Freedom of, 79–80, African record, 5–11 99, 168, 286 colonial period, 14–15 Fair Hearing, Right to, 86–87, 150, Commonwealth path, 323–24 257, 286, 287 concept, 2 Information, Freedom of, 79–80, role, 9–11 286 and western aid, 98

348 index

Gubbay, A. R. (Chief Justice of promotion of human rights, Zimbabwe 1990–2001), 55, 229–32 169 qualiﬁcations of commissioners, 214 habeas corpus, 299 quasi-commissions, 210 heads of state remedial powers, 227–28 immunity, 220 and state compliance with independence constitutions, 16 international law, 230–31 presidents see presidents taking positions on human rights HIV/AIDS, 71 issues, 230 Hone, Sir Evelyn (Governor of training, 138, 173 Northern Rhodesia 1958–64), 17 illiteracy, 8 Hove, Sheila, 265 impeachment, 81–92 Howard, John (Prime Minister of incompetence, judges, 170 Australia 1996–), 11 independence, constitution making, Huggins, Sir Godfrey (Prime Minister 15–19 of Rhodesia and Nyasaland India, 54, 168, 210, 235 1953–56), 100 indirect rule, 15, 95, 190, 319 human rights Information, Freedom of, 79–80, Commonwealth Principles, 10 286 and constitutional amendments, information technology, judiciary and 53 the use of, 174, 175 constitutions see constitutional infrastructures, 8 rights inhuman treatment, 46–47, 180, 302 Decade of Human Rights inquiry commissions, 160, 270–72 Education, 261 intelligence forces, 241, 245, 255 international obligations, 139, Interights, 173 173–74, 230–31 International Covenant on Civil and legislation, 139 Political Rights, 99, 102, 107, meaning, 220 150, 276, 279, 282, 287 military forces, 254, 258, 261–74 International Criminal Court, 269, 274 Oder Commission Report international law (Uganda), 214, 229, 259, 261, arms agreements, 255 271–72, 274, 275, 289 and coups, 248 promotion, 229–32 human rights obligations, 139, reports on national human rights 173–74, 230–31 situations, 231–32 statutory interpretation, 179 training, 138, 173, 261 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 8, truth and reconciliation 135, 192, 237 commissions, 272 interpretation of constitutions, 169, human rights commissions see also 176–81, 318–19 oversight bodies annual reports, 231 Johannesburg Earth Summit, 311, 323 functions, 209–11, 322 John Paul II, Pope, 272 investigations, 219–25 Jonathan, Chief Lebua (Prime Minister national reports, 231–32 of Lesotho 1966–86), 93, 277, and privatisation, 233 320

index349

Jones, Sir Glyn (Governor-General of protection of constitutional Malawi1964–66), 17, 19 rights, 172–81 Judicial Ethics of South Africa, 59, 60 relations with parliament, 169–70 judicial review, 147–48, 290, 299, removal proceedings, 170 303–04 remuneration, 165–66 judicial service commissions, 151–54 representativeness, 163–64 judiciary retirement age, 158 accountability, 166–68 retirement benefits, 166 acting judges, 160 security of tenure, 158, 159–60 appointment procedure, 154–64 and states of emergency, 281–82 budgetary independence, 164–65 status, 166–72 Chief Justice, 152, 156–57 training, 158, 172–73, 174 codesofconduct,167,170 colonial period, 151–52 Kabaka of Buganda (Mutesa II, constitutional cases, 160, 176–81 President of Uganda 1963–66), criticism of, 168–70 16 Deputy Chief Justice, 157 Kabila, Joseph (President of the disciplinary proceedings, 167–68 Democratic Republic of Congo effectiveness, 172–76 (2001–), 66 employment terms, 165–66 Kanyeihamba, George, 16, 35 expatriate judges, 159 Kaunda, Dr Kenneth (President of failures, 314 Zambia 1964–91) financial autonomy, 164–66 career, 63, 64, 65, 314 fixed-term appointments, 159–60 centralisation of power, 191 gender balance, 163–64 and independence constitution, guardians of constitutions, 55–56, 17, 18, 30 178 and judiciary, 166, 170, 172 immunity, 168 ministers, 67, 68 impartiality, 160–61 state of emergency, 280, 321 independence, 150–66, 317–19 Kelsen, Hans, 248 IT skills, 174 Kenya judicial activism, 173–74, 178, 183 1992 elections, 111, 119 judicial responses to coups, Cabinet, 69 248–50 Chief Justice, 156–57 judicial service commissions, constitution drafting, 18 151–54 Constitution Review legalistic approach, 177 Commission, 34, 35, 310, 315, magistrates, 162 322, 324 magistrates’ courts’ staff, 162 constitutional amendments, 48, nominations, 155 49 non-judicial functions, 160–61 corruption index, 236 old-boy network, 153 decentralisation, 320 ombudsman, 168, 171 election monitoring, 316 and past atrocities, 262 electoral system, 317 post-retirement employment, 166 expatriate judges, 159 presidential appointments, floor-crossing parliamentarians, 155–56 143 protection of, 166–68 heads of state, 16, 17

350 index

Kenya (cont.) legal representation, 85, 292–93, 299, Human Rights Standing 304, 305 Committee, 209 Legal Resources Foundation independence, 15 (Zimbabwe), 264 judicial service commission, 152, legislatures see parliaments 153 Lesotho judicial tenure, 158, 159, 171 1993 elections, 112 judiciary, 35, 73, 318 1998 crisis, 26, 94 Kenyan African Democratic 1998 elections, 107, 113, 118 Union (KADU), 144 Basotho Congress Party, 94 Kenyan African National Union Basotho National Party, 277 (KANU), 100, 144, 309, bribery, 238 319 constitutional amendments, 48, 52 Kenyan Anti-Corruption constitution-making process, 30 Authority (KACA), 237–38 election monitoring, 316 Kenyatta, Jomo (President of electoral system, 94 Kenya 1964–78), 17, 18 expatriate judges, 159 mau mau rebellion, 276 heads of state, 16 military coups, 242 independence, 15 Moi, Daniel Arap (President of Jonathan, Chief Lebua (Prime Kenya 1978–2002), 63, 64, 144, Minister of Lesotho 1966–86), 209 93, 277, 320 one-party state, 22, 24, 312 judicial resources, 164 parliamentary budgets, 141 judicial service commission, 152, parliamentary service 153 commission, 317 Langa Commission, 118 political changes, 309 Lesotho Congress for Democracy, political parties, 100 94 presidential elections, 61, 62, 64 Letsie III (King of Lesotho presidential incapacity, 90, 91, 92 1990–95, 1996–), 94 presidential powers, 59 military coups, 242, 248, 320, 321 presidential tenure, 63 military forces, 253 preventive detention, 291, 295–98, Moshoeshoe II (King of Lesotho 299 1966–90, 1995–96), 93, 94 public ﬁnances, 135 monarchy, 57, 324 states of emergency, 276, 278, ombudsman, 209 282 one-party state, 22, 312 women’s rights, 76 pardons, 266, 267 Kenyatta, Jomo (President of Kenya political upheavals, 93–94 1964–78), 17, 18 preventive detention, 295, 299 Khama, Sir Seretse (President of states of emergency, 277, 280, 281, Botswana 1966–80), 63 282, 287 Kiwanuka, Benedicto (Chief Justice of violence, 309 Uganda), 256 Letsie III (King of Lesotho 1990–95, 1996–), 94 languages, MPs, 124 Liberia, 26 Latin America, 269 Liberty, Right to, 286, 289 law reports, 174–75, 176 libraries, 138, 175

index351

Life, Right to, 46–47, 54, 180–81, 318 MalawiYoung Pioneers,252 local government see devolution of members of parliament, 124, 126 power military forces, 251, 252, 253 local taxation, 197, 203–05 Muluzi, Bakili (President of Locke, John, 43 Malawi1994–2004), 65 locus standirules, 176, 177 ombudsman, 209, 211, 214 Lozipeople, 190 one-party state, 19, 22, 312 Lugard, F. D., 95, 199 political changes, 22, 309 political parties, 100, 102, 105 MacDonald, Malcolm presidential elections, 61 (Governor-General of Kenya presidential impeachment, 82, 88, 1963–64), 17 90 Macmillan, Harold (Prime Minister, presidential incapacity, 92 UK 1957–63), 4, 17 presidential pardons, 266 magistrates, 150, 152, 162, 175 presidential regime, 68 Makoni, Simba, 311 presidential tenure, 63, 65 maladministration preventive detention, 19, 292, 299 investigations, 219–25 public finances, 135 non-state actors, 232 Senate, 126 Malawi states of emergency, 281, 282, 287 Anti-Corruption Bureau, 237 vice-presidents, 66 Banda, Dr Hastings (President of Malaysia, 143 Malawi, 1966–94), 10, 17, 18, Mandela, Nelson (President of South 63, 64, 252, 261, 314 Africa 1994–99), 38, 66, 72 Cabinet, 69 Masire, Ketunile (President of Chief Justice, 19, 157 Botswana 1980–98), 63 compensation tribunal, 261 Mavaire, Dzikamai, 68, 143 constitution drafting, 18 Mbeki, Thabo (President of South constitutional amendments, 48, Africa 1999–), 11, 71, 200, 323 51 media, 79–80, 98, 113–14, 140–41, 218, constitutional interpretation, 179 315, 322 constitutional reviews, 44 medical treatment, 294, 318 corruption index, 236 mental incapacity, 123, 170, 223 Defence and Security Committee, military courts, 256–57 252–53, 256 military forces election monitoring, 316 accountability, 251–58 floor-crossing parliamentarians, amnesties, 262–68 146 civil resistance to coups, 259–61 heads of state, 16, 17 civil society role, 258–61 Human Rights Commission, 209, civil supremacy principle, 240–41, 212–13, 217, 224, 227 251, 275 independence, 15 commissions of inquiry, 270–72 Inspector-General of Police, 253 constitutional parameters, 251–52 judicial service commission, 152 constitutions and coups, 247–50 judiciary, 151, 153, 166, 170, 171 coups, 241–44, 247–50, 259 local finances, 203 defence procurement, 253 local government, 196 financial accountability, 255–56 magistrates, 162 guardianship of states, 251

352 index

military forces (cont.) human rights violations, 139, 246, human rights training, 261 264, 272 human rights violations, 258 presidential tenure, 63, 64 immunity, 267 Muluzi, Bakili (President of Malawi and internal security, 245–46, 1994–2004), 65 251 Museveni, Yoweri (President of Uganda investigation, 220, 257–58 1986–), 20, 25, 26, 107, 187, judicial responses to coups, 243, 254, 314, 315 248–50 Mwanakatwe, J. M., 20, 68 military courts, 256–57 Mwanawasa, Levy (President of no-hiding-place approach, 269 Zambia 2002–), 280, 318 operational accountability, 254–55 Namibia oversight bodies, 257–58 1989 elections, 116 parliamentary oversight, 253–56 1994 elections, 112 and past atrocities, 261–74 Cabinet, 69 political accountability, 252–53 constitution, 23, 28 political and operational control, constitutional amendments, 50, 253 53–54 presidential pardons, 264–68 constitution-making process, 36 relations with civil government, corruption index, 236 240–41 customary law, 200 subversion of constitution, 320–22 election monitoring, 316 trial of usurpers, 268–70 expatriate judges, 159 truth and reconciliation, 272 ﬂoor-crossing parliamentarians, undue involvement in 143 government, 10, 11, 241–46 judicial service commission, 152, war crimes tribunals, 268–70 153 ministers, 67–72, 77–78 judiciary, 158, 167 minorities, 99, 110, 181 liberation struggle, 244 Mohammed, Ismail (Chief Justice of local government, 196, 201 South Africa 1998–2000), 12 members of parliament, 125, 126 Moi, Daniel Arap (President of Kenya military forces, 252, 253 1978–2002), 63, 64, 144, 209 National Union of Namibian monarchies, 93–95, 324 Workers, 36 money laundering, 270 Nujoma, Sam (President of Moshoeshoe II (King of Lesotho Namibia 1990–), 65, 311 1966–90, 1995–96), 93, 94 ombudsman, 209, 212, 216, 225, Movement, Freedom of, 286 226–27, 233, 237 Mozambique, 9 parliamentary sessions, 77, 131 Mswati III (King of Swaziland 1986–), prerogative powers, 58 22, 95, 314 presidential elections, 61, 65 Mugabe, Robert (President of presidential ill-health, 90 Zimbabwe 1987–) presidential impeachment, 82, 83, amnesty, 262, 263 84, 88 colonial legacy, 311, 323 presidential pardons, 267 despotic rule, 311, 314 presidential qualiﬁcations, 65 and EU, 116 preventive detention, 295–98

index353

proportional representation, 109 Oder Commission (Uganda), 214, 229, public finances, 135 259, 261, 271–72, 274, 275, 289 quasi-human rights commission, OECD, 240 210 Omar, Dullah, 273 states of emergency, 277, 279, 280, ombudsman see also oversight bodies 282 appointment by parliaments, 212 South West Africa Peoples’ functions, 60, 208–09 Organisation (SWAPO), 36, 65 generally, 208–09 national disasters, 279 investigations, 219–25 national reconciliation, 262, 263, 273 judicial ombudsman, 168, 171 national security, 255, 289, 304, 305 jurisdiction, 234 nation-building, 188, 191, 203 and privatisation, 232–35 natural disasters, 278–79 qualifications, 214 necessity principle, 250 remedial powers, 226–27, 234–35 neo-colonialism, 311 one-party states, 10, 19, 23, 192, nepotism, 192 312–13 New Partnership for Africa’s oversight bodies Development (NEPAD), 98, accessibility, 221–23 324 accountability, 218–19 New Zealand, 134, 210 alternative legal proceedings, 220 Ngala, Ronald, 17 conflicts of interest, 217 Nigeria, 16, 42, 62, 205, 242, 243, funding and resources, 217–18, 256–57, 260 222 Nkrumah, Kwame (President of Ghana HRCs see human rights 1960–66), 16, 19 commissions no-confidence votes, 74–75 immune office holders, 220 non-discrimination, 145, 286 immunity of members, 216 non-state actors, 232 independence, 211–19, 322 Northern Rhodesia, 15, 17, 100, 276 independent appointees, 212–15 see also Zambia integrated institutions, 224–25, Norway, 218 233 Nujoma, Sam (President of Namibia investigations, 219–25 1990–), 65, 311 investigatory powers, 224, 225 Nyalali, Francis (Chief Justice of military forces, 257–58 Tanzania 1977–2000), 161 nature of investigations, 220–21 Nyalali Commission, 288, 312 new issues, 232–36 Nyasaland, 18, 100, 276, 320, 321. ombudsman see ombudsman See also Malawi Paris Principles, 211, 212, 219, Nyerere, Julius (President of Tanzania 230, 231 1964–85), 5–7, 63, 221, 251, parliamentary scrutiny, 219 312, 314 and privatisation, 232 promotion of human rights, Obasanjo, Olusegun (President of 229–32 Nigeria 1976–79, 1999–), 11, publicity, 222–23 21, 323 qualified appointees, 214 Obote, Milton (President of Uganda remedies, 225, 234–35 1966–71, 1980–85), 16, 242, reports, 219 245, 320 terms of employment, 215–17

354 index

oversight bodies (cont.) parliamentary budgets, 141–42 third-party complaints, 223 parliamentary questions, 131–32, transnational co-operation, 317 235–36 parliamentary service vacancies, 213 commissions, 141–42, 317 websites, 223 powers, 78 private members’ Bills, 137, 139 Pakistan, 221, 250, 282 privileges, 130, 143, 147–48 pardons, 264–68 public accounts committees, 136 Paris Principles, 211, 212, 219, 230, 231 ratification of judicial parliamentary service commissions, appointments, 156, 157 141–42, 317 register of interests, 146 parliaments relations with judiciary, 169–70 accountability of executive to, representative members, 124–27, 130–38, 315–17 148 accountability of military forces research facilities, 138 to, 253–56 scrutiny of oversight bodies, 219 age requirements, 124 second chambers, 126 codes of conduct, 146–47 sessions, 77, 131 committees, 132–33, 219, 254 Speakers, role of, 130 debates, 132 special interest groups, 125, 316 defence committees, 256 support staff, 142 disqualifications, 123 traditional leaders, 126–27 dissolution, 74, 76 training parliamentarians, 138 educational qualifications, 124 votes of no confidence, 74–75 effectiveness of parliamentarians, women, 127–29, 138–39 138–41 parties see political parties executive oversight, 131–34 past, dealing with the exercise of power, 76–77 amnesty policies, 262–68 failures, 314, 315–17 colonial legacy, 7, 13–15, 190, Finance Bills, 136 311–13, 323 financial control, 134–36, 254 military atrocities, 261–74 floor crossing, 142–46 learning lessons from, 270–72 funding, 317 presidential pardons, 264–68 gender equality, 127–29, 138 trial of military usurpers, 268–70 generally, 73–77 truth and reconciliation, 272 human rights commission patrimonialism, 310–11, 322, 324 reports, 231–32 patronage, 97 independence of pensions, judges, 166 parliamentarians, 141–48 Poland, 105 integrity of parliamentarians, 146 police forces, 245, 251 judicial review, 147–48 political culture, 310–11, 322, 324 language requirements, 124 political instability, 6 legislative scrutiny, 137–38 political parties libraries, 138 chequered history, 100 and media, 140–41 definition, 99 members, 123–29, 148 ethnicity, 315 nominated members, 124–25 factionalism, 101–02

index355

freedom to organise, 100 access to medical practitioners, funding, 102–06 294 generally, 99–107 arbitrary detention, 286 issues, 101 breach of legal safeguards, local issues, 102 299–301 regional parties, 188 conditions of detainees, 301–02, regulation, 101, 102, 288 305–06 single issue parties, 102 constitutional safeguards, 290–99 urban and rural areas, 101 criminal liability, 307 Westminster system, 106 detaining authorities, 304 political rights, 286, 288 detention order procedure, 290, political system 304 access to, 99 duration, 304 elections see elections foreign nationals, 307 parties see political parties generally, 289–301 poverty, 8, 97 grounds, 295–98, 300, 304 prerogative powers, 57–58, 93 information to detainees, 295, presidents 299 abuse of power, 122 informing next of kin, 292 appointment of Chief Justice, interrogation, 306 157 judicial control, 305 appointment powers, 72–73 judicial review, 299, 303–04 concentration of power, 192 legal justification, 303 electoral process, 60–63 meaning, 289 exercise of power, 57–60, 314–15 model code, 303–07 grounds for removal, 82–84 national security, 305 ill-health, 90–92 places of detention, 305 immunity, 81, 220 publication of detention orders, impeachment, 81–92 294, 306 incapacity, 90–92 release orders, 299 insults to, 79 review of detention orders, judicial appointments, 155–56 298–99, 305 and judicial service commissions, review tribunals, 299 152 time limits, 306 and legislature, 73–77, 78 visits to detention places, 293 and media, 79–80 Principles Relating to the Status of pardons, 264–68 National Institutions (The Paris powers, 57–58 Principles), 211, 212, 219, 230, prerogative powers, 57–58 231 privilege, 86 prisoners, 124 qualifications for office, 65–66 privacy, right to, 146, 286 removal of judges, 171 private members’ Bills, 137, 139 tenure, 63–65 privatisation, 232 pressure groups, 102 privilege, 86, 130, 143, 147–48 preventive detention Property, Right to, 286 access to detainees, 291–94 proportional representation, 63, 94, access to legal representatives, 109 292–93, 299, 304, 305 public accounts committees, 136

356 index

public ﬁnances, parliamentary control, September 11 events, 289 134–36 Seychelles, 41, 106 public procurement, 136, 253 Sierra Leone, 26, 85, 91, 269 public service, 72–73, 112, 124, 152, Slovo,Joe,38 260 ‘Snow White’ factor, 247–48, 249, 270, 275, 321 radio, 113 Sobhuza II (King of Swaziland Ramaema, Elias Phisoana, 10 1968–82), 22, 94–95 Ramphal, Shridath (Commonwealth Somalia, 26 Secretary-General 1975–90), South Africa 313 1994 elections, 108, 118 recognition of governments, 248–49, African National Congress 275 (ANC), 37, 49, 71, 129, 240 referendums, 33, 40–41, 42, 51–52 AIDS, 71 refugees, 8 apartheid regime, 262, 277 religions, 25, 188 Cabinet, 70–71 retirement, judges, 158, 166 Chaskalson, A. (Chief Justice of revolutionary legality, 248–49, 275 South Africa (2001–), 183 Rhodesia see also Zimbabwe civil supremacy, 240–41 amnesty for human rights constitution, 23, 313 violations, 262, 267 constitutional amendments, 47, Catholic Commission for Justice 48–49, 50, 52 and Peace, 262 Constitutional Assembly, 38 Central Intelligence Organisation, Constitutional Committee, 39 241, 262–64 Constitutional Court, 38, 39, 137, Federation of Rhodesia and 156, 160, 161, 174 Nyasaland, 100, 320 constitutional interpretation, 178 Indemnity and Compensation Act Constitutional Principles, 38 1975, 263 constitution-making process, independence of Zimbabwe and, 37–40 15 corruption index, 236 revolutionary legality, 249 customary law, 200 state of emergency, 276, 279, 321 Deputy President, 66 rural/urban divide, 192–93 election monitoring, 316 rule of law, 9–11, 23, 311 gender equality, 129, 163, 316 Rwanda, 26, 107, 269, 274 Human Rights Commission, 133, 137, 209, 212, 214, 217, 223, Saied Commission (Uganda), 271 224 Salisbury, Lord (Prime Minister, UK, Inkatha, 187 1885, 1886–92, 1895–1902), 13 international arms agreements, Santos, JoseEduardodos(Presidentof´ 255 Angola 1979–), 62 judicial service commission, Saro-Wiwa, Ken, 256–57 153–54 Savimbi, Jonas, 62 judiciary, 156, 160, 161, 167 Scandinavia, 105 judiciary and past atrocities, 262 Schoﬁeld, Derek (Chief Justice of languages, 124 Gibraltar), 159 legislative assent, 76–77 separation of powers, 79 Lesotho intervention, 26

index357

liberation struggle, 244 transition to majority rule, 309 Mandela, Nelson (President of Truth and Reconciliation South Africa 1994–99), 38, 66, Commission, 261, 262, 273 72 Tutu, Desmond, 262 Mbeki, Thabo, (President of South vice-presidents, 67 Africa 1999–), 11, 71, 200, 323 Southern African Development media, 315 Community (SADC), 94, 107, Media Commission, 113 127, 236 members of parliament, 126 Southern African Forum Against military forces, 252, 253, 254–55, Corruption (SAFAC), 238 322 sovereign equality, 115 military forces and human rights, Speakers of parliaments, 130 261 special interest groups, 125, 316 Mohammed, Ismail (Chief Justice SriLanka, 210 of South Africa 1998–2000), 12 states of emergency Multiparty Negotiating Forum abuse of emergency powers, (MPNF), 37 282–85, 321 no-conﬁdence votes, 74 constitutional basis, 277–79 oversight bodies, 211, 322 criteria, 277–79 parliamentary code of conduct, duration, 277, 282 146 generally, 276 parliamentary powers, 78 judicial control, 281–82 parliamentary procedure, 137 preventive detention, 289–301 parliamentary sessions, 77 reasons, 278, 279 political parties, 106 safeguards, 279–82 prerogative powers, 58 suspension of constitutional presidential election, 61, 63 rights, 286–87 presidential impeachment, 89–90 statutory interpretation, 145, 169, presidential incapacity, 92 176–81, 318–19 presidential pardons, 266 strikes, 286 preventive detention, 292, 294, subversion, 289 298, 299 Sudan, 320 proportional representation, sunset clauses, 38 109–10 sustainable development, 2, 3, 5 provincial devolution, 319, 320 Swaziland provincial disputes with central abrogation of constitution, 22, power, 206–07 23 provincial government, 186, 187, constitutional monarchy, 94–95 195, 197, 201–02 elections, 108 provincial taxation, 197, 203, heads of state, 16 205 independence, 15 Public Protector, 209, 213, monarchy, 57, 324 216–17, 237 Mswati III (King of Swaziland Second Chamber, 126 1986–), 22, 95, 314 Slovo, Joe, 38 ombudsman, 209, 214, 222 states of emergency, 277, 279, 280, preventive detention, 291 282, 287 Sobhuza II (King of Swaziland traditional institutions, 198 1968–82), 22, 94–95

358 index

Tanganyika, 15, 16, 17 and modernity, 190 Tanzania oppression and discrimination, Cabinet, 69 199–200 constitution process, 31 political organisation, 190 constitutional amendments, 48 traditional institutions in local corruption index, 236 government, 198–200 election monitoring, 316 transparency, 28, 135, 136, 168, 171, judiciary, 158, 167 252 Kisanga Committee, 31 tribalism, 13, 219, 242, 315 local government, 196 tribunal procedure, 85–87 members of parliament, 125, 129 Truth and Reconciliation Commission, military coups, 242 261, 262, 273 military forces, 274 Tutu, Desmond, 262 military involvement in government, 244 Uganda Nyalali, Francis (Chief Justice of 1995 Constitution, 28 Tanzania), 161 Amin, Idi (President of Uganda Nyalali Commission, 20–21, 288, 1971–79), 242–43, 260, 271, 312 314, 320 Nyerere, Julius (President of amnesty for human rights Tanzania 1964–85), 5–7, 63, violations, 268 221, 251, 312, 314 censure votes, 75 one-party state, 20–21, 22, 24, civil duty to protect constitution, 161, 312 259 parliamentary budgets, 141 Constituent Assembly, 36–37 parliamentary committees, 132 constitution, 12, 22, 272 parliamentary service constitutional amendments, commission, 317 52 Permanent Commission of constitution-making process, Enquiry, 209, 212, 216, 221, 222 29–30, 35, 42 political changes, 22, 309 corruption index, 236 political parties, 101 customary law, 200 presidential elections, 61 decentralisation, 319, 320 presidential tenure, 63 disciplining of judiciary, 172 preventive detention, 287, 291 expatriate judges, 159 Prevention of Corruption Bureau, ﬂoor-crossing parliamentarians, 237 146 quasi-emergency powers, 288 gender equality, 129 states of emergency, 279 heads of state, 16, 17 taxation, 197, 203–05 Human Rights Commission, 30, Tekere, Edgar, 263 139, 151, 209, 211, 214–15, 218, terrorism, 289 219, 220, 222, 223, 224, 227–28, Tokyo Declaration 1975, 294 230, 231–32, 299 torture, 139, 257, 302 human rights violations, 261 trade unions, 288, 315, 322 independence, 15 traditional society Inspector-General of and authority, 96–97 Government, 209, 212, 214, and colonialism, 13, 14, 24 217, 237

index359

judicial service commission, 152, public ﬁnances, 135 154 Public Service, 73 judiciary, 150, 161, 168, 173, 321 recall of MPs, 140, 317 Kabaka of Buganda (Mutesa II, Saied Commission, 271 President of Uganda 1963–66), ‘Snow White’ clause, 247–48 16 states of emergency, 282 Kiwanuka, Benedicto (Chief traditional leaders, 198 Justice of Uganda), 256 vice-president, 67 legislative powers, 73, 76 United Kingdom, 218, 233–34, 255 local government, 187, 188, 195, United Nations 319 conduct of law enforcers, 302 local taxation, 197 Decade of Human Rights members of parliament, 124, Education, 261 125–26, 129, 316 election monitoring, 114, 115–16 military coups, 242–43, 245, 260, good governance, 10 268, 320 judicial independence, 150, 165 military forces, 251, 275 non-discrimination, 163 military forces and human rights, Torture Declaration, 302 261 treatment of prisoners, 302 military involvement in Congo, Working Group on 254 Disappearances, 267 military offences, 257 United States, 43, 81, 84, 89, 91, 178, military tribunals, 256 202, 218 ministerial numbers, 78 Universal Declaration of Human Movement system, 30, 106–07 Rights, 99, 107, 116, 150 Museveni, Yoweri (President of urban/rural divide, 192–93 Uganda 1986–), 20, 25, 26, 107, 187, 243, 254, 314, 315 Vanuatu, 211 National Resistance Council, 36 Venezuela, 92 no-party state, 10, 106–07, 315 vice-presidents, 66–67 Obote, Milton (President of voting rights see elections Uganda 1966–71, 1980–85), 16, 242, 245, 320 war crimes tribunals, 268–70 Oder Commission, 214, 229, 259, warrant chiefs, 14 261, 271–72, 274, 275, 289 wars, 6, 8 one-party state, 312 Washington, George, 43 parliamentary budgets, 141 weapons, international agreements, 255 parliamentary service West Africa, 244, 320 commission, 317 western aid, and good governance, 98 parliamentary sessions, 131 winds of change, 4, 22–23, 28 political changes, 309 women political parties, 101 and electoral systems, 110 presidential elections, 61 judges, 163–64 presidential impeachment, 83, 84 Kenya, 76 presidential incapacity, 90–91 members of parliament, 127–29, preventive detention, 289, 292, 138–39, 316 293, 294, 295, 299 political process, 99 private members’ Bills, 139 World Bank, 2, 7, 8, 192, 237

360 index

young persons, rights, 286, 287 ministerial numbers, 78 Yugoslavia, 269 Movement for Multi-Party Democracy, 30–31, 71–72, Zaire see Congo, Democratic Republic 84–85, 102, 144 of Mwanakatwe, J. M., 20, 68 Zambia Mwanakatwe Commission, 29, 31, 1991 elections, 112 35, 68, 103 1996 elections, 108, 112 Mwanawasa, Levy (President of anti-corruption commission, Zambia 2002–), 280, 318 237 one-party state, 22, 24, 30, 312 Cabinet, 67–68, 69, 71–72, parastatals, 312–13 314 parliament, 77, 131 centralisation of power, 191 political changes, 22, 309 Chiluba, Frederick (President of political parties, 100 Zambia, 1991–2002), 64, 65, 71, prerogative powers, 58 79, 85, 280, 314 presidential elections, 61, 64 Chona Commission, 30, 64 presidential immunity, 81 Commission for Investigations, presidential impeachment, 84–85, 209, 212, 216, 219, 222 86–87 constitutional amendments, 43, presidential incapacity, 90 48, 49, 52 presidential pardons, 266 constitution-making process, presidential powers, 30, 58 30–31, 35, 42 presidential qualifications, 65 constitutions, 18, 25 presidential tenure, 63, 65 corruption index, 236 preventive detention, 292, 293, election monitoring, 316 295, 296, 299, 300, 303 expatriate judges, 159 public finances, 135, 136 floor-crossing parliamentarians, Public Service, 73 144–45, 146 states of emergency, 278, 280, 282, freedom of conscience, 287 287, 321 freedom of expression, 79 United National Independence and gender equality, 163 Party (UNIP), 67, 166, 191, heads of state, 16 280 Human Rights Commission, 209, Zanzibar, 15, 16, 101 226, 227 Zimbabwe see also Rhodesia INDECO, 312 5 Brigade, 245–46 insulting presidents, 79 2000 elections, 112–13 judiciary, 156, 165, 166, 167, 170, 2002 elections, 116, 119–22 318 amnesty policy, 262 Kaunda, Dr Kenneth see Kaunda, Banana, Reverend Canaan Dr Kenneth (President of (President of Zimbabwe Zambia 1964–91) 1980–87), 83, 86, 89 legislative assent, 76 Cabinet, 69–70, 71 local government, 196 Catholic Commission for Justice Lozipeople, 190 and Peace, 264 members of parliament, 124, 126 Chidyausiku, G. (Chief Justice of military coups, 242 Zimbabwe 2001–), 32, 161 military forces, 251, 252, 258 Chileya affair, 55

index361

Commonwealth, suspension military involvement in Congo, from, 11, 119, 323 254 Commonwealth, withdrawal Movement for Democratic from, 11 Change, 120 constitutional amendments, 22, Mugabe, Robert see Mugabe, 45–48, 50, 52, 53, 55, 314 Robert (President of Zimbabwe Constitutional Commission, 1987–) 32–34, 35, 39, 161 ombudsman, ofﬁce of the, 209, constitutional interpretation, 179 212, 214, 222, 225, 230, 258 constitutional referendum, 33, parliament, 123, 317 40–41, 313 Parliamentary Legal Committee, constitution-making process, 42 137 and Convention against Torture, parliamentary privilege, 143 139 patrimonialism, 311 corruption index, 236 political parties, 104–05 election monitoring, 316 prerogative powers, 58 emergency powers, 264 presidential elections, 61, 64 expatriate judges, 159 presidential pardons, 265, 266 expression, freedom of, 79 presidential powers, 74, 314 Gubbay, A. R. (Chief Justice of presidential tenure, 63 Zimbabwe 1990–2001), 55, 169 preventive detention, 292, 295–96, insulting presidents, 79 297, 299, 300–01 international arms agreements, public ﬁnances, 135 255 quasi-emergency powers, 288 judicial appointments, 155 quasi-human rights commission, judicial education, 173 210 judicial harassment, 170, 318 removal of judges, 171 judicial independence, 169, 182, same-sex marriages, 33 314 Senate, 126 judicial service commission, 153 smart sanctions, 116 Lancaster House settlement, 263 states of emergency, 278, 279–80, land expropriations, 33 282, 283–85 Law and Order (Maintenance) Supreme Court, 174, 175 Act, 287 Tekere, Edgar, 263 Legal Resources Foundation, 264 Unity Accord, 264 legislative assent, 76 vice-presidents, 67 legislative powers, 74 violence, 309 Leo Baron Library, 176 war veterans, 59 liberation struggle, 244 Zimbabwe African National Matabeleland human rights Union (Patriotic Front) (ZANU violations, 133, 245–46, 264, (PF)), 68, 100, 104, 143, 314 272 Zimbabwe Unity Movement military forces, 243, 258 (ZUM), 104–05