Vol. 27, No.2 nternattona• April 2003 ettn• Christian Mission as Complex Reality

u thentic Christian mission, God's mission, is a means in God's great enterprise is as humbling as it is daunting. A single reality, but it is a far from simple actuality. All of Christian missionaries can be sustained in their endeavors and creation is caught up in the redemptive drama of its Creator. constrained in their pride by the awareness that however pecu­ Addressing our human tendency to reduce missioDei to propri­ liar the language to be learned, God has spoken and is speaking etary, monodimensional agendas and methods, contributing through it; that however unfamiliar the culture in which the editor Stephen Bevans offers a helpful taxonomy of mission as a missionary must pitch his or her tent, God is already present­ complex reality. The same point is amply illustrated by other and has been in residence there for a long time. contributors to this issue of the IBMR. Missio Dei is evident in the remarkable story of Mazhar Mallouhi, a Syrian "Muslim who follows Jesus," whose conver­ sion to the way of love was the result of Mahatma Gandhi's On Page admiration for Jesus Christ-not the brutal Christ of crusading Christendom, but the loving, self-giving, reconciling Christ of 50 Unraveling a "Complex Reality": Six Elements the Gospels. It is apparent as well in the Parsi and Nigerian of Mission conversionnarratives recounted byFarshid Namdaranand Felix Stephen B. Bevans,S.V.D. Ekechi. 54 Mazhar Mallouhi: Gandhi's Living Christian It can be discerned in the conversion of a supposedly calci­ Legacy in the Muslim World fied institutional church, as John Gorski, a new contributing Paul-Gordon Chandler editor, reports on a remarkable phenomenon that is quietly but profoundly transforming the once passive Roman Catholic 59 How the Catholic Church in Latin America Church in Latin America into an active initiator of local and Became Missionary international mission. And it manifests itself in human lan­ John F. Gorski, M.M. guages. Knowledge of God, missionaries Edwin Smith and Wil­ 64 What the Ila Believed About God: Traditional liam Chapman discovered, did not arrive among the Ila of Religion and the Gospel Zambia with them, nor did the Ila's extensive theological vo­ Dennis G. Fowler cabulary come via the Bible. The Ila had at least forty-four names 71 Keeping Faith with Culture: Protestant for the Supreme Being and scores of words for prayer; the Mission Among Zoroastrians of Bombay in missionaries' task was simply to connect what was already there the Nineteenth Century with the Christian Gospel. Even the human quest for the transcendent traces its source Farshid Namdaran to missioDei.The Preacher's enigmatic words, echoed elsewhere 74 Noteworthy in our Christian Scriptures and amply illustrated throughout 77 My Pilgrimage in Mission human cultures and across human time, may provide us with a Marcella Hoesl, M.M. clue: "Hehas also set eternity in the hearts of [everyone]; yet they cannot fathom what God has done from beginning to end" 79 The Legacy of M. D. Opara (Eccles. 3:11 NIV). Felix K. Ekechi As Marcella Hoesl, M.M., discovered early in her pilgrim­ 84 Book Reviews age, God's mission in this world is a God-sized, complex reality 94 Dissertation Notices too vast for any human being to conceive, let alone manage. That we humans should be invited to participate as both ends and 96 Book Notes of issionaryResearch Unraveling a "Complex Reality": Six Elements of Mission

Stephen B. Bevans, S.~D.

ission," writes Pope John Paul II in Redemptoris missio, Proclamation" insists that proclamation "is the foundation, cen­ M "is a single but complex reality, and it develops in a ter, and summit of evangelization" (DP 10). Witness and procla­ variety of ways" (RM 41).1There is onlyonemission, the mission mation go together. As David Bosch noted, "The deed without of God as such, in which the church shares (e.g., Gal. 2:20; Phil. the word is dumb; the word without the deed is empty."? 1:21; 1 Cor. 10:16-17; Matt. 10:40; John 20:21) and which it The church's missionary witness is of at least four kinds. At continues (Matt. 28:18-20; Mark 16:15-16; Luke 24:44-47; Acts a first level, there is the witness of individual Christians. Some of 1:8)by preaching, serving, and witnessing to Jesus' lordship and these may be quite public and acclaimed, like the witness of an vision of the reignof God (Acts 28:31).Thechurchdoes so in four Albert Schweitzer or a Mother Teresa. But most Christian wit­ "fields": in its pastoral work, in its commitment to the "new ness is given by Christians in their ordinary lives-in the pa­ evangelization," in its efforts to transform society and culture, tience of parents, the honesty of Christians in business, the and in its movement to all peoples in the mission adgentes (RM dedication of teachers, the choices made about where to live, 34). At every level as well, there are six operative elements: (1) where to shop, how one is entertained. Second, there is the witness and proclamation; (2) liturgy, prayer, and contempla­ witness of the Christian community-the "hermeneutic of the tion; (3) justice, peace, and the integrity of creation; (4) dialogue gospel," as Lesslie Newbigin famously put it." Third, we can with women and men of other faiths and ideologies; (5) speak of the church's institutional witness in its schools, hospi­ inculturation; and (6) reconciliation. Both the singleness and tals, orphanages, and social service agencies. Finally, there is the complexity of mission canbe seenin theaccompanying diagram. "common witness" of Christians of various traditions commit­ But why six elements? Opinions certainly vary. In 1981 the ted to common prayer, common educational ventures, common Catholic organization SEDOS (Service of Documentation and work for justice, and the like. As the Manila Manifesto so aptly Studies,sponsoredby missionaryordersheadquarteredin Rome) puts it, "If the task of world evangelization is ever to be accom­ spokeoffourelements of mission, addingdialogue,inculturation, plished, we must engage in it together."? andliberationto the traditional elementof proclamation.?In 1984 John Paul II has spoken of proclamation-explicitly of the a documententitled "DialogueandMission" was issuedbywhat lordship of Jesus and of his vision of the reign of God-as "the was then known as the Secretariat for Non-Christians at the permanent priority of mission" (RM 44). The task of evangeliza­ Vatican, and it named five elements: presence and witness; tion would be empty, said Paul VI, without proclaiming "the development and liberation; liturgical life, prayer, and contem­ name, the teaching, the life, the promises, the kingdom and the plation;interreligiousdialogue; andproclamationand catechesis mysteryof Jesus of Nazareth, theSon of God" (EN 22). Neverthe­ (DM 13).3 In 1991 David Bosch's Transforming Mission spoke of less, proclamation needs always to be done dialogically, taking thirteen "elements of an emerging ecumenical paradigm" of account of the situation of those to whom the Good News is mission; in 1999 Andrew Kirk outlined seven elements, as did Donal Dorr in 2000.4 In an effort to synthesize these various namings of elements, my colleague Eleanor Doidge and I wrote an essay in 2000 in Mission-by the numbers which we named the six elements of mission surveyed here," For 1 Mission us, witness and proclamation were bound together; Andrew the mission of God Kirk's important insistence on ecological concerns as integral to mission shouldbe paired with the equally important elements of 2 Dimensions of church involvement justice and peace; and Robert Schreiter's insistence on reconcili­ sharing in the mission of God continuing the mission of God ation as a new model of mission needed to be fully acknowl­ edged." In addition, unlike the document "Dialogue and Mis­ 3 Ways to promote Jesus' lordship sion," we were convinced that inculturation is an essential part preaching of every missionary task. And so our synthesis was of six ele­ serving ments. Here I offer brief reflections on each of these six. witnessing 4 Fields of work Witness and Proclamation pastoral work "new evangelization" The interconnectedness of Christian witness and explicit procla­ sociocultural transformation mation of the Gospel is perhaps expressed most clearly in the movement to all peoples (ad gentes) charge attributed to Francis of Assisi: "Preach always; if neces­ sary, use words." As Pope Paul VI wrote in Evangelii nuntiandi, 6 Elements "The first means of evangelization is the witness of an authenti­ witness and proclamation cally Christian life" (EN 41); and the document "Dialogue and liturgy, prayer, and contemplation justice, peace, and the integrity of creation dialogue with women and men of other faiths and Stephen B.Bevans, S.V.D., acontributing editor, isapriestoftheSociety ofthe ideologies DivineWord. Heworked asa missionary in thePhilippines from1972 to 1981 inculturation andiscurrentlyLouis J. Luzbetak, S.V.D., Professor ofMissionandCultureat reconciliation Catholic Theological Union,Chicago.

50 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 addressed. It can never be done apart from witness, for "no International Bulletin matter how eloquent our verbal testimony, people will always ofMissionary Research believe their eyes first." 10 Moreover, proclamation is always to be given as an invitation, respecting the freedom of the hearers; it is Established 1950 by R. Pierce Beaver as Occasional Bulletin from the Missionary Research Library. Named Occasional Bulletin of Missionary Research in 1977.Renamed never done in a manipulative way. "The church proposes," INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH in 1981. Published insists John Paul II, "she imposes nothing" (RM 39). Finally, quarterly in January, April, July, and October by authentic proclamation is the answer to a question about "the reason for our hope" (see 1 Pet. 3:15). The first task of evangeli­ Overseas Ministries Study Center zation, mused Francis Cardinal George on a visit to the school 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, U.S.A. Tel: (203) 624-6672 • Fax: (203) 865-2857 where I teach, is to listen. To proclaim out of context, without E-mail: [email protected] • Web: www.OMSC.org listening to how the Gospel answers people's deepest yearnings and hopes, is to proclaim in a way that is unworthy of the Editor: Associate Editor: Gospel's power. JonathanJ. Bonk Dwight P.Baker

Assistant Editor: Managing Editor: Liturgy, Prayer, and Contemplation Craig A. Noll Daniel J. Nicholas According to Lutheran liturgist Robert Hawkins, the church Senior Contributing Editors: "lives from the center with its eyes on the borders."!' Liturgy is Gerald H. Anderson Robert T. Coote a dead end if it is its own end. My colleague Richard Fragomeni Contributing Editors: said once that the goal of liturgy is worship-and worship is not Catalino G. Arevalo, S.J. C. Rene Padilla what takes place in a churchbut in the world. Liturgy needs to be David B. Barrett James M. Phillips celebrated "inside out," as an anticipation of the "liturgy after the Stephen B. Bevans, S.V.D. Dana L. Robert Liturgy," as the Orthodox say." Celebration of the liturgy is an Samuel Escobar Lamin Sanneh John E Gorski, M.M. Wilbert R. Shenk evangelizing act on several levels. It is always the evangelization Paul G. Hiebert Brian Stanley of the Christian faithful, who day after day, week after week J. A. B. Jongeneel Charles R. Taber make up the liturgical assembly, forming them more perfectly Sebastian Karotemprel, S.D.B Tite Tienou into Christ's body in the world and calling each individually to David A. Kerr Ruth A. Tucker more authentic Christian life. But since there are always visitors Graham Kings Desmond Tutu in the congregation who maybe nonbelievers or unchurched, the Anne-Marie Kool AndrewF. Walls Gary B. McGee Anastasios Yannoulatos worthy and vital celebration of the liturgy in Eucharist, baptism, Mary Motte, EM.M. marriages, or funerals can be moments when the Gospel pro­ Advertising: claimed and celebrated may find particular resonance in those Circulation Coordinator: Ruth E. Taylor who are seeking more depth in life, or may even be able to break Angela Scipio 11Graffam Road [email protected] South Portland, Maine 04106 through indifference or resistance. www.OMSC.org (207) 799-4387 In 1927 Pope Pius XI declared Francis Xavier and Therese of Lisieux as patrons of the church's missionary activity. The Jesuit Books for review and correspondence regarding editorial matters should be addressed to the editors. Manuscripts unaccompanied by a self-addressed, stamped envelope (or Francis Xavier was no surprise; his exploits on behalf of the international postal coupons) will not be returned. Opinions expressed in the Gospel in India and Japan make him one of the greatest mission­ INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN are those of the authors and not necessarily of the aries of all times. But naming Therese was a bit unusual. After all, Overseas Ministries Study Center. she was a strictly cloistered Carmelite nun and never left her Articles appearing in this journal are abstracted and indexed in: convent in France. Nevertheless, her autobiography, published Bibliografia Missionaria IBR (International Bibliography of a few years after her death, revealed her to be a woman on fire for Book Review Index Book Reviews) the Gospel, whose heart was always beyond her convent walls, Christian Periodical Index IBZ (International Bibliography of calling all humanity to faith in Christ. Her life of prayer was so Guide to People in Periodical Periodical Literature) intense, so universal, so missionary, that she could very justly be Literature Missionalia Guide to Social Science and Religion Religious and Theological Abstracts named patroness of the missions. The pope's action in 1927 in Periodical Literature Religion Index One: Periodicals points to the truth that commitment to the spread of the Gospel is not simply a matter of heroic work in cross-cultural situations; Index, abstracts,and fulltext of thisjournal are available on databases provided by ATLAS, it is a matter of allowing the missionary task to shape Christian EBSCO, H. W. Wilson Company, The Gale Group, and University Microfilms. Back spirituality. Prayer and contemplation are seeing and feeling issues may be seen on the ATLAS Web site, www.ATLA.com. Also consult InfoTrac with the missionary God, aligning one's needs and wants with database at many academic and public libraries. the saving activity of God's missionary presence in the world. International Bulletin of Missionary Research (ISSN 0272-6122) is published by the The British.DoctorWho series provides a striking example of how Overseas Ministries Study Center, 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511. For prayerand contemplationcanbe missionary. DoctorWhowould subscription orders and changes of address write International Bulletin of Missionary enter a certain telephone booth, the inside of which contained the Research, ~O. Box 3000, Denville, NJ 07834-3000. Address correspondence concerning subscriptions and missing issues to: Circulation Coordinator, [email protected]. whole world. The cloister, the parish church, or one's room is like Periodicals postage paid at New Haven, CT. Single Copy Price: $8.00. Subscription rate that telephone booth. worldwide: one year (4 issues) $27.00. Foreign subscribers must pay in U.S. funds drawn on a U.S. bank, Visa, MasterCard, or International Money Order. Airmail delivery $16 Justice, Peace, and the Integrity of Creation per year extra. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to International Bulletin of Missionary Research, P.O. Box 3000, Denville, New Jersey 07834-3000. "Action on behalf of justice and participation in the transforma­ Copyright © 2003 by Overseas Ministries Study Center. All rights reserved. tion of the world fully appear to us as a constitutive dimension of the preaching of the Gospel"; "if you want peace, work for

April 2003 51 justice"; "we discern two types of injustice: socio-economic­ know each other, respect each other, learn from each other, and political injustice ... and environmental injustice"; "the respon­ reduce the tensions that exist among people who may have sibility of the church towards the earth is a crucial part of the radically different worldviews. church'smission."13 Commitmentto justice, peace, andthe integ­ Second, we speak of the dialogue of social action, by which rity of creation is a seamless garment. All are constitutive of the women and men of differing faith commitments work together church's missionary task. for common issues of justice. Working together for fairer immi­ Commitment to the poor and marginalized of the world gration laws, for the abolition of the death penalty, for the takes shape in the first place as the church acts as a voice for the sacredness of human life, and against racism and sexism are victims of injustice on the one hand and a goad to the consciences ways that committed people can learn to live with one another of the rich on the other. People like Oscar Romero and Desmond and be inspired by the social doctrines of the various religious Tutu, and documents like the U.S. Bishops' peace and economics and secular traditions. pastorals and the Kairos Document in South Africa are shining Third, there is the dialogue of theological exchange. While this examples of this justice ministry. Second, the church needs to maybe the area for experts, as they probe one another's doctrines work to help those who suffer injustice find theirown voice. If the and practices, challenging and inspiring one another, it can also churchdid only the first, it would ultimately onlybe patronizing. take place among ordinary Christians as they read one another's The goal of justice ministry is helping the poor and marginalized sacred documents and cherished authors. find their own subjectivity and hope. Third, the commitment to Finally, there is the dialogue ojreligious experience. While there justice inevitably means committing oneselfto a life practice that always will remain differences of content and method, this is an is in solidarity with the victims of this world, through a simple area where many traditions seem to converge in major ways. While perhaps people of differing faiths may not be able to pray together, they can, as John Paul II has done at Assisi in 1986 and Every time and every culture 2002, come together to pray in their own ways. needs to reflect on faith on Inculturation its own terms, using its own Throughout the history of the church, Christians have practiced lens to interpret Scripture. in some way what we call today inculturation. Peter and Paul, Justin Martyr, Francis of Assisi, Clare, Raymond Lull, Matteo Ricci, Martin Luther, Mother Teresa, Roland Allen, and Charles lifestyle, throughpolitical stances, and through a constant siding de Foucauld are just a few names that may come to mind. withthe poorand oppressedandtheir causes. Finally, as the 1971 Nevertheless, today there is anunderstanding that inculturation Synod puts it, a church committed to justice must be just itself: is not just something for a few women and men who live "everyone who ventures to speak about justice must first be just dangerously "on the edge." Rather, inculturation is acknowl­ in their eyes."!' edged today as an integral part of communicating the Gospel, if In 1981 John Paul II visited Hiroshima, the site of the first the Gospel indeed is truly to be communicated. "Youmay, andyou hostile use of the atomic bomb in 1945. "From now on," he said, must, have an African Christianity," proclaimed Paul VI in 1969. "it is only through a conscious choice and through a deliberate "Contextualization ... is not simply nice," writes evangelical policy that humanity can survive.i'" The mission of the church missiologist David Hesselgrave; "it is a necessity.i'" involves making sure that governments and other groups keep The central place of inculturation in today's understanding making that "conscious choice" and follow that "deliberate of mission is something that has emerged only as theology and policy" toward peace. In a similarway, the church's commitment spirituality began to recognize the essential role of experience in to justice cannot but be concerned for personal and institutional any kind of human living. Traditionally, theology was seen as witness of simplicity of life, and for support of legislation and reflection in faith on Scripture and tradition. There was one movements that promote the integrity of creation and the care of theology, always and everywhere valid. As theology began to the earth. According to Canadian novelist Rudy Wiebe, repen­ acknowledge the anthropological turn that has so marked mod­ tance is not feeling bad but "thinking different."16 ern Western consciousness, the role of experience in theology The kingdomcall to repentand believe takes ona whole new increased and became more influential. It was not, however, that dimension in the light of today's consciousness of creation's experience was just added to the traditional sources of Scripture fragility and humanity's vocation to stewardship. and tradition; the anthropological turn revealed the fact that Scripture and traditionthemselves were highlyinfluencedbythe Interreligious and Secular Dialogue experiences of women and men at particular times, places, and cultural contexts. And so experience has taken on a normative "Dialogue is ... the norm and necessary manner of every form of value that it did nothave in times past. The theology of the West, Christian mission" (DM 29). This general norm for doing mis­ we now recognize, was itself a limited, contextual product of a sion, however, has particular relevance as Christians encounter particular set of experiences. Every time and every culture has its people of other faiths or people who have no faith at all. Mission validity and needs to reflect on faith on its own terms, using its is carried out "in Christ's way," reflective of the dialogic nature own lens to interpret Scripture, past doctrinal formulations, of God's Trinitarian self. Dialogue is based on the convictionthat ethical practices, and liturgical customs. Today the experience of "the Spirit of God is constantly at work in ways that pass human the past (Scripture and tradition) and the experience of the understanding and in places that to us are least expected."17 present (context) may interact in various ways that are condi­ Documents speak of four kinds of dialogue. There is, first, the tioned by particular circumstances or theological convictions, dialogue of life, in which Christians live and rub shoulders with butthat Christianfaith needs to engage a context authentically is people of other faiths and ideologies. In this way people get to simply accepted as a missiological imperative."

52 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 Reconciliation (Eph. 2:14). To facilitate the recognition of God's gracious work­ ing in the midst of so much violence and tragedy, the church In a world of increasing violence, tensions between religions, needs to develop communities of honesty, compassion, and terrorist threats, globalization, and displacement of peoples, the acceptance. Ministers of reconciliation need to hone their skills of church's witness to and proclamation of the possibility of recon­ contemplative attention and listening. Ways might be found to ciliation may constitute a new way of conceiving the content of employ new approaches to celebrating the sacrament of recon­ the church's missionary task. Mission today recognizes that ciliation or to ritualizing God's reconciling action. reconciliation needs to take place on a number of different levels. There is, first, the personal level of healing between spouses, Conclusion between victims and their torturers or oppressors, as well as among victims of natural calamities such as earthquakes or Mission today indeed needs to be understood as "a single but tropical storms. Then there is sociocultural reconciliationbetween complex reality." While the explicit proclamation of the Gospel members of oppressed cultures (e.g., Australian Aboriginals, ofand about Jesus has a certain "permanent priority" (RM 44),21 North American First Nations, and Latin American indigenous the words of proclamation must likewise be rooted in an authen­ tribes) and those whohave oppressed and marginalized themfor tic being of the church. The church is called equally to incarnate centuries. A third level of reconciliation might be called political. what it says in its community life and its engagement in the One may think of the reconciliation called for after years of world. In a world where the Spirit is constantly manifest in social apartheid in South Africa, or by years of forced disappearances and political movements, in the riches of culture, and in the and massacres as in Argentina or Guatemala. holiness of many religious ways, mission can serve that Spirit Reconciliation, insists Robert Schreiter, involves much more only through acts of justice, trust of human experience, and of a spirituality than a strategy." In the first place, reconciliation dialogue with religious difference. In a world thatis tornapartby is the workof God, a work of grace; it is offered first and foremost so many conflicts of religion, politics, and human tragedy, the by the victims of injustice and violence to their oppressors. The church needs to recognize that Jesus' ministry of reconciliation church's task is notto develop strategies for reconciliation to take and peace has been entrusted to us (2 Cor. 5:18-19). Mission place but to witness in its life and proclaim in fearless hope that ultimately is witnessto thehopeof a newheavenanda newearth, God's grace does heal and that, through the reconciling work of where every tear will be wiped away (Rev. 21:1-5), every tongue Jesus Christ, the barriers of hostility can be broken down, and from every nation (Rev. 7:9)will confess that Jesus Christ is Lord those who are divided can be made one. For Christ "is our peace" (Phil. 2:11), and God will be all in all (1 Cor. 15:28). Notes------­ 1. See Redemption and Dialogue: Reading "Redemptoris missio" and 11. Robert D. Hawkins, "Occasional Services: Border Crossings," in "Dialogue and Proclamation," ed. William R. Burrows (Maryknoll, InsideOut: Worship in an Age of Mission, ed. Thomas H. Schattauer N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1993), pp. 3-55. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999), p. 201. 2. Robert J. Schreiter, ed., Mission in the ThirdMillennium (Maryknoll, 12. See InsideOut, ed. Schattauer. N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2001), pp. 135-38; WilliamJenkinson and Helene 13. 1971 Synod, "Justice in the World," Catholic Social Thought: The O'Sullivan, eds., Trends in Mission: Toward the Third Millennium Documentary Heritage, ed. David J. O'Brien and Thomas A. Shannon (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1991), pp. 399-414. (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1992), p. 289; Paul VI, "Message for 3. See "The Attitude of the Church Toward the Followers of Other World Day of Peace," Origins 1, no. 29 (January 6, 1972): 491; Religions: Reflections and Orientations on Dialogue and Mission," Leonardo Boff, "SocialEcology: Povertyand Misery," in Ecotheology: BulletinSecretariatus pronon Christianis 56, no. 2 (1984). Voices fromSouthandNorth,ed. David G. Hallman (Maryknoll, N.Y.: 4. David J. Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Orbis Books, 1994), p. 243; Frederick R. Wilson, ed., TheSanAntonio Mission(Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1991); J. Andrew Kirk, What Report: Your Will Be Done, Mission in Christ's Way (Geneva: WCC Is Mission? Theological Explorations (London: Darton, Longman, & Publications, 1990). Todd, 1999); Donal Dorr,Mission in Today's World (Maryknoll, N.Y.: 14. 1971 Synod, "justice," p. 295. Orbis Books, 2000). 15. John PaulII, "MoralChoices of the Future," Origins10, no. 39 (March 5. Stephen Bevans and Eleanor Doidge, "Theological Reflection," in 12, 1981): 621. Dialogue on Mission: WhatMission Confronts Religious Lifein the u.S. 16. Rudy Wiebe, The BlueMountains of China (Toronto: McClelland & Today? ed. PatriceJ.Tuohy(Chicago: Centerfor the Studyof Religious Stewart, 1970; repr., 1995), p. 258. Life, 2000), pp. 37-48. 17. World Council of Churches, "Ecumenical Affirmation: Mission and 6. Schreiter, Mission,pp. 135-41. Evangelism" (1991), in New Directions, ed. Scherer and Bevans, p. 43. 7. Pope Paul VI, Evangelii nuntiandi (Washington, D.C. U.S. Catholic 18. Paul VI, "The African Church Today," The Pope Speaks 14, no. 3 Conference, 1975); Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue (1969): 219; David J. Hesselgrave, Communicating Christ Cross­ and Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, "Dialogue and Culturally: An Introduction to Missionary Communication (Grand Proclamation," in Redemption andDialogue, ed. Burrows, pp. 93-118; Rapids: Zondervan, 1978), p. 85. Bosch, Transforming Mission, p. 420. 19. See Stephen B. Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology, rev. ed. 8. Lesslie Newbigin, The Gospel in a Pluralist Society (Grand Rapids: (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2002), pp. 3-15. Eerdmans, 1989), pp. 222-33. 20. Robert J. Schreiter, The Ministry of Reconciliation: Spirituality and 9. James A. Scherer and Stephen B. Bevans, eds., New Directions in Strategies (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1997). Missionand Evangelization, vol. I, Basic Statements (Maryknoll, N.Y.: 21. See Mortimer Arias, Announcing theReignof God: Evangelization and Orbis Books, 1992), p. 301. the Subversive Memoryof Jesus (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984). 10. Commission on World Mission and Evangelization, San Antonio, 1989, in ibid., p. 78.

Apri12003 53 Mazhar Mallouhi: Gandhi's Living Christian Legacy in the Muslim World Paul-Gordon Chandler

Decently, on an unbearably hot July afternoon in Delhi, I this shift, a Hindu intellectual once said, "What the missionaries ftfound myself standing barefoot in pilgrim reverence at have notbeenable to do in fifty years, Gandhiby his life, trial and the memorial of Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948). This self-pro­ incarceration has done, namely, he has turned the eyes of India claimed Hindu has been called one of the most Christlike men in toward the cross."? history. When India, a Hindu-majority nation with a large Mus­ Gandhi's humility and sacrificial nature were particularly lim population, wanted to pay its highest compliment to its most evident in his relationships with Muslims. At the age of seventy­ famous native son, it chose to describe him as a Christlike man.' eight, during the riots in Calcutta between Muslims and Hindus, Missionaries in India were greatly influenced by his example of he chose to stay in a Muslim home in the very center of the riot Christlike living. They would sit at his feet, seeking to learn what district. There he welcomed the Muslim former premier, called it meant to live like Christ within the Indian context in order to "The Butcher" by Hindus because they believed he had incited communicate him more effectively to a Hindu and Muslim the riots, who stayed with him. In order to stop the brutalities, populace.' Gandhi went on a fast until death. As a result, after seventy-two Gandhiwas captivatedbythe person and message of Christ. hours both sides came to him to guarantee the lives of the He spoke of the Sermon on the Mount as going "straight to my opposite community with their own lives, laying all their weap­ heart."? While Gandhi remained fundamentally a Hindu in ons at his feet. Later at the even greater Hindu-Muslim riots in outward things, he was more Christlike than most Christians, Delhi in early 1948, he drew up eight points on which all must with his inner life more and more transformed toward Christ. In agree, or he would fast until death. All eight points shamelessly many ways Gandhi, a non-Christian, helped to Christianize favored the Muslims, including returning 117 mosques that had unchristian Christianity, yet his influence for Christ on Hindus been converted into Hindu temples or residences. On the sixth and Muslims was even greater. His life, outlook, and methods day of the fast, the parties signed the "Pact of Peace." provoked great interest-indeed fascination-with Christ," Gandhi's last pilgrimage was to Mehrauli, a Muslim shrine seven miles south of New Delhi. Muslim women who had been A Peaceable and Sacrificial Approach fasting with Gandhi had complained to him that Hindu violence had kept them from going alone to Mehrauli. Gandhi therefore GandhichallengedChristiansto makelovetheir "workingforce," chose to accompany them. Once at the Muslim shrine, which had adopting it as a total way of life, "for love is the center and soul been vandalized by Hindus, Gandhi promised that it would be of Christianity.:"This advice fits with an early picture we have of repaired. Three days later he was murdered by a Hindu funda­ Gandhi, as reported by C. F. Andrews. Andrews, a respected mentalist who was incensed at his kindness to Muslims." Scottish Anglican missionary to India, once visited Gandhi at the The example of Gandhi's sacrificial approach made it easier Phoenix Ashram in South Africa, where he found Gandhi sur­ for Indians to move from the thought that if one man could take rounded by children, whom he loved. A baby girl belonging to a suffering on himself in order to bring peace and reconciliation family thatin India was considered untouchable was in his arms, between two religious communities, then if there was one divine along with a little Muslim boy who was an invalid. Gandhi's and holy enough, this one might take on himself the sin of the tenderness toward the smallest thing that suffered pain was part whole human race in order to bring peace and reconciliation of his devout search for truth, or Cod." betweenus and GOd.11 WhenGandhidied for the nation of India, Gandhi would constantly say to Christians and missionar­ his death pointed to the cross, supplying on a national scale an ies, "Don't talk about it. The rose doesn't have to propagate its illustration of what we see in Christ on the cross. In the Muslim perfume. It just gives it forth, and people are drawn to it. Live it, city of Hyderabad Gandhi's death was commemorated by a and people will come to see the source of your power."? Because procession carrying his garlanded picture with a cross above it. of Gandhi, a nonorganized "Christ following" arose in India, They saw the connection. apart from the church. The leading ideas of this movement were Though Gandhi's life shed much light on the cross, there is love, service, and self-sacrifice, which created an atmosphere for much more in the cross than his own experience illustrated. understanding the Gospel. Furthermore, the final goal is not just interest in Christ but faith Gandhi called his type of power "soul force" or "the power in Christ. Gandhi's life, however, raises the question of what the of suffering": taking suffering on oneself but never causing effectin theMiddle East mightbe if those whobearChrist's name suffering. Normally, the Hindu doctrine of karma has little or no were really more like Christ, catching and demonstrating his roomfor the cross. But withGandhi's teaching thatHindus could spirit and outlook. joyously take on suffering for the sake of achieving righteous Perhaps unknown to himself, Gandhi presented an Eastern purposes, there came a new sensitivity to the cross," In light of face of Christ to India. By his life, Gandhi helped Indians to visualize Christ walking down Eastern roads, dwelling among Eastern villagers in lowly poverty, simplicity, and love. Many Paul-Gordon Chandler, President andCEOofPartners International, grewup Hindus believed Gandhi was the Eastern incarnation of Christ, in theMuslim countryofSenegal, WestAfrica.An Anglicanminister,heserved and othersbeganto see the meaningof the cross because theyhad astherector ofSt. George's AnglicanChurch in Tunisia,NorthAfrica.Heisthe seen it in one of theirsons." Gandhi reflected the Easternness of authorofGod's Global Mosaic (InterVarsity,2000)and is currentlywriting Christ, and this Easternness had profound implications in the a book on MazharMallouhi'slifeand thought. Indian context. One Christmas day Rabindranath Tagore, a

54 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 Nobel-Prize-winning Bengali poet and friend of Gandhi, wrote cally demonstratedChrist'steaching." In thiswayGandhiopened this amazing prayer: "Great-souled Christ, onthisblessed day of Mallouhi's heart to consider Christ. your birth, we who are not Christians bow before you. We love Influenced by Gandhi, Mallouhi decided to study the Bible you and worship you, we non-Christians, for with Asia you are while stationed as a soldier on the disputed Golan Heights. His bound with the ties of blood."13 spiritual turmoil grew so great that at one point he felt on the verge of committing suicide. Finally, after spending one year A Muslim Disciple reading the Scriptures, he concluded that Christ was unlike the otherreligiousleadershe hadstudied;like Gandhi,Christmatched Gandhi'sunintentional witness of Christto Hindusand Muslims his teaching withhis life. Eventhoughhe hadhad no contactwith stretched over time to 1959 and geographically west from India a church or Christianity in any other form, Mallouhi was drawn to the Middle East, touching Mazhar Mallouhi, the celebrated by the words of Christ, "Come to me all you who are weary and Arab novelistand publisher, as a youngmanpostedontheGolan heavy laden, and I will give you rest." Finally, at the age of Heights as a soldier in the Syrian arn1Y who was looking for twenty-four, his heart responded, crying out, "This Christ is my spiritual life. The story of how Mallouhi met Christ through Lord! Give me this newlife you promise!" NotonlywasMallouhi Gandhi is yet another example of God's using unexpected and given new life, but the whole world came to life for him. Now irregular channels to accomplish his purposes. instead of hating people, he wanted nothing morethanto be with Born into a large Muslim family in Syria that has produced them. a number of well-known writers, including one uncle who translated all of Chairman Mao's works into Arabic, Mallouhi New Directions cares deeply for his country and is proud of its heritage. His family is also very proud of their religious heritage. A family tree Mallouhi immediately experienced rejection from his family, in a gold frame showing the Mallouhis' descentfrom the Prophet including from an uncle who attempted to kill him, as evidenced Mohammed hangs on their wall. To date the family has pro­ today by a scar on his neck. Not long afterward, as a result of his duced Muslim clerics, Communist political activists-and one beingan active memberof a certain political party, a warrantwas disciple of Christ. issued for his arrest, which led to his exile from Syria. An avid reader from his childhood, Mallouhi spent much Mallouhi persevered in his new faith and began writing time alone withbooks. At an early age he began to have religious Arabic novels with a spiritual theme in the mode of Tolstoy and questions but was strongly discouraged from asking them, for Dostoyevsky. Hissupremedesirebecame to share the treasure of according to Islam it is blasphemous to question God. "When I Christ with others. The most natural way for him, and one of the read the Qur'an, I pictured God up in the sky smoking his water pipe. He had given me his book but had no involvement in my daily life or in the suffering of humanity below."!" Spiritual Mallouhi spent much time restlessness led Mallouhi to study many Eastern religions, as well as ancient Greekand Roman religious beliefs. His searchled alone with books. Yet he himto conclude that because humans had created a hell on earth, was discouraged from they had created "God" as an escape so as to obtain peace of mind. Furthermore, he observed that the leaders of all the reli­ asking religious questions. gions preached something they themselves could not live; all were striving for something they never actually experienced or realized. This conclusion led him to reject his family's plan that most effective methods in the Arab world, is through literature, he pursue a religious vocation as a cleric. for stories are especiallypowerfulin the Eastern tradition. He has Though Muslims respect Christ highly, Mallouhi refused to now writtenseventeenbooks, which are read all over the Middle studythe Christian faith. He sawChristianity as a tool of oppres­ East. His first novel, The Traveler, a modern-day Arab prodigal sive colonialists, a Western religion that was continuing its story, has sold morethan80,000 copies and has been readbyover medieval Crusades against the Arab people. Western "Chris­ 1.5 million Arab Muslims." tian" nations gave blind support to the injustices of the State of Years later, in 1975, Mazhar married Christine, an Austra­ Israel against the Palestinian people. He observed Christians lian who had dedicated her life to the Arab people. Christine was calling Christ the Prince of Peace but then supporting and on her way to live in the United Arab Emirates when they met. waging war. "The most beautiful part of the Gospel, the cross, They now have two sons. Working together in a writing and becamea weaponused against us in Crusaders' hands. The cross, publishing ministry, the Mallouhis have lived and served in where God had embraced humanity, had become a sword," he Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia,Syria,Jordan, and, most recently, Leba­ says. (The Arabic word for Crusader means "cross-bearer.") non. During the 1950s Mallouhi, like many moderate Syrian This transformation occurredbecause of one humbleIndian, intellectuals, joined a popular secular political party. He also Mahatma Gandhi, who did his best to live his life in the shadow began to write for newspapers and publish some of his poetry. of Christas taughtin theSermon on the Mount. Beingintroduced During this period he started reading Gandhi's works and learn­ to life withChristthroughGandhihas greatly influencedMazhar ing about Gandhi's nonviolent movement, and soon he discov­ Mallouhi's approach to living and sharing his faith with fellow ered Gandhi's great respect for Christ. Mallouhi began to see a Muslims. different Christ through Gandhi's eyes than he had heard about previously. He was fascinated, he says, to see how "Gandhi took Waging Peace on Muslims Christian principles without Christ against a Christian nation [England] without Christian principles and won the battle." The best way to describe Mallouhi's approach is to speak of his "Gandhi stands out to me as the one person who most dramati- "wagingpeace onMuslims."16 With this perspective, he has been

April 2003 55 a powerful force for peace and healing between Muslims and he had only a thin blanket. God used this prison experience to Christians. In Mallouhi's understanding, the critical element, if teach him anew to "embrace the bitter until its piercing brought Muslims are to be able to see Christ's true nature, is that they first drops of sweetness." Mallouhi testified, "I felt as if I was released see the likeness of Christ in his followers. For Mallouhi, who from my dismal surrounding and from my personal internal describes himself as "a Muslim who follows Jesus," following prison. I drank deeply of the Father's love and suffering for us in Christ in the spirit of Gandhi means taking the path of love, Christ on the cross." peace, sacrifice, and self-denial on a daily basis. Gentleness, Heightenedinterestin Islamhasrecentlybeenevidentamong kindness, open-heartedness, and joyfulness exude from him, Christians, with many sincerely and open-mindedly seeking to and people are drawn to him like a magnet. Children love him. understand Muslims. Nevertheless, a quickly growing discord I have enjoyed walking with him through the old Arab medinas, betweenthe two has also beenevident. Some Western Christians watching him converse with strangers. They almost instantly have sought to demonize Islam, portraying it as the last great bond to him because of the warmth and the depth of being he enemy to be conquered. Rather than create further alienation displays. It is fascinating to watch him sharing about the sweet­ between Muslims and Christians, Mallouhi advocates a 11.011.­ ness of Christ to those gathered around him in Arab cafes, as he confrontational approach to Muslims and demonstrates the im­ puffs on a water pipe and fingers his prayer beads. He is known portance of building on commonalitiesbetweenIslam and Chris­ through North Africa and the Middle East as a big-hearted man. tianity. Christ's followers today need to be involved in an all-out The Mallouhis' lives are always open. The result is a con­ effort to help Muslims, not to conquer them, embodying good­ tinual flow of people through their home, hundreds each week will, appreciation, and sympathy in the spirit of Christ. when they lived in Cairo. Everyone comes, from Muslim funda­ By offering respect and reciprocity, Mallouhi has found an mentalist sheikhs, Catholic priests and nuns, Baptist pastors, amazing openness among Muslims toward his faith in Christ. Coptic Orthodox, Communists, Jewish rabbis, and Baha'is, to all For example, Muslim students, studying in the prestigious Is­ kinds of Western expatriates. While living in Morocco, Mallouhi lamic intellectual and missionary center of Al-Azhar Mosque in would bringhome people he found in the street to feed them and Cairo, have sat around him in the courtyard of the mosque as he help them, He was known to so many people in Fes, Morocco, a taught them of Christ, opening the Scriptures to them. city of 1.3millionpeople, thathe once received a letter addressed simply "Mazhar Mallouhi, Fes." Presenting Christ as a Middle Easterner Mallouhi has hundreds of friends around the world and knows their telephone numbers by heart. As soon as he walks Perhaps Mallouhi's most significant spiritual contributionis that into a city, he begins calling friends. He calls them regularly of stripping Christ of his Western trappings and introducinghim during the year, checking on then1 and praying for them. He has to Muslims as one who was born, lived, and died in the Middle a renowned capacity for people and friendships, both Muslim East. This Christ, one that Muslims can understand, is the Christ and Christian. Everywhere he lives, he forms a weekly meeting that Mallouhi met, which explains why he calls himself simply a of men, drawn largely from the intellectual and artistic commu­ Syrian Arab follower of Christ, avoiding the label "Christian." nities. Muslims generally perceive Christianity as partof a Western Mallouhiliveshis life for others. His tenderness andjoviality political agenda and see Christ as a Westerner with no relation­ disarm even those who would naturally be against him because ship to Eastern culture. Christianity, however, is Middle Eastern of his beliefs. When he was in jail once in Egypt, fellow prisoners in origin, not a Western faith. Christ, a Middle Easterner, was who were fundamentalist Muslims asked him why he was there. culturally more like today's Arab than a Western Christian. Mallouhi effectively bridges this gap because of his own personal experience. When he became a follower of Christ, he Mallouhi's most significant was told by Christians that he needed to leave his cultural past behind, change his name (take a "Christian" name), stop social­ contribution is stripping izing in coffee shops (the primary meeting place of Arab men), Christ of his Western not attend his family's religious celebrations, keep his distance from mosques and Muslims, cease to fast, begin to pray in a trappings and introducing different posture (notbowing or prostrate), andbegin to eatpork him as a Middle Easterner. (to prove he was converted!). As a result, he quickly became alienated from his family and all his former friends, whom he was advised by Christians to reject. Ironically, no matter whathe After telling them it was because he was sharing his faith in did, Mallouhi still was not fully accepted by the local Christian Christ with other Muslims, a fundamentalist sheikh shared his community, because of his coming from a Muslim background. blanket with him, and another shared his food. Muslims often Over time, however, Mallouhi realized thatfollowing Christ say to him, "I can'tfigure you out. Why are you going to so much does notmean denyinghis loyalty to Middle Eastern culture and trouble to help us? What is your hidden agenda?" Mallouhi's becoming part of an alien "Christian" culture. Although he reply is simply, "If I see a chance to do good and don't help, it is worships Christ, he continues to embrace his Middle Eastern a sin. The opposite of love is indifference." roots, the very roots of the one he serves. He came to understand A prison experience in Syria had a profound effect on his that his family's rejection of him was not because he was follow­ understanding of Christ's sacrificial suffering. After twenty-five ing Christ but rather because of the way Christians had told him years of exile, he returned to his homeland. Upon his arrival he to act and to explain his new life. It was not Good News to his surrendered to the authorities, requesting that his case be inves­ family. In their eyes he was turning his back on family and tigated and that he be given a chance to prove his innocence. For community values in favor of Western individualism, rejecting a eighteen days he was kept in solitary confinement in an under­ monotheistic faith for polytheism, and abandoning strong moral ground cell, sharing it only with rats. For the cold concrete floor traditions for morally lax Western styles of behavior. They saw

56 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 m- Wi[[iam Carey Li6rary Mission Resources

C HRlS{iAN1TY IN Ru sSIA AND Free E-Book! POST COM MUNIST EUROPE Hundreds of Titles! More than 75 Publishers! Discount Prices! Search, Browse and Order Online. www.WCLBooks.com

Christianity in Russia and Post Communist Europe @ ewJ) Di rectory 2003 Sharon Linzey, editor Prefaced with essays on contemporary religio us issues in Russia and listing thousands of organizations from around the world, this directory is an amazingly detailed and extensive resource for those involved or interested in Russia and post communist Europe. WCLS07-6 WCL, 2003 Paperback, 377 pages Retail: $~ Discount: $23.99 Whobale: $17.99* Sharing Jesus in the Buddhist World ~ David Lim and Steve Spaulding, editors ~ Western Saints in Holy Russia This book on Chri stian missio ns to the Budd hist world John McNeill "The post 1990 enthusiasm for projects in the former not on ly provide s understand ing of many Buddhist Soviet Union has led, more recently, to disillu sionment cultures; it provides culturally relevant ideas on sharing because of the lack of lasting results. John McNeill goes Jesus with Buddhists around the world . It truly lives up below the sur face issues of po litical and economic to the editors' goal, "To provide the global church with instab ili ty to deeper factors that have been a knowledge and understanding of the Buddhist world and hindrance...He provides us exce llent recommendations how to reac h it for Christ." that must guide such projects in the future ...His careful WCLS06-8 WCL,2003 Paperback , 2 10 pages and sympathetic critique is a wake-up call.;." - Paul Hiebert (from the foreword) Call or check webs ite for pricing WCL3S4-S Mandate Press, 2002 Pape rback, 147 pp. Guidebook for Pilgrims to the Heavenly City Retail: $+2-:-99 Discount: $8.50 Wholesale: $7.15* Gareth Lee Cockerill ~ The purpose of this book is to interpret the epistle of Hebrews so that it will be relevant and readi ly understood by new followers of Jesus who come from an Islamic M Wiillam Carey Library background - with a view toward encourag ing them to persevere amid difficu lt circumstances. This book may Order Online at www.WCLBooks.com also be of use to Muslims who have a serious interest in or call toll free at I -BOO-MISSION Jesus and have begun to study the New Testament. It will Please use co de "IBM01" when ordering. certainly be helpful for people witnessing and discipling O utside the us: (7061 554- 1594 in Mu slim contexts. Fax: (706) 554-7444 WCL449-S WC L,2002 Paperback, 176 pages GAB RIEL @WCLBooks .co m Retail: $+2-:-99 Discount: $9.75 Wholesa le: $7. 15* Ga briel Resources / WCL *Wholesale price: 3 or more of the same title. PO Box 1047 Prices are subject to change without notice. Waynesboro, GA 30830 USA Prices do not include shipp ing.

----~-- -­ him as rebelling against all the best values they had taught him; of God's covenant with Abraham, whom they view as their any decent family would have been similarly and rightly con­ historical father. Mallouhi is currently working on An Oriental cerned. Reading of the Gospel of John for Sufi Muslims (the mystical Taday, Mallouhienjoys prayingand meditatingin thequiet, segment of Islam). The commentary and articles will present reverent atmosphere of a mosque, where he sits on the carpeted Jesus as the ultimate mystic and the Living Word. floor and reads his Bible. While there, he often visits the sheikhs Mallouhi also asks Muslims to contribute articles and intro­ and imams, who are his friends. Mallouhi says, "Islam is my ductions for these publications. Fadhel [amali, the late prime heritage and Christ is myinheritance," and as a result he has kept minister of Iraq, wrote the introduction for the OrientalReading of his Islamic and Arab culture while being a follower of Christ for the Gospel of Luke, saying, "We Muslims know less about the four decades. Mallouhi's official Syrian identity papers still list Christian faith than Christians know about Islam. Therefore, I him as a Muslim, as the government does not allow a change in encourage you as a Muslim to read this bookto understand what one's religious identity. And he encourages new followers of they truly believe." These "Easternized" publications of Scrip­ Christ from Muslim backgrounds not to leave their family, ture have been endorsed by Arab Muslim leaders ranging from a former primeminister to current government cabinetministers to Islamic university deans and professors. Not only is their content exclusively oriented to Muslims, By presenting the Scriptures but equally important are their external packaging and the way as culturally Middle Eastern, they are distributed. To a Muslim, God's Holy Word needs to be he gained unprecedented presented in a fashion that conveys great reverence and impor­ tance. Hence Al Kalima's publications are beautifully detailed acceptance for God's Word. hardbound volumes, printed with ornate Arabic calligraphy on a par with the quality that Arab readers expect in editions of the Qur'an. people, or culture. He emphasizes that following Christ does not By presenting the Scriptures as culturally Middle Eastern, require taking a Christian name, wearing a different type of Mallouhi has gained unprecedented access and acceptance for clothing, using the symbol of the cross (not used by the early God's Word. At a recent Arab book fair in a North African church), changing the day of public worship (Sunday instead of country with very few local Christians, An OrientalReadingofthe Friday), adhering to a different style of worship within a church Gospel of Luke was the best-seller. After reading it, a Muslim building, eating different foods, drinking alcohol (Muslims do professor commented, "This is the first time we've seen that not drink alcohol, whereas many Christians do), using pictures Christ has Middle Eastern roots, related to our own culture! of Christ (most illustrate a Jesus of European descent), or ceasing Historically, we've only received Christianity through the im­ to fast. He works to help thembecome disciples of Christ without posed view of Western colonialists. But we want everyone and having to join the "Christian" West. every student in our Department of Islamic Studies to read this." It has since become a required textbook in his university. Presenting Scripture to Muslims Coupled with Middle Eastern presentation and packaging of theScriptures is Mallouhi's strongbeliefthattheir distribution Mallouhi now spends most of his time and energy working to shouldbe exclusively throughlegal sales channels,as opposed to present the Christian Holy Scriptures in ways that Muslims can smuggling or mass free distribution of any sort. Al Kalima's respect. To assist in carrying out this mission, he founded publications are sold legally and openly through normal outlets Al Kalima ("the Word" in Arabic), which publishes spiritual from supermarket bookstands to book fairs to Arabic Muslim books throughone of the largest secular Arab publishing houses. bookstores. They all havebeenapproved by governmentcensors Al Kalima's most important projects focus on re-presenting the for sale in the mainstream market and therefore do not bear the Christian Scriptures as the ancient Middle Eastern writings that stigma of smuggled contraband that much Western-produced they are, returning them to their authentic cultural origin. After Christian literature does. This approach has made the Scriptures all, the Bible is not a Western book, being actually rooted in widely availableand officiallyacceptablein mostof the countries Middle Eastern cultures more ancient than that underlying the considered "closed" to the Bible. Over the years, Mallouhi has Qur'an. seenthe very negative effects of smuggling, blocking all possibil­ The distinctive emphasis of Al Kalima is best illustrated by ity for the Bible to be taken seriously and naturally by Muslims its recent publication of the Gospel of Luke and the Book of or for the Bible to be endorsed officially as a legal book, some­ Genesis. Mallouhi actively seeks cooperation and counsel from thing his approach has proved is very possible. At the same time, influential Muslims as he seeks to shatter stereotypes, overcome the greatest financial support for these publications comes from prejudices, and illuminate and resolve typical Muslim misun­ Muslim readers themselves, as the proceeds from the sales are derstandings of Scripture. He has asked hundreds of Muslims to reinvested to underwrite reprintings and further publications. read the Scriptures to identify difficulties they have in under­ standing the text. With their feedback, he then develops com­ Conclusion mentary to address the issues raised. Titled An OrientalReading of the Gospel of Luke and Genesis: The Origin of the World and of As MahatmaGandhienabled Indians to visualizeChristwalking Humanity, these recent works include the biblical text and Mus­ down their Indianroads, so MazharMallouhi is serving to return lim-focused commentary that effectively explains the Scriptures Christ to his cultural origins, walking naturally down the roads and presents Christ as the Middle Easterner that he was.'? Terms of the Middle East. His vision to win a home for God's Word in such as "Messiah" and "Son of God" are explained so average the heart of the Muslim world is helping thousands of Muslims Muslim Arab readers can understand them within their own to understand the Gospel and enabling many to find true and cultural context, helping them see howChrist wasthe fulfillment lasting reconciliation in the Middle Eastern Prince of Peace.

58 Notes 1. E. Stanley Jones, The Christ of the Indian Road (London: Hodder & 8. Jones, Christof the Indian Road, pp. 91-92. Stoughton, 1925), p. 51. 9. Ibid., p. 92. 2. The well-known missionary evangelist to India, E. Stanley Jones 10. Marie Louise Gude, Louis Massignon: The Crucible of Compassion said, "I bow to Mahatma Gandhi and I kneel at the feet of Christ. .. (Notre Dame, Ind.: Univ. of Notre Dame Press, 1996), pp. 193-94. . A little man ... has taught me more of the spirit of Christ than 11. Jones, Christ of the Indian Road, p. 98. perhaps any other man in East or West" (Gandhi: Portrayal ofaFriend 12. Ibid., pp. 77-78. [Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1993], p. 8). 13. Ibid., p. 143. 3. Ibid., pp. 82-83. 14. All quotations of Mazhar Mallouhi in this article are taken from the 4. Jones, Christof the Indian Road, pp. 86, 76, 101. manuscript of a book the author is preparing on his life and thought. 5. Ibid., p. 148. In this passage Gandhi urged Christians to "live more 15. The Arab League estimates that every book is read by 20-50 people like Jesus Christ, ... put your emphasis on love ... [and] study the in the Arab world. non-Christian religions and cultures more sympathetically in order 16. See Christine Mallouhi, WagingPeace on Islam(Downers Grove, Ill.: to find the good that is in them, so that you might have a more InterVarsity, 2002). sympathetic approach to people." 17. Mazhar Mallouhi et al., eds., An OrientalReadingoftheGospel ofLuke 6. C. F. Andrews, What lOwe to Christ (Nashville: Abingdon Press, (Beirut: Dar Al [il, 1998) and Genesis: The Origin of the World and of 1932), pp. 223-24. Humanity (Beirut: Dar Al [il, 2001), both in Arabic. 7. Jones, Gandhi, p. 62.

How the Catholic Church in Latin America Became Missionary John F. Gorski, M.M.

uring the past thirty-five years the Roman Catholic "missionarysituations" in the continent. One-eighthof the popu­ DChurch in Latin America has experienced a significant lation (or about 65 million) belong to almost 600 linguistically transformation. It has come to an ever clearer awareness that its differentiated indigenous groups,sometimescalled Amerindians vocation is to be missionary, in the specific sense of evangelizing or native Americans; their ancestors were the original inhabi­ thosewhodonotyetknowChristandhis Gospel, or hardlyknow tants of the continent. More than one-fifth of the population are them. Ihavehadtheprivilegeof accompanyingthis churchin the African-Americans, the descendants of the slaves brought to the growth and development of its new missionary identity and continent from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries. These activity during these past forty years and would like to share my two groups, together with a much smaller Asian-American experience with a wider readership, particularly in the English­ minority, constitute almost 35 percent of the continent's people. speaking world. One-third of Latin Americans are thus not "Latin" in their Previously, for almost 500 years, the Catholic Church in cultural roots. Apart from these ethnically distinct groups, there LatinAmericawasdependenton the missionaryinputof person­ are those with mixed racial and cultural roots, partly European nel, means, and ideas of other churches-particularly those of and partly Amerindian, African, or Asian, commonly called Europe, and, in the past century, those of North America. In "mestizos." These constitute roughly one-half of the population receiving missionaries from elsewhere, the churchwas passively of Latin America. a "missionary church." It is still largely dependent on this input Besides these traditional cultures another reality challenges butis becoming more and more a missionary church in an active the church today: the number of people living in a situation of sense,attendingto missionarysituationsamongnonevangelized migration, whether from one part of their country to another or human groups within the continent and sending missionaries to other nations. As much as one-third of the population is in beyond its frontiers, even to other continents, "giving from its migration. These people no longer express themselves solely in verypoverty," anddoingso withan originalmissiology thatis its the traditional cultural and religious forms that served their own. This about-face is a real conversion, a "new creation," a ancestors butthrougha mixture of these forms with models from work of the Spirit. Here I explain why and how the Catholic other cultures, with a dose of modern and postmodern elements. Church in Latin America emerged from passivity to become This is particularly the challenge of urban populations and the actively missionary. youth. The missionarychallengeof this multiethnic, pluricultural, andevenplurireligioushumanreality relates the LatinAmerican Missionary Challenge in Latin America church to its sister churches in Africa and Asia. Although at the sociological level the great majority of Latin A Non-Missionary Church Americans profess to be Catholic Christians, there are many Because the continent's dominant culture was of European roots and expressions, particularly the "Latin" variety of Spain and Portugal, for centuries it was presumed that the primary mis­ John F. Gorski, M.M., acontributingeditor, hasbeen assigned to Bolivia since his ordination to the priesthood in 1963. Since 1989 he has been Professor of sionary challenge was teaching people to learn the Catholic Mission,Ecumenism, andInculturationattheCatholic UniversityofBolivia in religious expressions transmitted through the models of the Cochabamba. In 2000he was elected as thefirst President of theInternational dominant culture and to pass it on from one generation to the Association of Catholic Missiologists. next. An anthropologist would say that the first contact with

April 2003 59 Christianity involved a process of acculturation (a culture change (Mexico and Guatemala), where over 90 percent of the native produced by direct and prolonged contact with an alien culture), American population is concentrated. Missionaries sent to these and its further transmission, a process of enculturation (learning areas undertook a new evangelization of these peoples through established cultural models). In a "best case scenario," where it the formation of indigenous evangelizers or catechists. The latter existed, catechesis was part of a "general pastoral action" that not only had to catechize their people in their own languages but was so general that it evangelized no onein particular, at least not also wereresponsiblefor Catholic worshipand otherdimensions in their own cultural identity. of ecclesial life in their communities. The interaction between Even though it is commonplace among Catholics to speak of them and the missionaries, who soon recognized that they too a first or constitutive evangelization starting five centuries ago, had to study the native languages, first led to an effort to express it wouldbe more exact to speakofan enterprise of Christianization, the Christian faith in terms understandable to the members of or the incorporation of the peoples of the continent into a mono­ those cultures and, eventually, to a theological valuing of the cultural Christendom, in which they were subject to Christian indigenous religious experience and cultural expressions.' The authorities, both ecclesiastical and civil. Evangelization in the stronglybiblical content of this new catechesis, this "returnto the specific sense of announcing the Gospel to enable a personal sources," contributed significantly to its evangelical dynamism and capacity to motivate renewal. Latin American missiology had its roots not in theological faculties, as in Europe, but in the grassroots challenges of the indigenous apostolate. Over the centuries, Ever since the Second Vatican Council, the official teaching Christianization produced an of theCatholicChurchhassupportedthis concernof the mission­ introverted church that was aries for the specific evangelization of each human group, taking account of its own cultural identity and religious experience. It unconcerned about mission. was not so much the missionary orientations of the council itself as the apostolic exhortation Evangelii nuntiandi (1975) of Pope Paul VI that directly moved the Latin American bishops and encounter with the living Christ, leading to conversion and theologians in general to take seriously the relation between discipleship, became a conscious concern of the Catholic Church Gospel and culture. When the Puebla conference of the Latin only within the past half century. Previously, it was presumed AmericanBishops (1979)decidedto adapttheorientationsof this that people would learn to become good Christians by belonging papal document to the present and future situation of Latin to the church, learning the doctrine, observing the command­ America and to make evangelization its basic theme, the bishops ments, receiving the sacraments needed for salvation, and par­ had to make their own Paul VI's emphasis on what was then ticipating in Catholic devotions.' This project of Christianization called the evangelization of cultures. John Paul II's insistence on did havea positive result, for in Latin America todayChristianity what is now called inculturation has reinforced this thrust. Until is not considered a foreign religion, and the preaching of the 1975, however, virtually only those in mission among the indig­ Gospel is not only accepted but even desired. enous peoples made this orientation a priority. Over the centuries, however, Christianization produced a A second very powerful factor was external, namely, the church that was introverted, concerned merely about taking way the Second Vatican Council (1962-65) renewed Catholic pastoral care of those who came to church, and conserving theology, particularlyby its focus on how divine revelation gives whatever influenceit had in society. It did not producea mission­ meaning to the evangelical identity of the church and its mission ary church, one committed to communicating the Gospel to the in the world. The council's Decree on the Church's Missionary human groups that did not know Christ. It was presumed that Activity affirmed that the entire churchis missionary ''byits very those close at hand were already Christianized, but perhaps nature" (Ad gentes,2). Missionary activity is not just a concern of ignorant or indifferent about their faith. Those beyond its bor­ a body of professionals, those who by vocation see themselves ders who did not know Christ, peoples in Africa and Asia, were called to be missionaries, but a concern of the entire church. In hardly a direct object of concern.' Up to the middle of the 1966, a year after the end of the council, when the Consejo twentieth century, not only in Latin America and not only among Episcopal Latinoamericano (CELAM, or Latin American Coun­ Catholic Christians, hardlyany positive importance was given to cil of Catholic Bishops) reorganized for more effective service to indigenous cultures in the expression of Christian life. It was the national episcopal conferences," the Departamento de presumed by Christian missionaries that their Western culture Misiones del CELAM (DEMIS, or the Mission Department of was the adequate and perhaps the only valid way of expressing CELAM) was founded." the Gospel." DEMIS organized meetings in 1967 (in Ambato, Ecuador) and 1968 (in Melgar, Colombia) to identify the situations in Latin Factors Contributing to Missionary Renewal America that called for missionary activity in its specific sense, to set priorities, and to propose theological guidelines to give a Renewal in the church is often stimulated and guided by two solid orientation to evangelizing efforts. One of the significant factors: the life-giving pastoral experience of drawing near to the contributions to mission theory was the rejection of merely people in their concrete life-situation, and a return to the sources canonical and geographic criteria to delimit what is "mission" in of Christian identity, particularly in the sacred Scriptures. The favor of a theological and pastoral criterion, the identification of missionary renewal of the Catholic Church in Latin America "missionary situations." Certain human groups need mission­ illustrates the significance of these factors. ary activity rather than normal pastoral care not because they The first renewal factor was internal. From the 1950s some happen to live in a jurisdictiondesignated as mission territory by missionary groups began showing a new interest in the religious church authority butbecause their cultures have not yet encoun­ situation of the indigenous peoples, particularly in the countries tered the life-giving force of the Gospel. of the Andes (Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador) and Mesoamerica Two aspects of the human condition of the indigenous

60 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 You're Embarking on THE JOURNEY OF LIFE.

You'll be traveling to multicultural places whether you stay home or go abroad. We'll help you pack your briefcase or suitcase with crosscultural communication, language and education. You can be an international educator, relief wor ker, a linguist or one of numerous professions. We're more than missionary training. At Biola University's School of Intercultural Studies, we're your preparation for the journey of life. Your journey begins here.

Call now for information: 800- 652-4 652 Program s II B.A. or Minor in Intercul t ur al St udies III M .A. in Intercultural St ud ies

III Mi no r o r Certificate in T ESOL !II D.Miss. • Do ctorate o f M issiology

l!i( SILlWycliffe Lingui sti cs pr ogr am II Ph.D. in Inter cultural Ed uca tion II M .A. in T ESO L III Extensio n Centers in Thaila nd ill M .A. in Applied Lingu ist ics and Germa ny peoples are prominent in the Latin American mission focus: the evangelized groups constitute over 30 percent of the total popu­ cultural identity of those evangelized, and their socioeconomic lation of the continent and are the poorest of the poor. situation of endemic poverty. After almost 500 years of Puebla also recognized "new missionary situations" among Christianization the indigenous peoples were judged to be not people who share the dominant Latin culture and who are only inadequately evangelized in their cultural identity but also affectedbyrecentsocial changes, particularly groups in a state of usually the poorest of the poor. While the incipient Latin Ameri­ internal or external migration who are tempted by modern or can missiology was keenly aware of the justice dimensions of postmodern secularism and are attracted to new sectarian reli­ evangelization, the contemporary liberation theologies gener­ gious or quasi-religiousmovements. But the indigenous peoples, ally did not give much importance to traditional cultures. While African Americans, and economically disadvantaged migrants DEMIS did consider the challenges of worldwide mission, it normally welcome the evangelizing efforts of Catholics and opted for a particular strategy: let the local churches learn to be evangelical Christians. missionary by dedicating themselves seriously to the specific Puebla also called the attention of the church to other groups evangelization of the indigenous cultures and thus gradually that constitute "difficult missionary situations," for instance, open up their horizons beyond the continent. The problem was politicians, the magnates of business and industry, the military, intellectuals, those who control the media, and leaders of radicalized labor unions. These groups are generally not only Dialogue with ancestral indifferent to evangelization but resist or impede it. Segundo Galilea, the well-known Latin American pastoral religions leads to birth theologian who coined the term "missionary situations" at the of inculturated churches Melgar encounter (1968) as an alternative to the geographic criterionfor mission, observedthatwhile Pueblareiterated much among indigenous peoples. of what Medellin had said about justice issues and various pastoral priorities, its original thrust was its sense of mission. It urged specific evangelization of groups whose identity and that over 90 percent of the indigenous population was concen­ vitality are shaped by traditional and new cultures, and it con­ trated in only five countries; in the other seventeen episcopal veyed a sense of the urgency of becoming a church that is conferences they constituted only a small minority, hardly a missionary beyond its ownfrontiers, to the uttermost ends of the priority in their pastoral planning. earth, giving from its poverty of personnel and means?Whereas Before 1975 many church officials in these nations viewed the main architect of Catholic mission thinking from Vatican II DEMIS merely as CELAM's "Department of Indian Affairs" or until Puebla was DEMIS, since 1979 no single party has been "Departmentof Anthropology," and therefore of little interest to responsible for the development that has occurred. them. The president of DEMIS from 1969 to 1974 was Bishop Samuel Ruiz, of Chiapas, Mexico. His valuing of the indigenous Mission as a Current Concern cultures and call for the birth of diversified, indigenous local churches among the indigenous peoples were considered exag­ Until Puebla nonindigenous missionaries like Bishop Ruiz pro­ gerated or unrealistic (if not threatening) in those years, causing moted theological valuing of the traditional cultures, but since him to be marginalized in CELAM. Ironically, his theologicaland then the thinkers who are engaged in leadership of this enter­ pastoral orientations on culture have now become the official priseare themselvesfrom the indigenouspeoples. In 1985DEMIS policy of the Roman Catholic Church since Pope Paul VI's spoke of a transition from a "pastoral indigenista" to a "pastoral emphasis on the evangelization of cultures and John Paul II's on indigena," that is, from pastoral ministry shaped by outsiders inculturation. In those years the ones who promoted world and directed toward indigenous communities to pastoral minis­ mission education for spiritual and material support for "the try carried out by members of indigenous communities them­ missions" (directors of the Pontifical Mission Aid Societies) selves." These budding missiologists, who do creative research generally evinced an outdated motivating message (help mis­ into their own cultures as well as Christian theology, some sionaries save those poor pagans in Africa and Asia) and seldom twenty years ago founded the Latin American Ecumenical Ar­ were informed or concerned about missionary situations in their ticulation of the Indigenous Apostolate (AELAPI), which since own countries. The Second General Conference of Latin Ameri­ 1990 has organized four continental encounter-workshops. This can Bishops, held in 1968 in Medellin, Colombia, was typical of movement seeks to promote dialogue between the Christian the times in hardly recognizing the existence of the indigenous faith and the ancestral religions, leading to the birth of truly populations, regarding them merely as socially marginalized inculturated local churches among the indigenous peoples. The groups, not as peoples whose cultural identity challenged the name of the movement points to a search for a theology of their church to specific mission activity. own-a "Teologia India"-capable of guiding this search and implies a radical critique that rejects rationalistic European the­ A New Focus on "Missionary Situations" ology, which duringfive centuriesdepreciated their cultures and resulted in a mainly superficial Christianization marked with The Third General Conference proved to be the decisive turning syncretistic accommodations. The current president of CELAM, pointin mission awareness and action. In this conference, held in Bishop Jorge Jimenez of Colombia, has convoked the continent's 1979 in Puebla, Mexico, the Latin American bishops recognized bishops and theologians to engage in sincere dialogue with the the existence of challenging missionary situations within the protagonists of the movement, welcoming its missionary intent, continent, not only among the indigenous peoples but also accompanying it, and helping it to reach theological maturity. among the African-Americans, so often ignored by the church's Another development is among the African-Americans. Since apostolate and now considered a "permanent missionary situa­ Puebla, at least Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, and tion." Together these culturally differentiated and inadequately Haiti, countries where this population is concentrated, have

62 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 organized specific pastoral plans and organizations for a specific This whole area touches questions of fundamental theology (i.e., evangelization of these people based on their cultural and reli­ the sources of Christian revelation), Christology, pneumatology, gious identity. ecclesiology, and theological anthropology (i.e., the place of Perhaps the most dramatic change in the past quarter­ human beings and the meaning of human history). These issues century is the growing awareness of the challenge of the evange­ are central and not marginaL lization of peoples outside the continent, particularly in Africa The second area of concern refers to thetheological motivation and Asia, and the commitment of Latin American Catholics to for the urgencyof world mission and of missionary activity in the world mission. Since the 1940s national mission congresses have specific sense of the evangelization of human groups that do not been held in Mexico to awaken and shape this mission spirit. In yet fully know Christ and his GospeL We note here that an 1977 the seventh congress, held in Torreon, became the first affirmation of the Second Vatican Council in Gaudium et spes, the continent-wide "Latin American Mission Congress." In the sec­ Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, is ond of this new series of congresses, held in Tlaxcala (also in central to this theology: "We must believe that the Holy Spirit Mexico, 1983),the acronym "COMLA," for Congreso Misionero offers to all people, in ways known to God, a participation in the Latinoamericano (Latin American Mission Congress), was paschal mystery of Christ" (sec. 22). This concise statement adopted." Although only a relatively small number of non­ beautifully expresses the Trinitarian and paschal foundations of Mexican bishops and national directors of the Pontifical Mission Christian mission, namely, that salvation does have a particular Societies participated in the first congress, subsequent meetings content and shape divinely revealed especially in the death and were attended by sizable national delegations that prepared glorification ofJesus. It also effectively inserts the situation of the their participation beforehand and also engaged in follow-up peoples evangelized and their own historical and cultural expe­ programs in their own countries. rienceof the paschalgift of theSpiritintothe very"content" of the The third COMLA, held in Bogota in 1987, had as its main gospel message. Mission is urgent not just to save people from themethe missionaryresponsibilityofthe local diocesanchurches. eternal perdition but, more fully, to enable them to participate as The fourth, celebrated in Lima in 1991, stressed the formation humanly as possible in the paschal salvation manifested in the and actual sending of missionaries as a basic act of faith of these mystery of Christ. Fully human participation implies intelligent churches. The fifth COMLA, in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, in 1995, awareness of that mystery, freedom, responsible commitment, emphasized mission as inculturationand wasa celebration of the heartfelt joy, and generous love. It implies not a merely passive religious identity and missionary vocation of Afro-Brazilians. salvation (what happens to our immortal souls after death) but The sixth COMLA, declared the First American Mission Con­ an active salvation operative here and now in history, in society, gress by Cardinal Tomko, the prefect of the Vatican Congrega­ and in culture. It is what we call discipleship, knowing and tion for the Evangelization of Peoples, had as its principal theme lovingJesus andfollowing himin thecommunityof his disciples, the need for a challenging proclamation of a biblical kerygma which is the church. This focus was already present seminally in that promotes a personal encounter with the living Christ. The seventh Latin American and second (Pan) American Mission Congress is sponsored by the local churches of all of Central America and is to be held in Guatemala in November 2003; it is The Catholic Church is to stress mission from human weakness and divine strength addressing the "theological manifested in martyrdom. motivation for the urgency An importantaspect of these congressesis their involvement of laity and pastors alike. It is now common for several dozen of world mission." bishops and hundreds of priests to participate in the entire congress (and not just in opening and closing ceremonies, which can be mostly for show). The participation of the lay majority is the reflections of DEMIS's meeting in Melgar in 1968 and was evangelical in content and spirit; their celebrations are almost progressively nurtured by Latin American theology's insistence Pentecostal in their shape and dynamism. The enthusiasm of the on the awakening of people's critical awareness of how God is youth is extremely promising. acting in history, the call to freedom and liberation and joint commitment in society for the transformation of the world A New Missiology in Latin America according to God's plan. It is a missiological focus that is pro­ foundly evangelical and authentically Latin American. Through these initiatives the Catholic Church in Latin America We must admit that this new sense of missionary vision and is developing its own mission theology, or missiology, that responsibility is experienced by the faithful people and their addresses two principal areas of concern. The first relates to the pastors in different degrees of intensity. Only a relatively small theological orientation fortheevangelization oftheindigenous peoples. number of Catholics are genuinely excited about mission and How does the historical and cultural situation of the diverse fully committed to it. Any living social movement has a strongly peoples enter into the theology of mission? What theological motivated core group, others who have a constant and serious focus can give orientation to a true inculturation of the Gospel commitment to its goals, and still others who participate only among the diverse peoples so that local churches may come to marginally and occasionally. Much is still to be done in the birth with "their ownface," that of their ownculture? In this task, formation of missionaries and missiologists. The enthusiasm of how is the church to be faithful to the Gospel as received and those who are committed, however, is affecting the Latin Ameri­ shaped in the Christian theological tradition and also faithful to can church as a whole. When we compare what is happening the cultural identity and vitality of the diverse peoples? How today with the indifference and passivity regarding mission that does the ancestral religious experience of the peoples, expressed was rather typical only a generation or two ago, we can only in their own language and cultural symbols, relate to Christian thank God for the graces showered on the church and the people revelation, to the "once and for all" salvation realized in Christ? of Latin America in these recent decades.

April 2003 63 Notes 1. Samuel Escobar contrasts the Catholic methodological priority of and La responsabilidad misionera de America Latina: Protagonismo planting the church with that of Protestant missionaries, who misionero en nuestraiglesia (Bogota: Paulinas, 1981). highlight a biblical message intended to lead to the conversion of 8. DEMIS, De una pastoral indigenista a una pastoral indigena (Bogota: individuals (Changing Tides: Latin Americaand World Mission Today CELAM,1987). [Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2002], pp. 35--44). 9. To date there have been six of these Latin American mission 2. Itwas presumed that missionaries would be sent to these areas from congresses; the acronym "COMLA" was coined for the second, held Europe and North America; what support there was from Latin in Tlaxcala, and its usage has acquired popular acceptance. These America for such missions consisted in prayer and token monetary events are organized and promoted jointly by the national directors donations. of the PontificalMissionSocieties (the Propagationof the Faith, Holy 3. DavidBosch notesthatthis ethnocentrismwastypicalof all Christian Childhood, St. Peter Apostle, and the Pontifical Missionary Union) missionaries, both Catholic and Protestant (Transforming Mission and the Commissionson Missionof the variousepiscopalconferences; [Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1991], pp. 447-50). each congress is sponsored by the episcopal conference of the nation 4. See Juan Gorski, Lassituaciones historicas como contenido del mensaje that hosts it. eoangelico (Bogota: Paulinas, 1975), pp. 11-34. Cardinal Josef Tomko, then the prefect of the Vatican 5. CELAM is a coordinating organism at the service of the continent's Congregationfor the Evangelizationof the Peoples (formerlyknown twenty-two episcopal conferences (twenty-one of these conferences as Propaganda Fide), declared COMLA-6, celebrated in 1999 in are national, and one is international, that of the Antilles, which Parana, Argentina, to be the first "Congreso Misionero Americano," includesthe former Britishand Dutchcolonies in the Caribbeanarea, incorporating the ecclesial participation of Canada and the United mostly island states or territories but also Belize, Guyana, and States. (In Spanish the term"Americano" has the senseof the English Surinam). CELAM does nothave the canonicalstatus of an episcopal "Pan-American," a term used mostly in the United States but rarely conference, nor is CELAM to be confused with the occasional by peoplefrom Latin America. In the geographylearnedby Europeans General Conferences of the Latin American episcopate (to date, and LatinAmericans, all of America is considered one continent, not there have been four such conferences: in Rio de Janeiro in 1955, two or three.) The acronym adopted for this new series of Western Medellin in 1968, Puebla in 1979, and Santo Domingo, Dominican Hemisphere mission congresses is "CAM." Since the COMLA Republic, in 1992). It is thus improper to refer to these as CELAM I, congresseshavehadtheirownhistoricaldevelopmentand dynamism II, III, and IV. in the Latin American church, there are mixed feelings about 6. CELAM'smissiondepartment has been known as DEMIS sincemid­ forgetting their identity as the COMLA series and changing their 1979.Fromits foundation in 1966untilthe Puebla conferencein early "chemistry" by transformingthemintosomethingelse. Nevertheless, 1979, the department simply used the acronym "DMC." a positive pastoral value is seen in a greater communion and 7. See Segundo Galilea, £1 mensaje dePuebla (Santiago: Paulinas, 1979) cooperation in evangelism among the churches of all of America.

What the Ila Believed About God: Traditional Religion and the Gospel Dennis G. Fowler

n 1959 my wife, Ena, and I were stationed at Kasenga, a nated in questions about vocabulary, they incidentally reflect I Methodist mission station in the heart of Ila country in many aspects of 11a life and thought in the period before the what is now southwest Zambia. In a corner of the mission office arrival of the Europeans. Much of the value of the quotations lies I found a filing cabinet stuffed with cards and papers. It proved in their unstudied nature. They were not structured and directed to be a collection of about 12,000 items on Ila vocabulary and by anthropological theses but arose spontaneously as the Ila usage dating back to the arrival of Edwin Smith (1876-1957) as a speakers explained the meaning of words and customs and the Primitive Methodist missionary in 1902 and continued by his various contexts in which they were used.' successors. When we returned to England in 1966, I brought the material with me. The Ila People and Pantheon For the next thirty years the Ila material remained in two battered suitcases in our attic. Once or twice I made attempts to The Ila people numbered about 25,000 in 1900. The men were sort through it, but the task was too much for me until I retired imposing in appearance: they were tall, dressed their hair in in 1994. I now had leisure for the job and a laptop to work with; cones almost four feet high, and never traveled even a short even so, it took three months to put the entries into alphabetical distance without one or two eight-foot spears over their shoul­ order and start work on translation, and it took another six years der. They had the reputation of being a warlike and turbulent before the Dictionary of Ila Usage was published. people. Until thearrivalof theMethodistmissionariesin 1893,no The following article is based on extracts from the conversa­ European had settled in their country, and several attempting to tions recorded in the dictionary. Although the quotations origi- do so had been killed. David Livingstone, who encountered them in the 1850s, knew them as the Bashukulompo. Dennis G. Fowler, a Methodistminister,wasa missionary in Zambia (1959­ In 1920 the Ila were the subject of a groundbreaking anthro­ 66),mainly amongtheIla people in the Kaiue Flats. His monographs, Dictio­ pological study, TheIla-Speaking Peoples of Northern Rhodesia, by nary of Ila Usage, 1860-1960 (2000) andThe Ila Speaking (2002), appear in Edwin Smith and Andrew Dale, a district officer. Their work set the series published by the International African Institute. the pattern for much subsequent research in Africa and led to

64 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 Smith's becoming president of the Royal Anthropological Insti­ SimunengauMalumbekabakwete bwendobomwi(s) / Simunengaand tute in 1933. Malumbe were equivalent in status. The Baila had no churches, no priesthood, and no meetings Even in Maala, Simunenga was regarded as only a kind of for corporate worship. A Westernvisitormighttherefore assume adjutant and agent for the great Bulengo." that they had no belief in God. The fact that they prayed fre­ quently and that they were always conscious of a spiritual Bulongo ulakwata kwaSimunenga, asimwine bantu bamucitile bobo dimension around them was not at first obvious, since their ubobo (s) / Bulongo takes possession through Simunenga, so that prayers and offerings were made on an individual or family he instructs people to do such and such for him. basis, and the village shrines were insignificant little huts or groves.' Bulongo, Archancestral Spirit In fact they did believe in a hierarchy of spiritual beings, in In 1910 Bulongo's cult was maintainedby Nalubwe, an oldblind which the mizimu (ancestral spirits, sing. muzimu) were lowest headman at Maala. and most numerous.' Next in rank were the tutelary spirits of the local communities, suchas Sikaumpaat Baambwe,Simunengaat Nalubwe naakonka bobo ikubilyabolongo, ncicikomo ncaakasiya bamausi Maala, andMalumbe.'Above themwasBulongo,the archmuzimu (p) / When Nalubwe proclaims a festival for Bulongo in that for the whole of the Ila country. Supremeabove all came Leza, the manner, it is the custom handed down by his fathers. Creator. There were some who regarded Bulongo as God. Bulongo bamuzungabumukando. Lezabamuzungabumweenzinabulyo, Simunenga, Tutelary Spirit nabumwanawaBulongo (s) / They consider Bulongo as the greater. They look on Leza merely as their neighbor, or as the son of Simunenga was the legendary patron and founder of Maala, the Bulongo. metropolis of the Baila. Others were not so sure. SimunengamuzikowansiyaMaala. Muntu ngumuntu boonse, mwami omutwanga, boonse balasyoma Simunenga (s) / Simunenga is the Bulongo, kuzibwa tabamwizi, pelebasinsyanya bulyo (s) / Bulongo, founder of the land of Maala. Absolutely everybody, chief or they don't really know anything, but they just guess. servant, all of them trust in Simunenga." Like other prophets, he was said to come from the northeast. These days, thefeast ofSimunengaat Maalais a touristattraction, Bulongo, cisoko cakwe ulasoka kwisala, kwa Inasyamwenda; nkwavwa a sort of county fair for the district. Formerly, it marked the day Bulongo (s) / Bulongo, as for his origins, he hails from the Sala when the cattle went out to the summer pastures. country, from Inasyamwenda; that's where he comes from.!'' IkubilyaSimunenga lyakonkwa kumwaka, kucikomo cakwe, atiwapetuka On the whole, Bulongo seems to have been seen as a spirit bobo (s) / The feast of Simunenga is celebrated every year, accord­ having human origin. He was not generally identified with the ing to his sacred custom, so that it comes round in that way." supreme being, the creator Leza. The community prayed for their cattle to be multiplied. Nguni uwatupa buzani? Kayi, nguLeza uwatupa, toli muzimo (s) / Kasikaleta ubalambe bombe, Simunenga Loobwe, Tambo, Namaubi, Who provides us with food? Why, it's Leza who gives it, not an Sikakunamo. Oolimba bacende, Amukalete balambe (p) / Provide us ancestral spirit. with calves of many colors, 0 Simunenga, you who gather in both the living and the dead, Tambo, Namaubi, Sikakunamo." You When we lived among the Baila from 1959 to 1965, Bulongo was who give fertility to bulls, give us [bulls and calves] of brown and relegated to anthropological texts, and Simunenga was flourish­ white and red. ing as the patron of Maala. The festival continued with celebrations that scandalized Smith Leza, Supreme Being because of their "lewd songs and a generallicence."8 In times of emergency, such as the approach of Lozi raiders, the warriors The Ila had many names for the Supreme Being. Thirty-two are would assemble for war under the aegis of Simunenga at one of recorded bySmith and Dale, and another dozenby Fowler." The his sacredgroves, the cikomo caNakatundakuMaala (s) (Nakatunda commonest by far is Leza, which also means "rain." Another is grove at Maala). Namese (p), meaning also "light showers." Many references to Simunenga was not only patron of cattle and war but was rain are ambiguous, so that it almost seems as though the rain is revered as controlling the people's destinies. regarded as God. Some of his praise names, however, make it Tulamubanda "Loobwe" kaambo kakuti uloobolola bantu (p) / We call clear that Leza was the provider of rain, not the rain itself. him "Gatherer" because he gathers people. Mangwe (s) / the raingiver who leaves no dry place Individuals prayed to him for help. Muninde (s) / the giver of thunder and rain Syakemba (s) and Keemba (s) / the raingiver Simunenga-Loobwe, uli coolwe, nobela (s) / Simunenga-Loobwe, Cikungwe (p) / the one who strikes without warning; e.g., Waisya blessed one, help me. oCikungwebwasunu;winakuwisya(p) / Cikungwehas passedus by He may be regarded as the greatest of the community mizimu today; it hasn't rained. referred to above. Many sayings connect the idea of God with weather. Nevertheless, it was recognized thathe was of humanorigin and was only an agent of the true God, Leza. Namakungwe usamine muuwo (p) / Namakungwe, who clothes himself with the wind Simunenga,muselusyeLeza(p) / Simunenga, the one sent downby Lezawatuuwa, muuwo munjimunji muzumu (p) / God ignores us, a God. terrible gale is blowing. InkungwenkubusyakampendaLeza(p) / A mistis God gettingsulky. Furthermore, he was only one of several demigods. Usunu busiku wabuzimika Leza (p) / Today God knocks the day

April 2003 65 unconscious [of days when the heat makes the grain wilt]. creation and in special miracles butin the constant renewal of life Ubwasunumbubyaabi; Lezawabusyamalele (p) / It's a foul day; God through food. is playing tricks. UbwasunuLezawabusyamufufu; tabalile (p) / Today God raised up Lezanguusesela mwini;atilimwinicitabizwa, limwicabizwa; wacibizusya dull weather; it's not hot. mukamwini (s) / It is God himselfwho replenishes; atone moment Koko Leza wasimpika; ulasimbwile cibyaabi, ulasiya-mbi (p) / Over it's not ripe, the next it is ripe; he himself has ripened it. there God has put the pot on to boil; it's very threatening and Sintu syoonse wasimeneka Leza(s) / God makes all things grow. black. Caaba, wakaaba ocitaliwa (s) / He is the distributor; he gave more Lezawasimpika makumbi, ukalawa (s) / God has put the clouds on than could be eaten. the fire; it's going to rain. But if God gave increase, he could also withhold it; he was UbwasunuLezawalitentela. Wacitaisiisi,takubonwa; ambweniukalawa Ipookubozya (s) (the one who gives and destroys). (p) / Today God is burning his things. He's made everything so dark, you can't see a thing; perhaps it will rain. Bobusikuwakwima,bobusiku wakupa, ngu caaba Leza(g) / One day Lezawatikumuna masalo akwe(s) / God is shaking out his blankets. he takes, one day he gives; he is God the distributor. Wavuuma;waikamaungu Leza(p) / It thunders; God is cooking his pumpkins. Sometimes his gifts to people were linked with their own gener­ osity to others. These sayings no more represent literal beliefs than do ours about the man in the moon. As Auden wrote: Utakusinsya beenzinoko kulya. Leza tazanda bobo; bumwi busiku ulookasya aze. Maila maleya-ndimi, aina muntu uamba "Ndayaya When Norsemen heard thunder, sikwense" (p) / Don't deny food to your neighbors. God doesn't Did they seriously believe want that; one day he will refuse it to you also. Grainis sometimes Thor was hammering'il'' a failure; nobody can say, "I shall always have a good crop." Rather, they reflect the vivid imagery of a people who lived in God's power is seen in decay and destruction as well as in close dependence on the cycle of nature and on Simucinka(s) (the growth. He is Thunderer). In a similar class are the sayings about God's dwelling place. Babulaala-liwila (s) / the one who throws down the imbula-fruit Cikungwe (p) / the one who strikes without warning Kumbokucilyango cakaLeza (p) / The west is God's door.13 Luboleka-masuko (s) / the one who rots the masuku-fruit UbwasunuLezaulalilakwamulala (p) / Today God is sleeping in the Lumbombola-ngulu (s) and Munakaculu (s) / the one who softens south [after the rains had finished]. anthills. UkwaLeza kwaKaangwe nkulaale cinicini, kwiina ubwene koko (p) / God's home at Kaangwe is very far away; nobody has ever seen God wreaks the same destruction on people as on nature. there. Ulizi buti ati ncipona? Namakungwe ucelecela; tuli myungu yakwe, ndiswealyasikwense(p) / How do you know that you will still be At the sametimeitwasrealized thatLeza ulitalabele, winankwaatek0 alive? Namakungweplucksusup; we'rehis pumpkins,it'sus that (p) (God is everywhere, he is nowhere absent). The Baila were no he eats all the time. more consistent in their beliefs than we are. God was creator of all things. He was known as the Destroyer (Sikakunamo). Cilenga (s) / the maker Bolyambwali Sikakunamo; Leza wakankila kwa usye ubaina wayaya. Lubumba(s) / the potter Mucembele wezoucilimwana,kuvwakwausyeubaina, wayaya. Wayaya Syakapanga (s) / the one who joins things together ubanina bakaintu ubana babanina, bafwa boonse (s) / This is what Munamazuba (p) / the giver of light happened with Sikunamo; whenLeza first sprang from his father Lezawabala cinicini,wainzuka(g) / Godnumbers [us] with absolute and mother, he killed. When that old one was still an infant, from accuracy and is silent. his verybeginningfrom his father and mother, he killed. He killed Tuli balenge baLeza, usintu syoonse silenge kwaLeza (p) / We are his sisters and their children; they all died. created by God, and all things are God's creation. So God was seen as the author of life and death, of sickness Lezangwasilenga (s) / God it is who originated everything. and all manner of afflictions. God alone could work miracles. Lezawamukonona ampingu,wamuyaya(p) / Godbrokehimwithhis Nikubabobo mabibo akwe Leza; kwiina unji peleicenana Leza, kwiina finger bone and killed him. ulinsana syaLeza muntu ansi ano, peleMutalabala (s) / However, Uwakono mwaka inakulima, ndoona amafuwa, kaambo kamapenzi miracles are of God; there is nobody other than God alone, there manjimanji. Pele kulima ndaakulimine, wankasya bulyo Leza. Iina is no person on earth who has the power of God, but only the ulyakusoma, ndoona amafuwa(p) / This year I've not dug over my Omnipresent. field, I've just slept in front of the hearth, because of all my Mabibo akaLeza ngu "Nantamaukilwa"(g/p) / Miracles are of God, troubles. But as for digging, I'd intended to dig, had not God who is the"one at whom you grumble, whatever he does. He can prevented me. I've not eaten new com, just stayed by the fire. never please you." Wezu muntu wapenga cinicini. Lezawompenzya, wamucita ipenzya­ bulanga; inzyo namuyayabulyo (p) / This fellow is in deep trouble. Anythingin naturethatseemedinexplicablewastherefore dubbed Godlaidon himafflictions, everythingshortof death; now let God malaila aLeza (s) (a sign from God).14 finish him off. God was always the same. This view of God could lead to pessimism or worse. Bulongo-namese (s) / the one whohardens like baked clay, immov­ able Akufuluka kale Leza, takuleka, pe; ulaakukupa mapenzi lyoonse, Leza wiina kampenda; siindi syaakwe sililuleme (g) / God has no kuitakakuleke (p) / God has already inflicted losses on you without moods; his seasons are regular. cease; he will always continueto sendtroubleson you withoutany Lezateeli(s) / God never grows weary. relief. Lezawamulabila (s) / God was angry with him. Therefore his power was shown not only in the original act of Wamulabila Leza(s) / He was angry with God.

66 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 For others, resignation was more fitting. schoolgirls was about to be baptized in the new church we God was Usyatwakwe (s) / he who can do as he pleases with his opened at Kasenga in 1963, they spent the whole night in a vigil own because all things are his of prayer as preparation. Such natural piety was not taught by God was Namauwa (p) / the one who neglects missionaries-indeed, it amazed me-but was surely the fruit of LezanguNamauwa;ulauwa bantu bamwi (p) / God is the one who their belief in Leza. neglects; he neglects some people. In the 1950s and 1960s we found the village people eager to hear of Jesus, the muselusyeLeza (the one sent down by God). At As the proverb says, Baambwe, the last of the old great stockaded villages, Chief Lezambwaabele tatembelwa mafunze(p) / God is suchthathe cannot Mukobela would send round his messengers, and the whole be blamed for error. population would assemble in a great circle to listen. In tiny The only proper attitude to such a being is awe. villages, occupied by one extended family, we were welcomed, and our broken Ila was received politely. Messages came from Lezaulalema (p) / God is to be dreaded. Lubanda, north of the Kafue, begging us to send evangelists to In contrast, God is Simuzesu(p) (our chief) and Simatwangesu them also, but we could not comply with such requests. Each (p) (our master), and therefore in a special relation to his people. year at harvest, the people gave the tithe of the harvest in great heaps of maize, which we collected in 200-pound sacks and sold Lezandisiko,uswe tuli mitabi yakaLeza atovu aakwe (p) / God is the to the local store for cash. Their friendship to the mission was in base of the tree, and we are God's branches and his leaves. He is Silweno (p) (the protector). Leza nguusilweno, uleena bantu (p) / God is our protector who The Ila apparently lacked watches over people. any idea of sin as breaking Therefore many of his praise names reflect care and even love for people. He is God's laws. Lovulula (s) / the one who relieves poverty Luvunabaumba (s) / the one who saves the outcasts marked contrast to the indifference to Christianity back in En­ Lweetelela (s) and Siluse / the merciful one gland. The most touching memory of our years at Kasenga is of Mabula-alaliwila (s) / the one whose blessings fall like imbula fruit Easter mornings when, before dawn, in the darkness and mist, a Upaubatuba (s) / the one who gives to the poor group of schoolgirls would go round the houses singing the He is Sintemwe (g) (nurse, with all that term implies). hauntingly beautiful Easter carol Jesu Krisitu wabuka, wabuka (Jesus Christ has risen, has risen). Sintemwe muntu ukwata kabotu mulwazi. Tasowa muntu; naabiya, naasata, ulikwete intenda (p) / A "sintemwe" is someone who It is noteworthy, however, that the Ila people seem never to nurses the sick very tenderly. She never abandons a patient; even have prayed for forgiveness, because they apparently lacked any if the sickness gets worse, she still has compassion. idea of sin as breaking God's laws. The sources reveal only two Lezangusintemwe (g) / God is our nurse. examples of belief in God being linked with conduct. The first (cited also above) relates to sharing food. Prayer to God Utakusinsya beenzinoko kulya. Leza tazanda bobo; bumwi busiku ulookasya aze. Maila maleya-ndimi, aina muntu uamba "Ndayaya The step between seeing God as nurse and God as giver of health sikwense" (p) / Don't deny food to your neighbors. God doesn't was a short one. want that; one day he will refuse it to you also. Grain is sometimes a failure; nobody can say, "I shall always have a good crop." Ngucampa-Leza cipona (g) / Good health is the gift of God. The second example involves juvenile manners. If God willed it, a sick person would recover, even from being at the point of death. Mukandotasyolwa kumwanamusyoonto; tukasika kumbele, pee Ukuleba Leza, tazanda bobo (p) / An elder should never have a raspberry Wezu muntu ngumalukwaLeza; kafwilecinicini(p) / This personhas blown at himby a youngster. You will never get on in life, no. God been vomited back by God; she was really dying. will trip you up, he does not like that. Some people evidently tookthatstep, prayingdirectly to Leza for On his first arrival at Kasenga, Edwin Smith questioned an healing. elder called Mungalo on his ideas of God and then preached on Ndaalala kwaLeza wamponya(g) / I prostrate myselffor God to heal the Ten Commandments, havingrealized thatthe people's press­ me. ing need was for an ethical dimension to their faith." Our task as Lezantemba,apone mweenzuma! (p) / Please God help me; let my missionaries was thus not so much to teach prayer as to direct it friend get better! toward God and to link it with conduct. Inzyo amukapaile Uvuna, akwatisye avune (p) / Now make an offering to the Deliverer, so that he may hold him fast and deliver him. Fulfillment Theology Indeed, we missionaries did nothave to teach the Ila to pray, The Ila were fortunate in their pioneer missionaries. Edwin since they wereaccustomed to doingso everyday,IS andtheyhad Smith, whofounded Kasenga in 1909as a branchof the Primitive more words for prayer than ever we knew in English (alala, Methodist mission at Nanzila, made it his business to under­ enzela, enzelela, komba, koma, kupaula, pumpa,and tabaila all mean stand their religious beliefs and to build on them, rather than to to make intercession; balauka, banda, kantana, kubila, tembaula, and condemn them as heathen." His first recorded sermon to the Ila tembula meanto glorifyby reciting praise names; paila, pailila, and was on Paul's address to the Athenians, "Whom therefore ye paizya mean to make an offering). When the first group of twenty ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you" (Acts 17:23), and

April 2003 67 over the next decade, with the help of his pagan friend Mungalo, want of preaching. In 1976, for example, there were no less than he built up a detailed and objective picture of their religion." His forty-four preachers on the Kasenga preaching plan, and sixteen writings and lectures in Europe and America became influential places where regular weekly services were held. (One such place in establishing the idea of an African theology. was the jail at Namwala, where manslayers were held. I always This ideathatthe ChristianGospel shouldbuildon Ila beliefs found the congregation of two dozen there to be becomingly was reflected most clearly in the Ila hymns, which William pious in demeanor.) Chapman had started to write in his first years at Nkala." Smith That numbers never rose far is due rather to the society in joined in the work, and the first hymnal was published in 1909. which we were preaching. I have a photo of a small village near When the final edition of Inyimbosyabunakristo appeared in 1960, Maala, which shows me expounding Smith's catechism to an it contained 200 hymns." Some were translated from the Primi­ interested group of the headman and his wives and children. If tive Methodist hymnbook, some from the Shona, and several theyhadrequestedme to baptizethem, theheadmanwouldhave were newly written to African rhythms and tunes. Ila praise had to put away all his wives except the first. They would have names were adopted and used in the hymns. Ten of the tradi­ returned to their families, and the cattleof theirbride price would tional names were applied to the Christian God,21 and thirty-one have been sent back, leading to long periods of haggling or newoneswere devised."This wasindeed"fulfillment theology" litigation. I had no reason to doubt that the wives were deeply in practice; to hear an Ila choir praising God was to recognize the attached to their husband, and that the social and emotional depth of their traditional faith as well as the soundness of the upheaval involved would have had wide repercussions. (I still Christian grafting. remember vividly having to turn away from the Communion table a Christian of many years' seniority, named Joshua Matale. Christian Practice: No Concessions Whenhis wife grew too old to look after him, he married a young girl, that being the only way to get a housekeeper. He was then It was a different matter, however, when it came to teaching. In immediately expelled by the local church meeting.) 190(> Smith produced a catechismin Ila that was a clear summary In later years, long afterhehad left Kasenga, Smith's attitude of orthodox Protestant belief and practice, set out as questions was different. In 1906 he had written, with answers." Revised by Matthew Luceya in 1955, it remained Pe, pe, cilatonda; mulombwana natwale mukaintu omwinana, aze the basic tool of the village evangelist for two generations. This mukaintuatwalwekumulombwanaomwinana/ No, no, thatis forbid­ catechism made no concessions at all to liberal ideas or to the den; a man must marry one wife only, and a woman must be traditional culture of the Ila. married by one man only." Bunakristo bulakasya ukutonzya siyanza sibyaabi, inji bulavuminina In 1926, however, he argued for a more flexible approach: "To bulyo siyanza sibotu; bobo munakristo ulyeelele kukakatila kusiyanza demand that before a man can enter the church he must discard sibotu,ukulekasiyanzasibyaabi / The Christian religion rejects and all wives but one, is to debar from the privilege of Church forbids evil customs, but it accepts good customs; so a Christian membership many men who are desirous of being Christians, ought to hold fast to good customs and to forsake evil customs. but who cannot bring themselves to send away the women Unfortunately, Smith failed to suggest a single custom good enough to hold fast. He did, though, give a long list of evil customs to abjure: female initiation rites and feasts, beer brew­ The idea that the Gospel ing, smoking marijuana, marrying girls as soon as they reached puberty, funeral feasts, witchcraft, divination, praying to ances­ should build on Ila beliefs tral spirits, knocking out the middle front teeth, and slavery." is seen in their hymns. In 1943 the catechism was supplemented by the publication of a series of sixteen Bible studies for discussion groups, trans­ lated from a book produced for Nyasaland." This work started whom they have honourably married and who are the mothers in great style, with a glowing description of the traditional of their children/"" Yet this approach was never taken by the African family, whose well-being depended on solidarity of Church in Northern Rhodesia, which persisted in shelving the beliefin ancestorworship. It wenton to develop the pictureof the problem. In 1943 polygamy was discussed-and dismissed-in family of God, based on Christianbeliefs. Naturally, the material only one line out of forty-eight pages of the prescribed textbook. was based almost entirely upon Bible passages. Sometimes bib­ Uswe tubantu basiya tucikwete makatazyo makando ngutucilwisya. lical metaphors were developed using examples from African Aza ngakutwalamaaliasiyanzasimwi syakalekale silibolya/ We black culture (e.g., chap. 13, "Vessels of Clay in the House")." No folk still have great problems to fight against. There is polygamy, attempt was made, however, to use African ideas about God; and other old customs like that." indeed, there was no mention of them at all. The attitude to More than once, this problem was raised at the ministers' traditional culture was summed up as, synod, and the missionaries pressed for authority to baptize Inkamu yabanakristo bamu-Africa ilyeelele kwiziba ati teekonzya believing polygamists, This step was always refused by the kulizumuazumua ukuya kumbele mubumi bupya cita kuti siyanza African ministers, who saw it as patronizing. As a result, any syakalekale yasileka / The body of Christians in Africahas to realize African villagers who converted to Christianity were counted as that it is not possible for it to grow strong and to make progress in catechumens and could not proceed further to baptism. The the New Life unless the old ways are abandoned." situationremainedunchangedfrom thatin 1900,whenChapman This rigorous approach was followed in the Ila mission, had to refuse baptism to Musulwe, "an elderly man and sincere which perhaps explains why the mission was always something in his desires after God. . . . He still attended Divine Service of a disappointment to the home church. While the medical and regularly, and apart from his polygamy lived a quiet, peaceable educational work prospered, all efforts at evangelism failed to life. He would no doubt have become an exemplary Christian produce more than a few dozen church members." It was not for had the Gospel reached him earlier.":" The prolonged impasse

68 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 Candle in the Dark First Fruits This drama faithfully recountstheincredible saga that • Made two decades ago tocelebrate 250 yearsofProtestant missions, earned William Carey thetitle "Father ofModem this is thetruestory ofthe extraordinarydevotion ofyoung people and Missions." Carey'sSerampore mission began two hundred their roleat a etitical point inthehistoryofworld missions. Inthe years ago. The Serampore Community's taskseemed 17305 a community ofMoravian refugees finds a home onthe estate of impossible, yet they overcame many obstacles to make a Count Zinzendorf in Germany See how thefirst two young lasting impact for God andbrought thetransforming power men who went as missionaries totheslaves on oftheGospel to multimdesofhungry hearts in India. Their SI. Thomas were willingto become slaves them­ experience provides valuable insight forany today concerned selves, if they hadto,inorderto proclaim the toseethemessage ofChrist reach theworld. 97 minutes Gospel. 70 minutes VHS, #4306 (In Spanish, #4346) $19.99 VI IS, #4009 (tn Spanish, #8087) . ... . $19.99 Curriculum kitalso available, #4289 $59.99 The Good Seed MamaLuka Aremarkable casestudyof howa remotetribe Doctor Helen Roseveare, affectionately called was transformed in onegeneration by the "Mama Luka," pioneeredvitalmedical work In the Gospel. Marianna Slocumand Florence Gerdel rain forests of the Belgian Congo-now the went to Mexico to bring the Tzeltallndians the Democratic Republic of theCongo. After indepen­ Scriptures intheirown language. At fi rst they dence in I964, the countrywas ravaged by the tH£ experienced heartbreakand much opposition. Simba Rebellion. Helen, caught up in the horror of GOOD Then, a mighty movement of theSpirit ofGod the revolution, was beaten, rapedandimprisoned S££D occurred, affecting the whole society. The Indians bythe rebels.Mamaluka Comes Home vividly thensent these two women to Colombia (0 reach tells her story offorgiveness and faithfulness to othersthere. This fil mvisitsthelocations a those shecameto serve. This is a story of love decade agoto showtilelife-changing results of overcoming hatred, brutality, and racial prejudice. their mission. 30 minutes 60 minutes VIIS, #4028 (/11 Spanish, #4059) . . .. . $19.99 VHS, #4066 . .. .. $19.99 Through Gates of Splendor Peace Child Five missionaries went into theland ofthesavage Thenotable andinspiring story ofDon and Aucas. Their offer of friendship was rejected, and the Carol Richardson and theirmissionary workin Aucas killed themissionaries. Elizabeth Elliot, wife of the remote jungles oftheSouthwest Pacific. They oneofthe martyrs, her daughter and Rachel Saint are shocked whenthe story ofJudas' betrayal of would notgive up andlived for a time amongtile Aucas Jesus makes him a hero to a primitive people and brought theGospel to them. Thisolder film isan who revere treachery. When inter-tribal warfare effective demonstration ofGod's grace at work breaks out, a chief offers hissonas the means of duringan unforgettable momentin modem rnis­ bringing peace, makingthe Gospel understandable I sionshistory. 36 minutes as these newmissionaries discover the "Peace VHS, #8010(/n Spanish, #9995) .. .. . $19.99 Child." Aheartwarming storythatprovides valuable insight intomodem missions. 30 minutes The Law of Love VHS, #4925 (In Spanish, #2766) $19.99 DVD, #9935 10 $24.99 Twenty-two yearoldJackie Pullinger couldnot get missionary society sponsorship, so, sensingGod's calling, shewent on her own in theearly 1960s to Beyond the Next Mountain HongKong. There sbe began to witnessamidst the Apowerful drama originally made fortheatrical release. drug-crazed vice and violenceofthe old "WalledCity." At theclose ofthe 19th century the British branded the Shestarted a youth outreach for heroin addicts and Hmar people ofnortheast India as "theworst head­ brought healing to desperate lives through prayer hunters," a label weU deserved at thetime. Butin 1910, a without anyuseofconventionalmethods for single cOJlY oftheGospel ofJohnreached theirvillage and treating withdrawal. This is a story that touches introduced them to a revolutionary "new life in Christ." your heart,asyou see thepower of the HolySpirit This is thestoryofthepersonal pilgrimage andvision of at work. 51 minutes onetribesman'sson, RochungaPudaite, 97 minutes VHS, #4150 .. .. . $19.99 VHS, #4316 . .. . . $19.99 , YOUR SATISFACTION IS GUARANTEED!

TOORDER, CALL: MAILTp (incl. $5.99slh): ONTHE WEB: VISion Video - DeptIBMR43 Order.online and save! .. 1·800·523-0226 P. O. Box540 Please USt source coddBMR4:J when ordering. Worcester, PA 19490 www.visionvideo.com was, I believe, the biggest single obstacle to the growth of the served by Edwin Smith and the other missionaries. The benefits church in village communities during the twentieth century. of their sympathetic attitude to the existing culture, so unusualin Only in the last decades of the century, as polygamy became less that era, were soon seen in the Ila hymnbook, which expressed frequent among the younger generation, did the situation alter, both the enthusiasm of the timeless Christian faith, and the Ila with more teenagers being baptized through the schools." people's own approach to God. However, the unbridgeable gulf between Christian mo­ Conclusion nogamy and Ila polygamy led to tensions which could not be resolved until a new generation of educated women emerged The contents of the filing cabinet found in the old mission station from the mission schools and the polygamous society passed revealed a rich picture of Ila life and beliefs, marvelously pre­ away. Notes------­ 1. The 12,000 items of Ila source materials were largely written in pen 15. The phrase kwanininkundaakulyenzeelela means "the one to whom I andpencil on postcards, diaryleaves, envelopes, cut-upItalianBible habitually prayed." I have described their prayers in a book, TheIla Society forms, and British South Africa Company notepaper. They Speaking, to be publishedshortlyby the InternationalAfrican Institute. consisted of Ila words and sentences, some with translations 16. This lack of an ethical dimension posed a problem for Smith in appended in the same or laterhands. Not in any particular order, all translatingthe Lord'sPrayer. He chose mulandu(fault, debt, lawsuit) were anonymous and had to be ascribed by internal evidence. for "trespass," out of many possible alternatives. All of these terms, The handwritten notes fell into three groups. First were those in however, involve either offenses against people and property, a large unformed hand with no English at all. These were identified punishable by fines, or infringements of natural laws that as the work of Smith's assistants, named in Edwin W. Smith and automaticallytriggeredevil consequences. Noneofthemisconnected Andrew Murray Dale, TheIla-Speaking Peoples ofNorthern Rhodesia, 2 withGod. See Fowler, Dictionary ofIlaUsage, underbubyaabi, butongo, vols. (London: Macmillan, 1920), 2:182, as Kayobe Symatanga and bulitazi, cami, cibi, cisapwi, intewentewe, katombo, lutuzi, lweza, ila, the son of Chief Syezongo II. Second were numerous entries in neat mafunze, malibila, mazundeele, munanga, (si)muye, muzazyu, nkanta, but idiosyncratic script. These were ascribed to Smith based on nwe,sanzya,syola, tonda, twantewenteweandzila. Butongoisofparticular comparison with copies of his correspondence. Third, there were interest, as listing Kayobe Syamatanga's examples of shameful notes in a clear flowing hand, many of which revealed an informed deeds. They include cowardice, allowing oneself to be plundered interest in medicine. These were ascribed to Dr. Herbert Gerrard, without resistance, running away when one's village is raided, who worked at Kasenga from 1915 to 1933 and who described letting one's wife be stolenby another, tolerating abuse, being stung himself in the latter year as one of the two "Ila experts." when collecting honey, dying in the act of robbery, and being the Most of the remaining notes were typed and covered the whole only one of a crowd to lose control of one's temper. range of orthographic evolution. One entry identified them as the 17. "Africans ... have laid hold of some essential truths. The existence work of John Price, who was at Kasenga from 1906 to 1934. He of God as Creator, the need for an intermediary between man and translated partof the NewTestamentintoIla in 1910and revised the God, the existence of a future life-these are no mean achievements whole work in 1933. of savage thought. [Missionaries should] seek diligently for these 2. One former missionary wrote: "I had no preparation for Zambian points of attachment and use them in the teaching of our religion" culture etc. Itwas, perhaps, late in my second tour (in the 1960s)that (Edwin W. Smith, "The Religion of the Bantu," PrimitiveMethodist I discovered the meaning of a little thatched (miniature) house QuarterlyReview[January 1907]:31). beside the door of an inanda. It was 'a spirit house.' I wonder how 18. Smith and Dale, Ila-Speaking Peoples, 2, chap. 22. For a touching many offences I gavebecause of my ignorance" (J.T. McCormack to tribute to Mungalo, see Edwin W. Smith, TheGolden Stool(London: author, April 23, 2001). SPG, 1926), p. 324. 3. For information on words and parts of words cited in the text, see 19. William Chapman, A Pathfinder in South Central Africa: A Story of DennisG.Fowler, A Dictionary ofIlaUsage, 1860-1960 (Hamburg: Lit, Pioneer Missionary Work and Adventure (London: Hammond, 1910),· 2000). pp. 232, 377. 4. Smith and Dale, Ila-Speaking Peoples, 2:182. 20. This hymnal was revised as Ibuku insyoonto lyalnyenzyo syaCiila 5. Citations of Ila source materials are identified in the text by initials: (Kafue, Northern Rhodesia: Methodist Book Room, 1962). (s) for Edwin W. Smith, (p) for John W. Price, (g) for Herbert S. 21. Cilenga (Creator), Keemba (Attacker), Lubumba (Moulder), Matiilo Gerrard, and (f) for Dennis G. Fowler. (Refuge), Muninde (Giver of thunder and rain), Musoozi(Comforter), 6. T. W. C. Sumaila, Shimunenga and the Traditional Cultureof the Baila Mutalabala (Omnipresent), Namakungwe (One who strikes without (Lusaka: Zambia Educational Publishing House, 1994). warning), Nameese (Light rain), and Simuzesu (Our Lord). 7. The praise name "Sikakunamo" is used as a title of Leza by a 22. Cibamba (designer), Mubambi(keeper), Mubumbi (creator), Mufutuli character in an old Ila tale, where it is translated "He who is about us (savior), Mukobelezi (shield), Mukomi(conqueror),Mukubwe(creator), on all sides-and not for good" (Edwin W. Smith, AfricanBeliefs and Mulindizi(guardian),Mulondosi (workman),Mulongwesu (our friend), Christian Faith [London: United Society for Christian Literature, Mumuni (light), Muponyi (healer), Muvuni (deliverer), Muyovwi 1936], p. 61). See also below in the section "Leza." (helper), Muzundi wamafunze(conqueror of evil), Mwalawanguuteeli 8. Smith and Dale, Ila-Speaking Peoples, 2:191. (my strong eternal rock), Mwami (chief), Mweembezi (shepherd), 9. Ibid., p. 192. Mweenzi(guide), Mweenzinoko (yourfriend), Mwiiyi mulemu(worthy 10. Smith concluded that Bulongo was a long-dead prophet (ibid., p. teacher), Namalonga (one who fills the streams), Silufuno (one who 196). loves), Siluse(merciful one), Simalelo (master), Mukwatizi (one who 11. Ibid., pp. 200-205; Fowler, Dictionary of Ila Usage. holds fast), Simanga (the merciful one), Simatwangaangu (my master), 12. "Archaeology," in W. H. Auden, ThankYou,Fog: LastPoems (London: Sinkumbu (merciful one), Sinsanasyoonse (the omnipotent one), Faber, 1974), p. 23. Syaamapa, Syakaiba, Syatwakwe (lord of all), Usimanga (the kind one). 13. Lubunda was said to be the doorway of Simunenga, so the Batwa 23. Edwin W. Smith, SiyanzaSyamunakristo (Kafue, Northern Rhodesia: living there are nicknamed Balyamucende and have the privilege of Methodist Book Room, 1906; rev. 1955). eating all bulls killed at funerals. 24. Ibid., p. 41. 14. Smith heard it applied to a fallen tree that stood up on end (Fowler, 25. T.CullenYoung andG. A. Gollock, Mukwasiwaka-Leza ulimuluundu, Dictionary ofIla Usage, p. 398). trans. MatthewS.Luceya, Robinson Nabulyato, and Z. Simutuntuli;

70 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 ed. Matthew Luceya and Cecil R. Hopgood (Kafue, Northern 33. Alex Syatwiinda(conversationwiththe author,September30,2001). Rhodesia: Kafue Bookroom, 1943). J. T.McCormackwrites, "In 1968Ibaptised 17schoolgirlsat Kasenga 26. Smith, Siyanza Syamunakristo, pp. 41-45. andperhaps30schoolboys/girlswithMatthewLuceya at Namwala" 27. Young and Gollock, Mukwasi waka-Leza uli muluundu, p. 48. (letter to the author,September24,2001).The trendcontinued, as the 28. In 1910 there were fifteen full members at Kasenga; in 1915 there number of Christians at Kasenga trebled in the last quarter of the were fourteen. By the 1960s the number had risen to about seventy. twentieth century. In November 2001 there were 221 communicant 29. Smith, Siyanza Syamunakristo, p. 34. members, 53 catechumens, and 36 adherents. The number of 30. Smith, Golden Stool,p. 278. preachers,though,hadfallen to 40,butthe preachingplaces remained 31. Young and Gollock, Mukwasi waka-Leza uli muluundu, p. 48. at 16 (B.Nzovu to the author, November 21, 2001). 32. Chapman, Pathfinder, p. 190.

Keeping Faith with Culture: Protestant Mission Among Zoroastrians of Bombay in the Nineteenth Century Farshid Namdaran

he history of Protestant missionary activity among Zo­ Protestant Missions to Zoroastrians T roastrians has proved to be a relativelyrichfield, despite the small size of the worldwide Zoroastrian community, which The earliest recorded attempt, originating in northern Germany, in 1900 numbered 93,000 in India, the focus of this article, and at an organized mission to the Zoroastrians was by a small 108,500 worldwide.1 Protestant missions to this community be­ community of Moravians. In 1747 they commissioned two doc­ gan mainly in India in the nineteenth century, and in Iran only in tors to go to Yezd in Persia, where they had heard the Gebri the twentieth century.' Converts were few, but some made lived," The mission was anutterfailure, for the two doctors never definite contributions to churchlife in India. Caughtas they were reached their destination. between different cultures and religions, these Indian Zoroas­ A little-known Armenian itinerant missionary named trian converts struggled to forge a synthesis between two cul­ Carapet Aratoon, who was trained in Serampore and sent across tures and two religions, ultimately allowing their faith to em­ the subcontinent to Bombay in 1810, was probably the first brace their culture. The cultural distance they sought to span is missionaryto encounterZoroastriansin anynumber,"Heworked reflectedin thediverseworkof twomissionarytheologians of the and preachedin thestreetsandbazaars of Bombayuntil 1820. His period, John Wilson (1804-75) and Greek scholar James Hope journalsarefilled withaccountsof his encounterswithParsis and Moulton (1863-1917), whose writings will be discussed briefly.' the many inquirers he had among them, although he did not Zoroastrians are the followers of Zoroaster, who flourished record any conversions. probably in the sixth century before Christ but about whom The first missionary who had any success in converting historians know little with certainty.' The religion was promi­ Zoroastrians to Christianity was the Scotsman John Wilson.'? nentin Persia and the Middle East until the fall of the last Persian Sent by the Scottish Missionary Society to Bombay in 1830, empirein the seventhcentury A.D., following the Arab invasion. Wilson adopted the deliberately confrontational strategy that Some Zoroastrians fled to India and continued to preserve their was popular at that time." Wilson's work and writings on Parsis cultureandreligion, mainlyin westernIndia,wheretheybecame and their religion helped establish his reputation as a leading known as Parsis (also spelled Parsees). Within Persia itself Mus­ orientalist of his day. He continued his work with the Zoroastri­ lim persecution diminished their numbers until only very small ans of India until his death in 1875. No other missionary sur­ groups of Zoroastrians, known as Gebri, remained in the remote passed himin terms of winning converts from Zoroastrianism to towns of Yezd and Kerman. Christianity. The Zoroastrian sacred book, the Avesta, is a collection of Not until the last decade of the nineteenth century did a writings, the most ancient of which is the Gathas, seventeen major missionary society such as the Church Missionary Society hymns traditionally ascribed to Zoroaster himself," The French­ (CMS) send missionaries specifically to the Zoroastrians. In 1895 man Anquetil du Perron was the first to translate it into a Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Arthur Freeman volunteered his European language (1771).6 John Wilson, in the early nineteenth services to the society and was sent to Bombay lito conduct a century, was the first Protestant missionary to deliberately set mission amongst the educated natives especially the Parsis.r'" outto learnandwriteaboutthe Parsireligion?The bookhe wrote He conducted a vigorous though brief mission among the Parsis on the subject (1843) was unfortunately based mainly on the with the aid of Rostamji Mistry, a Parsi convert. Freeman died in Avestan book of Vendidad, whereas later scholars showed that 1900, and Mistry resigned in the same year. the most authentic teachings of Zoroaster are in the Gathas. Another attempt by five female volunteers under the aus­ pices of the CMS is also recorded. In 1896 they were commis­ sioned lito form a missionary settlement of lady volunteers in orderto workamongsttheParseeladies."13The Parsicommunity Farshid Namdaran, a retired medical doctor of Persian descent residing in the United Kingdom, is a convertfrom Zoroastrianism. His M.Th., by research, reacted sharply to this attempt, with hostile articles appearing in obtained from the Centre for the Study of Christianity in the Non-Western Parsi-controlled newspapers warning the community of such a World, School of Divinity (New College), University of Edinburgh, was on move." I have discovered no official reports or papers that Christian missionto Zoroastrians. indicate what happened to this effort.

Apri12003 71 Apparently the final attempt to reach the Parsis was the Bible and perhaps also helped in the publishing of Wilson's commissioning of James Hope Moulton by the council of the famousbookon Parsi religion." Nauroji wentto Scotland in 1843 YMCA of India to work and lecture among the Parsi community to study at New College, Edinburgh, and was ordained by the in Bombay for one year in 1915.15 It seems that this was the last Free Presbytery of Edinburgh. At this early stage he demon­ organized effort by a missionary organization to evangelize the strated his strong personality by insisting that unless he was Zoroastrians until the end of the First World War. ordained on terms of full equality with the missionaries, withfull "evangelistic power and liberty," he would not enter the service Five Converts of the Free Church of Scotland." On his return to Bombay in 1847, Nauroji chose Surat as his For the period 1839-1900 I have found evidence of fifteen Parsis missionary field. He worked there with the Irish Presbyterian from Bombay or nearby cities who converted to Christianity and mission until 1857, when he was offered the post of minister of were baptized. A first group of conversions occurred in 1839-59 Ambroli Church in Bombay." He worked for nearly forty years under Wilson and the Scottish Presbyterians and a second group among the Parsis and other communities in that city." Two of his under the Anglicans in the 1890s. Some relevant details of these published sermons show how deeply committed he was to the baptisms appear in the accompanying table. cause of spreading the Gospel to all of India." In the late 1880s he Thoughthe total number of converts is small, the proportion was also employed as lecturer in Bible studies in the Free Church that eventually was ordained (six out of fifteen) is high. It seems College, and in the 1890s he became the founding presidentof the remarkable that a comparatively small community of Parsis Parsi Christian Association." His standing in the Parsi commu­ should produce such a number of high-caliber converts. Their nityof Bombayincreased withage, so muchso thatin 1896,onthe contribution to the activities of the mission in western India, occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of his ordination, many including developing an indigenous church during the latter prominent community members attended the celebration. He part of the nineteenth century, seems to have been significant. becameknownas the GrandFatherof IndianChristians and died Sufficientmaterial exists to give a briefaccount of the lives of five at the age of eighty-six in 1908. of the converts who were ordained." Nauroji married a Christian Indian woman, but little is known about her except that she helped him in his work. They Dhanjibhai Nauroji. Coming from a wealthy, influential Parsi had at leasttwo daughters, who continued to be employedby the family of Bombay, Nauroji entered a missionary school as a Free Church of Scotland in Bombay after their father's death. teenager. He was converted and then baptized in 1839, the first Nauroji's wife preceded him in death, probably in the early Parsi convert to be baptized. This event caused a great stir and 1890s. unrest within the Parsi community. Missionary Wilson had to A letterNauroji wrote shortlybefore his death, whichshows appear in court and publicly defend his actions, and the mission­ clearly his changed attitude towardhis former religion, exempli­ ary school suffered from the temporary withdrawal of all the fies the sentiments of Christian Parsis of his time and no doubt Parsi and other pupils. Nauroji was disinherited and rejected by those of more recent generations." He wrote, his fanlily and became dependent on the missionary society for financial support." I was born a Parsi and am still a Parsi of the Parsis. With the At hisbaptism, Nauroji read a personal declaration in which exception of that which is of the highest importance to man, I mean, religious faith, I am one with my brethren according to he rejected Zoroastrianism.In a letter to Wilson a few months flesh. Whatever touches them touches me. Their joy and sorrow later, he referred to it as Satan's religion. At least in this early are mine. I love them, and if need be, I am ready to lay down my stage of his Christian experience, Nauroji rejected the idea that life for them.... I am proud to belong to a race which stands Zoroastrianism contained any true representation of God or foremost by reason of many high qualities among the races of the could serve as any preparation for Christianity. East. The love whichI bearto my Parsibrethrenleadsme earnestly Nauroji became a close companion of Wilson and, with the to desire that, in regard to higher matters also, they andI stood on help of fellow convert Hormazdji Pestonji, revised the Gujarati the same platform, that we saw eye to eye and felt heart to heart in regard to the great things God has revealed to us for our spiritual and eternal welfare. I am Parsi Converts to Christianity, 1839-1900 ------. confident that the time is coming when this de­ sire shallbe fulfilled, and thoughI maynotlive to Name (*= ordained) Date Person Baptizing Denomination Place see it, yet I rejoice in the anticipation of it.

Dhanjibhai Nauroji* (DN) 1839 J. Wilson Presbyterian Bombay He clearly affirms here his membership in Hormazdji Pestonji* 1839 J. Wilson Presbyterian Bombay the Parsi community and his recognition of the Framji Bahmanji 1839 J. Wilson Presbyterian Bombay positive qualities of Parsi culture. Hemanifests Sorabji Khersedji* (SK) 1841 G. Valentine Anglican Bombay inclusiveness in talking about the great things Nasserwanji 1848 DN Presbyterian Surat that God has revealed and looks forward to a S. Edulji 1855 J. Wilson Presbyterian Bombay Ruttonji Nowroji* 1856 W. S. Price/SK Anglican Nasik time when Parsis will turn to Christ. Behramji Kersasji 1856 J. Wilson Presbyterian Bombay Merwanji 1859 J. Wilson/Glasgow Presbyterian Surat Sorabji Khersedji. Like Nauroji, Sorabji came Shapurji D. Bhabha" ? ? Presbyterian ? from a wealthy family and attended the mis­ Rostamji Mistry* (RM) 1891 ? Anglican Bombay sionschool." After his conversionand baptism Dorabji Patell 1895 T. A. Freeman/RM Anglican Bombay in 1841, Sorabji's family rejected him, and he Meherbai Patell 1895 T. A. Freeman/RM Anglican Bombay also became dependent on the missionaries [unnamed] 1895 R. S. Heywood Anglican Poona financially." Sorabji was sent outof Bombay to Dorabji H. P. Khandwalla 1896 T. A. Freeman/RM Anglican Bombay Ahmadabad, where he worked as an assistant

72 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 catechist in a missionary station run by the Society for the Sorabji and his wife founded and ran three successful mis­ Propagation of the Gospel. In 1844 he returned to Bombay and sionary schools in Poona, where they allowed the liberating worked under Bishop Carr, where he met missionaries Robert message of the Gospel to transcend culture and to transform and Nesbit and John Murray Mitchell. In 1853 he was employed by renew old customs and traditions without necessarily destroy­ the CMS to work with William Salter Price in Nasik, principally ing them. Franscina was the main force behind these schools and helping Price to run the orphanage and later building the Chris­ campaigned relentlessly in Britain and India to raise funds. Most tian settlement of Sharanpur, near Nasik." In Nasik he met and of herda ughters worked atonetime or otherin theseschools, and married Franscina, the adopted daughter of Sir Francis Ford, indeed one took over from her after her death and continued the commanderof an English regiment. He raisedhis family in Nasik work until the 1920s. but in 1867 moved from there to take up a civil service position with the British government." Nine years later he moved with Hormazdji Pestonji. Born in 1820, Pestonji was part of the first his family to Poona, where his wife opened the Victoria High group of Parsis to present themselves for baptism, in 1839.These School. Bishop Johnson of Calcutta admitted him to deacon's baptisms provoked a great uproar within the Parsi community orders at Agra in 1878, and for a while he worked in [unir as and led to a great deal of persecution, perhaps more for Pestonji honorary missionary and later in Poona, where he also taught than the others, for he was married with a baby daughter at the church history at the divinity school. He died in 1894. time. His wife and daughter were taken away from him by the No record remains of Sorabji's baptismal testimony or of family, and his wife was given in marriage to another man. After early letters, and therefore it is difficult to say with certainty how many years of legal struggle, he was reunited with his daughter, he regarded Zoroastrianism at the time of his conversion, but his who later went on to marry a prominent Indian pastor. His views were probably similar to those of Nauroji, for they came unconventional and rather controversial lifestyle did not endear from a very similar environment and background. It is therefore him to the contemporary missionary writers, which perhaps very likely that Sorabji understood Zoroastrianism to be totally explains the dearth of material about him, compared with the false and publicly rejected it, and in turn was rejected by the Parsi information available on Nauroji or Sorabji. According to Eliza­ community. beth Hewat, Pestonji was the first Indian ordained in Bombay." In time, however, Sorabji, as did Nauroji, came to accept the His talents lay in linguistics, and he worked on the translation of Parsi community and to be accepted by them. Sorabji appears to the New Testament into Gujarati at Wilson College, Bombay. He have engaged in continuous dialogue with the Parsis, informally then served for a few years with the Irish Presbyterian Mission in with family and friends, and formally with Parsi priests and the Kathiawar. Panchayat." The best documentation of this interaction is in a When Pestonji was posted to [ambusar, however, he refused book by Sorabji's daughter Cornelia, in which she describes her to go. He left India to write a pamphlet highly critical of the father's attempt to engage in dialogue with Parsi priests. He conduct of missionaries toward native ministry. The controversy published two books on Zoroaster and Christianity in this at­ that this response caused culminated in a settlementthat enabled tempt. Cornelia's account documents the change in attitudes on the mission to destroy all copies of the pamphlet. Meanwhile, bothsides thatmusthave taken place duringhis lifetime. She also refers frequently to the pride her father felt in being a Parsi and how he made sure that the children were brought up to regard After his baptism, Sorabji themselves as Parsis

April 2003 73 Rostamji Mistry. Mistry's name first appears in 1893 in reports accepted Christianity is how to reconcile Zoroastrian culture from Poona Divinity School, where he was studying. He was with Christian faith. Wilson's answer was to totally reject Parsi involved in a controversy with the European students, who religion and culture. Since the first wave of conversions took objected to his receiving privileges equal to theirs. Shortly there­ place mainly under his influence, the converts' early attitude after he left to work as an evangelist among the Parsis in Bombay naturally reflected that of Wilson. Wilson's approach, coupled and later was joined by Freeman. They worked together until with his lack of knowledge of the Gathas, led him to dismiss 1900, when Freeman died. Through their activities a number of Zoroaster and his religion as unworthy of any attention and to Parsis were baptized and the Parsi Christian Association was accuse the Parsis of practicingpolytheism. Heevenwentso far as formed. When Freeman died, however, the CMS did not replace to label Zoroaster an impostor." him. Mistry soon resigned, and the mission to Parsis ended. A different approach to this challenge appeared nearly a century later in the work of Moulton. Building on the contribu­ Changing Approaches to Zoroastrian Culture tions of J. N. Farquhar and others, and basing his understanding of Zoroastrianism on the Gathas, Moulton accepted Zoroaster as This historical sketch of missions to the Zoroastrians has men­ a prophet from God and his teachings as containing truths that tioned two missionaries each of whom was remarkable in his lack only fulfillment by Christ. 35 Moulton's conclusion was thus ownway-JohnWilson, whocameto Bombayin 1830,andJames that Parsis need not reject their culture but must seek its fulfill­ Moulton, who arrived for a brief mission in 1915. In between mentandtransformation,whichonlyChristcando. The writings these two dates we have traced the life histories of some of the of these two authors demonstrate clearly how missionary atti­ Parsi converts to Christianity who were also remarkable people tudes and approaches had changed during the course of nearly in terms of their contribution to churchlife in India. We have also a century. traced the story of their struggles with the challenges they faced To discover the answer of the converts to this challenge, we following conversion. examined brief accounts of several of them. We saw that, under The challenge to Christians who seek to bring Zoroastrians the influence of Wilson, the converts initially rejected the Parsi to Christ and, even more so, to the Zoroastrians who have culture. As time passed, however, it became clear that the con­ Noteworthy

Announcing preting, and Living the Scriptures in the Multi-cultural Con­ The Central and Eastern European Association for Mission text of the Contemporary Church" is the theme for a confer­ Studies was inaugurated November 28,2002, at a meeting in ence and a series of related missions courses to be held June Budapest of the Missiological Research Fellowship. Anne 6-12, 2003, at Regent College, Vancouver. Contact: Marie Kool, Budapest; Peter F. Penner, Prague; Scott [email protected] or call (800) 663-8664. Klingsmith, Vienna; Jan Gorski, Krakow; Sergei Shirokov, The Project for Archives Documentation and Oral His­ Moscow; and Vladimir Federov, St. Petersburg, compose the tory of the International Association for Mission Studies will founding executive committee. A journal and a mission con­ hold a conference on the theme "Rescuing the Memory of ference during 2003 are being considered. Contact: Mission in New Zealand and the Pacific" at the BibleCollege [email protected]. of New Zealand, Auckland. The June 24, 2003, gathering is a The premiere issue of Quest, a biannual interdisciplinary follow-up to aconference held last year in Rome.Contact: John journalforAsian Christianscholars, was publishedin Novem­ Roxborogh,[email protected] ber 2002. David Kwang-Sun Suh of the Asian Christian Association for Mission Studies will meet June 25-26 at the Higher Education Institute, Hong Kong, is editor. The pub­ same location. Contact: Cathy Ross, [email protected]. lishers are the Association for Christian Universities and Some 150scholars andchurchleaders from Britain, North Colleges in Asia, Hong Kong, and the United Board for Chris­ America, Australia, and New Zealand attended an interna­ tian Higher Education in Asia, New York. Contact: Wendy tional conference, "The Future of Christianity in the West," Chan, managing editor, at Hong Kong Baptist University, held December 5-7,2002,at the UniversityofOtago, Dunedin, [email protected]. New Zealand. For details, visit http://telperion.otago.ac.nz/ The Baptist World Alliance, which serves 206 Baptist theoweb/ conference. conventions and unions worldwide, will hold a Summit on The Christianity in Asia Project of the University of Baptist Mission in the 21st Century, May 5-9, 2003, in Cambridge's Centre for Advanced Religious and Theological Swanwick, England. Themes to be highlighted include Les­ Studieswill coordinateseminars and consultationsduring the sons from the History of Missions, Mission and the next several years that will "present Asian Christianity in all Marginalized, and Paradigm Shifts in Missiology. Contact: its theological variety and facilitate its interactionwith theolo­ Ruby Burke, [email protected], or visit www.bwanet.org. gies from other contexts in order to enrich the understanding "New Trends in Ecumenism" is the theme of an interna­ of world Christianity," reports project director Sebastian tional conference to be held May 9-12, 2003, at Lund Univer­ Chang-Hwan Kim in December 2002.The center also plans to sity, Lund, Sweden. The Nordic Institute for Missionary and publish seminar papers, conference summaries, the Bulletin of Ecumenical Research and the Nordic Ecumenical Council Christianity in Asia, and a journal Christianity in Asia. For are cosponsors. Contact: [email protected]. details, visit www.divinity.cam.ac.uk or e-mail Kim at "The Bible and the Nations: Translating, Reading, Inter- [email protected].

74 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 verts were unable and unwilling to distance themselves from day lives and finding solutions, and doing so long before either their cultural background. The outworking of their newly ac­ Farquhar or Moulton were able to articulate them in theological quired faith within their Zoroastrian/Parsi culture is demon­ terms. strated clearly by the family life of the Sorabjis, most clearly in Western culture was not the sole source of conflict in this their innovativeblend of Westernand Eastern educational meth­ cultural struggle, for Parsi culture in its own way was also a ods at home and later in their missionary schools. Nauroji's life hindrance. Parsis exhibited undue reverence for fire, ancestors, also demonstrates how, during his longlife, he was able to accept nature, and angels, and they laid undue importance on ceremo­ much of the Parsi culture and be accepted by the Parsi commu­ nies, purity rites, and repetitive prayers or mantras. Evidence nity but yet retain his faith and contribute actively to church life. uncovered during the course of this research but not mentioned The picture that emerges from this reviewis thatZoroastrian in this article shows that the Parsi religion underwent quite a Christians, few though they were, showed themselves stalwart considerable reformation during this same period." It is difficult believers who stuck to their faith and gave all for their Lord. to say how muchwas due to the influence of the missionaries and Ultimately, however, they saw no reason to give up their rich the converts and how muchwas due to secular pressures, but the heritage and embrace another culture. Early missionaries, in missionaries and the converts undoubtedly had some part in the contrast, unconsciously assumed that once people from other process. religions converted to Christianity, they would adopt a Western form of Christianity. The missionaries often looked with suspi­ Reflections ciononChristianexpressions thatcontained elements from other cultures. It seems, therefore, that the real struggle the Parsis had In this article we have considered the lives of some converts who after accepting Christ was less with their personal faith and were from a different culture, place, and time than ours. Issues of convictions and more with the cultural baggage that both the culture, however, are especially prominent even to this day. missionaries and the Parsis carried. The struggle, inother words, Right at the beginning, whenJesus commissioned his disciples to was primarily cultural, not religious. The case histories of con­ take the Gospel to all nations, it was inevitable that they would verts show that they were tackling these issues in their day-to­ encounter such cultural issues. Thus when Peter and Paul took

The Geneva Ecumenical Centre and the Bossey Ecu­ Global Mapping International, Colorado Springs, Colo­ menical Institute libraries, both part of the World Council of rado, received the first Henry Parsons Crowell Award for Churches,receiveda $2.7milliondonationfrom BanquePictet, Excellence and Innovation in the Extension of Evangelical Geneva, to develop an ecumenical research center. Together Christianity. It included a gift of $50,000 in recognition of they house the largest collection on twentieth-century GMI's "significant and innovative" programs that "enhance ecumenism. The grant will enable the libraries and archives to the effectiveness" of missions, leadership training, and evan­ become more accessible for research via the Internet. gelism. The United College of the Ascension, Birmingham, an Died. Paul Rowntree Clifford, 89, British Baptist minis­ internationalecumenicalmissioncommunityin whichpeople ter, theological educator, and ecumenical statesman, January from more than twenty countries live, worship, and learn 18, 2003, in Rowhook, Sussex. As president of Selly Oak together, launched a residential program for missionaries. Colleges in Birmingham,England(1965-79),Clifford appointed The program offers preparation for and reflection on mission. Lesslie Newbigin in 1974 as lecturer in Christian mission and For details, e-mail Kirsteen Kim k.kirnfsbham.ac.uk, or visit ecumenical theology. He was instrumental in creation of a www.ascension.ac.uk. new chair for mission at the University of Birmingham in cooperationwithSelly OakCollegeswithWalterHollenweger Personalia as the first professor of mission in the chair. In the late 1960s, The World Council of Churches announced in November a Clifford joined in founding the International Association for series of program and staff cuts totaling more than $4.5 mil­ MissionStudies. His autobiography, An Ecumenical Pilgrimage lion. In response to a predicted budget shortfall, General (1994),was reviewed in the IBMR in July 1995. Secretary Konrad Raiser said the WCC will reorganize itself Died. George A. F. Knight, 93, missionary and Old around five historic themes: faith and order; mission and Testament scholar, in Dunedin, New Zealand, December 22, ecumenical formation; justice, peace, and creation; interna­ 2002. Born in Scotland and ordained by the Church of Scot­ tional affairs, peace, and human security; and diakonia and land, he directed the Scottish Mission in Budapest, Hungary solidarity. U.S. Office Director Jean Stromberg and Commu­ (1935-40). From 1947 to 1965 he taught Old Testament and nications Officer Philip Jenks are among those leaving the Hebrewat Knox College andthe UniversityofOtago,Dunedin; WCC. St. Andrews University, Scotland; and McCormick Theologi­ An 81-year-oldCombonimissionarysister, CallistaCozzi, cal Seminary, Chicago. In 1965he established and became the was honored by Sudanese president Omar Hassan al-Beshir first principal of the Pacific Theological College, Suva, Fiji, for her work in obstetrics. Before returning to Italy in Decem­ retiring in 1973.A prolific author, his major work, A Christian ber, Cozzi, who founded a 200-bed hospital in Sudan, received Theology of the Old Testament (1959), was reprinted in paper­ an honorary doctorate. Last year she received Sudan's Order back in 1999.Under the title What Next? Knight's autobiogra­ of Merit of the first degree. phy was published in 1980.

April 2003 75 the Gospel to the Gentiles, they encountered fierce opposition but allowed the Gospel to do its transforming work. Then the from some Jewish Christians who wanted the converts to follow communityneededan academic suchas Moultonto reflect on the Jewish culture and traditions. Yet, led by the Spirit, the apostles outworking of the Gospel within the lives of the converts and the trusted in the transforming power of the Gospel to work within effect of the missionary attacks on the Parsi community, and then the lives of the new Christians in their own cultural setting rather to express these insights in theological terms in his writing. thanimposinga foreign oneuponthem. The consequences of this The Parsis had allowed themselves to become captives of type of transformation cannot be predicted, and it often takes a their tradition and culture at the expense of the essential message long time to bear fruit. in their Zoroastrian faith. In a similar vein Martin Luther in his This study illustrates the process of transformation in a timespokeof "theBabyloniancaptivityof the church";in ourday tightly knit community of Parsis in nineteenth-century Bombay. Lesslie Newbigin described the presentWestern churchas being The community needed a Wilson to shake it out of its long the captive of its own culture." Perhaps a Wilson or Luther from slumber. It also needed righteous indignation within its mem­ the non-Western world is needed to shake the Western church bers for them to take a fresh look at their own religion. The out of its slumber and allow it to be transformed by the power of converts were essential in that they kept faith with their culture the Gospel.

Notes------­ 1. David B. Barrett, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson, World historians mention them, including Stock, History of the Church Christian Encyclopedia, 2d ed. (Oxford Univ. Press, 2001),1:360,4. By Missionary Society; Stephen Neill, History of Christianity in India, the year 2000, Zoroastrians numbered slightly over 200,000in India 1707-1858 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985); Elizabeth and 2.5 million worldwide. Hewat, Christ and Western India: A Study of the Growth of the Indian 2. Robin E. Waterfield, Christians in Persia (London: George Allen & Church in Bombay City from1813, 2d ed. (Bombay: J. Kellock, Wilson Unwin, 1973),gives a good account of missions to various religious College, 1953);idem, VisionandAchievement, 1796-1956: A Historyof communities of Persia. the Foreign Missions of the Churches United in the Church of Scotland 3. The sourcematerialsin this studywereobtainedfrom publishedand (Edinburgh: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1960); J. Murray Mitchell, In archival materials from various missionary societies. Most of the Western India: Recollections of My Early Missionary Life (Edinburgh: names and life histories of the converts were obtained from letters David Douglas, 1899); Julius Richter, A History of Missions in India and reports theysentto theirhomemissionarysocieties. Particularly (Edinburgh: Oliphat, Anderson, & Ferrier, 1908); and s. good sources, where these exist, are the baptismal and ordination Satthianadhan, Sketches of Indian Christians (London: Christian testimonies that each person wrote. Literature Society for India, 1896). 4. MaryBoyce,Textual Sources fortheStudyofZoroastrianism(Manchester: 17. Dhanjibhai Nauroji, From Zoroaster to Christ: An Autobiographical Manchester Univ. Press, 1984), gives the most up-to-date materials Sketch of the Rev. Dhanjibhai Nauroji, the First Modern Convert to on Zoroastrianism. Christianity from the Zoroastrian Religion (Edinburgh: Oliphant, 5. M. Haug, Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings,and Religion of the Anderson, & Ferrier, 1909). Parsis, 2d ed. (London, 1884). 18. Smith, Life of John Wilson. Wilson contemplated publication of a 6. Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin, The Western Response to Zoroaster translation into Gujarati of his book on Parsi religion, which he (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958). proposed that Nauroji should prepare for lithographic printing in 7. John Wilson, The Parsi Religion as contained in Zend-Avesta and Edinburgh. There is no evidence that this task was ever actually propounded and defended by the Zoroastrians ofIndia,unfolded, refuted, carried out. and contrasted with Christianity (Bombay: American Mission Press, 19. Neill, HistoryofChristianityin India,pp. 401-2. Nauroji, who had the 1843). full support of Wilson in this matter, became one of the first Indian 8. John Holmes, Historical Sketches oftheMissionsofthe UnitedBrethren ministers employed by the Free Churchof Scotlandand sent to India forPropagating theGospel amongtheHeathen, fromtheirCommencement as a missionary on a par with the European missionaries. This step to theyear1817 (London, 1827).The section on failed missions gives set a precedent, which was to be of greatest significance for the an account of the mission to the Gebri. church at a later date. 9. CarapetAratoon, "To W.Wardin Seramporefrom Bombay," Oxford, 20. Wilson had founded this indigenous church in the 1830s. Regent College, Baptist Missionary Archives, 1810-16. 21. J. Murray Mitchell, on behalf of the Church of Scotland Missionary 10. George Smith, The LifeofJohn Wilson (London: John Murray, 1879). Committee, to Dhanjibhai Nauroji regarding the congregation at 11. "Report of the Proceedings of the Scottish Missionary Society," Poona, Edinburgh, NationalLibrary of Scotland, Special Collections Scottish Missionary Register, 1822.Karl Gottlieb Pfanderhad used this 23Nov. 1876.At someperiodduringthe 1870sNaurojiseemstohave technique among the Muslims in Persia. overseen the native congregation in Poona as well. 12. Church Missionary Society, Extracts from the Annual Letters of the 22. Dhanjibhai Nauroji, The Work of Faith: A Sermon Preached in the Missionaries for Year1895-96 (London: Church Missionary Society, Bombay Free Church Esplanade, onthe19thDec. 1875,onBehalfoftheFree 1896), p. 169. Church MissionofThisCity:Containing a BriefSketch oftheMissionary 13. Eugene Stock, The History of the Church Missionary Society, vol. 3 Career of the Late Rev. John Wilson D.D., Father and Founder of the (London: Church Missionary Society, 1899), p. 758. Mission(Bombay: Caxton Printing Works, 1876),p. 13;LifeandDeath 14. C. D. Snell, liThe Student Voluntary Missionary Union," Church in Christ: A Discourse Preached before theNativeCongregation oftheFree Missionary Intelligencer, 1895, pp. 354-60. Church of Scotland's Mission, Bombay, on the Occasion of the Death of 15. James Hope Moulton, The Treasure of the Magi: A Study of Modern Mrs. Isabella Wilson (Byculla: Education Society's Press, 1867). Zoroastrianism (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1917).The foreword by 23. William Walker, Glimpse ofMission Workand Some MissionSchools in J. N. Farquhar gives a full account of this commission. Western India (London: S. Harris, 1887). The Parsi Christian 16. The discussion of converts focuses mainly on Dhanjibhai Nauroji Association, which was limited to Bombay, faded away upon and Sorabji Khersedji.Their ownwritings and the writings of others Nauroji's death. about them have been used as sources for this discussion. Some 24. In Nauroji, From Zoroaster to Christ,pp. 84-85. originallettersand reports writtenby bothNauroji and Sorabji, kept 25. Parsisof this periodwerereferred to primarilyeitherby family name in archives of their respective missionary societies, havebeen useful (as with Nauroji) or by given name (Sorabji), No attempt is made in giving insight into their lives. Finally, a number of missionary here to achieve a modem consistency in citations.

76 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 26. [Cornelia Sorabji], "Therefore": An Impression of Sorabji Kharsedji Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism (ca. 1880) and The Comparison of Langrana andHis WifeFranscina (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1924), Zoroastrianism with Christianity (ca. 1885). I have been unable to pp. 30-40. A detailed description is given of the various attempts the locate either volume. family made to get Sorabji back. Finally, the family abducted him 31. Neill, History of Christianityin India,p. 524. and set him adrift on a raft in the ocean. He was eventually rescued 32. Sorabji, "Therefore," p. 58. by Portuguese sailors and brought back to Bombay. 33. Hewat, Christand Western India, p. 133. 27. Sorabji Khersedji to Rev. H. Venn, Secretary, Corresponding 34. Wilson, Parsi Religion, chap. 8. Committee Church Missionary Society, 1861, London, Univ. of 35. Moulton, Treasure of theMagi, pp. 224-54. See Eric J. Sharpe, Not to Birmingham Library, CMS Archives Special Collections, CI 3/046/ DestroyBut to Fulfil: The Contribution of J. N. Farquhar to Protestant 51861. Missionary ThoughtinIndiaBefore 1914(Uppsala: SwedishInstituteof 28. Sorabji, "Therefore," p. 54. Missionary Research, 1965). 29. The Panchayat (from Persian panch, "five") was the highest Parsi 36. Moulton, Treasure of theMagi, pp. 171-93. court, originally composed of five high priests who made the most 37. Lesslie Newbigin, A Word in Season: Perspectives on Christian World important decisions regarding the community. Missions (Edinburgh: St. Andrew Press, 1994). 30. Sorabji, "Therefore." According to Cornelia he wrote two books:

My Pilgrimage in Mission Marcella Hoesl, M.M.

ntering the Maryknoll Sisters in 1957 continued a jour­ charge was the entire English-language program and religious E ney that Ibegan in high school, when I seriously consid­ instruction. In relation to the latter I attended a workshop on ered "going on mission." Even in grade school we filled "mite" catechesis in Mexico City, where I metJacques Audinet, from the boxes with our coinage to support African babies. My German­ Institut Superieur de Pastorale Catechetique of Paris, who was American parents were deeply religious, and that influence leading the sessions. We had lively discussions and began ad­ cannot be underestimated in my formative years. In Cincinnati, dressing the impact of culture on religious instruction. Through Ohio, where I was born in 1935, there was a strong Catholic his influence I was offered a scholarship to study at the Institut Students Mission Society (CSMS), strongly supported by Arch­ in Paris. A major change was about to take place in my life. bishop John McNicholas, who was instrumental in founding the Maryknoll Fathers. Every Catholic high school had a CSMS Impact of Vatican II committee, and I was elected to be secretary for the Cincinnati chapter. Its goals were to foster an understanding and apprecia­ Our local and regional superiors, who held a far-reaching vision tion of mission activities worldwide. National meetings were in of both mission and education, were supportive of the idea of order. I well remember attending one held at Notre Dame furtherstudy. Iwasapprovedto acceptthe invitationaftertaking University, where many religious congregations displayed their final vows. As part of our preparation for the vows, we studied wares, books about their particular works, and of course their Ad gentes, Vatican II's Decree on the Church's Missionary Activ­ religious habits! My vocation gradually but surely took hold. ity. An early English edition of the document called it simply The period before Vatican II was a high-water mark for "Missions." vocations in the Roman Catholic Church. I was part of a large In 1966 I flew to Paris, managed to learn some French, and group of young women who entered the Maryknoll Sisters. After began studies. Being right after Vatican II, it was a heady time for novitiate and vows we could not wait to be sent to foreign lands theological studies. We sat at the feet of some brilliant theolo­ overseas, where we would convert the "pagans"-such was our gians, includingJean Danielou,Yves Congar, andClaudeGeffre. romantic understanding of mission at the time. In 1961 three Studies, the challenging events of the famous sit-ins in 1968, othersisters and Iweresentto Yucatan, Mexico, to join in staffing rapid changes in the church, and new ways of doing theology the girls' high school run by Maryknoll there. We learned a little affected all of us. As a result of Vatican II, congregations such as Spanish by osmosis but worked mainly in English, reflecting the ours were asked to reflect deeply on their particular charism or view that English was the way forward for the students. Our reason for founding. Not only did we move beyond wearing imperial instinct was showing itself, although at the time we did habits, we entered more fully into interpreting our original not fully fathom that aspect. charism in light of the "signs of the times" and our post-Vatican On weekends several of us went to the poorer sections to II understanding of being church-in-the-world. I enjoyed my teach catechism, which brought me closer to what I thought theological studies immensely and went on from the catechetical mission was all about. A few years later I was sent to Puebla, center to complete a licentiate in theology, and then a doctorate Mexico, to work in a large Jesuit school that spanned the years in systematic theology at the Institut Catholique in Paris, gradu­ from early childhood to the first years of college. My particular ating in 1973. Moving in New Directions Marcella Hoesl, M.M., is currently Professor of Systematic Theology and former Academic Dean atOblate School ofTheology in SanAntonio,Texas. Her I envisioned returning to Latin America after completing these service as a Maryknoll Sister includes experience in Mexico, Guatemala, studies, but it did not happen immediately. Instead, my next southern Sudan,and the United Kingdom. assignment entailed beginning a mission renewal program with

April 2003 77 one of the Maryknoll Fathers that would provide a renewal Iendedupworkingfor the six majorBritishmission-sending experience for religious men and women. Along with planning agencies-not one of them Roman Catholic! They were the and codirecting the program, my own teaching role was to Baptist Missionary Society, United Reformed Church, Council provide updating in theology. Mission stories rolled in from all for World Mission, United Society for the Propagation of the over the world, recounting the challenges, the pain, the changes, Faith, MethodistMissionSociety, and Church MissionSociety. A and the spirituality of committed men and women. More than wealth of experience was evident in these societies and in the once I found my own journey deeply affected by the experiences service they gave to the people. Other mission organizations they reported to me. were also represented, such as the Danish Missionary Society, This period also included a time of working in and occasionally persons from the United States came from Huehuetenango, Guatemala. The simple faith of the men in the similar organizations for cross-cultural training. leadership programs there taught me where the focus in theol­ ogy needed to be and how it was best encouraged. In a real sense, Selly Oak Colleges and Mission we were the learners. In particular, I remember well our pain whenmenin the programwould ask whetherthey couldbecome I had already read the works of Lesslie Newbigin, who was a priests. Since they had little education, this pathwasnot possible professorat Selly Oak. He wasa greatinspirationto all, bothfrom for them, giventhe strictures thenexistingin the CatholicChurch. his time in India and because of his great simplicity and human­ And yet, they were the leaders in their communities. We asked ness and love of the church. Since I was so new to the scene, I asked if he would continue teaching until I could get my sea legs. He was a fine model for the students and combined the ecumeni­ I cal and evangelical traditions, so much needed at a place like began stressing the idea Selly Oak Colleges. Birmingham itself is very multicultural and of missio Dei and our multifaith. Being there opened the vista of ecumenism and privilege of being involved interreligious dialogue, both quite in evidence in the depart­ ments and centers. We had a Multi-Faith Center, Jewish/ Chris­ in God's mission. tian Center, Islam/Christian Center, and Black and White Cen­ ter, all making vital contributions. Doors were opened to under­ stand better all the changes going on in all our faith traditions. ourselves the question, Would ordination of these men for their Just what is God's plan in this incredible world? communities, where a missionary priest would visit perhaps I began stressing the missio Dei, God's mission, and our only once every six months, one day be possible? I later wrote a privilege of being involved in it. Missions were the concrete case study about this experience, which I continue to use today. realization of the missio Dei, from which was flowing the rich Among Maryknollers at the time it did not appear that tapestry of evangelization/evangelism, Gospel and culture anyone had been formally trained in missiology or mission (inculturation), liberation theologies from around the world, studies. I became increasingly interested in this academic field interreligious dialogue, and the interrelation of each to all the and did some homework in the area. It was not difficult to move others. If we were to be working in God's mission, we needed to into this critical arena, for the foundations for it had been build­ be sensitive to both ecumenical and evangelical issues. I began ing in ourhearts and spirits. I began teaching in the area, reading defining "mission" descriptively as our entering into God's broadly ecumenically. Early on, I was struck by the history and mission to overcome the barriers and obstacles that separate us impact of the world missionary conference at Edinburghin 1910, from God, from our brothers and sisters near and far, and from as well as the reasons that brought it into being. Roland Allen the world. Mission, which is first and foremost a theological impressed me with his insightful book Missionary Methods: St. term, takes place everywhere but cannot be limited to certain Paul's or Ours? The encyclicals of the twentieth-century popes geographic places. It does notmean that cross-cultural mission is were clear in their comments about culture, language learning, not important or necessary, but rather that God's mission is and traininglocal leaders, ideas of whichwe werenotfully aware boundless and all-encompassing. Work with the International or hadnotbegunto implementuntilafterVaticanII.My attention Association for Mission Studies enhanced my growing vision of and interest were whetted by liberation theologies from around the ecumenical and evangelical issues, as did participation in the the world, an interest that has remained with me through the Commission for World Mission and Evangelism of the World years of teaching and study. Council of Churches. After four years with the renewal program, a brief stint in southern Sudan, and a period as education director of the Theological Institute in Edinburgh Maryknoll Sisters, another huge change came into my life. Again I thought of returning to Latin America, but the idea never After eight years at Selly Oak Colleges, which included initiation materialized. Instead, it came across the desk of our leadership of a diploma of mission studies with the University of Birming­ that there was a search for a dean and head of the department of ham (whichhas since growninto a doctorate), I movedin 1990to mission at Selly Oak Colleges, Birmingham, England. Several the Theological Institute of the Scottish Episcopal Church in toldme thatthis positionwasrightupmy alley (read "journey"!). Edinburgh. This move, another step in broadening my ecumeni­ After some initial hesitation, I applied, thinking that, instead of cal journey, took me to the beautiful city where the famous me, a well-known person with considerable publications under mission conference was held in 1910. his or her belt would certainly be wanted. To my surprise, I was Issues of women's ordination, among other lively topics, short-listed and interviewed. A late-night phone call after my surfaced many times. Strong leadership in the Scottish Episcopal return informed me that I had been nominated unanimously. Church and good relationships with the Church of Scotland and Would I accept? Yes, I said, and set out in 1982 on what was to other denominations were prominent. Several of us from differ­ become one of the greatest learning experiences of my life. ent denominations actually wrote an evangelization project to-

78 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 gether. Participation in the Council for Mission of the British ecumenical presence deepens our understanding of church and Council of Churches opened new vistas and friendships. our commitment to unity. Methodists, Episcopalians, Baptists, My time in Edinburgh was all too short, as my community and others ask whether Oblate is theologically open to welcom­ wished me to return to the United States after twelve years in the ing them. We are. They know we are a professional graduate United Kingdom, and it was appropriate that I do so. So in 1994 theological school for ministry, where men and women study I returnedto the UnitedStatesandto Cincinnatifor a briefperiod in order to be near family and friends. As a pastoral associate for two years in a large urban parish, I served on the consultative It would mean a huge move. committee of the Archdiocesan Mission Office and helped in writing their missionstatement. At that time I wasencouraged to But mission, which is never apply for the position of academic dean at Oblate School of complacent, ever on the Theology in San Antonio, Texas, where my studies and experi­ ence could be used. Somewhat reluctantly I did so, for it would move, requires changes! again mean a huge move on my part. But mission-which is never complacent, ever on the move-calls for exactly such changes! together. More than half of the persons studying in our doctor of ministry program are from other Christian denominations. The Widening Horizons evaluations from these programs consistently laud the ecumeni­ cal factor as important in the students' theological growth. As a And so, here I am! At OblateSchool ofTheologythe Hispanicand school Oblate hosts a World Faith Evening every semester, at multicultural makeup among staff, faculty, and students is not present involving the monotheistic faiths Islam, Judaism, and only enriching for all of us but mirrors the universal church, as Christianity. We expect to broaden our scope in the years to various nations and nationalities are represented. We are a come. multiroofed school, with houses of formation spread aroundSan Yes, here I am. I did not realize that my knowledge of Antonio. Vital collaborationis a hallmarkof the school. Assump­ Spanish and my fairly broad theological background would be tion Seminary, which joined forces with Oblate School of Theol­ so essential. My international experience has helped in finding ogy in 1970, is the place of study for eighteen dioceses in ten ways to make the school better known in the area of theological states. Our master's programs in theology and in pastoral minis­ education and in understanding what it means both to study in try are well received. Our strong lay ministry program, which anotherlanguage and to cross cultures. My pilgrimage continues has more than 2,000 graduates and which offers courses in both to be blessed, andit is notoveryet. Ican trulysay, my cuprunneth EnglishandSpanish, reaches all sectors of the wider community. over! Oblate welcomes persons of all denominations, and the

The Legacy of M. D. Opara Felix K. Ekechi

oses Diala Opara (1915-65),knownpopularlyasM. D., divinity from the United States. These accomplishments won M was born in the village of Obazu Mbieri, near Owerri, him the reputation of being a self-made man. in southeasternNigeria. He wastall andhandsome, athletic, and, Until recently, little was known about Opara in the wider in the wordsof his associates, U a reallyjolly goodfellow." He was world. The first critical study of aspects of his life and work the first child of his parents, who had four children-three boys appeared in 1987.1 This article relies primarily on oral and and one girl. Both parents were farmers, and non-Christians, but archival evidence collected in Nigeria over several years. The they nonetheless sent M. D. and his siblings to missionary archival data are drawn from three main sources: (1) Zion Mis­ schools, where he was converted to Christianity. Upon gradua­ sion records, which contain Opara's private papers and corre­ tionfrom the ChurchMissionarySociety School at Egbu, Owerri, spondence; (2) the Parliamentary Debates of the Eastern House of where he obtained the Nigerian First Leaving School Certificate, Assembly, deposited at the Nigerian National Archives at Enugu; he attended the Hope Waddell Institute at Calabar, a Scottish and (3)Opara's correspondence with the Evangelical Methodist Presbyterian institution, which offered secondary school educa­ Church in the United States, with headquarters formerly in tion. Altoona, Pennsylvania.' Opara subsequently obtained the British Senior Cambridge Secondary materials playa limited role in the study, for not Certificate (1944), the Nigerian teachers' Higher Elementary much has yet been written about Opara. He himself never Certificate (1946), andthe LondonMatriculationCertificate (1948), published any books or articles. Except for two unpublished all of them as an external candidate. By the 1950s he had also doctrinal manuscripts that he wrote, there is no body of primary earned the B.A. degree in theology and an honorary doctorate of or secondary literature from which to gamer information relat­ ing to his mode of thought and action. Nevertheless, available Felix K. Ekechi is Professor of History and Director of the African Studies oral and archival sources, coupled with a few secondary materi­ Program atKentStateUniversity, Kent,Ohio. Hehaspublished extensively on als, are sufficient for a historical reconstruction of his life and thesocial and political historyof Nigeria. work.

Apr112003 79 Early Career workers. We lack finance.... We are having a very hard time in everything." In a letter to a friend he commented, "The work that Opara started his career as a teacher and catechist under the I am now shouldering is beyond my endurance and skill."! Church Missionary Society (CMS), a branch of the Anglican Perhaps even more troubling was the opposition from both the Church. After eleven years of teaching (1930-41), he resigned local community and the existing Catholic and Protestant mis­ and later founded his own small church/mission, the A.M.E. sions. Right from its inception, the Zion Mission received a Zion Church, originally affiliated with the Zion Mission at Cala­ hostile reception. As Opara himself ruefully acknowledged, the bar, said to be the first Zion mission in eastern Nigeria. most "intractable problem" came from denominational opposi­ Why Opara resigned from the CMS remains a matter of tion. "Our staunch enemies, the Roman Catholics and the mod­ conjecture,largelybecausemissionrecordsare virtuallysilenton ernists [Protestants], are deadly against our divine ... evangelis­ the matter. Oral sources, however, provide plausible explana­ tic work and progress." More specifically, he complained of tions. He is said to have left the Anglican mission out of frustra­ persecutionandvictimizationby RomanCatholicand Protestant tion arising from his being repeatedly passed over for admission adherents "in power in the Nigerian educational, judicial and to the prestigious CMS Awka Teacher Training College. Accord­ administrative departments." They "victimize our institutions ing to our sources, he was brilliant and passed the annual everywhere. They make the Government refuse to subsidize our entrance examinations, but for unknown reasons he was never [schools] and we [therefore] suffer some financial stringencies."? selected for admission. According to another speculation, Opara Initially the Zion Mission received no official recognition as was fired, or at least induced to resign, because his fiancee, a "voluntary agency," which would have rendered its schools Catherine, was pregnant prior to their wedding.' Whatever the eligible for government grants-in-aid. Opara's pleas for financial exact reason, Oparadid resign as a teacher in December 1941 and, help "to enable us to maintain our schools more efficiently" fell on March 4, 1942, established the A.M.E. Zion Church, which on deaf ears until 1954, when school subsidies finally became was later renamed the Christ Methodist Zion Church/Mission. available. By then Opara was a member of the Eastern House of Right from its inception, the Zion Church/Missionwas (and Assembly and thus could influence legislation favorable to pri­ still remains) an indigenous church, virtually free from foreign vate schools owned by Africans. Sectarian prejudice still re­ superintendence and control. Moral and material support, none­ mained, however, as evidenced by adverse school inspection theless, came from some groups in Nigeria and the United States, reports submitted by unsympathetic school inspectors, which particularly from the Evangelical Methodist Church, then under rendered many Zion schools still ineligible for school grants. At the direction of Rev. Dr. William Wallace Breckbill of Altoona, one point Opara protested to the Education Department, plead­ Pennsylvania. In recent years, some members of the ZionChurch ing that a particular Protestant school inspector should not be have joined the Methodist Church of Nigeria. sent to Zion schools because "he hates us.:" Resistance from local Protestants added to his worries. De­ The Zion Mission and Its Ordeal tractors regarded him as an unwelcome intruder, and he was labeled as a false prophet. The Zion church-school building, Opara burst into public notice in 1942 when he established Zion which was constructed with palm fronds called opu,was treated Church in his hometown of Obazu Mbieri, in the present Imo with bemusement, if not scorn, being derisively dubbed "church State of Nigeria. He emerged as a dynamic, indigenous mission­ nwa opu," or "the grass church." Stories abound about the con­ ary to his people, imbued with a high sense of mission to serve certed efforts of opponents to nip the new mission in the bud, God and country. He took as his motto "We fight for God and including physical violence against the mission and "malicious country." Opara became a factor to be reckoned with as he propaganda" against Opara aimed at dissuading landlords from embarked upon the task of spreading Christianity and Western granting lands to him for the erection of permanent church and school buildings. Witnesses noted that "every effort was made by his opponents to frustrate him."? Interestingly, local attitudes changed over time, and eventu­ Stories abound telling of ally lands were granted for mission development. Opara grate­ concerted, violent efforts fully acknowledged the change: "Some of the good people at by Opara's opponents to Mbieri gave us lands to help us develop our country." In the final analysis, attempts by "our enemies to frustrate our business of close "the grass church." winning souls for Christ" ultimately failed." The Zion Mission survived, thanks in part to Opara's doggedness, vision, and tenacity of purpose. Yet moral and material support from family education. In the main, he succeeded in challenging the hege­ and friends, both at home and abroad, also played a critical role monic influence of the foreign missions, which overtly and in the mission's survival. Of particular significance was support covertly opposed him. In the long run, he weathered the storm, from the Evangelical Methodist Church (EMC) in America, with and thus gained high recognition in both church and state.' The whom Opara had a close relationship." In moments of crisis, Zion Church/Mission prided itself as being "Evangelical in Opara often appealed to the EMC authorities for material aid, practice, Fundamental in Doctrine, and Methodist in persua­ and they proved exceedingly obliging and reassuring. "Stand sion." In short, "it stands for the Book of life, the saving Grace of assured that we are behind you and the work there and will do Christ, and the teachings of John Wesley."! In addition, notable all in our power to keep the wheels moving in your favor."12 beliefs included belief in miracles and in spirits. The path to success was difficult, for Opara initially lacked Mission Strategy resources. He once lamented, "We have an arduous work to do in this country, [but] we lack almost everything," adding, "we Church recruitment in the early years was difficult. Initially, it are paddling the Lord's Canoe under hardships.... We lack was the children, eager to go to school, who flocked to the church.

80 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 The local people by and large treated the new church with Catholics "among politicians ... and administrators" vis-a-vis marked indifference, with only a few curious adults attending the Protestants, the Roman Catholic Mission thereupon em­ churchservices. Faced withrecruitment problems, Oparaturned barked upon an ambitious education scheme aimed at produc­ to polygamists and to Roman Catholic and Protestant "backslid­ ing the new political leaders as well as counteracting Protestant ers." In sharp contrast with the established churches, which influencein the country.v'IheProtestantswerenaturallyalarmed: rejected polygamous believers out of hand, Zion Church admit­ "It cannot be gainsaid that the Roman Catholics have a plan to ted them as bona fide church members. Thus, in its early days, wipe out Protestantism.... Even our boys and girls rush to their Zion Church became the haven of the disfranchised (polyga­ institutions.... We view this point with great concern/"" mists) and the discontented. Today, we should note, most Zion­ The Zion colleges stimulated tremendous interest in ists are monogamists. postprimaryeducation,bothat Mbieri and elsewhere. At Mbieri, Interestingly, Opara himself became a polygamist later in for instance, Opara's higher education initiative reportedly life. He rationalized plural wives by appealing to David. "David spurred the opening of the Obazu Mbieri Grammar School was the man after the choice of God. God did not abhor him (1959).The Obazu Mbieri Welfare Union, a secular village union because he had many wives." More important, "Since there is no that spearheaded the education enterprise, apparently viewed marriage in Heaven ... Christians must stick to the words of Opara's initiative as a challenge, as the general secretary's circu- Scripture for holiness, honesty, truthfulness, pure and simple life....When we get to Heaven, God is the only person to answer the question better, but we believe that marriage of one or more Opara believed in the wives, who also are believers, is not a drawback to Heaven.... [M]onogamists who commit adultery and fornication and also education of everybody as do other evils are worse than polygamists, even before God."13 a worthy investment. He In practical terms, the acceptance of polygamists in the early days represented a pragmatic strategy to boost the church con­ never liked Africans to be gregation. Some found it an aberration. Opara, however, was rated second-class citizens. following in the tradition of the Ethiopian, or Independent African, Churches, which sought to indigenize Christianity by introducing African cultural elements into the church. In that lar to members suggests: "Gentlemen, there is warfrom without. sense, the acceptance of polygamists symbolized the integration ... You must get your family organised, your local branch of of African culture into Zion's theology of mission. After all, "the Obazu Welfare Union organised against this 'battle."?" Else­ theologyofevangelismacquiresgreaterintegritywhenwe present where, Opara was also the man of the hour, as requests "to come it in the context of our [cultural] experience.v " From the perspec­ and open colleges of any type" came from far and near. To most tive of African nationalism, we see that indigenization, or towns and villages, colleges symbolized social progress, which inculturation, as an expression of anticolonialism, implies the explains the great value that was attached to them. Against this emancipationof "Christianthoughtand praxisfrom the domina­ backdrop Mbieri people extolled Opara's virtues: "Your patri­ tion of European concepts and values."ls otic efforts have brought honour, progress, and glory to our At any event, Opara's most effective and enduring mission town."!" strategywas the use of educationas a vital tool of evangelization. Although Zion colleges were by no means at par with most Zion church-schools mushroomed almost everywhere, even in Catholic and Protestant colleges in terms of the quality of educa­ the remotest towns and villages. Strictly speaking, the Zion tion and the caliber of their staff, they were nonetheless popular. Mission became popular because of the education it offered. Their popularity stemmed partly from their open admission Essentially, it provided an alternative avenue both for Christian policy, and partly from the generous scholarship awards. In fact, conversion and for Western education. It is indeed remarkable many students in Zion educational institutions (including pri­ that, withina decade or so of its founding, the mission succeeded mary schools) were granted one form of scholarship or another in effectively challenging the hegemonic influence of the foreign (mainly fee waivers). Applications for admission and requests missions, especially in the sphere of education. To its students, for scholarships thus increased substantially, which posed a Zion Mission seemed to be a welcome counterstroke against serious financial challenge to Opara. As part of his "work for European "ecclesiastical imperialism." Africa," he offered scholarships not only to Zion school students but also to several unaffiliated students to study in Nigerian and The Initiative in Higher Education overseas institutions of higher learning, including in the United States. An admirer had this to say of his remarkable largesse: Withoutquestion,the advancementofeducationremainsOpara's "Rev. Opara was not selfish. He believed in the education of most enduring legacy. Crowning achievements were the estab­ everybody.... To encourage this liberal educationfor all, he gave lishment of the Zion Commercial Secondary School and St. ... primary, secondary, and university scholarships to hundreds Catherine's College, the latter being a teacher training college of people. [Besides,] Rev. Opara never liked the African [to be] named in honor of his first wife. Opened in 1948, the commercial rated a second-class citizen anywhere [in the worldj/"" secondary school was the first of its kind in the region owned by Opara, who prided himself on being "a humanitarian and a any mission society. It thus not only became the center of atten­ nationalistbyblood," perceived educationas aninvestment,and tion, but also stirred the other missions to action, as illustrated in hence worthy of all available resources. And while he appreci­ the bewildering interdenominational competition and rivalry in ated the utilitarian values of education, especially its being the higher education that occurred during the 1940s and 1950s. The key to socioeconomic improvement, he seemed generally to competition assumed both religious and political overtones, as conceive education in nationalistic terms. First, education is a each mission desperately sought to gain "points of vantage in liberating force, in the sense that it has the potential to free Church and State." Given the comparatively fewer numbers of Africans from ignorance, illiteracy, and an inferiority complex

April 2003 81 vis-a-vis the wider world. Second, education serves as a power­ to be persona non grata. "We cannot tolerate any doctor who ful instrument of colonial emancipation: Through education, he comes to [this country] to be harsh to the people.... I see no averred, "we shall free our nation from colonial bondage.'?' By reason why the [country's] money should be spent on a hospital promoting the advancement of education, he clearly opened the for the people and where a doctor's harshness will scare the door of progress to many of his compatriots. A contemporary people away."> District officers (DOs) were also particular tar­ once noted, "Therewere many, manypeople who could not have gets of his attack. They neither "speak our language" nor "are adepts in our native custom and laws." Therefore, the time had come to replace them with Africans "who are very much [more] experienced in native court law and customs.'?" Although he seemed to be Opara was basically the people's spokesperson, as illus­ preoccupied with politics, tratedby his relentless campaignfor rural development, particu­ larlythe provisionof potablewatersupplyandelectricity,as well Opara continued as as the establishment of industries. Indeed, he seemed preoccu­ president of Zion Mission. pied with the provision of amenities that enhanced the quality of life of the masses. First and foremost, he drew special attention to the issue of water supply, deemed to be the pressing need of the people in the rural areas. In addition, he drew attention to the gone to school, but he provided them the opportunity. Many of urgent need for electricity in Owerri Township." When the these people [today] occupy important positions in government, governorvisitedOwerriin 1958,Oparaspearheadedthepeople's in commerce, and in education."22 petitionto the government, whichdemandeda pipe-bornewater supplyand electricity.29 Nothingcame of the demands untilafter Political Career independence in 1960. Also of concern was the lack of adequate medical facilities. To this end Opara devoted his energies to the Opara entered politics in 1948, purportedly "to be in the van­ crusade for improvement in health services. In characteristic guard of the early freedom fighters against [European] colonial­ style, he expressed dismay at the dilapidation of government ism." But records also reveal another motivation: the desire to hospitals at Enugu and Owerri and demanded their physical save his mission from its enemies, as well as to ensure the rehabilitation, as well as "immediateimprovements in the wayof material well-being of his schools, which were then in financial efficiency, staffing, and equipment." To the end of his life Opara crisis. As he himself acknowledged, "The Government assists continued to press for improvements in the health-care delivery most of the schools run by apostate churches but has not after system, as well as to champion the cause for social reforms." many years' application given us [even] a mite."?' His entry into Although Oparaseemedpreoccupied with politics, he none­ active politics (1948-65), as it turned out, enabled him to advance theless remained as president and proprietor of the Zion Mis­ the material progress of the Zion Mission, as well as to silence his sion, baptizing new converts and occasionally preaching at local opponents, largely through the use of political power and church services. Thus, he continued to exert spiritual and moral influence." influence on the church. Much of the church and school admin­ Elected into the Nigerian Eastern House of Assembly in istration, however, devolved on his lieutenants, who overall do 1953, Opara rose quickly to national prominence because of his not seem to have measured up to the task. politicalactivism. He distinguished himself as an articulate critic of European imperialism, a passionate advocate of education By all accounts, M. D. Opara "was a great leader" and "a Soldier reform, and a crusader for rural development. To begin with, he ofJesus Christ";he spent"all his life fightingfor the freedom [and utilized his legislative powers to influence government policy on betterment] of his people.":" When, therefore, he died, on August grants-in-aid. The next year the ZionMission received Voluntary 8, 1965, he was widely mourned. "Ten thousand mourners at his Agency status, making it eligible for government subsidy." death flooded his grave with mourning tears.... All in vain the A fervent advocate of decolonization, Opara also high­ passion proved.... A legacy for ages his memory lives .... Death lighted the evils of European racism and showed no tolerance has dealt us a wanton blow!"32 whatsoever of racist colonial officials. In particular, he declared every colonialmedical officer (MO) whotreated Africans harshly Notes------­ 1. Felix K. Ekechi, "TheOrdeal of an African Independent Church: The 5. Zionist (a monthly magazine of the Zion Mission), October/ Nigerian Zion Methodist Mission, 1942-1970," International Journal November 1971, p. 1. ofAfricanHistorical Studies20 (1987): 691-720. 6. Opara to Hamilton, March 20, 1954; Opara to Conn, September I, 2. The headquarters of the EvangelicalMethodistChurch/Evangelical 1951; Opara to Onyido, September 14, 1948; Zion Mission Archives Methodist Conference have since moved to Kingsport, Tennessee. (hereafterZMA).The archivalrecordsare nowstoredin Rev. Opara's This denomination is not to be confused with the denomination also house at Obazu Mbieri, Owerri, where ants and cockroaches have named Evangelical Methodist Church that has its headquarters in destroyed some of the papers. Indianapolis, Indiana. 7. Opara to Hamilton,July 3, 1951;Opara to Conn, May 23, 1951,ZMA. 3. Pastors,catechists,andschoolteachersnot"livingconsistentChristian 8. Opara to Archibong, n.d., ZMA. lives" were no longer considered "in good standing as church 9. Chief S. E. Ekeanyanwu, "Life and Work of Rev. Dr. M. D. Opara." members." See Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society SynodMinutes, Personal communication with the author, November 21, 1989. December 1928. Information is also based on interviews at Mbieri, 10. Opara to Ukwuoma, January 22, 1959;Opara to Conn, May 22, 1951, 1983 and 1989. ZMA. 4. The Evangelical Methodist Conference (1966), p. 41, EMC Archives, 11. The Evangelical Methodist Church came into being in 1945 as a Altoona, Pa. (hereafter EMC). breakaway church from the American Methodist organization.

82 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 We 'rejust a click away! Opara's connection with the EMC began in 1950, wh en he first visited America to Visit www.OMSC.org attend th e EM C's Fifth Annu al For information on : Conference at Shelbyville, Indiana. He • Seminars on cross-cultural ministry was reportedlyinvited to the conference by Rev. W. W. Breckbill, founder of the • Schol arship opportunities for missionaries EMC. • Senior Mission Scholars in Residence 12. Breckbill to Opara, July 24,1951 , EMC. I • Special book features on global Christianity am ind ebted to EMC authorities for • Subscribing to the International Bulletin of Missionary Research copies of correspondence and conference rep orts. For details of EMC' s material Overseas Ministries Study Center assistance, see Ekechi, "Ordeal," pp.705­ 13. New Haven, Connecticut, USA 13. M.D.Opara, "Some Religiou s Qu estions and Answers " (unpublished, undated typ escript), ZMA. 14. Gwinyai Henry Mu zorewa, An African Theology of Mis sion (Lewiston, N .Y.: Edwin Mellen, 1990), p.157.See also pp . The Best Book on Missions 20,65. 15. Elizabeth Isichei, A Historyof Christianity !""": ':;'!@ '::~:'W 'I in Africa (Gr and Rapids: Eerdman s, Just Got Better 1995), p. 95; see also E. A. Ayandele, The MissionaryImpactofModernNigeria,1842­ 1914: A Political and Social A nalysis (London: Longmans, 1966), p. 200. 16. John P.Jordan,"Catholic Educa tion and Catholicism in Ni geria," African Ecclesiastical Review 1-2 (1959- 60): 61­ "Let theNations Be Glad! is the 62. most important book on missions 17. "Observations and Suggestions," Jun e for this generation." 26, 1959, ZMA . 18. Circular dated May 21, 1959; Emercnini - R. AlbertMohlerJr., president, to Opara, July 14, 1961, ZMA. SouthernBaptist Theological 19. Anonymous, Jun e 22,1959, ZMA. Seminary 20. R.C. Onwuekwusi,"The Life of the Rev. M. D. Opara" (unpublished manuscript, "Just when you think you have 1971), p . 2, ZMA. heard all there is to hear on the 21. Memo prepared for the Eastern Hou se topic, Piper shows up again with of Assembly, n.d., ZMA. 22. Interviews at Owerri with Chief S. E. another biblically insightful nudge Ekeanyanwu, Nove mber 21, 1989, and that confronts the smallness of our Bishop Larnb ert Opara, Au gu st 27,1 992. worldview with the global great­ 23. Opara to Conn, July 2, 1951; Opa ra to ness of God's passion for the lost. Brekbill, Jun e 6, 1953, ZMA. Please read this book." 24. Interviews with ChiefS. E.Ekeanya nw u, November 21,1 989, and Bishop Lambert -Joseph M. Stowell, president, Opara, Au gu st 27,1992. MoodyBible Institute 25. Acting Inspector-General of Educa tion to Proprietor (Op ara), September 29, 0-8010-2613-X • 256 pp. • $l4.99p "Piper has taken an already signif­ 1954, ZMA. icant book and updated and 26. Parliamentary Debatesof theEastern House expanded it to make an invaluable resource. Missionaries, pastors, teachers, and of Assembly, Mar ch 1, 1954, p. 469, Nigerian Nationa l Arc h ives , Enugu laypeople with a thirst for God's passion for himself and the peoples ofthe world (hereafter Debates). will be challenged and encouraged. I offer it my highest recommendation." 27. March 14, 1955, p. 38; February 25, 1954, -A. Scott Moreau, editor, Evangelical Missions Quarterly p. 354; March 1, 1954, p. 470, Debates. 28. March 19,1963, p . 185, Debates. "If I had to choose only one book on missions, Let theNations Be Glad! would be it. 29. "An Address of Welcome to Hi s Don't read it unless you're willing to have your eyes reopened to the highest possible Excellency Sir Robert Stapleton . .. on HisVisittoOwerri, "Novemb er21 ,195 8, motive for being about the business ofreaching the world for Christ." ZMA. - Duane Litfin, president, Wheaton College 30. September29,1964,pp. 43-44; November 10, 1960, pp . 92-93, Debates . 31. Zionist, Au gu st 1978, p. 1. Baker Academic 32. "Memo irs on the Late Rev .M. D. Opa ra" (unpublished m anuscript by Law Subscribe to Baker Academi c's electronic newsletter (E-Notes) Obioma Emenyonu, July 1971), ZMA. at .www.bakeracademic.com

April 2003 83 Book Reviews

Changing Tides: Latin America and World Mission Today.

By Samuel Escobar. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2002. Pp. xu, 206. Paperback $28.

When I first met Samuel Escobar in 1974, organizations or events. As a Roman America, Africa, Asia, and the Pacific), I never realized how our relationship Catholic, I am extremely appreciative of where well over half of the world's would develop. It was he who saw to it in his insightfulunderstanding-historically Christians live and the major source of the late 1990s that I joined a Circle of objective, academically critical, yet future missionaries. Here also is where PrayerforChristianUnityin Cochabamba, ecumenically sympathetic-of how newmissiological reflection istakingplace, a relationship that has affected me deeply. Catholic theological vision has helped combining activism and theological His recent book made me realize how shape missionary activity and church life. seriousness, and dealing with close I feel to him as a missiologist, an He also acknowledges how the Catholic fundamental issues such as the relation ecumenist, and a brother Christian. Church in its recent evangelizing renewal between the Gospel, social justice, and Eleven out of the thirteen chapters has learned to acquire certain typically cultures. are a translation, adapted for an English­ "Protestant" values, such as the primacy Escobar deserves the gratitude of his speaking readership, of Escobar's Tiempo of the testimony of the Scriptures, the fellow missiologists and of all those demisi6n: America Latina y lamisi6ncristiana need to offer people above all a personal committed to the cause of Christian unity. hoy (Bogota, 1999). The book performs a encounter with Jesus, the vocation of Indeed,his workdemonstratesthatamong valuable service by informing a wider laypeople, and the importance of the local the most effective paths to unity among world about the mission awareness and church community. the disciples of Jesus is a shared responsibilitythathas developedin recent Escobar stressessomeaspectsofLatin commitment to mission and to mission decades in Latin America among American Christianity that are obvious to studies. Christians of both the Protestant and the well informed but perhaps not well -John F. Gorski, M.M. Roman Catholic traditions. Escobar, a enough known to the general public. In Baptist, has much to teachCatholics about the first place is the importance of the John F. Gorski, M.M., a contributing editor, is Protestantmissionvitality, andProtestants missionary dynamism of Pentecostal and Professor of Missiology and Ecumenism at the about the Catholic mission renewal. He is conservative evangelical Christians. Catholic University of Bolivia in Cochabamba. A impressively well informed about the Second is the new missionary initiative missionary in Bolivia sincehis ordination in 1963, latter; it is difficult to find any factual emerging from the poorer and younger he is president of the International Association of errors in his description of Catholic continents of the South (from Latin Catholic Missiologists.

Tongan Anglicans, 1902-2002: some respects an unhappy one because it From the Church of England reflects the loss of population in Tonga. Mission in Tonga to the Tongan Many Tongans have immigrated to New Anglican Church. Zealand since the 1970s, which, alongwith other factors, has resulted in a steady Edited byAllanK.Davidson. Auckland,N.Z.: declineofAnglicansin Tonga. The church, College ofthe Diocese ofPolynesia, 2002.Pp. accordingto the 1996census, hadonly811 158.Paperback NZ$25. people. It should be added that this small The Anglicans of Tonga are a small and machinations and international High­ body has made a significant contribution yet surprisingly influential group. They Churchpretensions.Itshowshowachurch to education in Tonga. In this and other are now celebratingthe centennialof their that started out in considerable friction ways the church has been more important founding, and it is good to have this with the Methodists, the predominant than its numbers would indicate, and its centennial history, edited by Allan denomination of the country, gradually history deserves to be read. Davidson, lecturer in church history at St. becamea leaderin ecumenicalcooperation -Charles W. Forman John's College, Auckland. The book is notonlywiththe Methodistsbutalso with well written and thoroughly researched, the RomanCatholics. Anotherremarkable Charles W. Forman is Professor Emeritus of with much use of archival resources. It is development is that of the indigenous Missions,YaleUniversity Divinity School. not the first history of this church, but it is ministry. The Anglicans were laggardly certainly the most comprehensive. in this respect, waiting till 1962 to install Davidson has himself written the bulk of the first indigenous vicar of their main the book, providing the main historical congregation. Since then, however, this narrative, but he has included chaptersby small church has produced several other authors covering special disproportionately large numbers of aspects of the church's life. priests serving not only the Anglicans of The book is completely honest about Tonga but also those of Fiji, Samoa, and the problematicbeginnings of the church, New Zealand. which were fraught with local political The outreach to New Zealand is in

84 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 Christianity and Buddhism: A The Future of Christia ni ty. Multi-Cultural History of Their Dialogue. By Alister E. McGrath. Oxford: Blackwell, 2002. Pp. xii, 172. Paperback $17.95. By Whalen Lai and Michael VO n Bruck. Maryknoll, N.Y.:Orbis Books, 2001. Pp. xiu, Publish ed in th e Blackwell Man ifesto sc ri p t changes in Star Trek and th e 265. Paperback $40. series, this succinct, accessible assessme nt ex p los ive exp ansion of non-West ern by Alis ter E. McGrath, professor of churches, the author forthrightly states Whalen Lai and Michael von Bruck offer historical theology, University of Oxford, his perspectives, while recogni zin g the us a selective historyofBuddhist-Christian and principal of Wycliffe Hall, exa mines limits of projectin g the future. dialogu e in the nineteenth and tw entieth "trends thatcan be discerned within global McGrath sta r ts with setbacks centuries in six countries:India,Sri Lanka, Christianity" (p, 99). Drawing on sour ces Christianity suffered in the twentieth China, Japan , German y, and the United reaching from Peter Abelard to evolving century. Here he places the intellectual, States. Lai is professorof religious studies andEast Asian lan gu ages at the Uni versity of California, Davis, and von Bruck is a historian of religionand deanof the faculty for evangelical theology at the Unive rsity of Munich.Theimportantword in the title of their book is "dialogue," which the authors define as "the middle course between refusing to acknowledge the relativity and plurality of religious reality, and a pluralism of preference that would level ou t all values to a common denominator" (p. 1). Dialogue is central, the authors assert, because religions give meaning to the world's peoples, and the process ofglobalization has mad e religions and their cultural carriers so mutually STORY LINES " dependent that a common langu age for discussion (i.e., a hermeneutic) must be CHAPTERS ON THOU GHT, WORD , AND DEED GLO BAL THEOLO GIES IN CONTEX TS developed to facilitate communication. For Gabriel Fackre I Essays in Honor ofViggo Mortensen Dialogue produces that hermeneutic. EDIT ED BY Skye Fackre Gibson E DIT ED BY Else Marie Wibe rg Pedersen, So how is the Buddhist-Christian "Like Ga briel Fackre himself, this col­ Holger Lam, AND Peter Lodberg contributionto the task of dialogu e doing? lection displays the winsom eness of a This is a book about the unique chal­ If Buddhist-Christian dialogu e were a genero us orthodoxy. . .. Taken as a lenges that religion , especially person, the authors would probabl y say it whol e, the book captures some of the is somew here between the late teenage C hristian theology and the C hristian and early adult stages, the exact ag e liveliest and most important theologi­ church, faces in tod ay's changing varying with locale. One of the strengths cal discussions of recent decades." world. of this book is its frank acknowled gment - David Heim ISBN0-8028 -608 6-9 . 250 pages' paperb ac k ' of the ways dialogue is made difficult, ISBN 0-80 28 -6082-6 . 276 pages ' hardcover ' $24 .00 often the lea st of which is religious $39 .00 difference.In India, for example, dialogue APOSTOLICITY AND UNITY ha s been inextricably linked to social emancipation , in Sri Lanka to the (mostly) THEOLOGY IN DIALOGUE ESSAY S ON THE PO RVOO CO MMO N STATE MENT bitter fruits of colonialism. In the United THE IMPACT OF TH E ARTS , HUMANI TIE S, ANO ED IT ED BY 010 Tj erhom States dialogue among Buddhists and SCIENCE ON CONTE MPORARY RE LIGIOU S THOU GH T FOREWOR D BY A rchbishops K. G. Hamma r Christians has become the show piece of Essays in Honor ofJohn W de Gruchy and David Hope the worldwide dialogue movem ent. E DITED BY Lyn Holness "T he fellowship based on the Porvoo After discu ssion of the cha racter and AND Rolf K. Wii stenberg Co mmo n Statement has already lessons from these regional dialogues, the "I have learn ed a gteat deal from the proved to be a vast enrichment and a authors end with a chapter on what the future mi ght hold for interreligious art icles collected in this volume, each blessing to our churches as well as ou r dialogue. This is a very useful book for dealing with the dialogue of theology world communions. . . . We would showing how far the Buddhist-Christian with ano ther discipline. . . . I recom ­ like to recommend this book to all dialogueha s come-and how far it yet has mend this book to theologians and who are concerned about the Porvoo to go. theological stude nts who want to fellowship as well as those who are - Terry C. Muck expand their vision ." com mitted to visible unity." -Gregory Baum fr om the foreword Terry C. Muck is Professor of Mission and World Religions at the E. Stanley Jones School of World ISBN 0-8028 -3916-9' 312 pa ges ' pcper buck ISB N0-8028 -096 9-3' 250 pa ges ' pap erba ck · Mission and Evangelism, Asbury Theological $40.00 ~ $3 0.00 Seminary, Wilmore, Kentucky. He is editor of Buddhist-Christian Studi esandMissiology:An 25221 W M. B. E ERD M A NS P UBLISH I NG CO. _ 255 ' EFFERSON AVE. S.E. / GRAND RAPIDS , MICHI GAN 49503 International Review.

April 2003 85 moral. an d spiritua l changes of the 1960s Christian faith of th e parishes. More seem to address directly issues related to alongside earlier lo sses suc h as th e theological than demographic in focus, mission in Asia. Armenian genocide, the failure of the the book concludes by calling for a new The first th ree pape rs touch on the churches to confront Nazism, and the "organic" theology, loyal to the clas sical issue of Ch ristology. R. S. Sugirtharajah Communist persecutions. Writing as an Ch ristian traditions, yet connected to traces th ree Indian H indu de scriptions of Ang lican, McGrath maintains that the believers in th e pews and rel ev ant to Jesus in the nineteenth century. Xinzh on g radica l attempts to " m od e rnize" contemporary cultural concerns . Yao examines how traditional Chinese Christianity in the 1960s set the stage for -Thomas A. Askew Confucians perceived Jesus . LeI' Hong growing irrelevance of th e mainline Jung proposes a new Christology to be denominations, which he sadly sees as Thomas A. Askew is Stephe n Phillips Prof essor of based on the minjung expe rie nce. unlikely to last another century. History Emeritus at Gordon College, W enham, Edmond Tan g and Bob Whyte write In co ntrast, th e book traces th e M assachu setts, and continues as Director of on the changes a n d ch a lle nges of resurgence of trad itional and evangelical Gordon's East-West Inst itute of lnternaiional contemporary Chinese Christianity. Four form s of the faith. Christianity's future Stu dies. authors-s-Kim Yong Rock, Hwang Hong resides in Roman Catholicism, Eyo ul, Iong-sik Chang.and Brian Castle-s­ Pe n tecosta lism, e va ngelicalism, and ex amine va rious asp ec ts of Korean Eastern Orthodoxy, especially the former minjung theology. On the Japanese scene, two as they ad vance dramatically in th e Tanimoto Kazuhiro and Robert G.Stieber ThirdWorld. Numerically, "Pentecostalism address di scrimination problems faced by is already the most sig nificant alternative Identity and Marginality: the Buraku people and th e Ch ristian to Roman Catholici sm" (p . ]09). Rethinking Christianity in North mission for th eir liberation. Barnabas Evangelical prospects depend on a East Asia . Satoshi Kob ay ashi, Asunda Lande, and willingness to learn from and adapt within Alan M. Suggate deal with various other non-Wes tern contexts; to expand, Eastern Edited by W ern er Ustorf and Tos hiko issues related to Japanese Ch ristianity. Orthodoxy must dev elop mission beyond Murayama. Frankfu rt: Peter Lang, 2000. Pp. Werner Ustorf's paper introduces a its ethnic centered ness. 250. €40.40 / $42.95 / £27. newperiodizationof Christian history and McGrath explores such significant raises the issu e of the "re-definition of the is sues as the megach urches, This book, a collection of pap ers from nature of Christianity" (p . %). fundamentalism, the stat istic-fixat ed in ternational seminars h eld in Though the title seems car efully "McDonaldization" of Christianity, the Birm ingham in :1997 and 1998, reflects chosen to offer a framework th at embraces impact of English as the common reli gio us main ly the vo ices of theologians in the various theological concerns, the book language of global Christianity, world Northeast Asia . Although the themes of lacks focus Articulation of AsianChristian theological trends, and the disjunction both sem ina rs are missionrelated , mo st of identity and the task of red efining the between academic theology and the the papers collected in this volume do not nature o f Clu is tianitv a re important

Special offer for IBMR readers-60% off! Order your I would like to order: Missions Yellow Pages TODAY. __ (qty.) copies of the Mission Handbook @ $19. 95 ea. ($29.95 Canadian) and _ _ (qty.) copies of the Directory of Schools ists over 800 mission agencies based in @ $12.95 ea. ($19.43 Canadian) + 10% postage &: handling. the US and Canada involved in ministry L __ (qty) copies of the Directory ofSchools only@ $17.95 ea. ($26.95 overseas. Includes: name of president Canadian) + 10% postage and handling. or CEO, phone and fax num bers, e­ mailand mailing add resses, Web site (IL residents must add 6.75% sales tax to their order.) URLs, mission activitiesand countries Name _ of min istry. SALE PRICE: $19.95 Street _ Origina lly $49.95. City State Zip _ E-mail _ PLUS.•• SAVE $5.00 on the Directory of Schools Payment option: and Professors of Mission and Evangelism when you order a Mission Handbook. Only $12.95. Enclosed is a check in the amount of $ _ Charge payment to my: _ Visa _ MasterCard ists 272 instituti ons in th e US a nd Acct.# _ LCanada offering missions and evange­ lism ed ucation; and 1,8 00 professors of Expiration Date _ mission and evange lism. Price of Direc­ Name on card (please print) _ tory witho ut Handbook purc hase is $17 .95. Signature _ Order both now Send coupon along with your payment to: while supplies last! EMIS. P.O . Box 794. W heato n. IL 60189 Phone : (630) 752-7158 • E-mail: emis@wheat on.edu

86 INTERNATIONAL B UI.LETIN OF MISSIO NARY R ESEARcn, Vo l. 27, No.2 curren t issues in Asia n Christianity. This Chapters in Philippine Church volume, however, does not really grapple History. with these issues; to that extent, rethinking SUBSCRIBE TOTHE is still needed. Edited by Anne Kwantes. Manila: OMF LEADING JOURNAL - Moonjan g Lee Literature , 2001. Pp. x, 507. PhP 625; paperback PhP 399. ON MISSION, Moonjang Lee is Lecturer in Asian Theology at Trinity Theo logical Col/ege, Singapore. For this notable volume on Philippine THEOLOGY AND chur ch history across fourcenturies,editor ETHICS Anne Kwantes, author of two books on the subject andprofessorof church history Transformation is the at Asian The ological Seminary, Manila, has assembled an impressive, multiethnic JOURNAL thoughtful Dinka Christianity: The Origins list of contributors from a broad spectru m Christians read to und erstand and Development of Christianity of Ca tholic and Protestant Christian ity. the political and socia l trends Among the Dinka of Sudan, with The lineup includes an Episcopal priest Special Reference to the Songs of from a northern Phili p pine tribe, a that are redefining the debate Dinka Christians. Columbian friar , a naturalized Filipino between mi ssion theologians Jesuit priest, a Japanese researcher in and ethic ists. By Marc R. Nikke l. Nairobi: Paulines Phi li p pine stu dies, severa l Filipino Publications Africa, 2001. Pp. x, 383 . $6. Catholic and Protestant Chin ese professors, and Australian and American Transformation serves as a This rema rkable boo k is an edited versio n mission ary educa tors. This mix itself is an of a Ph.D. disserta tion. The book was exce llent example of the diversity of pl atform for insightful finally published in 2001 as par t of the cultures and religions in Philippine churc h analysis by leadin g thinkers Faith in Sudan series, a yea r after Nik kel's history. from a global perspectiv e. untimely death from cancer. The wide ran ge of subjects should In 1981 Nikkel,an Episcopalian priest, also give this book a prominent place in went to southernSudan to teach at Bishop churc h history courses. There are chapters Edited by a Q uaker, an Gwyn ne College in Mund ri, the on relig ious communities for women Angli can, a Bapti st and a th eol og ical tr ain in g center for the before 1750, Adventi sts, an indigenous Episcopa l Churc h of Suda n. During this Methodis t church, American Baptists, the Pentecostal, Transform ation tim e he regular ly visited Din ka cattle Salva tion Army, the United Church of has no party lin e. Whatever camps and star ted to learn the Dinka Ch ris t, an Episc o pal se minary, th e your theol ogical perspective, language. As civil war began to engulf the Ph ili p pine Cou nc il of Ev angelical area, Ni kke l was abd ucted and held Churc hes, Chinese Protestant churches, this journal is an captive for two months by troop s of the the Iglesia ni Cristo, and the Bible Society. indispensable too l for Sudanese People's Libe ration Army, an Biogra phical sketches on the first Filipino scho lars, mi ssionaries, experience that drew himyet more deepl y doc torate in theology (1772) an d the first into a passionate engageme nt wi th the Filipina ordained as a Baptist minister pastors and students. Dinka peop le. In more recent yea rs he (1980) add a person al flavor. Other top ics worked close ly with Nathan iel Garang, covered include the Christian involvement Transformation bishop of Bor, developing training courses in music, land reform, leprosy, 55 Fair Dri ve for Dinka Christians across the south. coloniz ation after the Spanish-American Through these expe riences Nikkel War, and the Japanese Imperial Army Costa Mesa, CA 92626 gained un ique insight into the spirituality (1941-42). More specialized articles are a T 714-556-36 10 x351 of the rapidly gro wing Dinka churches . th eological an thro pology of Ju an de E transform ation @vanguard.edu He has now ope ned the richness of this Oliver's six teen th-cen tu ry Doctrina www.regnumbooks.com spiritua lity to the outside world by sharing Christiana,pastoral writings ofeighteenth­ his reflections and by offering tran slati ons ce n tu ry relig ious orders, aposto lic of some of the 2,000 songs that Dinka delegates from Rome at th e turn of the Christians have composed in recentyea rs. twentieth century, and thetransition from He gives us a fascina ting account of a Hispan ic to Amer ican cu lt u re and church that was isolated from outside lan guage in the Catholic clergy following influ ences at a tim e of unpreced ented American takeover of the islands. growth, a circums tance that has allowe d The book's tw enty-two chapters are Dinka Christians to develop a faith deepl y well orga niz ed into five eras : "Spa nish rooted in Dinka culture. Times in the Sixteenth Century," "The The book d ocuments th e American Int erlude," "Wa r-Time Again," development of Christianity amo ng the "After World War II," and 'T he Twenty­ Dink a from the first mission ary activity, firs t Century." A glossary provides Catholic and Protestant, and explores the defini tions for some Tagalog wo rds and reasons for earlier resistance to the Gos pel religious terminology. as well as the motivati on for conversion at -F. Douglas Pennoyer this time of suffering and loss. -Diana Witts F. Douglas Pennoyer, Dean of the School of InterculturalStudiesat BiolaUniversity,LaMirada, Diana Witts is a former general secretary of the California, hasserved asan anthropologist, church Church Mission Society. planter, pastor, and corporate executive.

April 2003 87 The Local Church in a Global Era: of wide-ranging a nd multifac et ed Reflections for a New Century. conversations on the role of the church in an increasinglyglobalized world.The book Edited by Max L. Stackhouse, Tim Dearborn , conta ins most of the conference panel and Scott Paeth. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, presentations (missing are pr esentati ons 2000. Pp. x, 218. Paperback $15. by David Tracy of th e University of Chicago and Kathryn Wolford, pr esid ent TheLocalChurchinaGlobalEra is a collection globalization on the eve of the twenty­ of Lutheran World Relief); unfortunately, ofessays d rawnfrom a major international first century. Over 125 missiologists and however, pl enar y addresses by such conference in October 1998 at Princeton o ther scho la rs, pas tors, and luminaries as Francis Fukuyama, Roland Seminary. Cosponsored by Pri nceton repres en tatives o f fo undations a nd Robertson, and Rob ert Seipl e are not Theo logical Seminary and World Vision, governmental and nongovernmental included . th e gathering considered issu es of organ izations (NGOs) met for three days The editors have done an excellent job in d ist ill ing and organizin g an incred ible amount of diverse material. The five sections under which the essays are organized-ranging from "Stewards hip, ANNOUNCING Prosperity, and Ju stice" to "Conflict, Violence, and Miss ion"- are generally helpful. The fact th at th e relatio nship Anderson International Scholarships between vio lence and globaliza tio n is considered, almost three years before the The OverseasMinistriesStudyCenter announces the Gerald and Joanne Ander­ horrific events of September 11, 2001, shows the foresight and acu men of the son International Scholarships.Scholarships are designated for international editors. The general introduc tion by Max Christian workers (citizens of nations other than the U.S.), especially those Stackhouse and the section introductions engaged in cross-cultural ministries. Scholarships requir e a residency at by Scott Pae th and Tim Dearborn ar e OMSC of eight to ten critical for help ing the read er un derstand months. Furnished ac­ the organizational plan for each section commodations and a and the book as a whole. modest living stipend Globalization is one of the most talked are provided. Scholar­ abou t, yet most difficult, phenomena to ships are granted on a understand. This book offers a rich array competitive basis and of far-reach in g perspectives on th e are awarded on the con­ relation ship between globaliza tion and dition that reci pients the church today.Anyone looking for easy complete a minimum of answe rs and clear defin itions on wha t twenty-two of OMSC 's globaliza tion is, however, will no t find weekly se mi nars in them here. Still, the book is an im portant cross-cultural ministry. read for ch u rc h leaders, sc holars, At the end of their year m issi onaries, a n d p ractit io ne rs in of residence awardees international NGOs. must produce a written evaluation of their experience at OMSC, indicat­ - Ian T. Doug las ing how they expec t the program to affect their future ministry. Ian T. Douglas is Professor of Mission and World Christianity at the Episcopal Divinity School, Applicants must meet the following requirements: Cambridge, Massachusetts. • A minimum of four years' experience in Christian ministry • Endorsement by their mission agency or churc h • Residence at OMSC for eight to ten months • Enrollment in OMSC's Certificate in Mission Studies program, requiring participation in at least 22 weekly seminars The Hospital by the River-a Story • Commitment to return to their place of ministry of Hope.

Applications should be submitted as far in advance as possible. Scholar­ By CatherineHamlin,withJohn Little.Sydney: ship stipends will be distributed on a monthly basis after recipients are in Pan Macmillan Australia, 2001, Pp. 304. residence . Families with children are welcome . Succe ssful applicants will Aus$30. be responsible for their own travel costs and medical insurance (required) . For application and further information contact: "Whe n Chri st calls a man, he bids him come and d ie," Dietrich Bonhoeffer wrote Jonathan J. Bonk, Executive Director in The Cost of Discipleship . Docto rs Ca therine and Reg Ha mlin, a hu sband­ Overseas Ministries Study Center and-wife team of gynecologists, d ied for 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA Christ before leaving Austra lia in 1959 to (203) 624-6672, Ext. 3 14 Fax (203) 865-2857 serve in a government hospital in Addis residence @OMSC.org www.OMSC.org Ababa. Their hearts were deeply moved by the plight of the "very least of these my sisters," women who,becau se of childbirth

88 L"\ITERNATION AL B ULLETIN OF M ISSIONARY RESEARCH , Vo l. 27, No.2 Injur ies from unattended births, suffer information he provides abou t Ch ristian (not Allah) with the ide as and injunctions from total incontinence of ur ine and ofte n responses to Islam over the centuries is of the Qur'an more than a Mu slim wo uld stoo l. They began operating on the se consi derably richer than that of Islamic comfortab ly accep t, he relies some wha t women and eve ntually built a separa te mater ial about Christians, to which he uncriticall y on th e work s of several hospital for them . Their "short term" of m a kes o n ly p assing re fe rence . p rominen t au thors (Bernard Lewis, Karen three years turned into a lifet im e of No netheless, he engages very important Ar ms tro ng, Norma n Daniel, and othe rs), dedi cated service in Ethio pia . The grea t issu es in this wor k, making good his and, in this rea de r's opinion, he spends majority of the more than 20,000 wo me n promise to suggest ways in which the too lon g on the history of the Crusades they treated we re cured, thus finding a intellectu al-theological LI nd the military­ and on the es tablishme nt of the state of new life, and many came int o eternal life political themes of our mutual histories Israel. Armour h as done an admirable job, through faith in Christ. are int ertwined. however, cove ring a grea t deal of gro un d This gripping story, told by Catherine, One migh t wish for a few cha nges in in a mod est-sized work, and he presents striking ly illu strates seven basic principles orientation. Armo ur cred its Muham mad such issues as religious conflict in the oflife and of Christian mission: (1) hop e is essential for life, and Christ gives hope;(2) Jesus care d for the poor and outcas t, and so sho uld we; (3) compassiona te health REGENT-CONFERENCES care is an effective method of eva ngelism by showing God's love for peopl e; (4) a long-term commitment to med ica l missions can establish new services and bear mu ch fruit; (5)partn ersh ip wi th host­ The country collea gues is essen tia l for sustaining effective programs; (6) commitment to Christ an d to the vision he gives can enable his disciples to cope wi th see ming ly impossible frustra tio ns an d obstacles;and (7)when God begins a work, Bible he carries it on-if he find s those through whom he can wo rk. God has indeed worked throu gh the &the Hamlins, and this story is an epic in the building of Christ' s king do m in the wo rld. -Dan Fountain

Dan Fountain, Assistant ProfessorofGlobal Health at the Peeke School of Christian Mission, King Nati us College, Bristol, Tennessee, served for thirty-five June 6-7,21103 years as a medical missionary in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where he operated on many This intern ational conference will womenwithfistulas likethosedescribedin thisbook. include bot h Western and non-Western theologians, who will sh are the platform to examine the interplay between the authority, translation, reading and interpre­ tat ion of the Scr iptures, part icularly as it relates to language and culture. Courses on the rele vance of the O ld Testamen t to issues of mission and Islam, Christianity, and the West: eth ics, cross-cultural commun ication and Sc ripture, and globa l mission in a A Troubled History. globalized wor ld will he offered the week fo llowi ng th e co nferenc es, from Jun e 9- 13,2003 . ByRollinArmour, Sr.Maryknoll,N.Y.:Orbis Books, 2002. Pp. xv, 197. Paperback $25. Featm'ing • Miriam Ade ney, Seattlel'

Ap ril 2003 89 HolyLand withsensitivity.The bookcould Thi s book w ill be useful to anyone in well be used as a Christian seminary text cross-cultural minist ry, but espe cially to in history, theology, and even missiology. those in community dev elopment work. On the last note, I did miss any reflection The bibliography is a go ld mine of on contemporary evange lical effor ts in resources, but the index could ha ve been the Muslim world, although earlier morethoroughly developed. Somereaders movements were treated carefully and may flinch a t some of Bradshaw' s thoroughly. nontradition al interpretations of familiar D, : Chun Chae Ok, senio r mission scho lar - Jane 1.Smith Bible passages, but this book moves us in Sp ring 2004, wi th Dr. Emil Chandran, fur ther along in our practice of holistic 2002-03 resident committee chairman. Jane I. Smith is Professor of Islamic Studies and mission, and for tha t rea son I he artily Christian-M uslim Relations, Hartford Seminary, recommend it. Study with Hartford, Conn ecticut . - Darrell Whiteman SENIOR MISSION Darr ell W hiteman, Prof essor of Cult ural SCHOLARS Anthropology and Dean of the E. Stanley Jones School of World M ission and Evangelism, Asbury IN RESIDENCE Theological Seminarq, W ilmore, Kentucky, has had Change Across Cultures: A mission and research experience in Central Africa, Narrative Approach to Social Papua New Guinea , and the Solomon Islands. FALL 2003 Transformation. KWANG SOON LEE Dr. Lee is Dean, Graduate School of By Bruce Bradshaw. Grand Rapids: Baker, World Mission, and Director, Center for 2002. Pp. 264. Paperback $24.99. World Mission , at the Presbyterian Bruce Bradshaw, currently as sistant College and Theological Seminary, Euthanasia of a Mission: African professor of economics and business at Church Autonomy in a Colonial Seoul, Korea. Under her leadership the Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas, Context graduate school has trained severa l draws on his many years as director of hundred Korean missionaries now in transformational development research By Jehu Hanciles. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, service around the world. and training for World Vi sion 2002. Pp xii, 278. $64.95. ROGER S. GREENWAY International to give us a helpful book on the whole gospel and holistic ministry Dr. Greenway 's missionary career with Thi s book is a rev ision of Jehu Hanciles' and the implementationand consequences Ph .D. dissertati on at the Centre for the the Chri stian Reformed Church has of change across cultures. Study of Christianity in the Non-Western in cluded servic e in Sri La nka and Working with the phrase "managing World, Edinburgh, under Professor Mexico. He also served as director of changeacross cultures," Bradshawargues Andrew Wall s. lt is a fascinating account the denominati on ' s mission board. convincingly that the goal of mission is to of the history of the Sierr a LeonePastorate Pro fessor of mi ssi ol ogy at Calvin introduce into ev ery culture the story of of the CMS mission from its inception in Seminary, Grand Rapids, he is the author God's redemptive relationship with 1861until the disestablishmentof the Sierra of Discipling th e City (200 I). creation. He believes that when people Leone church in 1896. It remained an understand and experience this experimentin the sense of tryingoutHenry redemptive s to ry, then their own Venn's th eor y of missions, which w as SPRING 2004 communitynarrativewillbe transformed. impracticable becau se of the factors of JANET CARROLL, M.M. He argues for the narrative approach to colonialism and the raci sm of European Sr. Carroll, a member of the Maryknoll introducing change be cause cultures m issi onaries, who refused to release Sisters, is Executive Director of the U.S. change when values change, and since control over A frican evangelis ts and "values are transmitted through stories, Catholic China Bureau, South Orange, pastors, even after the latter were self­ the values won't change unless the stories su p porting and h ad e mb raced self­ New Jersey. She served in Taiwan as a change" (p. 9). propagati on .The re was thus no euthanasia missionary and at the United Nations as Bradshaw begins by demonstrating of missions simply becau se a native bishop a member of the Permanant Observer the value of a narrative approach for had not been establi shed at the head of a Mission of the Holy See. understanding the ethical dimensions of national church. CHUN CHAE OK culture change. He then practices what he Hanciles' book touches on thi s point preaches by beginning each chapter with A former president of the International butdoes not face it squarely.He fails to see an illuminating story illustrating various th at the story of the Nige r Mission cannot Association for Mission Studies, Dr. aspects of culture change and holistic be separated from that of the pastorate Chun teach es at Ew ha Wom ans mission. Recognizing that culture change experiment and that the consecration of Univers ity, Seo ul, Kor ea. She is a and development must be holistic to be Bish op Samuel Adjai Crowther wa s an professor in the Department of Christian lasting, he devotes a chapter each to the essential part of the story . Crowther was Studi es and, since 2000, dean of the following areas that must be the focu s of exclu de d from the pastorate experiment Graduate School of Theology. community transformation: Scripture, and wa s not allowe d to be bishop, even of culture, environment, religious practices, the Yoruba ch u rch . He remained a the powers, gender equality, economics, mission ary of the CMS working outside OVERSEAS MINISTRIES science and religion, reconciliation, and his own people in Yorubaland, where he STUDY CENTER community. He shows how each of these was born, and in Sierra Leone, where he areas can be changed when seen from the New Haven , CT 06511 , USA grew up. Thus the story of the pastorate perspective of God's redemptive w as as much a critique of the th eory of www.OMSC.org (203) 624-6672 relationship with creation. mi ssions as an atte m pt to practice or

90 INTERNATIO NAL B ULLETIN OF MISSIONARY R ESEARCH, Vol. 27, No. 2 implement the theory. The expe riment Finally, Sheppard aggressively fought Women in African Colonial wa s restri cted to the vill ages, leavingalone against King Leopold's inhumane Histories. the wealthier and more influential parishes treatment of Congolese people. in Freetown that should have been the Phipps ha s written abou t the leg acy Edited by Jean Allman, Susan Geiger, and core. Furthermore, the CMS insisted on of William Sheppard with scrupu lous Nakanyike Mu sisi. Bloomington: Indiana retaining control over the properties of fairness. One must commend him for Univ. Press, 2002. Pp. viii, 338. $54.95; the various churc hes even after the telling thi s sto ry with passion, precision, paperback $24.95. pastorate had assumed responsibility for and panach e. their co ns truction and maintenance . - -Akintunde E. Akinad e Eightof the thirteenessays in this va luable Eut hanasia could not com e until the end collection have British colonial settings . of colonial ru le in the 1Y50s. Akintu nde E. Akinade, a N igerian, is A ssistant The remainder are set in Belgian, French, --J. F. Ad e Ajayi Professor of Religion at High Point Uni versity, or Portugu ese colonies.Differencesamong High Point, Nor th Carolina. colonizers notwithstanding, it is African J. F. Ad e Ajayi is Professl'r Emcntus of History, Uni versity of lbadan, N igeria. ORLD ISSION

Samuel Hugh Moffett A III OR Y O f' A History of William Sheppard: Congo's Christianity in Asia Afri can American Livingstone. Volume II: 15 0 0 to 1900 By William E. Phipps. l .ouisoill e, Ky.: Long-awaited second volume of a major histor i­ Presbyterian Publishing, .WIl2. Pp. xiii, .?47. cal work , offering a sweeping and comprehen­ Paperback $2::!.. 9!J sive view of the "Great Commission " on the enormous canvas of the Asian continent. JULY Many remarkabl e figures have pioneered 1-57075-450-0 768 pp index, maps he $65.00 in the mi ssionary effort in modern Africa, Volume I: Begi nnings to 15 00 persevering despite numerous ob stacles 1-5 70 75-16 2-5 586 pp index. maps paper $25.00 and challenges in propagating the Good NewsofJesusChrist around thecontinent. This book is a gripping and compelling Vincent J. Donovan George M. Soares-Prabhu account of one such missionary figure­ Christianity, The Dharma of Jesus Willi am HenrySheppard, [r., whose story Rediscovered "Introduces a clear, engaging and Phipps ha s helped to rescue from the I d ustbin of missionary history. lWENlY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY E DITION authentically Asian voice into the current discussion about the mean­ She ppard was born in Waynesboro, The extraordinar y story of how, ing of Jesus."- HARVEYCox Virginia, in March 1865, a month before among the Masa i in Tanzania, a mis­ the end of the u.s.Civ il War. He grew up sioner "rediscovers" the gospe l mes­ 1-57075-459-4 paper $30.00 in the rural South, with all its invidious sage. 1-5 70 75-46 2-4 paper $ 18 .00 Jim Crow proclamations and "separate Now in paperback ! and unequal" in stitutions, which he was A. Christian van Gorder Virginia Fabella, M .M . nevertheless abl e to over come. He wa s No God But God and R.S. Sugi rtharajah, editors brought up in the Presb yterian Church, in Dictionary of Third which his father was active, At Hampton, A Path to Muslim-Christian Sheppard was influenced by the thoughts Dialogue on God's Nature World Theologies and id ea s of Ed ward Blyden, being Addresses questions that are both the "An essential resource for theolo­ particularl y impressed by his id ea s on basis fordialogue as well as the grounds gian s and graduate students." raci al equ ality and th e importance of for frequent misunderstanding. - Religious Studies Review educat ion. Sheppard stro ngly belie ved 1-5 70 75-46 4-0 paper $25.00 1-57075-405-5 paper $ 25 .00 that litera cy was the most effective antido te aga inst the myth of racial superiority. Th e book's seve n chapters provide Peter C. Phan Peter C. Phan, editor copious information about Sheppard's Christianity with The Asian childhood and missionary journey. It was an Asian Face Synod: Text and a journey filled with many ob stacles, Asian-American Theology Commentaries challenges, and tnumphs. His mi ssionary in th e Making activit ies in th e Co ngo were highly The comprehensive report on the impressive.Sheppard and his indom itable Introduces a n emerging theology richness, diversity, and challenges of companion, Samuel Lapsley, emphasized rooted and forged from two vastly the Catholic Church in Asia . a three-pronged exp ression or Jesus' different cultures. 1-5 70 75-4 29-2 he $60.00 mini strythatinvolved teaching, preaching, 1-5 70 75-466-7 paper $30.00 and h ealing. They a ls o enco u rage d indigenousChri stianinitiatives. She ppard At your bookseller or direct: ORBIS BOOKS was in tune with African art and music. Q VisalMe Order Online! www.maryknollmall.org Maryknoll, NY 10545 He enthusiastically described the "break­ down" dancing in the open square when A World of Books that Matter 1-800-258-5838 Xilanc musicians played in a villag e.

April 2003 91 wo men themselves who are foregrounded. The Prophet and the Messiah: An The overriding concern of the collection is Arab Christian's Perspective on to present Africa n wo men as "active Islam and Christianity. agents" ra ther than "hapless victims." Rejectin g sim p le and overworke d By Chawkat Moucarry. Downer s Grove, Ill.: dichotomies such as collab ora tion ver su s InterVarsity Press, 2001. Pp. 32 7. Paperback r esista nce, the contr ibutors d epict $13. women's early experiences of colonialism as form s of "stra teg ic engagement" (p. In its motives, method, and content, this 20), whereby they sought to make the best book offers a welcome alternative to the of their new circu mstances thro ug h such many generic "introductions to Islam " va ried means as interracial marriage and and a growing numberof rather polemical The Sixth the selective appropria tion of skills Christian books on the subject. Chawkat in tro duced by mi ssionaries. We st ern Mouca rry writes from the viewpo int of an Bound Volume of missionaries and African Christian leaders Arab Christian who grew up in Syria, join African wo me n as subjects in sev eral lived in France,and nowresides in Britain. "Missionary Gold" of theessay s (notably those of Gengenbach, His love for the Arab Muslim peop le is Urban-Mead, and Musisi) , Missio naries comb ined wi th a solid kn owl ed ge of are im portan t,ifusu ally offstage, actors in Isla rnics, a nd he offers reader a several other pieces (esp ecially those by refresh ingly balanced, si de-by-s ide hffuternational Mianda and Hanso n). presentation of Mus lim and Christian African w o m en, the co llectio n doctrines of revelation and salvation. He maint ains, had more exposu re to th e is im pelled by a d eep p assion to Bulletin of agen ts, pract ices, and viole nc e of communicate the truth of the Gos pel to colonia lism than earlier scholars have Muslims and by an equa lly burn ing desire ;;;4~ Missi~nary acknowledged. Barnes's essay on travel to help Wes tern Ch ristians live out their and migration in tw entieth-cen tu ry faith wi th their Muslim neighbors in a southe rn Africa, for instance, inserts way that promo tes understanding and ... Research women into the existing parad igm oflabor­ digni ty for all peoples in this shrinking migration studies to show tha t they too wo rld . were drawn to and affec ted by urban Fu rthermore, as a n evangelical 1997-2000 commercial and industrial spa ces. It is Christian, Mo ucarry espo uses a d ialogic unquestionab ly importan t to acknowledge method that, based on Jesus' Golden Rule, 299 contributors wo men's presen(:e in colonial sites wh ere "means not compa ri ng th e id eals of historians have 'until now failed to see Christianity with th e realit y of Islam, 325 book reviews them, or see n th em only as marginal radical Muslims wi th mod erate Mus lims , 119dissertations figures.But theress a risk of overcorrecting or mainstream Christianity wi th Islamic here and losing sight of the more usual sects" (p. 17). The "genuine d ialogu e" not Here is more gol d for every pattern of African wo me n's encounters only entails helpin g Christians and theological library and scholar of with colonialism as later, less direct, and Muslims understand one another better mission studies-all 16 issues of typically ru ral. Likewise, the depiction of and thus concentrate on their common . · I~MR ; 199 7 -2 000 . 1l ound in red Africa n wo men as "active age nts" exists heritage, but it also squarely fa ces 7/bij'f kram, with vellum flnishrand in sometension with ano ther key theme in differe nc es and co n tradictions . Hi s this work, nam ely, tha t both tradition al headin gs includ e the Scr iptures, key embossed in gold lettering. Limited and modernizing Africa n male elites doc trines, Jesus Christ, Muhammad , and edition. Each volume is individually collaborated with colonialpolitical officials contemporary issues (e.g., the Palesti nian numbered and signed by the editors. and missionaries to crea te "a reconfigured qu estion and the treatmen t of Mus lims in pa tria rchy roo ted in both indigenous and the West). colonial ideologie s" (p. 3). While Mo ucarry's d elivery is In cha llengi ng and ope ning up the accessible to a wideread ership, specialists existing historiography on their subject, will appreciate the we alth of primary the edi tors and some of the contributors to sources from the Hadi th, Ghazali, Ibn Payment must be received this collectio n occasionally ove rstate their Taymiyya, and especially Razi's qur'an ic BEFORE your order will be res pective cases. Tha t sai d, th is is a commentary. Finally, Mou carry man ages processed. Add $7 for postage rewardingly informative, user-frien dly to demonstrate how Mu slim queries into outside the U.S.A. Mail payment collection, enriched by helpful ma ps and Christianity can force Christian s to dig (ill {):S.dollars) by c he~k drawn on end no tes and gene rous excerpts from deepe r into their own doctrin e of the a ' l!: ~t bank or I nternath:>~ al Money written and oral primary sources.It should Trinity, and how an understanding of .Order,to: • have a long shelf life. general revelation can offer Muslims.jews, - Ruth Compton Brouwer and Chris tians a co m mon basis for Publications Office wo rking together on issues of peace and Overseas Ministries Study Center Ruth Compton Brouweris Associate Professorand human rig hts . 490 Prospect Street Chair, History Department, King's College, -David L. Joh nston University of Western Ontario, London, Canada . N w Haven CT 06511 USA She is author of Mod ern Wome n Modernizing David L.[ohnston,currently pursuing postdoctoral Me n : Th e Changing Mi ssio ns o f Three studiesin lslamics at Yale University, NewHaven, llow 5 weeks fordelivery Professio nal Women in Asia and Africa, 1902­ Connecticut,has lived in Algeria, Egypt,and Israel within the U.S.A. 69 (Vancou ver: UBC Press, 2002). since1978.

92 INTERNATIONAL B ULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RE SEARCH, Vo!. 27, N o. 2 Mission.scholars are welcome this summer at the Die Neuevangelisierung Europas: Over§easMinistiies Study Center Missionstheologien im

JanA. B.[ongeneel,acontributingeditor,isProfessor KEN TU CKYCAMPUS: 204 N. lex i ngto n Avenue, Wilm ore, KY40390-1199 " ~ AS B U RY of Missiology at Utrecht University in the FL ORIDA CAMPUS: 8401 Valencia College la ne. Orlando, Fl 32825 A THEO LOGICAL Netherlands. VIRTU ALCAMPUS: www.asburyseminary.edu/e xljexl.html •• S EMINARY

April 2003 93 Live & Learn Dissertation Notices at th e Ah n, [um sik: Lash, Jeffrey William. "Korean Contextual Theology as "Exporting Education: The Case of the Overseas Related to Ch'i: An Assessment on the American University in Cairo:' Ministries Study Theology of Jung Young Lee." Ph.D. San Marcos: Southwest Texas State Ph.D. Deerfield, Ill.: Trinity Evangelical Univ., 2002. Center Divinity School, 2002. Liang, Chong Y uk. • Fully furnished apartments Boehle, Josef. "A Historical Inquiry into the Quest • Cross-cultural mission seminars "Inter-religious Co-operation in a for a Post-independence Identity of the • Certificate in Mission Studies Global Age." Chinese Methodist Church in Sarawak • Senior Mission Scholars Ph.D. Birmingham, U.K.: Univ. of (CMCS), Malaysia, 1963-1988:' • Stimulating international community Birmingham, 2001. Ph.D. Birmingham, U.K.: Uniu. of • Three-minute walk to the Day Birmingham, 2001. Missions Library at Yale Chen, Grant. "The Concept of Ultimate Reality in Tu Livermore, David Andrew. Write for Study Program details Wei-Ming and Cheng Chung-Ying: A "The Emperor's New Clothes: and an Application for Residence. Comparative Study of New Confucian Experiences of Stateside Church Inquire about competitive and Christian Understandings." Leaders who Train Cross-Culturally:' scholarships for missionaries. Ph.D. Deerfield, Ill.: Trinity Evangelical Ph.D. East Lansing: M ichigan State Unio., 0MSc Divinity School, 2002 . 2001. Publishers of the International Chin, Peter Jaehyeok. Mub ashshir, Debra Washington. Bulletin of Missionary Research "Toward Appropriate Leadership "A Fruitful Labor: African American 490 Prospect St. Patterns for the Korean Church in the Formulations of Islam, 1928-1942:' New Haven, CT 0651I USA Twenty-first Century." Ph.D. Chicago:Garrett-Evangelical/ [email protected] www.OMSC.org Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Northwestern Univ., 2002. (203) 624-6672, Ext. 314 Seminary, 2001. Rhee, Min-Sao. Czub, A. "Nihonteki Kirisutokyo in the Meiji "Contemporary Inculturation Problems Era, 1868-1912: The Tenno-Oriented in Black Africa." Christianity:' Ph.D. Warsaw:Cardinal Stefan Wyszynski Ph.D. Birmingham, U.K.: Univ. of Univ. in Warsaw, 2002. Birmingham, 2002.

An online collection of more Elliott, Susan E. Salomi], Mookkenthottam An tony. than 50 leading journals "Missionary Nurse Dorothy Davis "Religious Life : A Sign of Communion Cook, 1940-1972: 'Mother of Swazi at the Service of the Church's Mission The Americ an Th eol ogic al Nurses:" in India. A Study in the Light of the Library Association (ATLA), in Ph.D. San Diego, Calif.: Univ. of San Apostolic Exhortation Vita cooperation with the Overseas Diego, 2000. Consecrata:" Ministries Study Ce nte r, has Ph.D. Rome: Collegia Urbano, 2001. launched ATLAS, an online Flores, Barbara. coll ectio n of Theology and "Context of Colonization: Garifuna Tsai, Matthew M. Religion j ourna ls, inc luding Spirituality as a Means of Resistance:' "An Analysis of the Participant's Ph.D. Chicago: Garrett-Evangelical/ the International Bulletin oj Perception on the Relationship of Faith, Northwestern Unio., 2001. Missionary Research. Experience, and Effects in the Faith Healing Ministry of Rev . Felix Liu." Jeong, Gyoung-Ho. Ph.D. Deerfield, Ill.: Trinity Evangelical Try ATLAS for yourself at: "Korean Christian Ethics for Peaceful Divinity School, 2002. http://purl.orglatlaonline Tongil Between South and North Thomas, Guy. Account Name: IBMR Korea:' "Why Do We Need the White Man's Password: TRIAL Ph.D. New York: Union Theologica l (Password valid through May 31) Seminary, 2002. God? African Contributions and Responses to the Formation of Kim, Kwang Kun. Christian Movement in Cameroon, For more inform ation about "Perceptions on Leadership Founda­ 1914-1968." subscribing to ATLAS, tion and Style: An Examination of Ph.D. London: Univ. of London, School of Cont act: Chuck Slagle Three Generations of Presbyterian Oriental and African Studies, 2002. (312) 454-5100 or Laymen in the Seoul Area:' cslagle @atla.com Ph.D. Deerfield, Ill.: Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, 2002.

94 INTERNATIONAL B ULLETIN O F M ISSION ARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 That tfie WorldMay:Know Book Notes In Coming Brenner, Athalya,and Jan TNillem van Henten, eds. Bible Translation on the Threshold of the Twenty-first Century: Authority, Reception, Culture, and Religion. Issues London and New York: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002.Pp. x, 207. No price given. Doctoral Dissertations on Mission: Cornille, Catherine, ed. Ten-Year Update, 1992-2001 Many Mansions? Multiple Religious Belonging and Christian Identity. StanleyH. Skreslet Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2002.Pp. v, 152. Paperback $30. Migration and Mission Fox, Thomas C. Jehu Hanciles Pentecost in Asia: A New Way of Being Church. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2002.Pp. xvi, 238. $25. Conversion in Christian History Andrew Walls George, Timothy. Is the Father of Jesus the God of Muhammad? Church-Mission Dynamics in GrandRapids: Zondervan, 2002.Pp. 159. Paperback $12.99. Northeast India Lalsangkima Pachuau Kritzinger, Dons,ed. No Quick Fixes: Challenges to Mission in a Changing South Africa. "Blessed Reflex": Mission as God's Pretoria: Institute for Missiological and Ecumenical Research, 2002.Pp. xvi, 215. Spiral of Renewal Paperback $14. Kenneth R. Ross Kroeger, James H., and PeterC. Phan. The Religious Worldview of the The Future of the Asian Churches: The Asian Synod and Ecclesia in Asia. Indigenous Population of the QuezonCity: Claretian Publications, 2002.Pp. viii, 206. Paperback $12. Northern Ob' as Understood by Christian Missionaries Marshall, David. Anatolii M. Ablazhei True Son of Heaven: How Jesus Fulfills the Chinese Culture. Seattle, Wash.: KuaiMu Press, 2002.Pp. 218. Paperback $11. Pre-Revolution Russian Mission to Central Asia: A Contextualized Noegel, Scott B., and Brannon M. Wheeler. Legacy Historical Dictionary of Prophets in Islam and Judaism. DavidM. Johnstone Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2002.Pp. xxxvii, 522. $70. In our Series on the Legacy of Otto, Martin. Outstanding Missionary Figures of Seafarers! A Strategic Missionary Vision. the Nineteenth and Twentieth Carlisle, U.K.: PiquantPress, 2002.Pp. viii, 102.£5.99. Centuries, articles about Piper, John. Norman Anderson Let the Nations Be Glad! The Supremacy of God in Missions. 2d ed., rev. and Thomas Barclay expo Rowland V. Bingham GrandRapids: Baker, 2003.Pp. 253. Paperback $14.99. George Bowen Purnama, Cahyana E.,and Karmito, eds. Helene de Chappotin Robert Codrington Directory: Asian Theological Libraries and Who's Who in ForATL [Forum of Francois E. Daubanton Asian Theological Librarians], Yogyakarta, Indonesia: Penerbit NAFIRI, offsetin cooperation with ForATL,2002.Pp. John Duncan Hannah Kilham ix, 141. Paperback $15. Rudolf Lechler Schwab, A. Wayne. George Leslie Mackay When the Members Are the Missionaries: An Extraordinary Calling for Leslie E. Maxwell Ordinary People. Lesslie Newbigin Essex, N.Y.: Member Mission Press, 2002.Pp. xxiii, 203. Paperback $19.95. Vincent O'Donovan Sedmak, Clems. Constance E. Padwick Doing Local Theology: A Guide for Artisans of a New Humanity. Peter Parker Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2002.Pp. ix, 182. Paperback $22. Elizabeth Russell Bakht Singh Tejirian, Eleanor H., and Reeva Spector Simon, eds. James Stephen Altruism and Imperialism: Western Cultural and Religious Missions in the Philip B. Sullivan Middle East. John V. Taylor New York: Columbia University,Middle EastInstitute, 2002.Pp. x, 316. Paperback $15. James M. Thoburn Thornley, Andrew. Translated by Tauga Vulaono. M.M. Thomas Exodus of the I Taukei: The Wesleyan Church in Fiji, 1848-74. Na Lako Yani William Cameron Townsend Ni I Taukei: Na Lotu Weesele e Viti, 1848-74. In English and Fijian. Johannes Verkuyl Suva, Fiji: University of the South Pacific, Institute of Pacific Studies,2002.Pp. 580. William Vories Paperback $46.